Landscape History Today:
the Bulletin of CSLH
January 2015 Number 56
Members enjoying a day of discovery in Nantwich Contents
Chair’s Message 3 Labelling Landscapes: Alternative Views from Afar 4 Blanche Mortimer Makes Surprise Appearance! 9 Brogyntyn Revisited ... 14 The Year Ahead ... 16 Nantwich - then and now 24
The editor would like to thank Mike Headon for his help with proof reading the various articles for this issue.
Please make sure all contributions for the September edition of the Bulletin are with the editor by 31st July 2015.
Editor: Dr Sharon Varey, Meadow Brook, 49 Peel Crescent, Ashton Hayes, Cheshire, CH3 8DA Email: [email protected] Web: www.chesterlandscapehistory.org.uk
Page 2 Chair’s Message
The autumn season is often a busy one for the Planning Team and this has been no exception as lectures and field visits are finalised for the forthcoming year.
September saw the launch of our latest publication Field-names in Cheshire, Shropshire and North-East Wales. Sales were swift at our launch event and it soon became apparent that a second print run would be necessary to meet demand. As I type, these too have virtually sold out!
CSLH members are always supportive of Cheshire Local History Day. This year it was good to see that two of our members, Rachel Swallow and Tony Barratt, were invited to speak at the event.
It is a healthy sign of a vibrant Society that a number of its members are actively involved in local research projects. Saturday 10th October 2015 will offer the chance for CSLH members to find out about research projects currently being undertaken by members in our area. Eight members have agreed to take part in this event which is being held at St Mary’s Centre in Chester. Following a lecture by the Society’s President, Graeme White, the day will consist of shorter presentations, 20 minutes in length, covering a variety of topics. Flyers outlining individual talks will be available in the Spring. This is surely not a day to be missed, so please make a note of the date in your diary/calendar.
Finally, on behalf of the Planning Team, I would like to wish all our members a very happy New Year and hope to see you again soon at one of our Spring lectures.
Sharon Varey
Page 3 Labelling Landscapes Alternative Views from Afar
Lifelong Learning Coordinator Julie is Cheshire-born but Australian-bred, swapping Sale for Sydney to start school at Botany Bay. Moving just down the coast to the city of ‘sound of waves on rocks’ Wollongong it was here she first became entranced with local landscape mysteries and resolved one day to find out.
Figure 1 Ancient linguistic landscapes
Allawah, Bondi, Canberra… Although these Australian suburbs and cities are likely to sound familiar to many, it is unlikely their actual meanings are known. In Sydney recently I bought a book on Aboriginal place-names. Its alphabetical compilation was a toponymic treat. I had to investigate, not as an ‘ABC’ but a broader ‘look and see’. The more I looked afresh the more landscape history I found. Differences were extraordinary - but then so were the astounding commonalities.
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Boondi is ‘the sound of tumbling waters or of seas rolling in on a beach’. At Bondi now most would recognise this correspondence. But Allawah - ‘stay here, rest, sit down’ smacks of a wandering lifestyle. The nation’s capital, Canberra, is neatly rendered as ‘meeting place’, itself deriving from Nganbirra. Or did it also refer, bizarrely, to a woman’s breasts? The latter option alludes to the two mountains overlooking a plain which then became the site of the new city. The anatomical answer is indeed testified to by a Ngunalwal Elder.
Indigenous descriptions of landscape Sources are not numerous. Reliability of some can be questionable. Even so, the bulk of names is clearly topographical. A spot might be differentiated by reference to ‘standard’ visual features: hills, views, rocks, lakes, coastal places, islands. The majority of Aboriginal words, understandably, tend to be water-related. Legendary billabongs are but a separated reach of water. Distinctive too is the practice of doubling words. Bulli, from Bulla, means two mountains. Four peaks are simply… Bulla Bulla. Conversely - and is it any surprise - a glaring gap characterises the ‘habitative’ category. For nomadic peoples with no fixed address, a vocabulary of settlement had no need to develop. Plenty of ‘camp’ names do however occur. Tumut in the snow country was once doomut or doomat, a camping place by the river. Perhaps this was where one could camp. It also demonstrates how sound changes or perhaps just perceptions of a word morph into new, printed ‘map’ versions.
Names could also arise from animals - dead or alive - frequent references occur to the wild hunting dog, or dingo; and to particular individuals or one-time events happening there. Windang was the memorable scene of a fight. (To English speakers this might sound quite plausible.) A high frequency of ‘woman’ words is intriguing. The Canberra example is but one. Near Adelaide, Onkaparinga is ‘the women’s river’. Often place-name derivations can be very frank, amusing or even crude. Sydney’s popular beach at Coogee would surely be a turnoff for bathers if its real meaning were known. Koojah/Koocha, the authentic pronunciation, alluded to rotten seaweed and by extension, ‘stinking’.
Source languages abound Size-wise the continent of Australia is thirty times as vast as the UK. Upwards of 250 tribal languages and 600 dialects were spoken
Page 5 at the time of white settlement. None were written. For my short survey I limited geographical range mostly to eastern New South Wales, especially the Illawarra district south of Sydney where I grew up. Having lived amongst these names, their usage is second nature. In many cases I can corroborate supposed meanings with their physical settings. Bulli really does refer to the twin peaks of Keira and Kembla, of which more later. Illawarra is a pleasant, high place by the sea. Very true… or is it also ‘white clay hill’? However, for primary source material we can go one better.
Figure 1 Mount Keira
A Chester connection Somewhere in eighteenth-century Chester Fisher and Margaritta Tench ran a dancing academy and boarding school. Their son Watkin, born 1758, joined the Royal Marines. As an officer in 1788 Watkin Tench sailed with the historic First Fleet, and left precious reports of his encounters. It was Tench who made the first recorded use of the word ‘dingo’. Around Botany Bay he noted the ‘rough, guttural pronunciation of the men’. Speech certainly can resemble a rapid, rhythmic patter, an observation which itself may help explain the timbre of indigenous place-names. One young Aboriginal was known to the officers as Baneelon. His loyal behaviour was rewarded with a specially built house on a spit of land at Sydney Cove. Now called Bennelong Point it is the location of the world-famous Opera House.
Page 6 Parallels in toponymy Compared with descriptions left by Roman, Anglo- Saxon, Norse, and Norman the ways of distinguishing landscape are remarkably close. Kogarah, urban birthplace of broadcaster Clive James (my brother was born there too) once indicated a reedy swamp. Vocal and literary influences such as mishearing, attempting to render difficult pronunciations, recording, shortening or simplifying are all present. Just as Domesday scribes are reputed to have done, clerks in nineteenth-century Land Offices made their own registration errors. On the other hand, an example very simply evoking lack of permanent settlement is Numby- a sleeping (or sleepy) place. Contrasts are not just an absence of habitation names though. Repetition, as already noted, is virtually iconic. Bong Bong, coming from bung or swamp, in this case suggests very, very swampy! A simple and useful idea, yet one which Europe, medieval or modern, seems never to have adopted.
Puzzles and pitfalls too A precise science this cannot be, yet here lies the fascination. Across the globe comparable cultural and linguistic processes arose. Introduced words became mixed in, as with the euphonic Woolloomooloo, a Sydney harbourside suburb. Was it the garbled attempt by Tench’s ‘Indians’ to enunciate the English word ‘windmill’? As evidenced, multiple meanings are often listed, not always bearing any relationship to each other. Which might legitimately be chosen? Maybe the truest interpretations are indeed all of them. Mount Keira, from djeera, indicates ‘high place’, but also, as with Mount Kembla, one where plenty of bush turkey roam. Currently a popular girl’s name, and my cat’s, Keira’s meaning of wildfowl suggests all derivations ought to be checked.
Transferable skills An exercise like this gives renewed opportunity to apply the techniques - or at least the curiosity - of a landscape historian. Deeper questions are posed, however, such as the politicisation of landscape. Tenure and land rights are implied by pre-existing names, fairly quickly replaced after ‘invasion’ or colonisation. The topic is acutely sensitive. Overall, teasing out strands of a nomenclature becomes a very alive and human enquiry. Its universality is somehow reassuring. Truly, in continuing to explore, we do not languish in Numby Numby territory!
Julie Elizabeth Smalley
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Further Reading
A.W. Reed, Aboriginal Place Names (New Holland Australia, 1967) T. Flannery, 1788 The Text (Melbourne, 1996)
Websites consulted: http://www.blowering.com/placenames.html http://www.ourlanguages.net.au/languages/aboriginal-place-names.html http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/cultureheritage/ illawarraaboriginalhistoryposter.pdf http://www.canberrahistoryweb.com/meaningofcanberra.htm http://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/language/ http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/AUS-PT-JACKSON- CONVICTS/2001-11/1006221108
Come along and help make a difference ...
With the AGM soon upon us, the CSLH Planning Team are, as always, keen to welcome new committee members. As we have a number of new members, who have joined the Society in the last couple of years, we have decided to hold an open Planning Team meeting on Tuesday 27th January at Gladstone’s Library, Hawarden (7pm). Any member (old or new!) wanting to find out more about the PT is warmly invited to attend. If you are interested, speak to Mike H or Sharon at the January lecture or simply turn up on the 27th.
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Blanche Mortimer Makes Surprise Appearance!
Members who came on the study break to Herefordshire in September 2013 will remember a glorious visit to Much Marcle church where we were introduced to the tomb of Blanche Mortimer by the Monument Conservator, Michael Eastham. Blanche was a daughter of the famous (or infamous) Roger Mortimer who led the group of barons who forced the abdication ofKing Edward II on 21st January 1327.
Figure 1 The tomb before restoration
For Mortimer, it ended in tears at Tyburn in November 1330 but King Edward III was surprisingly lenient towards his family. Mortimer’s widow, Joan, eventually recovered her lands with a full recompense for loss of income. Thus, their daughter Blanche remained a powerful woman but died aged only about 30 in 1347. Her tomb chest, set in the north wall of the chancel of St. Bartholomew at Much Marcle, is a creation of great beauty, her full-length figure being described by Simon Jenkins as his favourite English effigy.
The tomb needed to be dismantled and rebuilt because of increasing damage to the monument caused by moisture ingress. When our group arrived for its master-class in restoration, Michael Eastham had already lifted the half-ton
Page 9 effigy on to a storage frame and had partially dismantled the underlying tomb chest. He was steadily working down to sub-floor level where he planned to insert a damp course and a proper foundation before the rebuild. He spoke to us for about an hour and, at that time, it seemed probable that Blanche’s body would not be within that memorial but, like other monuments he had restored, was buried a few yards away, beneath the altar.
Things turned out differently. Last February, Michael was removing the rubble infill of the tomb chest when he was stunned to uncover a lead coffin that undoubtedly contains the body of Blanche. It is not like a Roman coffin but more like a sheet of lead wrapped around the body and sealed. This coffin was slid out from the tomb chest and stored as restoration continued, while church archaeologists scratched their heads and said ‘I never expected that’. During the rebuild, the tomb chest was strengthened by inserting a stainless steel support frame. The lead-wrapped body was then slid back beneath the frame, the infill was placed on top and the walls of the chest were refitted sothe monument now looks as it always did. Not only is it unusual for a body to be found in such a memorial, but it is even more surprising that Blanche’s body was placed above ground rather than being buried.
Figure 2 Removing the body from the tomb chest. The coffin was found beneath a rubble and cement infill.
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Figure 3 The lead coffin containing the body of Blanche Mortimer being moved for storage.
Figure 4 Easing her back beneath the steel support frame. The insertion of the frame reduced the available space for the coffin.
Page 11 Figure 5 Rebuilding of the tomb chest. Note the coffin and steel frame.
We revisited the church to see the finished memorial. Starting at the top, the rather ghastly cherub-like putti (not original) have been removed from the canopy whose centre section was completely replaced with new carving. The five shields on the canopy were repainted but made to look ‘aged’. The effigy of Blanche was cleaned but otherwise left unrestored and unpainted; in particular, the dog at her feet still has no head. The shields on the tomb chest were repainted and the whole monument was mounted on a new shallow plinth filled with gravel to enable the monument to ‘breathe’. Great care was taken to match the colour of the mortar and new stone was carved to replace even the tiniest pieces that were missing.
The restoration is a brilliant achievement but so much of what has been done is no longer visible. Blanche, however, can continue her rest.
Michael Eastham worked on this memorial for three years but the full cast list is as follows: Conservator of Sculpture: Michael Eastham DFA, ATD, Dip. Cons. Sculptor: Robbyn Golden Hann Paint Conservators: Peter Martindale, Bianca Madden and Rowena Tulloch
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Figure 6 The restored memorial in October 2014.
If you are interested in watching a short film about what has happened since our visit, see www.decodedpast.com/mysterious-body-tomb-blanche-mortimer -video/5598.
Maggie and Mike Taylor
Page 13 Brogyntyn Revisited ...
In October I was lucky enough to re-visit Brogyntyn near Oswestry. During the summer Jessie Hanson had been studying the Conservation Plan for the Park and Pleasure Grounds, drawn up in 2002, and was intrigued by the mention of the remains of a Greek Temple. Jessie obtained permission to visit. Her aim: to re-discover the lost temple.
Like all good Landscape Detectives we donned our wellies and waterproofs and set off from the front of the house. Since the CSLH visit in May a number of small scale repairs have taken place to ensure the security of the site: the Hall has been boarded to protect the interior from the elements, fencing has been erected around the gardens and the walls alongside the public footpath have been repaired.
Members will remember how overgrown the Pleasure Gardens had become. Our quest took us through vegetation, across ditches negotiating brambles and barbed wire. However, Jessie (89) is not one to give up and we were eventually rewarded with views of the ornamental pool located within a mass of vegetation to the south of the house. Another trek through the undergrowth revealed signs of habitation, the remains of a tent, beer cans and so forth. Some large fragments of stonework lay nearby
Figure 1 The Ornamental Pool.
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Figure 2 Temple remains. and closer scrutiny revealed a number of decorated stones. Jessie had re-discovered the temple. After photographic recording of the site, the intrepid explorers returned across the fields to the car park - mission accomplished!
Sharon Varey
Figure 3 Decorated stonework.
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The Year Ahead ...
Lecture Programme
26 January 2015 Architecture of the Jazz Age Adrian Sumner
A graduate of Liverpool College of Art, Adrian has worked as an Illustrator, Arts Development Officer and Lecturer in various academic and public institutions. Currently, he is Arts Development Officer for Cheshire West and Chester Council, with a particular interest in Visual Arts. He is also a recognised artist in his own right.
The term 'Art Deco' was coined in 1926, following an exhibition at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Paris the previous year. The architecture and decorative arts shown at the 1925 Exposition embodied a whole range of unconnected styles and sources, and references to the avant-garde art movements of the time, such as Cubism and the Bauhaus. Unlike Modernist art movements, with their social philosophies and manifestos, Art Deco was purely decorative. A modern style, responding to the machine and to new materials such as plastic, Art Deco in its 1925 context was also sumptuous, a luxury style, characterised by individually produced luxury goods for wealthy connoisseurs. Adrian’s talk will focus on the art and architecture of the Jazz Age.
23 February 2015 Hedgerow Trees in the Cheshire Plain Mark Rogers
Mark Rogers of Batsford Arboretum at Moreton-in-Marsh and The Woodland Trust has given talks to groups across the country on trees, woodland, hedgerows and open spaces.
Page 16 One of the most defining elements of the British landscape is its remarkable network of hedges and hedgerow trees. Hedgerow trees are frequently referred to in medieval court rolls in the context of disputes about felling, obstruction of the highway, or individual dangerous trees. Early maps often show individual hedgerow trees, and we commonly find lines of trees across fields, surviving from hedges that have disappeared.
23 March 2015 Roman Roads in North West Wales David Hopewell
David Hopewell is a Senior Archaeologist at Gwynedd Archaeological Trust. He has published both academic and popular articles on a wide range of archaeological topics and specialises in the archaeology of Roman Wales and geophysical survey.
Roman roads continue to hold a fascination for amateur and professional alike and GAT continues to receive many queries about details of the roads. The project led by David aimed to present the large amount of information generated in a user friendly and populist fashion. This led to the publication of an attractive book, and in addition all the significant data collected has been made available online.
27 April 2015 Trenches of the Great War on Cannock Chase Stephen Dean
Steve is Staffordshire’s County Archaeologist. Since 1994 he has worked as a field archaeologist and as an archaeological consultant. He joined Staffordshire County Council in 2004, having previously been with Giffard & Partners. Although he was involved with the excavation of the Staffordshire Hoard, his current project is the World War I training grounds on Cannock Chase.
In the autumn of 1914 construction of two large training camps began on Cannock Chase. The infrastructure for the camps, including the water supply, sewage systems and the roads all had to be created from scratch before work
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could begin on the huts and other structures.
The camps, when completed, could hold up to 40,000 men at one time and probably trained upwards of 500,000 men. They had all their own amenities including a church, post office and a bakery as well as amenity huts where the troops could buy refreshments or play billiards. There was even a theatre. Steve’s talk will focus on the main purpose of the camps - training men for war - and the effect that this had on the landscape.
28 September 2015 Mercantile Palaces of Liverpool Stephen Guy
Stephen Guy of National Museums Liverpool is well known to Merseysiders for his ‘Merseyside Tales’ and ‘Maritime Tales’ columns in the Liverpool Echo. His years as a news reporter means that he knows how to communicate. A native of West Derby, Stephen’s love of the city and its history is inborn.
His talk will try to give a sense of the enormous wealth of the city and how Liverpool grew from being a settlement with one postman to the second city in the British Empire, in the process giving birth to some of the finest architecture of commerce in the British Isles.
26 October 2015 A Very Fair Field Indeed Mark Bowden
Mark Bowden is an archaeological field investigator who led the Swindon field team of the Royal Commission on the Historical Monuments of England and now works for English Heritage. His book, Unravelling the Landscape: Inquisitive Approach to Archaeology (1999), dispels the myths that archaeological survey is too complex and difficult, or that it is only a second- best to excavation. Alongside Graham Brown and Nicky Smith, Mark has written the English Heritage book An Archaeology of Town Commons in England: A very fair field indeed (2009).
Page 18 Historically, towns in England were provided with common lands for grazing and for the pasturing of farm animals in an economy where the rural and the urban were inextricably mixed. The commons yielded wood, minerals, fruits and wild animals to the town's inhabitants and also developed as places of recreation and entertainment, as extensions of domestic and industrial space, and as an arena for military, religious and political activities.
However, town commons have been largely disregarded by historians and archaeologists. In 2002 English Heritage embarked upon a project to study these features in England. The aim was to investigate the archaeological content and Historic Environment value of urban commons in England and to prompt appropriate conservation strategies for them. The result is the first overview of the archaeology of town commons - a rich resource because of the relatively benign traditional land-use of commons, which preserves the physical evidence of past activities, including prehistoric and Roman remains as well as traces of common use itself.
30 November 2015 The Landscape of the Cheshire Magna Carta Graeme White
We’ve succeeded in persuading the President himself to speak to us as part of next year’s lecture programme. Anyone who’s been a member for more than a few weeks knows that the President, a committed Cestrian and Emeritus Professor of Local History at the University of Chester, knows more about the landscape history of Cheshire than anyone else, so this is a pre-Christmas treat not to be missed.
Cheshire was the only county in England to have its ‘own’ Magna Carta, granted by the earl of Chester at about the same time as King John issued his iconic document at Runnymede, 800 years ago. Although largely concerned with legal matters, it sheds light on Cheshire’s early thirteenth century landscape, from farming to forests and the significance of the Lyme as a frontier.
Mike Headon / Diane Johnson
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Field Visits Programme
Our 2015 visits programme will begin on Saturday 25 April when local historian Gavin Hunter will lead us around Port Sunlight, William Lever’s model village on the Wirral. Afterwards members may wish to visit the Lady Lever Art Gallery and the Port Sunlight Museum.
On Saturday 16 May we will visit Cannock Chase where Stephen Dean, Staffordshire County Council’s Principal Archaeologist, will guide us around the remains of the World War I training camp at Brocton. We also hope to have sufficient time to visit some of the war cemeteries in the area. The walk should take about three hours.
Saturday 6 June will see a visit to the newly re-opened Lion Salt Works near Northwich and in the afternoon we will visit Ashton Flash where David James will show us the environmental effects of past salt extraction, concentrating on the diversity of industrial landscapes. The afternoon’s walk will last about two hours.
Fiona Gale (Denbighshire County Council’s County Archaeologist) will lead us on a visit to Rhuddlan on Saturday 27 June looking at the motte, Anglo-Saxon burh, medieval fortifications and Parliament House.
Our programme will end with the President’s visit on Sunday 26 July. This visit commemorates the 800th anniversary of the issuing of Magna Carta in Cheshire and will focus on landscape features left to us by the twelfth and early- thirteenth century earls of Chester. We will visit Beeston Castle (climbing to the castle at the top of the hill will not be compulsory!), the River Lyme, Newcastle- under-Lyme and finally Earlsway, which is the remains of the route that the earls used to link Chester with their estates in the Midlands.
Page 20 If you would like to join us on one or more of the visits please use the Field Visits application form to register your interest. These should be returned to Gwilym Hughes, 17 Fairacres Road, Bebington, Wirral CH63 3HA by Saturday 7th February 2015.
Residential Visit
Ribble Valley Tuesday 8th September – Thursday 10th September 2015
Our residential trip for 2015 will run from Tuesday 8 September to Thursday 10 September, when we shall be exploring the middle reaches of the Ribble Valley. Our base will be Alston Hall, a comfortable conference/study centre and an interesting building in its own right.
Figure 1 Alston Hall.
Alston Hall is not so much a country house as a house in the country. It is situated in rural surroundings about 6 miles east of Preston overlooking the Ribble Valley. For the architecturally minded it is described by Pevsner as ‘by Darbyshire, 1876, for John Mercer, a colliery owner. Ashlar, gabled Tudor, with
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a square porch tower, but with a Gothic portal under it, and in the spacious staircase hall with its skylight, a Gothic gallery’. The Hall is surrounded by spacious gardens. Today it is owned and run by Lancashire County Council as an adult educational college, putting on a variety of courses in all sorts of subjects. Guest accommodation is provided both in the main house and in the Stable Annexe. Some rooms are on the ground floor, but there is a lift to the upper floors. The views up the Ribble Valley from the upper floors are superb. The rooms are all en-suite with tea and coffee making facilities. They are best described as comfortable rather than luxurious. Breakfast is self-service and dinner is three course with a single choice although special dietary needs can be accommodated. There is a small bar, renovated this year, with a small range of bottled beers and wines.
Figure 2 Walled Garden.
Our programme begins on the Tuesday afternoon with a visit to Chipping, a picturesque village on the edge of the Forest of Bowland. Our guide will be Colin Dickinson who will be focusing on the water-powered corn mill; Colin will then give us a talk in the evening on the Industrial Archaeology of the Ribble Valley.
Page 22 On Wednesday we shall be visiting Sawley Abbey, a twelfth-century Cistercian house in attractive surroundings, near the River Ribble. We will then travel to Downham, a charming unspoilt village, which has been in the ownership of the Assheton family since 1558. Members of the local history group will be our guides and the Honourable Ralph Assheton will give us a short talk about the estate. In the afternoon we travel to Clitheroe where David Johns will give us a guided tour of the historic market town.
On the Thursday morning we shall travel to Burnley where Brian Hall of the Weavers’ Triangle Trust will give us a tour of the Triangle followed by a walk along the Leeds-Liverpool Canal.
The organised programme will end at lunch-time on Thursday but there are other attractions in the locality should members wish to extend their visit. These include Gawthorpe Hall, an Elizabethan National Trust house on the outskirts of Burnley.
The cost of the residential should be no more than £175. This includes two nights’ bed, breakfast and evening meal along with a welcome drink on the Tuesday evening and a contribution towards the cost of guides/speakers. If you are interested in joining us, please complete the Ribble Valley Booking Form, th enclosing a deposit of £50. The balance will be payable by 30 June 2015.
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Discovery Day 2014 Nantwich Then and Now Saturday 4th October was the latest in our series of Discovery Days. Once again, with great walking weather, a dozen enthusiasts turned out. The Café de Paris was our base and worked a treat for displays, discussions and daytime dining. All clearly relished the three bespoke trails. This year’s extras - a change of venue for an illustrated talk by Graham Dodd on ‘Tudor Nantwich’ and then a guided walkabout in which we saw the bubbling brine spring shown below - a reminder of Nantwich’s economic past. A convivial early evening dinner rounded things off in smiling social mood.
Everyone agreed that the trails and trail guide could easily be repeated at leisure, continuing the benefits of enjoyment and learning well after the Discovery Day itself. In short, it was a hugely successful day.
The front cover is picture proof of the Society’s enthusiasts admiring one of the oldest objects in Nantwich. Not just any old boulder, this imposter is a glacial erratic left over from the Iast Ice Age. Nantwich ‘then’ and ‘now’ in its broadest sense! Figure 1 Brine Spring. Julie Elizabeth Smalley © Chester Society for Landscape History, 2015
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