LA CONVENTION DU PATRIMOINE MONDIAL ET LES PAYSAGES CUL TURELS EN AFRIQUE REUNION D'EXPERTS - TIWI, KENYA 9-14 MARS 1999

THE WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION AND CUL TURAL LANDSCAPES IN AFRICA EXPERT MEETING- TIWI, KENYA 9-14 MARCH 1999

Editors Mechtild Rossler Galia Saouma-Forero Graphic editing: Barbara Brink Cover design : Silvia Gasparetto © UNESCO 2000 ISBN 2-906901-24-5 CRATerre Paysages Culturels en Afrique I Cultural Landscapes in Africa

REUNION REGIONALE D'EXPERTS SUR LA THEMATIQUE DES PAYSAGES CULTURELS EN AFRIQUE REGIONAL THEMA TIC EXPERT MEETING ON CUL TURAL LANDSCAPES IN AFRICA

TABLE DES MATIERES I TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table des matieres / Table of Contents...... 1 - 2

ILLUSTRATIONS...... 3 M. Le Berre

Liste des auteurs / List of Contributors ...... , ...... 4

Introduction / Introduction...... 5 M. Rossler I G. Saouma-Forero I R.Hoft

REFLEXIONS SUR LA MISE EN CEUVRE DE LA CONVENTION DU 6 PATRIMOINE MONDIAL ET LES PAYSAGES CULTURELS EN AFRIQUE REFLECTIONS ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION & THE CULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN AFRICA

Mise en reuvre des categories de paysages culturels...... 7 - 15 The implementation of the World Heritag6 cUltural landscape categories M. Rossler

La Strategie globale en Afrique...... 16 - 20 Global Strategy in Africa...... 21 - 24 G. Saouma-Forero

Aspects juridiques de la protection des paysages culturels en Afrique...... 25 - 29 Legal aspects of cultural landscape protection in Africa...... 30 - 34 A. Mumma (Kenya)

Les paysages culturels en Afrique - une vue d'ensemble...... 35 - 43 Cultural landscapes in Africa - an overview D. Munjeri (Zimbabwe)

La genese des paysages culturels africains...... 44 - 58 Cultural landscapes in Africa - Genesis M. Le Berre

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SITES AFRICAINS 59 AFRICAN SITES

Introduction aux visites des forets selectionnees de Kaya...... 60 - 63 Introduction to the visits of selected Kaya forests G. Abungu (Kenya), A. Githitho (Kenya)

Le paysage culturel de Sukur...... 64 - 69 The Sukur cultural landscape J. Eboreime (Nigeria)

Cite royale, bois sacres et arbres royaux d'Ambohimanga...... 70 - 73 Royal city, sacred forests and royal trees of Ambohimanga A. Rafolo (Madagascar)

La route de I'esclavage...... 74 - 78 Slave route J. Bocco (Benin)

Les jardins sales de Kibiro...... 79 - 86 The salt gardens of Kibiro M. Kamuhangire (Ouganda)

Parc national de Kruger comme paysage culturel...... 87 - 92 Krager National Park as Cultural Landscape Y. Dladla (South Africa)

La route du sel...... 93 - 96 The salt route A. Bida (Niger)

Konso-Gardula : un site archeologique et un paysage culturel temoin d'une culture vivante 97 - 102 Konso-Gardula : an archaeological site and cultural landscape witness of a living culture J. Beyene (Ethiopia)

ILLUSTRATIONS I ILLUSTRATIONS 103 -106 Rapport synthetique de la Reunion d'Experts sur les Paysages Culturels Africains,...... 107 - 119 Tiwi, Kenya, 9-14 mars 1999

Synthesis report of the Expert Meeting on African Cultural Landscapes, '" ... , ...... 120 - 132 Tiwi, Kenya, 9-14 March 1999

Recommandations ...... 133 -135 Recommendations...... 136 - 137

Liste des participants I List of participants...... 138 - 139

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ILLUSTRATIONS - M. Le Berre 103 -106 Legendes I Legends

1. Arbre sacre - 1995 - Parc Naturel du W de Niger (Niger) ...... 103 Sacred tree - 1995 « W» National Park of Niger (Niger)

2. Caravane de chameaux, Desert du Sahara -1979 - Parc National du Tassili n'Ajjer (Algerie) 104 Camel caravan, Sahara Desert - 1979 - Tassili n'Ajjer National Park (Algeria)

3. Rizieres - 1996 - Reserve de Biosphere de Mananara Nord (Madagascar)...... 104 Rice cultivation - 1996 - Mananara North Biosphere Reserve (Madagascar)

4. Piste saharienne - 1990 - Region de l'Air (Niger) ...... 105 Saharan trail- 1990 - Air Region (Niger)

5. Paysage culturel desertique fossile aux confins de l'Air et du Tenere -1990 (Niger)..... 105 Fossil desert cultural landscape in the Air and Tenere region - 1990 - (Niger)

6. Bois sacre de Charewa - 1995 - Region d'Harare (Zimbabwe)...... 106 Charewa sacred wood - 1995 - Harare area (Zimbabwe)

7. Exemple d'architecture vernaculaire - 1995 - Region de la Tapoa (Niger du Sud)...... 106 Example of vernacular architecture - 1995 - Tapoa region (South Niger)

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L1STE DES AUTEURS I LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. George Abungu Dr. Michel Le Berre Directer General Socioecologie & Conservation National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi - Kenya Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique - Villeurbanne - France Dr. Jonas Beyene CRCCH Mr. Quentin Luke Coastal Forest Conservation Unit M. Ali Bida National Museums of Kenya Chef de service du patrimoine culturel Ministere de la Communication et de la Culture, Mr. Albert Mumma Niamey - Niger Faculty of Law University of Nairobi - Kenya

Mr. Jules Bocco Mr. Dawson Munjeri Directeur du Patrimoine Executive Director Ministere de la Culture et des Communications, The National Museums and Monuments, Harare - Cotonou - Benin Zimbabwe

Dr. Joseph Eboreime Mr. A. Rafolo Coordinator Nigerian World Heritage Committee Directeur (NWHC) Centre d'Art et Archeologie National Museum, Benin City - Nigeria Universite d'Antananarivo - Madagascar

Mr. Anthony Githitho Dr. Mechtild Rossler Coastal Forest Conservation Unit Program Specialist National Museums of Kenya, Kilifi - Kenya World Heritage Centre, UNESCO, Paris­ France Dr. Robert Hoft Project Coordinator Galia Saouma-Forero UNESCO, Nairobi - Kenya Senior Program Specialist World Heritage Centre, UNESCO, Paris - Dr. E. R. Kamuhangire France Commissioner for Antiquities and Museums Department of Antiquities and Museums, Kampala - Uganda

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INTRODUCTION

GAllA SAOUMA-FORERO ROBERT HOFT MECHTILD ROSSLER

Introduction the Global Strategy for a balanced and representative World Heritage List. It will help to It was a privilege for us to take part in the ensure that the List reflects the world's cultural Regional Thematic Expert Meeting on "Cultural and natural diversity of outstanding universal Landscapes in Africa" which reflected about our value and in particular the very specific national and international policies to advance interaction between natural and cultural heritage cultural landscape identification, recognition and within cultural landscapes. The potential for this protection. type of heritage from the African region is UNESCO and its World Heritage Centre immense and we are happy to note that the continue the efforts to protect natural and World Heritage Bureau in July 1999 has cultural heritage of outstanding universal value examined the first cultural landscape submitted under the unique World Heritage Convention, by an African country. which combines the protection of the works of The everyday protection of cultural and natural the human creative genius and the evolutionary heritage is more relevant than ever as threats to work of nature. The adoption of the Cultural the very survival of the world's heritage have Landscape Categories by the World Heritage increased. These ever-growing threats also Committee in 1992 was a major step towards demand improved implementation of international international recognition of this type of site. With and regional instruments by States Parties and this decision, the Committee encouraged enhanced co-ordination and integration between governments to strengthen national cultural national instruments, international treaties, and landscape protection and management. It also initiatives for the protection of cultural heritage changed the Operational Guidelines with a view and the natural environment. The expert to accommodate this new type of site and meeting in Kenya also discussed, for the first amended the provisions for legal protection of time, a new approach towards legal protection cultural heritage sites to include "traditional and traditional management, which is included protection and management mechanisms to in this publication. ensure the conservation of the nominated cultural properties or cultural landscapes". This We sincerely hope that we can continue our decision opened the World Heritage Convention efforts to communicate the value of the world's not only to new types of sites, but also to heritage and promote the beneficial protective regions of the world, which were not able to provisions of the World Heritage Convention, as present nominations under the previous criteria. well as advance the identification and recognition of types of properties and themes The expert meeting, which formed part of a currently underrepresented on the UNESCO series of meetings on cultural landscapes, has World Heritage List. assisted African countries to identify potential cultural landscapes for the World Heritage List. The experts work, as displayed in this Robert HOft (UNESCO Office Nairobi), Mechtild ROssler and publication contributes to the implementation of Galia Saouma-Forero (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Paris)

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REFLEXIONS SUR LA MISE EN CEUVRE DE LA CONVENTION DU PATRIMOINE MONDIAL ET LES PAYSAGES CULTURELS EN AFRIQUE

REFLECTIONS ON THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WORLD HERITAGE CONVENTION & THE CUL TURAL LANDSCAPES IN AFRICA

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THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE WORLD HERITAGE CULTURAL LANDSCAPES CATEGORIES

MECHTllD ROSSLER

LA CATEGORIE DES PAYSAGES traditionneUe a ete admise par Ie Comite, en 1992, CULTURELS DANS LE CADRE DE LA pour les biens culturels et en 1998 pour les biens CONVENTION DU PATRIMOINE MONDIAL naturels. O'autres particularites restent a prendre en consideration comme I'integration des criteres naturels et culturels, qui a ete discutee durant la reunion d'experts qui s'est tenue a Amsterdam Resume (mars 98). L'expose a rappele I'origine du concept de paysage culturel defini en 1992 (La Petite Pierre, France) et Le paysage culturel apparait com me un concept a precise les categories actueUement reconnues federateur, non seulement dans Ie cadre de la par Ie Comite du patrimoine mondial (16eme session, Convention du patrimoine mondial (ou iI cree un 1992) et I'etat de mise en reuvre de ce concept pont entre patrimoine naturel et culturel) mais, dans Ie monde. egalement, entre plusieurs conventions internationales comme la Convention sur la diversite biologique. Selon les Orientations, les paysages culturels Oans ce cas, cela concerne aussi bien la presence comprennent trois categories: d'especes domestiques (animales et vegetales) dans Ie paysage, que Ie role joue par certains types • Les paysages clairement definis com;:us et crees par de paysages dans la conservation de la I'homme. biodiversite: par exemple, les differentes categories • Les paysages evolutifs qui peuvent etre fossiles de sites sacres (forets, rochers, mares, sources, (temoignages de civilisations disparues) ou vivants grottes, montagnes, etc.) ont perm is, notamment en (poursuivant leur evolution). Afrique, de conserver des especes ailleurs disparues. Un projet UNESCO "Sites sacres - • Les paysages associatifs qui font une large part aux Integrite culturelle et diversite biologique" se met en croyances, traditions et elements spirituels associes place dans Ie cadre du Secteur des Sciences de a un espace donne. I'UNESCO; ce projet, initie au Ghana, est etendu a I'ensemble du monde. La relation entre les six criteres culturels et les trois categories de paysages culturels a ete clairement L'un des objectifs de la reunion concernant les iUustree par un tableau synthetique. paysages culturels en Afrique est d'identifier de nouveaux types de sites pour aboutir a une Oepuis 1992, 11 paysages culturels ont ete inscrits meilleure representation de la diversite du sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial. Les categories patrimoine naturel et culturel. En raison de leurs de paysages culturels presentent des difficultes caracteristiques, la protection des paysages particulieres en matiere d'inscription que plusieurs culturels est souvent complexe, necessitant des reunions d'experts ont tente de preciser. Par modes de gestion adaptes ou les communautes exemple, I'interet de la protection et de la gestion locales jouent un role important.

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1. Introduction • ''that in view of the magnitude and gravity of the new dangers threatening them, it is The Convention Concerning the Protection of incumbent on the international community as the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World a whole to participate in the protection of the Heritage Convention) established a unique cultural and natural heritage ". international instrument, which recognises and protects both the cultural and natural heritage of The World Heritage Convention's definition of outstanding universal value. heritage provided an innovative opportunity for the protection of landscapes: as it defined The World Heritage Convention was adopted by "cultural heritage" as "monuments, ... , groups of the General Conference of UNESCO in 1972, buildings, ..., and sites: works of man or the shortly after the first UN Conference on the combined works of nature and man, and Human Environment in Stockholm (Sweden). areas including archaeological sites which are of The Stockholm conference was a primary event outstanding universal value from the historical, for the global environmental movement aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point (McCormick 1995) and was the first occasion on of view". We have to note, however, that which threats to the environment were seriously "natural heritage" as defined by the Convention discussed at a global level with a view to includes "natural features ... which are of corrective actions being taken. In the 1960s outstanding universal value from the aesthetic or UNESCO's International Campaign for the scientific point of view, .. .geological and Preservation and Safeguarding of the Cultural physiographical formations and .. .habitat of Heritage of Mankind, the Nubian Campaign, had threatened species of animals and plants ... and already established prinCiples for international .. .natural sites ... of outstanding universal value co-operation for heritage conservation. The text from the point of view of science, conservation of the World Heritage Convention evolved in this or natural beauty." The Convention itself does context bringing together drafts prepared by not include the word ''landscape'', however its IUCN on the protection of the world's natural implementation embodies "landscapes" under heritage, and UNESCO and ICOMOS on the cultural sites. preservation of cultural heritage (Titchen 1996). Although the 1962 UNESCO "Recommendation The context of the Stockholm Conference as Concerning the Safeguarding of the Beauty and well as the experience gained from the Nubian Character of Landscapes and Sites" paved the Campaign is reflected in the text of the way for the recognition of cultural landscapes Convention itself, as it noted in the Preamble: and although the World Heritage Convention provided in its text a precondition for the • that the cultural heritage and the natural inclusion of landscapes, it was not until 1992 heritage are increasingly threatened with that it became the first international legal destruction not only by the traditional causes instrument to protect cultural landscapes (see of decay, but also by changing social and Table I). economic conditions which aggravate the situation with even more formidable In the evolution of the implementation of the phenomena of damage or destruction, World Heritage Convention, a number of • it considers "that deterioration or disappearance properties were included in the World Heritage of any item of the cultural or natural heritage List on the basis of both their natural and constitutes a harmful impoverishment of the cultural values. They are commonly known as heritage of al/ the nations of the world", mixed properties. The Operational Guidelines state that "States Parties should as far as • it considers "that parts of the cultural or possible endeavour to include in their natural heritage are of outstanding interest submissions properties which derive their and therefore need to be preserved as part of outstanding universal value from a particularly the world heritage of mankind as a whole", significant combination of cultural and natural features" (see Table II).

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Table I: Protection instruments for landscapes

Recommendation Concerning the World Heritage Convention (1972) Safeguarding of the Beauty and Character of Landscapes and Sites (1962) Scope Global Global

Definition of For the purpose of this recommendation, (1) works of man or the combined works of Landscape the safeguarding of the beauty and nature and man (Convention); character of landscapes and sites is (2) "cultural landscape" - a diversity of taken to mean the preservation and, manifestations of the interaction where possible, the restoration of the between humankind and its natural aspect of natural, rural and urban environment (Operational Guidelines): landscapes and sites, whether natural or man-made, which have a cultural i. designed landscape; or aesthetic interest or form typical ii. organically evolved landscape natural surroundings. (fossil/continuing); iii. associative cultural landscape.

Table II: Mixed natural-cultural World Heritage sites as of 1998

Name of Mixed Property Country Cultural Natural Criteria Criteria Tassili n'Aller Algeria i, iii ii,iii Kakadu National Park Australia i,vi ii,iii,iv Willandra Lakes Region Australia iii i Tasmanian Wilderness Australia iii,iv,vi i,ii,iii,iv Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park Australia v,vi ii,iii Mount Taishan China i,ii,iii,iv,vi,vi iii Mount Huangshan China ii iii,iv Mt Emei Scenic Area, including Leshan Giant China iV,vi iv Buddha Scenic Area Ohrid Region with its Cultural and Historical Former Yugoslav i,iii,iv iii Aspect and its Natural Environment Republic of Macedonia Pyrenees - Mont Perdu France iii,iv,v i,iii Meteora Greece i,ii,iv,v iii Mount Athos Greece i,ii,iv,v,vi iii Tikal National Park Guatemala i,iii,iv ii,iv Cliff of Bandiagara (Land of the Dogons) Mali v iii Tongariro National Park New Zealand vi ii,iii Historic Sanctuary of Machu Picchu Peru i,iii ii,iii Rio Abiseo National Park Peru iii ii,iii,iv The Laponian Area Sweden iii,v i,ii,iii Goreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Turkey i,iii,v iii Cappadocia Hierapolis-Pamukkale Turkey iii,iv iii

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While discussing the nominations of mixed sites • a continuing landscape is one which in the early 1980s, the World Heritage retains an active social role in Committee questioned whether the Operational contemporary society closely associated Guidelines should be adapted to accommodate with the traditional way of life, and in rural landscapes for the World Heritage List. The which the evolutionary process is still in Lake District was presented as a test case by progress. At the same time it exhibits the Government of the United Kingdom. This significant material evidence of its nomination was deferred twice (in 1987 and evolution over time. 1990) to allow the Committee to define its (iii) The final category is the associative position concerning the inscription of cultural cultural landscape. The inclusion of such landscapes (Rossler, In: von Droste, Plachter, landscapes on the World Heritage List is Rossler, 1995, 43). justifiable by virtue of the powerful religious, artistic or cultural associations of the natural 2. Cultural Landscapes -a new approach element rather than material cultural evidence, which may be insignificant or The fifteenth session of the World Heritage even absent. Committee (Carthage, Tunisia, 1991) asked for further study on the modification of the criteria to Consideration was also given to the need to include cultural landscapes on the World recognise the associative values of landscapes Heritage List. The Committee requested the and landscape features to indigenous people Secretariat to work with the Advisory Bodies and to the importance of protecting biological ICOMOS and IUCN on this question. An expert diversity through cultural diversity within cultural landscapes. meeting was convened in La Petite Pierre in France in October 1992 to review the criteria in At its sixteenth session in 1992 the World the Operational Guidelines. The experts Heritage Committee adopted these categories of redrafted the cultural criteria and defined three World Heritage cultural landscapes and revised categories of cultural landscapes: the cultural criteria used to justify inscription of properties on the World Heritage List to ensure (i) The most easily identifiable is the clearly the recognition of ''the combined works of nature defined landscape designed and created and of man". World Heritage cultural landscapes intentionally by man. This embraces are justified for inclusion in the World Heritage garden and parkland landscapes List when interactions between people and the constructed for aesthetic reasons which are natural environment are evaluated as being of often (but not always) associated with "outstanding universal value" (see Table III). religious or other monumental buildings and ensembles. With this decision the World Heritage Convention became the first international legal (ii) The second category is the organically instrument to identify, protect, conserve and evolved landscape. This results from an transmit to future generations cultural landscapes initial social, economic, administrative, of outstanding universal value. and/or religious imperative and has developed its present form by association An Action Plan for the Future, which was with and in response to its natural adopted by the Committee in December 1993, environment. Such landscapes reflect that recommended that regional expert meetings be process of evolution in their form and held to assist with comparative studies of component features. They fall into two cultural landscapes and that thematic frameworks be developed for the evaluation of sUb-categories: cultural landscapes to assist the World Heritage Committee in its decision making concerning • a relict (or fossil) landscape is one in cultural landscapes. which an evolutionary process came to an end at some time in the past, either Within an overall Global Strategy for a abruptly or over a period. Its significant representative and balanced World Heritage distinguishing features are, however, still List, different regional and thematic expert visible in material form. meetings were held on cultural landscapes and related issues (see Table IV).

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Table III: Links between the cultural heritage criteria and the categories of World Heritage cultural landscapes

Cultural Criteria Cultural Landscapes Categories (extract from para. 39 of the Operational Guidelines)

(i) represent a masterpiece of human creative The most easily identifiable is the clearly defined genius; or landscape designed and created intentionally by man. This embraces garden and parkland landscapes constructed for aesthetic reasons which are often (but not always) associated with religious or other monumental buildings and ensembles. (ii) exhibit an important interchange of human The second category is the organically evolved values, over a span of time or within a cultural landscape. This results from an initial social, area of the world, on developments in economic, administrative, and/or religious imperative architecture or technology, monumental arts, and has developed its present form by town-QIannino or landscape desion; or association with and in response to its natural (iii) bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to environment. Such landscapes reflect that a cultural tradition or to a civilisation which is process of evolution in their form and component living or which has disappeared; or features. They fall into two sub-categories:

(iv) be an outstanding example of a type of building • a relict (or fossil) landscape is one in which an or architectural or technological ensemble or evolutionary process came to an end at some landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in time in the past, either abruptly or over a period. human history; or Its Significant distinguishing features are, however, still visible in material form. (v) be an outstanding example of a traditional human • a continuing landscape is one which retains an settlement or land-use which is representative of active social role in contemporary society closely a culture (or cultures), especially when it has associated with the traditional way of life, and in become vulnerable under the impact of which the evolutionary process is still in progress. irreversible change; or At the same time it exhibits significant material evidence of its evolution over time. (vi) be directly or tangibly associated with events or The final category is the associative cultural living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with landscape. The inclusion of such landscapes on artistic and literary works of outstanding universal the World Heritage List is justifiable by virtue of significance (the Committee considers that this the powerful religious, artistic or cultural criterion should justify inclusion in the List only in associations of the natural element rather than exceptional circumstances and in conjunction material cultural evidence, which may be with other criteria cultural or natural); insignificant or even absent.

Table IV: Cultural landscape expert meetings 1992 - 1998

• Expert meeting on Cultural Landscapes of the Andean Region (Peru, May 1998) • Expert Meeting on European Cultural Landscapes of Outstanding Universal Value (Austria, April 1996) • Asian Rice Culture and its Terraced Landscapes. Regional thematic study meeting (Philippines, March/April 1995) • Asia-Pacific Workshop on Associative Cultural Landscapes (Australia, April 1995) • Heritage Canals (Canada, September 1994) • Expert Meeting on Routes as Part of the Cultural Heritage (Spain, November 1994) • International Expert Meeting on "Cultural Landscapes of Outstanding Universal Value" (Germany, October 1993) • Expert Group on Cultural Landscapes (France, October 1992)

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These expert meetings were milestones in the The World Heritage Committee at its implementation of the decisions of the seventeenth session in December 1993 Committee by identifying different methods that inscribed the first cultural landscape on the States Parties might choose to use when World Heritage List, an associative landscape: nominating cultural landscapes for inclusion on Tongariro National Park in New Zealand. The the World Heritage List. Methodologies for identifying cultural landscapes were developed site, already included on the List in recognition and suggestions made towards the classification of its outstanding natural values, had been and evaluation of cultural landscapes. Specific resubmitted under the revised cultural criteria. legal, management, socio-economic ad conservation The mountains of Tongariro National Park have issues related to cultural landscapes were also cultural and religious significance for the Maori addressed and examples of outstanding cultural people and symbolise the spiritual links between landscapes discussed, which illustrated the the people and their environment. In 1994, aforementioned categories in the regions. another cultural landscape was included on the World Heritage List: Ulu[u Kata-Tju!a National 3. Protecting cultural landscapes of Park in Australia, as both, a living and an universal value associative cultural landscape of the traditional For the purposes of World Heritage conservation, owners, the Anangu Aboriginal people. cultural landscapes embrace a diversity of Following the regional thematic study meeting interactions between people and the "natural" on Asian Rice Culture and its Terraced environment. Cultural landscapes are inscribed Landscapes, the Rice Terraces of the Philippine on the World Heritage List when these Cordilleras were included in the World Heritage interactions are identified, assessed and. List as exceptional example of a 2000 year old evaluated as being of "outstanding universal tradition forming a landscape of great beauty. value" (seeTable V).

Table V: Cultural Landscapes inscribed on the World Heritage List as of 1998

Cultural Landscape Year of Country Cultural Natural Inscription Criteria Criteria Ulu[u-Kata Tju!a National Park 1994 Australia v,vi ii,iii Hallstatt-Dachstein I Salzkammergut 1997 Austria ii,iii,vi Cultural Landscape Lednice-Valtice Cultural Landscape 1996 Czech i,ii,iv Republic Pyrenees - Mount Perdu 1997 Francel iii,iv,v i,iii Spain The Costiera Amalfitana 1997 Italy ii,iv,v Portovenere, Cinque Terre, and the 1997 Italy ii,iv,v Islands (Palmaria, Tino and Tinetto) Tongariro National Park 1993 New vi ii,iii Zealand The Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras 1995 The iii,iv,v Philippines The Sintra Cultural Landscape 1996 Portugal ii,iv,v Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park with the 1998 Italy iii, iv Archeological sites of Paestum and Velia, and the Certosa di Padula Quadi Quadisha (the Holy Valley) and the Forest 1998 Lebanon iii, iv of the Cedars of God (Horsh Arz el-Rab)

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It is evident that World Heritage conservation subsistence and technological evolution, as well can perform a leadership role in the protection of as human beings in SOCiety (human interaction, diverse landscapes. cultural coexistence, spirituality and creative expression). The management of World Heritage cultural landscapes can be a standard-setter for the At its twentieth session in December 1996 the conservation of the environment as a whole and can establish exemplars of what is required World Heritage Committee decided that a ''truly elsewhere. It can help to reinforce the standing joint meeting of cultural and natural heritage of heritage conservation at national and local experts" should be organised to discuss, the levels. The conservation of World Heritage application of the "conditions of integrity" versus cultural landscapes can demonstrate the the "test of authenticity~ the question of a principles of sustainable land use and of the unified or a harmonised set of criteria, and the maintenance of local diversity which should notion of outstanding universal value and its pervade the management of the rural environment application in different regional and cultural as a whole. contexts. For this purpose the "World Heritage Landscapes have a function in the life of the Global Strategy Natural and Cultural Heritage people and their identity. In many cultures Expert Meeting", was held at the Theatre landscapes are regarded from different angles. Institute in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, from For example, as a space which was inhabited by 25 to 29 March 1998. The experts gave a the ancestors, whose traces on the ground can favourable opinion to: a unified World Heritage be followed a long way back in time. These List, to the principle of a unified list of criteria, cultural traces are still partly perceptible and are visible in the terrain. The connection between and, the greater recognition of the continuum of, the material and the non-material, the tangible and interactions between, culture and nature, to and the intangible heritage is important. favour the identification of properties currently Landscapes also exist in people's memories and underrepresented in the List (Von imaginations and are linked to place names, Droste/RosslerlTitchen : 1999). myths, rituals and folklore. In people's minds there is rarely a clear distinction between the visible and the invisible components of the 5. Collaboration with other initiatives landscapes. Stories and myths endow landscapes 5.1. Legal Instruments with meanings transcending the directly observable and create people's mental maps. The term "cultural landscape" embraces a diversity of manifestations of the interaction The World Heritage Committee recognised between humankind and its natural these important associative values in a number environment. Cultural landscapes often reflect of cases as "associative cultural landscapes". specific techniques of sustainable land-use, 4. Paving the way towards new links considering the characteristics and limits of the between nature and culture natural environment they are established in, and a specific spiritual relation to nature. Protection of The introduction of cultural landscapes into the cultural landscapes can contribute to modem application of the World Heritage Convention techniques of sustainable land-use and can maintain was a first step to open the Convention towards or enhance natural values in the landscape. The linking cultural and natural heritage beyond the continued existence of traditional forms of land-use notion of "mixed sites". A new approach was supports biological diversity in many regions of the taken by the World Heritage Committee in 1994 world. The protection of traditional cultural with the adoption of the Global Strategy for a landscapes is therefore helpful in maintaining representative and balanced World Heritage biological diversity. Therefore the Committee List. Although this strategy was first developed welcomed the World Heritage Centre's for cultural heritage, it paved the way for new collaboration with other legal instruments, such as links between nature and culture. Among the the Convention on Biological Diversity or the Draft themes discussed were: human coexistence with European Landscape Convention. A joint web-page the land (movement of peoples including has been created between all Biodiversity-related nomadism, and migration, settlement, modes of Conventions at http://www.biodiv.org/rioconv.

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The Biodiversity-Related Conventions, CBD conserved areas with high biological diversity. As (Biological Diversity), CITES (International already demonstrated through a UNESCO pilot Trade in Endangered Species), CMS (Migratory project on sacred groves in Ghana (West Species), Ramsar (Wetlands) and WH (World Africa), such sites can play an important role in Heritage), carry out work in the area of the conservation of the environment and the information exchange and support to information rehabilitation of degraded areas. Applying this needs of (States) Parties. The programme experience gained in a wider regional context, approved by the XIXth Special Session of the this new UNESCO project is interdisciplinary in UN-General Assembly (June 1997) for the character and involves natural scientists and further implementation of Agenda 21 gives cultural anthropologists. At the development special priority to collaboration among the level, the project aims at restoring degraded Conventions and to the enhancement of environments surrounding sacred sites by using information capacities as requisites for sustainable sacred areas as reference sites for potential development. There is a growing recognition natural vegetation. At the conservation level, the that while each instrument does stand on its project will assess if traditional sacred sites can own, with its own defined objectives and play a complementary role to legally protected commitments, there are also linkages and areas (such as national parks). Its results - inherent relationships between all of them. The through inter-regional comparative work - will Conventions operate in the same ecosystems. If help to formulate policy guidelines on culture­ they are implemented collaboratively, progress based environmental conservation. can be made with regard to the conservation of biodiversity. 6. Conclusion: experiences from the past 5.2. Project Sacred Sites" Cultural Integrity - visions for the future and Biological Diversity In 1999, 582 properties are inscribed on the The first five cultural landscapes inscribed on World Heritage List, including 445 cultural, 117 the World Heritage List go some way to natural and 20 mixed sites. Among these 582 expressing the diversity of the world's most sites in 114 States Parties to the World Heritage outstanding interactions between people and the Convention are 11 cultural landscapes, which "natural" environment demonstrating landscapes were inscribed since 1992. that have been transformed by cultural, social, economic and political activities over time. The It took exactly thirty years from the 1962 sacred and spiritual meaning of the cultural UNESCO "Recommendation Concerning the landscapes are not always demonstrated in Safeguarding of the Beauty and Character of human modifications to the physical landscape. Landscapes and Sites" to the inclusion of It is in the oral history, stories, songs, arts and cultural landscapes in the UNESCO World crafts, etc. that the importance of these places Heritage List in 1992. During these thirty years to sacred ancestral history and origins is the way was paved for a number of landscape expressed. These cultural landscapes, demonstrate protection measures, such as national landscape the application of the concept of World Heritage protection. cultural landscapes for the identification and conservation of sacred places in a variety of The adoption of the revised criteria for the cultural and environmental contexts. inclusion of cultural landscapes on the World A collaboration with a UNESCO project on Heritage List is one of the great success stories Sacred Sites - Cultural Integrity and Biological of the implementation of the Convention. It Diversity started in 1997 and in 1998 a provided new opportunities for the protection of workshop was organised at the World Heritage the "combined works of nature and of man" as Cultural Landscape Expert Meeting in the defined in Article 1 of the Convention. The World Andes. The project uses a culture-based Heritage Committee, after years of discussion approach to enhance environmental has ensured that the World Heritage Convention conservation. In many cultures of the world, became the first international legal instrument to natural sacred sites are often important areas recognise and to protect cultural landscapes of for environmental conservation. Traditional outstanding universal value. It is now up to respect of the environment and access States Parties to identify and to nominate this restrictions to sacred sites have often led to well threatened heritage of humankind to ensure that

-14- M. Rossler - The implementation of the World Heritage cultural landscape categories cultural landscapes receive appropriate recognition Rossler, Mechtild (1998): "Landscapes in the and conservation at the international level. Framework of the World Heritage Convention and other UNESCO Instruments and The collaboration with other instruments, Programmes." In: Stephan Dompke and Michael including national and regional ones, could Succow (eds.) Cultural Landscapes and Nature ensure a process of identification, recognition Conservation in Northern Eurasia. Proceedings and protection of landscapes on all levels. It of the Worlitz Symposium. Bonn, NABU, 24-32. would enhance the conservation of this type of heritage which is at the heart of the people's Titchen, Sarah (1996): "On the construction of identity and which is more fragile and thus more outstanding universal value". Some comments threatened than other types of sites by rapid on the implementation of the 1972 UNESCO social, economic and cultural development. World Heritage Convention. In: Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites. Vol. Let us make sure that through our collaborative 1,235-242. efforts we can protect and transmit to future generations this very special living heritage. The UNESCO (1962): Recommendation concerning survival of cultural landscapes depends not only the Safeguarding of the Beauty and Character of on the maintenance of the environment but also Landscapes and Sites, 11 December 1962. on sustaining the living cultures, traditions and beliefs of the people. UNESCO (1912): Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. References Lucas, Bing (1992): Protected Landscapes. A UNESCO Sources (1991): 25 years of guide for policy-makers and planners. The safeguarding World Heritage: growing pain. No. World Conservation Union, Chapman and Hall, 95, Paris: UNESCO, November 1997. London. The UNESCO Courier (1991): The state of the Bernd von Droste, Harald Plachter and World Heritage. Paris: UNESCO, September Mechtild Rossler (eds.) (1995): Cultural 1997. Landscapes of Universal Value. Components of a Global Strategy. Jena: Gustav Fischer Verlag. World Heritage Special Issue (1991): PARKS, vol. 7, No.2, Gland: IUCN, June 1997. B. von Droste, M. Rossler, S. Titchen: "Linking Nature and Culture". Report of the Global Strategy Natural and Cultural Heritage Expert Meeting, 25-29 March 1998, Amsterdam, The Nether1ands. UNESCO/Ministry for Foreign Affairs! Ministry for Education, Science and Culture, the Hague 1999. pp238)

Rossler, Mechtild (1995): "Neue Perspektiven fOr den Schutz von Kulturlandschaften. Natur und Kultur im Rahmen der Welterbekonvention." In: Geographische Rundschau 47, Juni 1995, H. 6,343-347.

-15- Paysages Culturels en Afrique

LA STRATEGIE GLOBALE EN AFRIQUE

GAllA SAOUMA-FORERO

I. Antecedents L' homme en societe En juin 1994, Ie Centre du patrimoine mondial et • Interactions humaines; I'ICOMOS ont convie des experts a une reunion • Coexistence des cultures; de travail sur la problematique de la representativite de la Liste du patrimoine • Les expressions creatives des spiritualites. mondial et la methodologie a concevoir et a mettre en reuvre pour I'assurer. La reunion avait ete organisee en vue de corriger les A sa dix-huitieme session en decembre 1994 Ie desequilibres au niveau des types de patrimoine Comite a examine Ie rapport du Groupe inscrits sur la Liste et de leur representativite d'experts et a adopte Ie projet de Strategie regionale. globale pour assurer la representativite de la Liste du patrimoine mondial, ainsi que les Le groupe d'experts a constate un certain recommandations en faveur de nouvelles nombre de disparites et de desequilibres, a revisions des criteres du patrimoine culturel. suggere des modifications des criteres relatifs Une proposition visant a etendre Ie champ de la au patrimoine culturel et a propose une nouvelle Strategie globale du patrimoine culturel aux approche pour ameliorer la representativite et biens naturels et mixtes a egalement ete I'equilibre de la Liste du patrimoine mondial, adoptee. conformement aux objectifs des Orientations strategiques adoptees en 1992 par Ie Comite du Definitions et objectifs de la Strategie patrimoine mondial. Le groupe d'experts a defini une approche non typologique, intitulee globale Strategie globale, et a propose d'adopter une La Strategie globale constitue un cadre de methodologie thematique afin de corriger les reference et une methodologie pour la mise en desequilibres de la Liste quant a la repartition reuvre de la Convention du patrimoine mondial. geographique, les epoques et les spiritualites. Elle est basee sur des definitions regionales et Le groupe d'experts a identifie plusieurs thematiques de categories de patrimoine ayant domaines ou themes dont I'etude dans leur une valeur universelle exceptionnelle pour contexte anthropologique Ie plus large ameliorer I'equilibre et la representativite de la permettrait de com bier les lacunes de la representation de la Liste, comme suit: Liste du patrimoine mondial en encourageant les pays a devenir Etats parties a la Convention, Relations de I'homme avec Ie sol et I'espace a preparer des listes indicatives et ales • Mouvements de population (nomadisme, harmoniser, et a preparer des propositions migrations); d'inscription de biens appartenant a des categories et a des regions mal representees • Etablissements humains; sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial. • Modes de subsistance; • Evolution des techniques.

-16- G. Saouma-Forero - La Strategie globale en Afrique

II. Le patrimoine africain et la Convention africain susceptibles d'ameliorer la representativite du patrimoine mondial de la Liste du patrimoine mondial :

Sur les 45 Etats membres africains de (i) patrimoine archeologique; I'UNESCO, seulement 33 Etats sont parties a la Convention du patrimoine mondial. Depuis (ii) cultures vivantes : savoir-faire traditionnel et 1995, cinq pays ont ratifie la Convention : patrimoine technique; l'Afrique du Sud, Ie Botswana, I'lie Maurice, Ie (iii) patrimoine spirituel; Tchad et Ie Togo. Des efforts se poursuivent pour encourager les autres pays de la region a (iv) paysages culturels; ratifier la Convention. Les Etats non parties sont (v) routes et itineraires. regulierement invites aux reunions et aux ateliers concernant la mise en oouvre de la Les actes de ces reunions ont ete publies et Convention. diffuses. Les experts ont demande au Comite de relever Ie plafond de 15.000 dollars EU verses Jusqu'ici, 21 pays de l'Afrique subsaharienne au titre de «1'Assistance preparatoire», pour ont presente des listes indicatives pour permettre aux pays disposant de maigres I'inscription de biens susceptibles de figurer sur ressources financieres d'accelerer la preparation la Liste du patrimoine mondial. II y a des propositions d'inscription. Le Comite a sa actuellement 16 sites culturels, 31 sites naturels 22sme session a augmente I'allocation a 30.000 et un site mixte sur la Liste du patrimoine dollars EU. mondial emanant de 19 pays de la region. En 1998, deux propositions d'inscription preparees par • Autres activites entreprises par Ie Centre l'Afrique du Sud et une autre du Nigeria ont ete du patrimoine mondial presentees. Au nombre des biens culturels Con~ue en 1996, I'exposition itinerante figurent : des sites archeologiques (Ethiopie, "Nouveaux regards sur I'Afrique", qui iIIustre Ie Tanzanie et Zimbabwe), des vestiges de la concept de la Strategie globale a travers les periode coloniale (Ghana, Senegal et exemples de categories de patrimoine africain Mozambique) et des exemples du patrimoine mentionnees ci-dessus, a circule a travers culturel africain (Ethiopie, Ghana, Mali et Benin). l'Afrique en 1997-1998. Une brochure realisee Le nombre de sites naturels, presque deux fois d'apres Ie texte et les photographies des 21 plus eleve que celui des sites culturels, panneaux de I'exposition est parue en 1998 et a demontre la richesse et la diversite des ete largement diffusee dans tous les pays ressources naturelles de l'Afrique subsaharienne. d'Afrique. A I'heure actuelle, un seul bien, les "Falaises de Bandiagara" au Mali, est inscrit en tant que site En septembre 1997, Ie Directeur du Centre du mixte. Toutefois, les paysages culturels et les patrimoine mondial a envoye une lettre circulaire cultures vivantes ne sont pas encore a 15 Etats membres de I'UNESCO qui n'avaient representes sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial. pas encore ratifie la Convention, accompagnee d'un dossier d'information sur Ie processus de 1. Actions menees entre 1994-1998 ratification.

• Reunions/ateliers sur la Strategie globale En 1998, l'Afrique du Sud, l'Ethiopie, Ie Mali et Ie De 1995 a 1998, Ie Centre du patrimoine Mozambique ont organise des reunions mondial, en etroite collaboration avec nation ales afin de mieux faire prendre conscience des differentes questions liees la I'ICOMOS, a organise trois reunions d'experts a mise en oouvre de la Convention pour en (Harare 1995, Addis-Abeba 1996, Porto Novo favoriser I'application grace a une participation 1998) auxquelles ont ete invites des plus active, a la lumiere de la Strategie globale. representants d'Etats parties ou non parties a la Convention. Un programme intitule "Afrique 2009" a ete lance en mars 1998, en collaboration avec Les trois reunions sur la Strategie globale ont I'ICCROM, pour ameliorer les conditions et les permis aux experts africains d'identifier les possibilites de formation en matiere de categories suivantes de patrimoine culturel conservation du patrimoine culturel immobilier.

-17- Paysages Culturels en Afrique

Un cours de deux mois pour les pays plus de la moitie des Etats parties ont deja anglophones a eu lieu a Mombasa en juillet-aoOt presente une liste indicative, trois propositions 1999. II a ete suivi d'un seminaire des directeurs d'inscription africaines ont ete re<;:ues en 1999 et du patrimoine en septembre 1999 plusieurs propositions d'inscription de biens culturels sont annoncees pour 2000-2002. • Activites entreprises par les Etats parties En Afrique subsaharienne, du fait des guerres Les debats entames lors de la premiere reunion civiles et des conflits regionaux, mais aussi de de Strategie globale en 1995 ont abouti, en juin I'insuffisance des ressources humaines et 1998, au lancement d'un projet sur I'art rupestre par les delegues representant les instances financieres, les administrations nationales officielles chargees du patrimoine culturel dans chargees de la conservation du patrimoine les pays d'Afrique australe, de la Tanzanie culturel ne peuvent engager Ie processus de jusqu'a I'extreme sud du continent africain, a proposition d'inscription que lentement et I'exception du Swaziland et du Lesotho. Le progressivement. Elles ont besoin de renforcer projet vise a faire prendre conscience de la leurs capacites et devraient recevoir I'appui richesse de I'art rupestre dans la region et a inconditionnel du Fonds du patrimoine mondial elaborer une strategie collective en matiere de et des donateurs bilateraux. conservation et de gestion, qui devrait permettre de proposer I'inscription de sites d'art rupestre III. Questions prioritaires sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial. • Desequilibres persistants • Evaluation Depuis I'approbation de la Strategie globale par Les activites entreprises ont tres largement Ie Comite du patrimoine mondial en 1994, Ie contribue a sensibiliser les experts et les nombre d'Etats parties est passe de 140 a 155, decideurs a la Convention du patrimoine Ie nombre de listes indicatives de 33 a plus de mondial et a I'evolution des concepts lies au 100 et celui des propositions d'inscription de 39 patrimoine mondial. Un reseau d'experts africains (y compris les extensions) a 86 pour 1999. II ya, familiarises avec Ie mode d'application de la a ce jour, 582 sites du patrimoine mondial (445 Convention a ete mis en place. sites culturels, 117 sites naturels et 20 sites mixtes) repartis dans 114 Etats parties, et au Lors de plusieurs reunions, les participants total 1049 biens inscrits sur les listes indicatives. africains ont fait observer que: La prise de conscience globale de la Convention du patrimoine mondial et sa mise en reuvre ont (i) Ie format des propositions d'inscription exigeait un nombre important de documents progresse de maniere appreciable. Cependant, les activites entreprises n'ont pas encore rendu techniques; la Liste du patrimoine mondial plus equilibree et (ii) dans bon nombre de cas, les biens inscrits representative. La question est de savoir comment sur les listes indicatives nationales n'ont faire passer les nouveaux concepts du pas encore ete etudies de maniere patrimoine (paysages culturels, itineraires) et approfondie. La documentation technique transformer les conclusions des reunions etait rarement disponible, de meme que les d'experts regionales en un processus decisionnel cartes et les plans de conservation; qui incite les Etats parties a prendre des (iii) Ie montant de l'Assistance preparatoire eta it mesures concretes. II est a noter qu'un grand juge insuffisant. nombre d'Etats parties dont Ie patrimoine culturel est encore mal represente sur la Liste et (iv) la necessite d'aborder Ie probleme sous­ jacent de I'absence ou des carences de la qui ont besoin d'une aide pour soumettre leurs propositions d'inscription de biens culturels, ont protection juridique. demande une Assistance preparatoire. Cependant, dans certains cas, les pays ayant Toutefois, la representativite du patrimoine des arrieres au Fonds du patrimoine mondial africain est en progres : Ie nombre de n'ont pas pu avoir recours a cette forme ratifications croit lentement mais regulierement, d'assistance.

-18- G. Saouma-Forero - La Strategie globale en Afrique

Par ailleurs, un certain nombre d'Etats parties, de conservation. Mais a long terme, les politiques en majorite europeens, n'ont pas restreint Ie de conservation coherentes, etayees par des nombre de leurs propositions d'inscription. lis moyens financiers consequents et des n'ont pas tenu compte du paragraphe 6 (vii) des strategies de formation visant a renforcer les Orientations, selon lequel "Ie Comite invite les capacites des institutions, donneront des Etats parties a considerer si leur patrimoine resultats. culturel est deja bien represente sur la Uste et, s'i! en est ainsi, a ralentir volontairement leur De plus, les etudes thematiques bien ciblees taux de soumission des futures propositions sont devenues importantes pour guider la mise d'inscription. Cela contribuerait a permettre que en oouvre de la Convention dans les differentes la Uste devienne plus universel/ement regions, a I'instar des reunions visant a representative ". developper et renforcer les sites du patrimoine mondial comme les ecosystemes cotiers et II faut noter qu'en Afrique, la majorite des biens marins d'Afrique. L'approche thematique merite, inscrits sur les listes indicatives refletent les par consequent, une attention particuliere a categories de patrimoine africain definies et I'avenir. acceptees aux reunions d'experts; mais, faute de documentation complete et de plan de IV. Engagement des Etats parties africains conservation ou de gestion, la plupart des sites potentiels necessitent I'enclenchement du Si I'on considere que I'inscription de biens sur la processus de conservation avant la soumission Liste du patrimoine mondial constitue I'etape de propositions d'inscription. L'importance des finale d'un long processus de conservation, en des lieux culturels et des elements naturels Afrique, les Etats doivent encore, pour la charges d'une haute valeur spirituelle est majorite d'entre eux, formuler la protection desormais reconnue, ainsi que la possibilite juridique, definir des politiques de conservation d'utiliser les categories de paysages culturels et coherentes et des strategies de formation. I'inscription unique de sites transfrontaliers. Les Certes Ie chemin est long mais, depuis 1995, les liens intrinseques et Ie caractere indissociable activites entreprises pour la mise en oouvre de du patrimoine culturel et naturel est desormais la Strategie globale ont tres largement contribue une evidence, mais il reste a reunir la documentation et a former des specialistes en a sensibiliser les decideurs du continent africain conservation pour permettre aux Etats parties a la Convention du patrimoine mondial et a de pouvoir constituer des dossiers de proposition ('evolution des concepts lies au patrimoine. La d'inscription. Strategie globale et Ie programme de formation Africa 2009, qui sera mene conjointement par • Difficultes, contraintes, orientations I'ICCROM, Ie Centre du patrimoine et CRATerre­ possibles EAG, en vue de renforcer les capacites des institutions, devrait permettre aux Etats parties Dans beaucoup de regions du globe, faute africa ins d'accelerer la preparation de dossiers d'inventaires, I'absence ou I'insuffisance de la d'inscriptions, et remedier au desequilibre de la protection juridique, la faiblesse des institutions Liste. publiques chargees de la conservation du patrimoine, la comprehension imparfaite du eme processus de conservation, la rarete des Le Comite, a sa 22 session en decembre ressources humaines et financieres entravent Ie 1998, soucieux d'accroitre la prise de mecanisme de proposition d'inscription sur la conscience accrue a I'echelon national de la Liste du patrimoine mondial. Le manque Convention du patrimoine mondial et des d'experience de longue duree en matiere de differentes questions liees a sa mise en oouvre, conservation du patrimoine ne fait qu'aggraver a encourage les Etats parties a organiser des la situation, particulierement en Afrique, mais ateliers nationaux, et a solliciter I'assistance du aussi en Asie centrale, dans Ie Pacifique et les Fonds du patrimoine mondial. De plus, un plus Cara·lbes. grand nombre d'Etats parties dont les biens sont deja amplement representes sur la Liste, et qui De ce fait, les progres sensibles a realiser pour ont suivi avec interet les reunions de Strategie accroitre Ie nombre de propositions d'inscription globale a travers les rapports du Comite et la dans ces regions impliquent un long processus publication des Actes, sont conscients de la

-19- Paysages Culturels en Afrique richesse et de la diversite de ce patrimoine. Aujourd'hui ils sont prets a apporter des aides en vue d'accelerer I'elaboration des propositions d'inscription emanant de l'Afrique.

Mais il est clair que les moyens mis en reuvre par Ie Comite du patrimoine mondial afin d'assurer une meilleure representativite du patrimoine africain sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial sans la determination des Etats parties et I'engagement d'un reseau d'experts seraient inutiles. Des pays comme Ie Kenya, Ie Zimbabwe et d'autres qui peuvent se prevaloir de ressources humaines peuvent etre en tete et s'engager eux-memes dans la preparation des dossiers de nominations et fournir a d'autres une assistance technique - que Ie Fonds du patrimoine mondial prendrait en charge.

-20- G. Saouma-Forero - The Global Strategy in Africa

THE GLOBAL STRATEGY IN AFRICA

GAllA SAOUMA-FORERO

I. Background Human Beings in Society In June 1994, the World Heritage Centre and • Human interaction; ICOMOS organised an expert meeting to • Cultural coexistence; examine the representative nature of the World • Spirituality and creative expressions. Heritage List and the methodology for its definition and implementation. The meeting was The report of the Expert Meeting was examined organised in response to perceived imbalances by the Committee at its eighteenth session in in the types of heritage included on the List and December 1994. The proposed Global Strategy its regional representation. for a representative and credible World Heritage List was adopted at that time. The Expert Meeting noted a number of gaps and Recommendations to further revise the cultural imbalances in the cultural heritage sites included heritage criteria were adopted. A proposal was in the World Heritage List. Suggestions were also adopted to expand the focus of the Global made, for further revisions to the cultural Strategy from the cultural heritage to include heritage criteria and a new vision was presented natural and mixed cultural and natural for the development of a representative, and properties. balanced and World Heritage List in accordance with the goals of the Strategic Definition and objectives of the Global Orientations for the future adopted by the World Strategy Heritage Committee in 1992. The Meeting sought to The Global Strategy is a framework and develop a non-typological approach to be called operational methodology for implementing the the Global Strategy and proposed the adoption World Heritage Convention. It relies on regional of a thematic methodology to help redress the and thematic definitions of categories of heritage geographical, temporal and spiritual imbalances which have outstanding universal value, to in the List. The Expert Meeting identified areas ensure a more balanced and representative or themes which, when investigated, in their World Heritage List by encouraging countries to broad anthropological context would have high become States Parties to the Convention, to potential of completing any gaps in the prepare tentative lists and to harmonise them, representation of the List as shown below: and to prepare nominations of properties from categories and regions currently not well Human Coexistence with the Land represented on the World Heritage List. • Movement of peoples (nomadism, migration); II. The African Heritage and the World • Settlement; Heritage Convention • Modes of subsistence; Out of 45 African Member States to UNESCO, • Evolution of techniques. there are currently 33 State Parties to the World Heritage Convention in sub-Saharan Africa.

-21- Cultural Landscapes in Africa

Since 1995, five countries have ratified the The proceedings of these meetings have been Convention. (South Africa, Botswana, Mauritius, published and distributed. African experts Tchad, Togo). Efforts are being made to requested that the Committee increase the encourage other countries in the Region to ratify allocation of US$ 15,000 under "Preparatory the Convention. The non-State Parties are being Assistance" to enable countries with scarce regularly invited to meetings and workshops financial resources to speed up the nomination concerning the implementation of the process. The Committee, at its 22nd session has Convention. increased the allocation to US$ 30,000.

So far, 21 countries of sub-Saharan Africa have • Other activities initiated by the World submitted tentative lists of 77 properties deemed Heritage Centre suitable for inclusion on the World Heritage List. There are currently 16 cultural, 31 natural and The exhibition "Africa Revisited" produced in one mixed site inscribed on the World Heritage 1996 which illustrates the concept of the Global List from 19 countries in the Region. In 1998, Strategy and provides examples of the above­ two nominations from South Africa and one from mentioned categories of African heritage has Nigeria were submitted to the World Heritage been circulating in Africa in 1997-1998. A Centre. The cultural properties include: brochure based on the text and photographs of archaeological sites (Ethiopia, Tanzania and its 21 panels has been produced in 1998, and Zimbabwe), remainders of colonial period (Ghana, has been widely disseminated to all the African Senegal and Mozambique) and examples of States, and UNESCO Offices in Africa. African cultural heritage (Ethiopia, Ghana, Mali and Benin). The number of natural sites, almost In September 1997 the Director of the World double the cultural ones, represent the richness Heritage Centre sent a circular letter to 15 and diversity of the natural resources in sub­ UNESCO Member States which had not yet Saharan Africa. So far, only one property has ratified the Convention, with an information file been inscribed as a mixed site: «Cliffs of clarifying the ratification process. Bandiagara» in Mali. However, cultural landscapes and living cultures are still not represented on In 1998, South Africa, Ethiopia, Mali and the World Heritage List. Mozambique organised national meetings to create greater awareness of the different issues 1. Activities undertaken between 1994- related to the implementation of the Convention 1998 to promote more active involvement for its implementation, in the light of the Global Strategy. • Global Strategy meetings/workshops In March 1998, a programme entitled "Africa From 1995 to 1998, the World Heritage Centre, 2009" was launched in cooperation with in close co-operation with ICOMOS, organised ICC ROM to improve the conditions and provide three expert meetings (Harare 1995, Addis Ababa 1996, Porto Novo 1998), to which opportunities for training in the conservation of representatives of States Parties and non States immovable cultural heritage. A two month Parties to the Convention were invited. course for English speaking countries was held on Mombasa in July-August 1999 followed by a At three Global Strategy meetings, African Director's seminar in September 1999. experts identified the following categories of African cultural heritage which would improve • Activities initiated by States Parties the representation of the World Heritage List: In June 1998, as a result of the discussions at the 1sl Global Strategy meeting in 1995, a (i) archaeological heritage; southern African Rock Art project was launched (ii) living cultures : traditional know-how and by delegates representing official cultural technical heritage heritage agencies in the Southern African (iii) spiritual heritage; countries from Tanzania southwards with the exception of Swaziland and Lesotho. The (iv) cultural landscapes; purpose of the project is to raise awareness of (v) routes and itineraries. the wealth of rock art in the region and to

-22- G. Saouma-Forero - The Global Strategy in Africa establish a collective strategy for conservation of State Parties has increased from 140 to 155, and management that should lead to the the number of tentative lists from 33 to 99, the nominations of rock art sites on the World number of nominations from 39 (including Heritage List. extensions) to 86 in 1999. To date, there are 582 World Heritage sites (445 cultural, 117 • Assessment natural and 20 mixed sites) within 114 State The activities undertaken have contributed Parties, and the total number of properties considerably to a greater awareness on the inscribed on the tentative lists is 1049. World Heritage Convention and the evolving concepts of World Heritage among experts and The overall awareness of the World Heritage decision-makers. A network of African experts Convention and its implementation has increased knowledgeable with modus operandi of the notably; however, activities undertaken have not yet Convention has been established. resulted in a more balanced and representative World Heritage List. The issue is how to At several meetings, African participants have transfer the new concepts of heritage (cultural pointed out that: landscapes, itineraries) and transform the results of regional experts meetings into a decision­ making process which leads States Parties to the format for listing was too demanding in (i) take concrete actions. It should be noted that terms of technical information; many States Parties whose cultural heritage is (ii) the properties inscribed on the national not yet adequately represented on the List and tentative lists in many cases had not yet who needed assistance in preparing nominations been fully studied. Technical documents of cultural properties have requested "Preparatory were often not available, as well as maps Assistance". However, in some cases, countries and conservation plans; with arrears to the World Heritage Fund were (iii) the amount of Preparatory Assistance was unable to use this assistance. deemed insufficient. On the other hand, a number of States Parties, (iv) The underlying problem of the lack or mostly European, have not restrained their inadequacy of legal protection needs also to number of nominations. They did not take into be addressed. consideration, in paragraph 6 (vii) of the Operational Guidelines, that "the Committee However, the process to increase the representation invites States Parties to consider whether their of African heritage is in progress: with a slow but cultural heritage is already well represented on steady number of ratifications, more than half of the List and if so to slow down voluntarily their the States Parties, which have already rate of further nominations. This would help in presented a tentative list, four African making it possible for the List to become more nominations received in 1999, and several universally representative". cultural nominations are in the pipe line for 2000-2002. It should be noted that in Africa the majority of properties inscribed on tentative lists reflect the In Sub-Saharan Africa, due to civil wars and categories of African heritage, defined and regional conflicts as well as scarce financial and accepted at experts meetings; however, with human resources, national administrations in scarce documentation, no maintenance or charge of the conservation of cultural heritage conservation plans, most of the potential sites can only engage slowly and gradually the will require that the process of conservation nomination process. Countries need to increase unfolds before submitting nominations. The their capacity building, and should receive the full support from the World Heritage Fund and importance of series of spectacular and highly bilateral donors. powerful spiritually valued natural features and cultural places has been acknowledged, as well III. Priority Issues as the possibilities of using the cultural landscapes categories and serial trans-national sites. The • Continuing Imbalances categories of cultural landscapes, routes and itineraries have been acknowledged as being Since the approval of the Global Strategy by the particularly pertinent; and the intrinsic links and World Heritage Committee in 1994, the number

-23- Cultural Landscapes in Africa inseparability of cultural and natural heritage view to strengthening the capacities of assessed; but documentation needs to be institutions, should allow the African States gathered and conservation specialists trained Parties to accelerate the preparation of the to enable States Parties to develop the nomination files and redress the imbalance of capacity for preparing nominations files. the List. At its twenty-second session in December 1998, the Committee felt the need • Difficulties, constraints, possible to increase national awareness of the World directions Heritage Convention and the different issues linked to its implementation; it thus encouraged In many regions of the world, the lack of the States Parties to organise national inventories, the absence or inadequacy of legal workshops and to request assistance from the protection, the weakness of national institutions World Heritage Fund. Moreover, a greater in charge of heritage conservation, insufficient number of States Parties which are already understanding of the conservation process, well represented on the List, and which have scarce financial and human resources have taken a keen interest in the Global Strategy hindered the nomination process to the World meetings through the Committee's reports and Heritage List. The lack of long standing experience the publication of the proceedings, are aware in heritage conservation aggravates the of the wealth and diversity of this heritage. situation, particularly in Africa, but also in Today they are ready to lend a hand to Central Asia, the Pacific and the Caribbean. accelerate the preparation of the African Therefore, achieving significant progress of the nom inations. number of nominations in these regions entails a long conservation process. However, in the However, it should be clear that the actions of long-term, consistent conservation policies the World Heritage Committee, designed to backed by substantial financial resources and ensure greater representation of the African training strategies to increase capacity building heritage on the World Heritage List, would be will bear results. useless without the determination of African States Parties and the commitment of their In addition, well-focused thematic studies have network of experts. Countries like Kenya, become important guides for the Nigeria, Zimbabwe and others which can boast implementation of the Convention in different human resources should take the lead and regions, such as meetings to develop and commit themselves to the preparation of reinforce World Heritage Sites in coastal, nomination files, and then, based on their marine and ecosystems of Africa. Therefore, experiences, which can be covered by the World the thematic approach merits particular Heritage Fund, extend their expertise to other attention for the future. countries.

IV.Commitment of African States Parties One may consider that the inscription of properties on the World Heritage List is the final stage in a long process of conservation, the majority of the African States have yet to set up legal protection and define coherent conservation policies and training strategies. This is a lengthy process. However since 1995 the activities undertaken for the implementation of the Global Strategy have largely contributed in making the decision-makers of the African continent more aware of the World Heritage Convention and the evolution of the concepts linked to heritage. The Global Strategy and the Africa 2009 training programme, which will be carried out jointly by ICCROM, the World Heritage Centre and CRATerre-EAG with a

-24- A. Mumma - Aspects juridiques de la protection des paysages culturels d'Afrique

ASPECTS JURIDIQUES DE LA PROTECTION DES PAYSAGES CULTURELS D'AFRIQUE

ALBERT MUMMA

I. Antecedents juridique et/ou contractuelle et/ou traditionnelle et dispose de mecanismes de gestion pour En 1972, les Etats membres de l'Organisation assurer sa conservation. Pour les pays africains, des Nations Unies pour I'education, la science et la possibilite de s'appuyer sur les mecanismes la culture (UNESCO) ont adopte la Convention de protection assures par les systemes de concernant la protection du patrimoine mondial gestion traditionnelle ameliore les perspectives culturel et naturel. La Convention a pour objectif pour les paysages culturels africains de pouvoir d'assurer la protection des aspects du satisfaire aux criteres de classement. patrimoine culturel et naturel du monde qui sont consideres posseder une "valeur universelle Sur Ie plan interne, il sera toutefois necessaire exceptionnelle". La tache d'identification des de trouver une formule permettant d'harmoniser biens meritant une protection incombe au les systemes de gestion traditionnelle et les Comite du patrimoine mondial cree aux termes systemes de gestion d'Etat. Cela est essentiel si de la Convention. I'on veut que les deux systemes fonctionnent en synergie plutot que de maniere antagoniste. Des Les principes qui guident Ie Comite dans mecanismes protecteurs formateurs etablis sur I'identification des biens sont enonces dans ses une base juridiquement pluraliste semblent etre Orientations. En 1992, Ie Comite a inclus pour la la solution la plus prometteuse. premiere fois dans les Orientations la possibilite de proposer I'inscription de "paysages culturels" II. Theorie du pluralisme juridique sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial afin de les proteger. Ces paysages sont consideres comme Dans leur article intitule "Water Rights and representant "Ies reuvres combinees de la Policy" (publie dans Role of Law in Natural nature et de I'homme". lis refietent souvent des Resources Management, Spiertz, J. & Wiber techniques particulieres d'utilisation durable du M.G. eds, VUGA, 1997), Von Benda-Beckman sol, considerant les caracteristiques et les et d'autres auteurs font remarquer que les limites de I'environnement naturel dans lequel ils perceptions des gens sont rarement deterrninees se trouvent, ainsi que des relations spirituelles par un cadre monolithique normatif et avec la nature. unidimensionnel. Selon eux, c'est particulierement Ie cas dans les societes non occidentales: les Le Comite du patrimoine mondial a formule des notions de droits coutumiers y jouent un role criteres auxquels doit repondre un paysage pour important dans la plupart des relations et des etre considere comme ayant une valeur activites et les droits de propriete pluralistes et universelle exceptionnelle. II est notamment contradictoires sont a I'ordre du jour. exige que Ie paysage beneficie d'une protection

-25- Paysages Culturels en Afrique

Le pluralisme juridique qualifie une situation systeme de protection regroupant les differents caracterisee par une coexistence complexe de systemes normatifs qui, en pratique, ont cours systemes normatifs, par opposition a un cadre dans les communautes africaines concernees - normatif unitaire. Une situation juridiquement soit Ie regime de droit d'etat et Ie regime de droit pluraliste Se definit donc par une multiplicite de coutumier/traditionnel. Ces deux regimes seraient systemes juridiques revendiquant tous une places en relation de symbiose et de validite juridique. Les exemples de situations complementarite plutot que d'antagonisme. juridiquement pluralistes font apparaitre une coexistence du droit d'Etat, du droit coutumier, Cette position represente une rupture du droit religieux et du "droit local". fondamentale par rapport a la theorie juridique conventionnelle selon laquelle Ie droit d'Etat est Un environnement juridiquement pluraliste est a considere comme faisant partie d'un systeme la fois entrecroise et permeable et souvent unilateral, supreme et global. Le droit d'Etat charges d'antagonismes. Se conformer a un entretient souvent des relations d'antagonisme regime juridique, par exemple au droit d'Etat, avec les systemes traditionnels et autres peut signifier que I'on va en enfreindre un autre, systemes normatifs existants et cherche par exemple Ie droit coutumier ou Ie droit local. souvent ales annihiler. Ces systemes sont La population passe facilement et frequemment souvent consideres comme concurrents et d'un type de droit a I'autre. decrits en termes negatifs. Un regime juridiquement pluraliste reconnaitrait que ces Des facteurs non juridiques jouent aussi un role systemes sont positifs et promouvrait Ie role des dans les situations pluralistes, notamment les systemes de gestion traditionnelle dans la considerations de pouvoir et I'inegalite d'acces protection des paysages culturels. aux ressources dOes a la stratification sociale. II est essen tiel de posseder une connaissance IV. Elements d'un systeme de protection approfondie des differences locales pour des paysages culturels com prendre si I'on peut, avec quels partenaires et par quelles strategies, mettre en reuvre avec Un regime de protection des paysages culturels succes des systemes de gestion communautaire. comprendrait, entre autres, les elements suivants: III. La protection juridique des paysages culturels (i) II consacrerait Ie concept de gestion communautaire des paysages culturels. La protection juridique des paysages culturels, (ii) II prevoirait une planification et une evaluation selon les conditions d'inscription au patrimoine d'impact environnemental. mondial, pose un probleme assez important au systeme juridique et au droit en general. Cela (iii) II prevoirait la participation de la communaute est dO au fait que Ie regime de protection doit concernee et du public en general. preserver et favoriser Ie dynamisme de (iv) II prevoirait des mecanismes de prevention I'interaction entre la nature et I'homme tel qu'il et de resolution des conflits. se manifeste sous forme de paysages culturels, particulierement de paysages associatifs: Ie droit ne peut, sous pretexte de proteger Ie (1) Le concept de gestion communautaire paysage, statuer comme s'il allait cesser d'etre des paysages culturels un paysage vivant, ce qui est son essence La legislation sur la protection des paysages meme. culturels doit s'attaquer aux questions juridiques relatives a la gestion communautaire des Cette etude soutient que Ie concept de paysages culturels. Cette legislation doit traiter pluralisme juridique serait Ie plus adapte a la des questions suivantes : protection des paysages culturels en fonction des conditions exigees par Ie Comite du Elle doit d'abord definir I'entite que constitue la patrimoine mondial. Ce concept est fonde sur communaute, ou plus precisement, la communaute I'idee que Ie meilleur moyen juridique de locale. proteger les pays ages culturels consiste en un

-26- A. Mumma - Aspects juridiques de la protection des paysages culturels d'Afrique

Les communautes sont rarement des entites culturels do it delimiter la juridiction du droit d'Etat homogEmes et autonomes. Dans Ie cas present, sur les paysages culturels. En meme temps, la la communaute doit etre definie en tenant legislation doit prevoir une place et un role pour compte du paysage culturel concerne: la Ie droit traditionnel ou coutumier et pour les communaute est I'unite ou Ie groupe qui institutions dans la gestion et la protection des entretiennent des relations speciales avec Ie paysages culturels. Les relations entre Ie droit paysage culturel et font que ce paysage culturel d'Etat et Ie droit coutumier ont generalement ete merite d'etre protege et gere. C'est I'entite qui antagonistes et conflictuelles, Ie droit d'Etat assure ses moyens d'existence en utilisant Ie etant con9u pour abolir et rem placer Ie droit paysage culturel. La legislation sur les paysages coutumier. Cela a porte prejudice a I'integrite du culturels doit faciliter la durabilite a long terme et droit coutumier et a sa capacite de protection I'integrite de la communaute en veillant a ce des paysages culturels. La legislation sur les qu'elle ne se desintegre pas a la suite de paysages culturels doit inverser cette tendance press ions economiques, culturelles, politiques et chercher a creer une synergie et des relations ou autres. de complementarite entre Ie droit d'Etat et Ie droit coutumier. Le role du droit d'Etat devrait se Dans certains cas, les paysages culturels s'etendent limiter a fixer des normes ou references au-dela de frontieres nationales. La "communaute" generales a respecter dans la gestion des s'etend alors egalement au-dela des frontieres paysages culturels. La gestion quotidienne nationales, car Ie paysage culturel doit etre traite devrait etre regie par Ie droit coutumier et ses comme une entite integrale, sans tenir compte institutions. des divisions politiques ou autres. (2) Planification et evaluation d'impact Deuxiemement, la legislation doit definir clairement environnemental I'entite communautaire dotee de I'autorite de gestion sur Ie paysage. Pour ce qui est des La protection des paysages culturels exige de communautes locales, I'autorite de gestion prendre en compte la necessite d'assurer la revient generalement aux dirigeants durabilite du paysage a travers une multitude traditionnels, tels que les chefs. Leur mandat d'activites, une grande variete de secteurs et a doit etre clairement defini pour eviter des conflits tous les niveaux de la prise de decision. Ainsi, avec d'autres sources d'autorite et de pouvoir, par exemple, les activites agricoles quotidiennes comme les administrateurs nommes par Ie pourraient detruire une precieuse diversite gouvernement. La legislation devra egalement biologique qui avait ete preservee par les definir la hierarchie de I'autorite, si I'on veut paysages culturels. De fait, les paysages eviter que I'autorite de l'Etat ne porte prejudice a culturels constituent souvent de grandes I'autorite traditionnelle et n'entrafne sa desintegration. reserves de diversite biologique. De meme, les decisions et activites sans lien entre elles de Troisiemement, la legislation do it definir Ie droit tout un ensemble de difterents acteurs peuvent de propriete sur les paysages culturels et les avoir un eftet cumulatif dommageable pour les droits d'utilisation les concernant. D'une maniere pays ages culturels et pour la mise en reuvre de generale, Ie droit d'Etat a transfere a l'Etat la ces decisions. propriete de ressources naturelles telles que la faune sauvage et les tresors nation aux. Cela L'etablissement d'un plan et I'evaluation d'impact s'est fait au detriment des communautes locales environnemental sont d'importants mecanismes qui detenaient traditionnellement la propriete et de prevention et/ou d'attenuation des impacts les droits d'utilisation de ces ressources ; cela a negatifs sur les paysages culturels provenant donc isole ces communautes locales et d'activites par ailleurs legitimes. L'etablissement supprime leurs incitations a proteger et gerer d'un plan com porte deux elements. Cela exige durablement Ie paysage culturel. La legislation d'abord de proceder a une planification genera Ie sur les paysages culturels doit conferer la afin de definir les activites a entreprendre durant propriete et les droits d'utilisation a la la periode visee par Ie plan et d'expliquer communaute et fournir des incitations aux clairement tout impact nuisible potentiel sur la communautes pour proteger les paysages et protection des paysages culturels. Cela est inverser Ie declin de leurs systemes de gestion particulierement crucial lors du reperage et du locale. traitement des eftets cumulatifs de petites Quatriemement, la legislation sur les paysages activites. Ensuite, il faut en plus etablir un plan

-27- Paysages Culturels en Afrique traitant specialement de la protection des (4) Prevention et resolution des conflits paysages culturels. Cela s'applique a toutes les activites qui ont un impact sur les paysages L'utilisation de systemes de gestion culturels du pays. traditionnelle dans la protection des paysages culturels ne peut etre durable que si la L'evaluation d'impact environnemental (EIE) est legislation sur les paysages culturels prevoit une un mecanisme de collecte d'informations sur les prevention et une resolution des conflits. impacts environnementaux potentiels d'une Les systemes de gestion traditionnelle sont par activite proposee et d'utilisation de ces definition mis en reuvre par des institutions et informations. Elle permet la prise de decision des centres tradition nels de pouvoir. II existe un sur I'autorisation ou non de la poursuite de risque inherent de conflit entre les centres I'activite envisagee. L'EIE serait particulierement tradition nels de pouvoir et I'autorite et entre Ie utile en tant que mecanisme contribuant a la pouvoir derive de l'Etat-nation et I'autorite. On protection des paysages culturels. Elle devrait estime que la theorie du pluralisme juridique donner I'occasion aux decideurs d'etre informes offre un cadre dans lequel deux sources des impacts potentiels d'activites proposees sur d'autorite et de pouvoir ou davantage peuvent Ie paysage culturel et de prendre des mesures fonctionner en symbiose et de maniere pour en prevenir ou en limiter les impacts. La complementaire. II faudrait que la legislation sur legislation sur la protection des paysages les paysages culturels comprenne des culturels doit prevoir de faire figurer la mecanismes permettant de minimiser les planification aussi bien que I'EIE dans les lois risques de conflit entre les differents systemes relatives a la protection des paysages culturels. juridiques et de resoudre de tels conflits lorsqu'ils surviennent. Ces mecanismes comprendraient des (3) Participation communautaire regles definissant la hierarchie entre les ordres juridiques et delimitant les spheres de La protection des paysages culturels par Ie biais fonctionnement et de pouvoir. de systemes de gestion traditionnelle exige que la communaute participe a la prise de decision V. Etude d'une selection de lois concernant les paysages culturels et a la mise africaines en reuvre de ces decisions. Les systemes juridiques africains ne prevoient pas actuellement systematiquement de cadre La participation communautaire comprend deux pluraliste ; ils ont dans I'ensemble une elements: un droit d'acces I'information et un a conception monolithique. droit d'etre consulte lors de la prise de decision. Dans I'ensemble, les legislations sur la Les regimes juridiques conventionnels restreignent protection des paysages en Afrique sont generalement la disponibilite des informations essentiellement centrees sur Ie paysage et non aux communautes et au public en general. Cela sur la communaute et tentent de separer Ie a transforme les communautes en observatrices paysage de la communaute. On peut citer passives des evenements qui les entourent. notamment les exemples suivants : Pour faciliter la gestion communautaire des (i) L'Antiquities and Monuments Act of Kenya: paysages culturels, Ie droit d'acces aux informations cette loi confere I'autorite au ministre sur doit etre etendu aux communautes. une aire protegee et I'autorise a en interdire ou a en reduire I'acces ou I'amenagement II est egalement important qu'il existe un droit ou I'utilisation pour des activites agricoles statutaire permettant a la communaute d'etre ou autres susceptibles d'endommager un consultee et de participer aux decisions et aux monument. mesures qui affectent les paysages culturels. Ce (ii) L'Environment Conservation Act, loi n° 73 droit statutaire devrait etre consacre en tant que de 1989 d'Afrique du Sud: cette loi inclut locus standi par la communaute de I'endroit pour des concepts tels qu'un "environnement permetire d'entamer une procedure judiciaire en naturel protege", une "reserve naturelle ce qui concerne les decisions et les mesures speciale" et des "aires d'amenagement affectant les paysages culturels. limite".

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(iii) L'Uganda Wildlife Statute, loi n° 14 de modernes. Cette etude pretend que la theorie 1996 : cette loi prevoit des "aires protegees" du pluralisme juridique peut fournir cette et des "aires de conservation de la faune synergie. La legislation sur les paysages sauvage" et considere com me un delit culturels doit I'integrer dans ses lois; c'est la I'entree sans autorisation dans une aire de condition pour pouvoir parvenir a une durabilite faune sauvage protegee. des systemes de gestion traditionnelle.

(iv) Le Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Board Act: II faut cependant souligner qu'un cadre juridique cette loi prevoit la creation de parcs pluraliste ne peut assurer la reussite si I'on ne nationaux, de reserves botaniques et de dispose pas d'une strategie d'ensemble pour sanctuaires. Elle interdit toute activite dans favoriser et renforcer la viabilite de la ces zones sans autorisation. communaute tout entiere. Un paysage culturel (v) Le Tanzania Wildlife Conservation Act, loi depourvu d'une communaute viable ne saurait n° 12 de 1974: cette loi etablit des etre durable. "reserves naturelles" et des "zones naturelles controlees" et interdit les activites dans ces zones sans autorisation. Bibliographie

(vi) L'Ethiopian Proclamation n° 94 de 1994 Convention concernant la protection du vise a conserver, amenager et utiliser les patrimoine mondial culturel et naturel,UNESCO, forets. Elle exige des autorisations pour 1972. I'utilisation des forets. "Orientations devant guider la mise en oouvre de II faudrait reformer ces lois afin de mieux prevoir la Convention du patrimoine mondial", une participation communautaire a la gestion UNESCO, Comite intergouvernemental pour la des paysages culturels. protection du patrimoine mondial culturel et naturel. L'evaluation d'impact environnemental est cependant une condition exigee par les lois de Von Benda - Beckman et al , "Water Rights plusieurs pays africains, dont Ie Malawi, and Policy," in The Role of Law in Natural Maurice, les Seychelles, l'Afrique du Sud, Resources Management. Spiertz, 7 & Wiber, M. l'Egypte, la Gambie, Ie Ghana et l'Ouganda. G. eds, VUGA 1997. Toutefois, de nombreuses lois concernant I'EIE traitent essentiellement des impacts sur Cotran, E., Casebook on Kenya Customary I'environnement physique. II n'est pas accorde Law, University of Nairobi Press, 1987 suffisamment de consideration aux impacts a I'integrite culturelle des communautes vivant Ojwang, J.B., "Legal Transplantation: Rethinking dans Ie cadre des paysages culturels, ni aux the Role and Significance of Western Law in relations entre ces impacts et les problemes de Africa," in P. $ack & E. Michin (eds), Legal gestion qui se posent dans ces paysages. Pluralism, Australian National University, 1986.

VI. Remarques finales L'inscription de paysages culturels associatifs avec la possibilite d'utiliser des systemes de gestion traditionnelle pour leur protection represente une occasion a saisir et un defi a relever. L'occasion, c'est la possibilite de classer des paysages selon des termes auxquels les communautes peuvent s'identifier et par consequent avancer pour corriger Ie desequilibre des inscriptions. Le defi, c'est de concevoir des systemes juridiques qui puissent utiliser des formes traditionnelles et coutumieres de mecanismes de protection sans renoncer aux avantages des systemes juridiques d'Etat

-29- Cultural Landscapes in Africa

LEGAL ASPECTS OF CULTURAL LANDSCAPES PROTECTION IN AFRICA

ALBERT MUMMA

I. Background of reliance on the protective mechanisms provided by traditional management systems In 1972 Member States of the United Nations enhances the prospects for African cultural Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation landscapes meeting the listing criteria. (UNESCO) adopted the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Internally however, it will be necessary to find a Heritage. The aim of the Convention is to formula for harmonising traditional management provide for the protection of those aspects of the systems and state based management systems. world's cultural and natural heritage which are This is critical if the two systems are to operate considered to be "of outstanding universal in synergy rather than in antagonism. Grounding value. n The task of identifying properties deserving protective mechanisms on a legally pluralistic of protection falls to the World Heritage premise appears to offer the most promising Committee which was set up under the way forward. Convention. II. A theory of legal pluralism The principles which guide the Committee in identifying properties are set out in its In their article "Water Rights and Policy" (in Their Operational Guidelines. In 1992, the Committee Role of Law in Natural Resources Management., included in the Operational Guidelines for the Spiertz, J & Wiber M. G. eds VUGA 1997), Von first time the possibility of nominating, to the Benda-Beckman et al. argue that people's World Heritage List for protection, "cultural perceptions are seldom govemed by a monolithic, landscapes. n These are seen to represent the one dimensional normative framework. This is "combined works of nature and of man." They particularly so, in their view, in non- western often reflect specific techniques of sustainable societies where notions of customary rights play land use, considering the characteristics and an important role in most relationships and limits of the natural environment they are activities. Plural, and conflicting property rights established in, and a specific spiritual relation to are the order of the day. nature. Legal pluralism describes a situation which is The World Heritage Committee has stipulated characterised by a complex co-existence of criteria to be met for a landscape to be normative systems, in contrast to a unitary considered to be of outstanding universal value. normative framework. Thus, a legal pluralistic Among these is the requirement that the situation is one in which there is a multiplicity of landscape must have adequate legal and/or legal systems, all of which have a claim to legal contractual and/or traditional protection and validity. Examples of legal pluralistic situations management mechanisms to ensure its include the co-existence of state law, customary conservation. For African countries the possibility law, religious law and "local law".

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A pluralistic legal environment is simultaneously competing systems and depicted in negative interwoven and permeable. Often, it is antagonistic. terms. A legally pluralistic regime would Following one legal regime, for instance, state recognise these as positive, and foster, the role law, might mean contravening another, for of traditional management systems in the example, customary or local law. People move protection of cultural landscapes. from one kind of law to another with ease and frequency. IV. Components of a cultural landscapes protective regime Non-legal factors also play a role in pluralistic situations. These include considerations of A cultural landscape protective regime would power and unequal access to resources on have the following components, among others:- account of social stratification. An insight into (i) It would enshrine the concept of community local differences is crucial to understanding whether, by whom and with what strategies management of cultural landscapes. community management systems can be (ii) It would provide for plan-making and successfully implemented. environmental impact assessment.

III. The Legal Protection of Cultural (iii) It would provide for participation by the Landscapes community concerned and the public The legal protection of cultural landscapes in generally. accordance with the requirements for listing as a World Heritage site presents a challenge of (iv) It would provide mechanisms for conflict significant proportions to the legal system and to avoidance and resolution. law generally. This is because the protective regime must preserve and facilitate the (1) The Concept of Community Management dynamism of the interaction between nature and of Cultural Landscapes man that is manifested as cultural landscapes, Legislation on the protection of cultural in particular, associative landscapes: the law landscapes must grapple with the legal issues cannot, in the name of protecting the landscape, surrounding community management of cultural reify it as it would cease to be a living landscapes. The law has to deal with the following landscape, which is its essence. issues:

This paper argues that the concept of legal First, it must define the entity that constitutes the pluralism would be best suited to protecting community, or more preCisely the local cultural landscapes in terms of the requirements community. of the World Heritage Committee. The concept is premised on the idea that legal protection of Rarely are communities homogeneous, self­ cultural landscapes is best provided by a contained entities. In this instance the community protective system which incorporates the must be defined by reference to the relevant various normative systems that, in practice, cultural landscape: the community is the unit or operate in the African communities concerned, group that has the special relationship with the i.e., the state law regime and the cultural landscape that makes the cultural customary/traditional law regime. Both regimes landscape deserve protection and management. would be placed in a symbiotic and It is the entity whose livelihood is gained from complementary, rather than in an antagonistic use of the cultural landscape. Cultural relationship. landscapes law must facilitate the long term sustainability and integrity of the community by This position represents a fundamental ensuring that it does not disintegrate as a result departure from the conventional legal theory of economic, cultural, political or similar under which state law is viewed as being in a pressures. position of a unilateral, supreme and all encompassing system. State law is often in an antagonistic relationship with, and often seeks to annihilate traditional and other normative systems, which exist. These are often viewed as

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In some instances, cultural landscapes extend (2) Planning and Environmental Impact over national boundaries. The "community" would Assessment in these instances also extend beyond the The protection of cultural landscapes necessitates national borders, as the cultural landscape must taking into account the need to secure ~he be treated as one integral entity, regardless of sustainability of the landscape across a mYriad political or other divides. of activities, over a wide range of sectors and at all stages of decision making. Thus for Secondly, the legislation must define clearly the instance, day to day agricultural activities could community entity that has management destroy valuable biological diversity, which has authority over the landscape. In relation to been preserved by the cultural landscapes. local communities the typical management Indeed cultural landscapes often are great authority are the traditional rulers, such as reservoirs of biological diversity. Similarly, unrelated chiefs. Their mandate must be spelt out clearly decisions and activities of a diverse range of to avoid conflict with other sources of authority actors can cumulatively combine to damage a and power, such as Government appOinted cultural landscape. administrators. It will be necessary also for the law to spell out the hierarchy of authority, if st~te Plan making and environmental impact assessment authority is not to undermine traditional authority, are important mechanisms for preventing and/or leading to its disintegration. mitigating adverse impact on otherwise legitimate activities. Plan-making has two components. Thirdly, legislation must define ownership and First, it requires that broad planning be carri~d use rights over the cultural landscapes. out to define what activities will be undertaken In Typically, state law has vested in the. st~te the plan-period and spell out any likely adverse ownership of natural resources, such as wildlife, impact on the protection of cultural landscapes. and national treasures. This has been at the This is particularly critical in picking up and expense of local communities who traditionally dealing with cumulative impacts from a diverse had ownership and use rights over these range of small activities. Secondly, and additionally resources, thereby alienating the local a plan should be drawn up specifically on communities and removing their incentives to cultural landscapes protection. This would apply protect and manage the cultural landscape in a to all activities that have an impact on the sustainable way. Cultural landscapes law must country's cultural landscapes. vest ownership and use rights in the community, and give communities an incentive to protect the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a landscapes, and reverse the decline in their local mechanism for gathering information about the management systems. likely environmental impacts of a proposed activity and using that information in decision­ Fourth, cultural landscapes law must delimit the making about whether the activity sho~ld be jurisdiction of state law over cultural landscapes. permitted to proceed. EIA would be partl~ularly Simultaneously, the law must carve out a place useful as a mechanism for the protection of and a role for customary or traditional law and cufturallandscapes. It would provide an opportunity institutions in the management and protection of for decision-makers to be informed about the the cultural landscapes. The relationship between likely impacts of proposed activities on the state law and customary law has typically been cultural landscape and to take action to prevent one of antagonism and conflict, with state law or mitigate the impacts. Cultural landscapes designed to abolish and replace customary law. protection law must provide both for planning This has undermined the integrity of customary and for EIA as a part of the laws relating to the law and its ability to protect cultural landscapes. protection of cultural landscapes. Cultural landscapes law must reverse this trend and seek to create synergy and a (3) Community Participation complementary relationship between state law and customary law. The role of state law should The protection of cultural landscapes th~ough be confined to setting broad standards or traditional management systems necessitates benchmarks to be adhered to in the that the community participates in decision­ management of cultural landscapes. Day to day making in regard to the cultural landscapes and management should be reserved for customary in implementation of those decisions. law and its institutions.

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Community participation has two components: a On the whole the laws on landscapes protection right of access to information and a right to be in Africa focus primarily on the landscape and consulted in decision-making. not on the community, and seeks to separate the landscape from the community. Examples Conventional legal regimes usually restrict the include: availability of information to communities and the public generally. This has tumed communities (i) The Antiquities and Monuments Act of into passive observers of events around them. Kenya - This statute gives the Minister To facilitate community management of cultural power in respect of a protected area to landscapes the right of access to information prohibit or restrict access or development or about the cultural landscapes must be extended use for agricultural or other activity which is to communities. liable to damage a monument. (ii) The Environment Conservation Act, Act No. Equally important is a statutory right in the 73 of 1989 of South Africa - This includes community to be consulted about, and participate in concepts such as "a protected natural decisions and actions effecting the cultural environment, "a special nature reserve," landscapes. This statutory right would enshrine and "limited development areas. " locus standi in the community to take court action in relation to decisions and actions (iii) The Uganda Wildlife Statute, Act No. 14 of affecting cultural landscapes. 1996 - This provides for "protected areas" and "wildlife conservation areas, " and (4) Conflict Avoidance and Conflict Resolution makes it an offence to enter into a wildlife protected area without authority. The use of traditional management systems to protect cultural landscapes can only be (iv) The Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Board sustainable if cultural landscapes law makes Act: This establishes national parks, provision for conflict avoidance and conflict botanical reserves and sanctuaries. It resolution. prohibits any activities in these areas without a permit. Traditional management systems are by (v) The Tanzania Wildlife Conservation Act, Act definition implemented by traditional institutions No. 12 of 1974 - This establishes "game and centres of power. There is an inherent risk reserves" and "game controlled areas," and of conflict between traditional centres of power prohibits activities in these areas unless and authority and nation-state derived power there is a permit. and authority. It has been argued that the (vi) The Ethiopian Proclamation No. 94 of 1994 theory of legal pluralism offers a framework is aimed at the conservation, development within which two or more sources of au~h0dty and utilisation of forests. It requires permits and power can function in a symbiotic and for the utilisation of forests. complimentary fashion. The law on cultural landscapes would need to include mechanisms These laws would need to be reformed with a for minimising chances of conflict between the view to making better proviSion for community various systems of law and resolving such participation in the management of the cultural conflicts as they arise. Such mechanisms landscapes. include rules defining hierarchy between legal orders and delimiting spheres of operation and Environmental impact assessment however is power. already a requirement under the laws of several African countries. These include Malawi, v. A Review of Selected African Laws Mauritius, Seychelles, South Africa, Egypt, African legal systems at present do not make Gambia, Ghana and Uganda. However, many provision, in any systematic way, for a pluralistic EIA laws focus on impacts on the phYSical framework. They are on the whole monolithic in environment. There is not enough consideration outlook. being given to impacts on the cultural integrity of the communities living on the cultural landscapes, and the links between these impacts and the management problems facing the landscapes.

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VI. Concluding Remarks The inclusion of associative cultural landscapes with room to use traditional management systems to protect them presents an opportunity and challenge. The opportunity is to be able to list landscapes in terms with which communities can identify and thereby move towards addressing the imbalance in listings. The challenge is to design legal systems that can use traditional and customary forms of protective mechanisms without foregoing the benefits of modern state legal systems. This paper has argued that the theory of legal pluralism can provide that synergy. Cultural landscapes law needs to in corporate it in statutes. If that is done sustainability of traditional management systems can be achieved.

It must be stressed however that a legally pluralistic legal framework would not succeed in the absence of a comprehensive strategy for fostering and reinforcing the viability of the community as a whole. A cultural landscape devoid of a viable community would not be sustainable.

Bibliography Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage,UNESCO, 1972.

"Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention", UNESCO, Intergovernmental Committee for the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage.

Von Benda - Beckman et al , "Water Rights and Policy," in The Role of Law in Natural Resources Management. Spiertz, 7 & Wiber, M. G. eds, VUGA 1997.

Cotran, E., Casebook on Kenya Customary Law, University of Nairobi Press, 1987.

Ojwang, J.B., "Legal Transplantation: Rethinking the Role and Significance of Western Law in Africa," in P. Sack & E. Michin (eds), Legal Pluralism, Australian National University, 1986.

-34- D. Munjeri - Cultural landscapes in Africa, an overview

CULTURAL LANDSCAPES IN AFRICA AN OVERVIEW

DAWSON MUNJERI

REVUE DES PAYSAGES spirituelles, sociales et esthetiques. Leur CULTURELS EN AFRIQUE implication dans les activites de conservation est donc norma Ie et necessaire. Resume Cet expose a presente des approches specifiquement • La production de ressources, a partir de I'exploitation patrimoniale des paysages, ne doit africaines : pas se faire aux depens des habitants. Les actions • L'importance de la relation symbiotique entre de developpement et de conservation doivent etre ecosysteme et ethnosysteme qui particularise un organisees, dans Ie cadre d'un plan directeur. Les grand nombre des questions subsequentes a objectifs de celui-ci seront de renforcer la I'inscription des paysages sur la Liste du conservation et la gestion des patrimoines, de patrimoine mondial, comme Ie mode de propriete developper les revenus du tourisme local et ou les limites des sites. Le probleme de la international, de telle fa~on que ces revenus delimitation des paysages est souvent Ie resultat profitent aux communautes locales et, egalement, d'une histoire longue et complexe. II est souvent aux acteurs nationaux de la conservation et du preferable de considerer les limites d'un site, plus dE'weloppement. comme une combinaison d'elements stables et f1exibles, formant un contour approximatif, que • La planification des activites de gestion devrait comme une delimitation lineaire et exacte. Le droit permettre de conserver un equilibre correct entre de propriete des terres et des espaces est les exigences de conservation des sites et celles particulier a l'Afrique. II est donc pertinent que les de developpement des personnes qui ont imprime Orientations aient inclus la prise en compte d'une leur trace dans la nature. A cet eftet, les protection traditionnelle pouvant se substituer a connaissances et les savoir-faire des communautes celie des protections modernes (prise en compte devraient etre preserves. Les equipes en charge d'une protection traditionnelle pouvant etre legales de la gestion de tels sites devraient avoir re~u une ou reglementaires). Leur prise en compte est formation interdisciplinaire (en raison de la necessaire pour conserver I'esprit des relations multiplicite des questions a considerer) et qui se sont etablies, souvent depuis des specifique (en raison du caractere original de millen aires, entre les hommes et leur chaque situation). Le plan de gestion doit traduire environnement. un delicat equilibre entre les interets divergents des difterentes parties pre nantes concernees. • Les communautes locales responsables de la mise en place de ces paysages en sont un • L'exigence d'authenticite et d'integrite a laquelle element essentiel qui a prouve sa capacite a en sont soumis les paysages culturels convient tirer, de fa~on durable, non seulement des parfaitement a la situation africaine ou les aspects revenus mais egalement des satisfactions naturels et culturels agissent en synergie.

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The eyes of the heathen tribe are holden In the twentieth century, the colonial settlers They see no beauty or variety in earth or sky began to believe that the hills must be The book of nature is shut up and sealed "preserved rather than used; the rocks should There is no music in the moaning of the wind be protected but deprived of their voices" (the Nor loveliness in the golden-tinted sunsets voice of Mwali must be silenced) (Ranger: Nature's messengers implore only fear and 1999). Colonial sciences which had been distrust (Carnegie: 1894). directed to the exploitation of Matopos increasingly contributed to conservation Introduction ideology. It was geology which put erosion on the Matopan intellectual agenda; it challenged The above is a quote from one missionary, Mwali. The "African destruction of woods" was David Carnegie who, upon treading on one of highlighted and a blind eye turned to the exotic Africa's most kaleidoscopic landscapes, the plantations introduced by the new arrivals. Matopos (South Western Zimbabwe now on Ignorant of the sacred groves that were tentative list of Zimbabwe for the World Heritage protected by Mwali, James Sim of the Forestry List) believed in the concept of landscapes, but Commission wrote, "In all countries inhabited by considered that the appreciation of landscapes uncivilised tribes, destruction of timber is a was lacking in Africa. Underlying the responses characteristic feature. No value is placed on of both white travellers and missionaries was the trees or timber, except such as contributes to belief that the African inhabitants of the Matopos their hand to mouth existence" (Sim: 1902) were making no use of the hills. No roads, no parks, no cathedrals, no castles, no command of This was justification to alienate the land and nature. It worried the nineteenth century Europeans remove the traditional Africans. Finally, in 1962, that Africans seemed to have left no mark on the driven by 'carrying capacity' concerns which Matopos landscape. Because of this, it was showed that "the area could not sustain the assumed Africans could not possess any population", the traditional owners were made to objective view of the Matopos as a landscape. In move elsewhere in 1962. The voice from the so doing, the new Caucasian arrivals chose to Rocks could not be silenced and Mwali ignore the imprint of the pre-historic San continued to listen. At last, it is now recognised (Bushmen). Thomas Baines, the famous painter! that without its people Matopos cannot survive. artist passed through the Matopos but did not paint the Matopos. In contrast generations of Such is the nature and character of African the San, going back 150,000 years had painted cultural landscapes. them and featured their perceptions of the landscape. There is no attempt in this paper to define cultural landscapes because it is assumed other th If later day chiefs (14th to 19 century) did not papers will address that fundamental point. build towns or towers in the Matopos, they Notwithstanding, certain components stand out certainly made use of the rocks and caves for clearly as deserving attention. Notable among their memorials. Posthumous eulogies seldom these are issues of: save the soul but living testimonies were in fact th there in the 19 century. The Nyubi people Legislation; boundaries; interaction ! interface; were in the Matopos hills tending their crops and ownership; authenticity ! integrity; political, socio­ looking after their fine herds of cattle that lived economic cultural considerations and management. on spring water and sweet grasses. The new The paper will seek to show that while there are arrivals must have seen this but knew nothing of many global similarities, as summed up in the the history of the cattle owners and cultivators : literature available, Africa presents some none so blind as those who will not see: not see challenges that can be said to be singular to it. It the millennia of occupation, centuries of is those distinct components that the paper will cultivation, paintings in the caves, graves, seek to address, if only to demonstrate that places of pilgrimage and sacred groves. Indeed Africa too can cry. Beyond that, where Matopos was the sanctum sanctorum of the applicable, the paper suggests points of great deity, Mwali whose influence went beyond discussion leading to solutions pertinent to the realms of present Zimbabwe stretching into African issues. This introductory section has Eastern Botswana and Northern South Africa. already provided pointers in that direction.

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The Real African Cultural landscape with the distribution claimed in traditions. There Scenario is as in the case of the Duma, increased discordance when attempts are made to Succinctly and aptly put by my colleague Michel reconcile the distribution pattern of settlements Ie Berre and His Excellency, Lambert Messan, with the Benin dynastic foundation claims. Africa's scenario is one where there is a Evidence available would suggest that "the symbiotic relationship between the ecosystems secret of Benin's early strength, expressed in its and ethnosystems. This is so because more extensive iya did not originate with the present than anywhere else, the cultures of Africa have dynasty" (Darling: 1984). Suffice to say that the evolved out of nature and still draw their present dynasty will not tolerate the "Darling authority from it (Berre & Messan: 1996). In the nonsense". Similar cases abound elsewhere and context of Africa, everything relating to the at times become inter-territorial. The Nigeria/ interaction of natural resources and people is Cameroon potential nomination of Oban Hills/ indeed summarised in that statement. This of Korup area is, but one example. necessity has implications on the related issues of boundaries, ownership, authenticity / integrity The importance of this is mUlti-dimensional: as well as political, economic and socio­ economic considerations and the management It is a precondition that "sensible, logical and of cultural landscapes. identifiable boundaries in terms of nature, people and management be in place, to ensure The scene was near the World Heritage site of the integrity of the cultural landscape as well as Great Zimbabwe and the year was 1985. A ensuring that intrusive development does not decision had been made to remove 'squatter take place in a way that wl1f impact negatively on communities' from this World Heritage site in the landscapes". The two cases illustrate that it order to create a 'buffer zone' that would help may not always be easy to come to a consensus protect the site. At one such meeting held to as to what those boundaries constitute, even inform the local community, one elder took to though they may meet the Operational Guidelines the floor to respond to the Provincial Governor's for the Implementation of the World Heritage message. The Governor had told the gathering Convention, in terms of the intelligibility and geo­ that the site and area around it was Government cultural region contexts. property and that the area beyond it belonged to the Duma clan, that is the people at the Maps in themselves as Darling appropriately gathering. The elder retorted, "Duma harina notes, can be very subjective: maps according muganhu". This is a Shona rendering of "The to which version? The role that oral evidence Duma have no boundaries". plays in coming up with such boundaries is

th crucial. There are indeed grounds for subscribing to The legacy of the Duma goes back to the 16 the view that the best way to look at the century when the Duma confederacy (Mtetwa: boundaries is to see them as a combination of 1976) dominated the Southern plateau of stable and flexible elements providing an Zimbabwe. Their grip on power disintegrated approximate outline of the long standing with first, the invasions of the other tribes from territorial bloc rather than an exact delineation. the north-east (in 18th century) and then, with the arrival of colonial settlers in nineteenth This degree of 'permitted flexibility' carries a century. Three centuries later, the elder was still possible answer. asserting that the Duma confederacy existed and no one could reverse the process which oral An adjunct to the issue of boundaries is that of traditions passed on through successive Ownership which implicitly carries with it the generations. issue of Legislation.

A similar situation can be found thousands of In terms of the Operational Guidelines cultural kilometres away in Nigeria: this time at the landscapes ought to have in existence protective potential World Heritage site of Benin city. Here legislation at national, provincial or municipal oral traditions are again at play. The "gargantuan level or well established contractual or traditional task" as Patrick Darling puts it is the result of the protection. The last aspect, "traditional protection," building of the iya (earthworkslwalls). The overall needs to be underscored because in Africa it is distribution pattern of the iya is not co-extensive

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very pertinent and appropriate. To the extent If only to emphasise the effectiveness of this that the World Heritage Committee has "spiritual legislation", Baakye Amoako - Atta accepted this aspect and considers it very presents the case for Tali sacred grove which enlightened and important. In a landmark covers 25 square kilometres of dense forest in decision taken after serious debate, the 2ih the middle of the savanna. Through a complex session of the World Heritage Committee of traditional regulatory mechanisms which agreed in December 1998 to accept the involves five village communities that offer nomination of East Rennell, Solomon Island, custodial leadership over the grove of Jaagbo god, the landscape has been preserved. 'The and supported the customary management grove which is so dense as to be a really scheme. In this test case, it is worth underlying frightening sight, attests to the ecological the nomination dossier's assertion that, "At East complexity of the Tali grove which is the last Rennel/, the customaryltraditional practices drop of thick forest in a vast plain of degraded have provided protection in the past and these savanna." (Amoaka: 1995). Need one say more practices will be recognised and strengthened' except to perhaps listen to his parting shot, (Wingham: 1997). It is suggested here that this "these groves are evidence that traditional legislation is adequate and that it opens the best values, human settlement and initiative in avenues for cultural African landscapes. This conservation of natural landscape through assertion is not dogmatic; ipso facto. The fact is religious beliefs can resist what is almost that these traditional practices and customs are irreversible destruction and degradation of the underwritten by various sets of checks and whole bio-geographical Unit in West Africa. " balances whose base has been enunciated in the Michel Le Berre statement that African If we underpin these traditional structures, civilisations have always been closely attached cultural landscapes have an underwritten future; to their natural surroundings from which they if we undermine this socio-cultural fabric, then the whole disintegrates into a sum of parts. This draw materials and inspirations. The ultimatum at least is the achilles heel of the equation. That to the equation is again well enunciated by Le is the message from the cultural landscape of Berre and Messan. African cosmology ties together the rice terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras, a the supreme deities, ancestors and the natural World Heritage site. As in the African cases, resources: forests, springs and other saved elaborate rituals, traditional structures and the places which form a network that enables people "great inborn pride in being part of the mountain to understand the landscape around them and culture" and the unbroken tradition of two give it a special meaning and purpose and to thousand years of agricultural achievement become part of it. sustained the site and its inhabitants.

The spiritual interpretation of relationships The fragile nature of that seemingly perfect concerning the natural heritage has enabled arrangement has now been exposed as the conservation of natural areas because of their young are migrating to the cities leaving the old 'holy' nature (Le Berre & Messan). This in the hamlets. This brings to fore the other arrangement works because the living are part element of the cultural landscape balance sheet: The problem of assuring the maintenance of the of the spirits of the ancestors and the dead site(s) is not only environmental but is also continue to exist as spirits co-existing with economic and cultural (Villalon: 1995). humanity (Beach: 1994). Nowhere is this and other fundamental points made so clear than in Socio-economic fundamental issues ultimately the case of the sacred groves of Ghana. Here it determine the sustainability of cultural landscapes. is recorded that 80 per cent of the sacred groves The evaluation mission* to Ekhor was privileged (in themselves cultural landscapes) serve as the to hear the following statement from the Onogie watershed or catchment areas that protect of Ekhor, "My people are very happy about the drinking sources and provide essential herbs of mission: What brings you here will bring the rest medicinal importance. Through a system of of Africa here. We are now pleased that taboos and customs, encroachment or unwarranted development and employment are coming at exploitation is limited. The unlimited powers last". vested in the custodians equally protect the one thousand five hundred groves in Ghana. * Evaluation missions refer to missions undertaken by the author on behalf of ICOMOS and the World Heritage Centre.

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Many miles away and four days later the Socio -economic inducements can influence in a Mission was at Sukur where they were received positive manner how people manage the cultural by the district head who had this to say, "we are landscape they own and occupy. In a case study pleased if UNESCO can help in maintaining and of Cross river project in Nigeria, Lucas protecting the place. Sukur kingdom was famous demonstrates how the World Wildlife Fund for its iron bars but these are no more and project had led to the sustainable use of the hence the decline of Sukur". 400 000 hectares of land in South East Nigeria: the outcome benefited 100 villagers who were In his welcoming address Gaziri Nakuru the Hidi included in the support zone. The experiment (spiritual head) was even more forthright, "This showed beyond doubt that "conservation area is neglected but now we expect tourists will policies cannot be implemented if they conflict come, the roads will be improved and our with economic needs of villages" (Lucas). children will be employed". During a field visit to Udo the Evaluation mission was informed by the lyase of Udo whose land is Further south in South Africa, I dare say among adjacent to Ikoma Wildlife Sanctuary, that their an 'elite' audience the message was repeated. interest in having a World Heritage List status At a meeting held to explain the nomination of for their area was so that "oppressed people will Swartkrans and Sterkfontein and Kroomdraai, be liberated one day". How? Why? The lyase's the civic leaders, the farming community and the answer is revealing, "I will be happy if this place hoi poloi were in unison as to what they wanted. is transformed into a national park and saved A World Heritage site that would bring-in tourists from agriculture", because that way his people "This area is in the back woods and requires would derive more economic benefits. Indeed, it injection of capital for development" said their would appear there are few or no problems in spokesman. At the end of it all the debate having cultural landscapes if direct benefits are centred on whether the enlisting of the site would envisaged. This is how in many cases natural prejudice the chances of having a casino. resources have been preserved. In Zimbabwe, the Communal Areas Management Programme In essence, economic factors tend to dominate (CAMPFIRE) has entrusted local communities the debate on the desirability of cultural with the wildlife that is in the buffer zones landscapes. Regrettably in a number of instances between residential areas and national parks. these factors are ways of appealing to local This approach has reduced the problem of communities to enlist their support for a World poaching as local communities can market their Heritage status of a site. quota and realise capital which is used for locally - based development projects. This move There is indeed nothing unethical in linking away from animal welfarism to people welfarism cultural landscapes with possible positive has yielded positive results. Just as animal economic outcomes. In fact, it is undesirable to welfarism is fatal protectionism because it pits adopt a benign neglect approach when such wildlife against people and increases wildlife / opportunities do present themselves. In fact human conflict, so too does sites welfarism pit according to the Operational Guidelines, sustainable the cultural landscape against people and increase land use implicitly suggests direct socio­ the cultural landscape / people conflict. Why economic benefits for the generators of this then is this route not readily adopted by those in heritage. It is partly through this approach that positions of authority? The answer is simple: it commitment to the preservation of the cultural is easier said than done. landscapes can be secured. Because these cultural landscapes represent investment in this Firstly, cultural landscapes require an overseer, form of heritage, it is only fair and proper that the State Party which in turn has a specific residents expect to receive dividends. designated Authority with the necessary expertise to develop policies and guide and A fundamental point is that resident populations advise on the implementation of cultural are the key factor; people are part of the landscape programmes. This requires skilled landscape and their activities demonstrate that and experienced professional and technical staff durable systems of use can provide economic as well a sound infrastructure and calls into livelihood as well as being socially, spiritually question the availability of resources required to and aesthetically satisfying. implement the cultural landscape programmes i.e. human, technical, financial an material. In

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Africa, nine times out of ten, resources are either a realisation that tourism, and in particular, grossly inadequate or non-existent. The first cultural tourism is a fast growing industry. point of departure is therefore capacity building Unlike other forms of tourism, in cultural tourism, for the designated Authority. The Authority in the tourism aspect should be subservient to the turn looks to the cultural landscape Programmes resource. The goal should be to strike the right to finance their own programmes and to build balance between preservation / conservation of capacity. There is then potential conflict the heritage and at the same time making the between the local communities who expect their commodity accessible. In essence, conservation rightful share and the designated Authority who of the cultural heritage preceeds tourism. equally expect a share. National Museums and 'Conservation prepares for tourism,' is the Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ) produced a adage. In the absence of the capacity to Masterplan for resource conservation and conserve, the tourism aspect automatically falls development in 1992 (UNESCO/UNDP: 1993) away. The MasterPlan had four main objectives: In terms of the product, this is dependant on a • Strengthening the ability of NMMZ to conserve number of variables but in the forefront are the archaeological, historical cultural heritage; views of the resident populations who should be involved in the whole exercise from conceptualisation • Strengthening the management of the to fruition. The need to avoid rendering their heritage; heritage into a commodity, and de-humanisation • Developing specific sites as well marketed of the population in the product area should be foci for both domestic and foreign tourism; emphasised. The guiding principle and a constant reference point is that the landscape • Linking the development of specific sites to use must allow traditional ways of life and the generation of income for both NMMZ and traditional values to endure and evolve in communities residing near such sites. harmony with the environment.

Practice has shown that the last component is Living sites require special attention. During the most difficult to bring about given that the evaluation mission to the sacred grave of capacity building needed for the first two Sungbo (reputed to have been the founder of the objectives requires substantial funding. How can iya Sungbo Eredo) it was noted that a tourism NMMZ explain to its partners that they need to development venture had been attempted at the wait a bit longer before results become main entrance of the sanctum sanctorum. The apparent. venture never succeeded because it attacked the very soul of the local inhabitants. Projects In the case of many of cultural heritage sites like casinos are likely to have two effects: killing submitted to the World Heritage Centre on the spirit of the place or destroying the cultural Tentative lists, the problems seem worse than landscape altogether. those of NMMZ. The bottom line of it all is a good management Secondly, perceptions of States Parties together ethos and programmes based on well thought with their designated Authority converge with out management plans. The success of the those of local communities. They however converge Cultural Triangle heritage sites of Sri Lanka is for the wrong reason, namely by focusing on due to good management plans. While the Cultural Tourism. Cultural values and tourism failure of such sites as Omo Valley in Ethiopia often do not go well together In the words of and Olduvai in Tanzania and Khami in Graham Brooks, 'Can retailing and food mix in a Zimbabwe to attract tourists cannot be solely be mosque?' attributable to inadequate management and planning, the absence of qualitative plans Notwithstanding the positive remarks made in inevitably contribute somewhat to the situation. the preceding pages with respect to the need to For example, marketing plans are a sine qua generate revenue, if that becomes an end in non for success but almost all designated itself the results are bound to be catastrophic in Authorities shy away from them because they terms of both expectations and the well being of are not part of 'core business'. the culturallandscapes.The point of departure is

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Top of ICOMOS seven principles on cultural objective, it is essential to their successful tourism are: Comprehensive tourist development establishment to work co-operatively with them. and marketing plans. Without such plans there It is they who have helped shape the character can be no substantive yields (ICOMOS: 1994). of landscape so their cooperation is quintessential to maintaining the harmonious interaction that Management epitomises the landscape. The challenge is to blend a national perspective with local and Alarming but true, is the fact that statistics do regional interest and political administrative indicate that the process of enlistment on the structures" . World Heritage List is inversely proportional to the enlistment on the Danger List by a ratio of It is a challenge indeed if practical cases are to one to five. Africa's share on the World Heritage be considered and here there is only room for list is very insignificant but her share on the two examples, that of the SterkfonteinlSwartkransl Danger List is significantly high. Bya process of Kroomdraai site and that of the plateau of elimination by substitution, based on the present Northern Zimbabwe. trends, there should come a time when all existing African sites on the World Heritage List The proposed Sterkfontein World Heritage site will have been eliminated. stretches 25 000 hectares and has a buffer zone of 28 000 hectares. It has a plethora of The reasons are largely to do with management stakeholders resulting in ten management of sites or better still, the absence of systems and styles. Interests range from those management guidelines and plans. With respect of the serious academics who are world­ to cultural landscapes the issue of management renowned scientists right up to the small pig and management plans is at the core. The farmer whose sties abut to the Swartkrans reasons are evident from the implications of the palaeo-anthropological site; from the casino previous pages. Maintaining the correct balance licence holder with interests in casino development between the requirements of the sites and of the to the most conservative conservationist who people who have placed their stamp on nature to will not have his property included on the world produce the biologically productive and aesthetically heritage list unless the casino proposal is killed pleasing landscapes is a delicate 'balancing act', outright; from the multi-millionaire rancher who calling for skills and expertise and experience flies in state of the art private jet to the poorest that, with due respect, is seldom found in our garbage collector who seeks to derive genre. Many of us in our heritage management employment from Swartkrans. The list is endless positions were never recruited on the basis of but what is finite is that at the end of the day an those qualities. We were either archaeologists, organ and a management plan that moulds botanists, historians, zoologists, anthropologists these diverse interests must be produced for the etc. but never as managers. Certainly it was good of the cultural landscape and in the never our vocation to put people as part of the process, for all the stakeholders. How? The landscape because what we always put to the South Africans seem to have an answer from fore is the "object", "artefact", "archaeology", which we can all learn. We await that rescue "specimen". These had to be preserved at all package. cost, even as already shown, by removing people from the environs of Great Zimbabwe, Case two relates to the area of northern Matopos etc. The concept of buffer is to exclude Zimbabwe which was one time the headquarters the 'them' from 'us' to protect 'it' (the cultural of the Monomotapa empire between 16th and landscape, the cultural or natural site etc.) That 18th century, evidence of which is a cultural is the cornerstone of our practices. Regrettably landscape that is rich in architectural, while it has worked somewhat in other fields, archaeological remains as well as hitherto an when it comes to cultural landscapes that unspoiled fauna and flora. As in the case of the approach is doomed to fail. Just as the vox dei Sterkfontein cluster there are a variety of cannot be silenced in the sacred groves so too stakeholders including gold panners, small scale can the vox populi not be silenced in the farmers and farmers who have been resettled management issues relating to cultural landscapes. from elsewhere - a post 1980 development. In Lucas is more to the point when he says, the middle Mazoe area, this has resulted in two "Because landscapes are inclusive of resident major resettlement schemes, one near Mt. populations whose welfare is an important Darwin and the other adjacent to the Mufurudzi

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Safari area. The attitudes and behaviour of these sites. Where do cultural landscapes fit in given stakeholders towards the cultural landscape that they are neither cultural per se nor natural vary. per se? Professor Leon Pressouyre poses the question: should mixed properties be associated Those indigenous to the area respect the with cultural landscapes and to what extent? landscape because of a system of taboos and (Pressouyre: 1996). It is clear that the current customs that they revere. Invariably damage to debate on the desirability of marrying the area is done by those who have neither the authenticity to integrity may be the only way out knowledge of the traditions of the area nor of its for cultural landscapes. The author aired these cultural significance. views at the Experts meeting on the Global Strategy on national and cultural heritage held in Most villagers from the resettlement villages, Amsterdam in 1998. These are summarised in having been uprooted from their traditional lands a paper, "Integrity and or authenticity an issue of far away, have turned to the religious sect of the Apostolic Faith. This gives them a spiritual universal values: the case for Africa". Calling worldview about their immediate environment for a new definition of Authenticity participants which is biblical rather than traditional in outlook. who took part in the ICOMOS Regional meeting The latter, view the hills as residences of held on 14 October 1995 resolved that: ancestors; the "apostles" view ancestral veneration as demonic and thus carry out The hard facts scientific approach of the sacrilege on the sites. Damage has been caused Western Society needed to be tampered with when these "apostles" use the hills and sacred the abstract and metaphysical notions of African caves as retreat or for faith healing venues. traditions. For Africa, sometimes the spirit of the Two sites on Chenguruve and Chomagora have site took precedence over substance ... The been destroyed by bonfires lit in the middle of emphasis on the analytical rigour of categorisation, the enclosures. The standing dry stone walls division and qualification had to be matched by th from the 15 century are source for stones that synthetic interpretative modes of integration and are used as benches or chairs. association which African traditions and cultures tend to favour. This tallies with the pronouncement The gold miner spends most time on Mazowe from Nara. and Ruya river beds regardless of what happens to the environment (Pikirayi: 1968). With respect to integrity, the African perspective How on earth can such divergent interests be lies in the inseparability of the cultural and made to converge in a management plan. Yet it natural environment. That being so, the nature­ is precisely for those reasons that a plan is the come-culture demarcation is hard to apply only solution to the predicament. because in Africa the natural heritage is the very The need for a people-based and people­ basis of the cultural heritage. Thus the "division derived management plan seen as a between a natural and cultural heritage will seem 'springboard rather than a straight jacket' bogus" (Le Berre and Messan). In essence as strategy is central to the sustainability of cultural far as Africa is concerned, no prima facie case landscape. exists to separate authenticity and integrity Again, regrettably, few such plans are in place, because they are but two sides of the same because of lack of capacity and the cost coin. involved. That being so, the call of the First Global Africa looks to UNESCO, the World Heritage Strategy meeting held in Harare in October Centre and other organisations like the World 1995, subsequently endorsed by the second and Monuments Fund to assist in this regard. fourth meetings held in Addis Ababa in July 1996 Without such plans, dismal failure is assured. and in Porto Novo, Benin in September 1998 represents the African position:

Authenticity I Integrity of Cultural 'J!\ sine qua non for the survival of the African Landscapes Heritage landscape and its cultural and natural heritage is As the position stands, in terms of the the realisation and acceptance of the fact that Operational Guidelines, authenticity relates to there is a symbiotic relationship between the cultural sites and integrity relates to natural ethnosystem and the ecosystem".

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Conclusion Le Berre, M. and Messan, L. From nature to The importance of the above statement is that the spirits in African heritage. In ed Munjeri D. the cultural landscape and its sustenance is Ndoro W. et al. African Cultural Heritage and the invariably linked to its spiritual underwriters. If World Heritage Convention. First Global that is so (and indeed it is), by a process of Strategy meeting Harare 11 - 13 October 1995 elimination by substitution, it follows that effective UNESCO, WHC, NMMZ, Harare 1996: 5. management of cultural resources should of Mtetwa, R. G. The Duma Confederacy D. Phil. necessity involve these societies. Through that thesis, University of Zimbabwe. Harare 1976. involvement, in all aspects, the local communities will provide the spiritual leadership Darling, P. J. Archaeology and History in and we will all share the by-product which is the Southern Nigeria Part I and II. BAR resultant material benefits. While our counterparts in International series 215 (i) (ii) Oxford 1984. natural heritage begin by surveying and studying the natural landscape and its biodiversity, a sine Nomination of East Rennel, Solomon Island. qua non for our policies is a survey and Prepared by Elspeth Wingham. Ministry of understanding of the people and the cultural Culture, Tourism and Aviation. Honiara. June landscape. This is best described by Michael 1997: 5. Dower who sees it as reflecting a characteristic long-established relationship between human Le Berre & Messan, From nature to the spirits activity and the land. It should offer a wide coup in African heritages In ed. Munjeri : 69. d'oeil wider than a cultural or historic site. Beach D. N. The Shona and their neighbours. Implicit in this is the fact that just as we value Blackwell Publishers. Oxford 1994: 145. the rich variety of ecosystems and species in the natural world, so we gain from the rich variety of Amoaka - Atta, B. Sacred groves in Ghana. In. human culture as expressed in that cultural ed. Bernd von Droste, Harold Plachter, Mecthild landscape. In such a world, people value what Rossler. Cultural landscapes of universal value. is local, special and familiar. On this they can Gustav Fischer Verlag. New York. 1995: 81-95. base their immediate and communal pride, self expression and hence their willingness to tackle Augusto F. Villalon. The cultural landscape of their own communal problems and sustain their the rice terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras. communal well being (Dower: 1993). That should In. ed. Von Droste, Plachter, Rossler. 1995 : 58. be the anchor of all programmes that involve Lucas, Landscapes: a guide: 103. community partiCipation. Put differently and aptly it means we should strive to make the cultural UNESCO/UNDP Master-plan for resource landscape into a periscope by which to observe conservation and development: Report prepared the expectations of citizens, their spontaneous for the Government of Zimbabwe. Project ZIM knowledge (scientific or otherwise), their ways of 88/028. FMRlCCT/CH/93/205. thinking and the values of their reference models. It is indeed a new role that we are ICOMOS, Tourism at World Heritage Cultural playing but we should devise the proper rules of Sites : the site manager's handbook. Central the game. These rules begin with identifying and Cultural Fund. Colombo 1994 : 2. knowing the people and their cultures. Pikirayi, I. The threatened landscape. In ed. Chiwome and Gambahaya, Z. Mond Books. Harare. 1968: 85-92. References Pressouyre, L. The World Heritage' Convention: D. Carnegie, Among the Matabele. Religious twenty years later. UNESCO Publishing. Paris. Tract Society, London. 1894 : 43. 1996: 28 - 29. Ranger, T. The voices from the Rocks; nature, Dower, M. Cultural landscape - historic landscape. culture and history in Matopos Hills of Proceedings of the Monument Protection Zimbabwe. James Currey, London 1999 :5. International Scientific Conference 7 - 11 June James Sim, Report on Forestry in Southern 1993. Keszthely 1993 : 21 - 24. Rhodesia. 1902 GF 2/1/2.

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LA GENESE DES PAYSAGES CULTURELS AFRICAINS

MICHEL LE BERRE

GENESIS OF AFRICAN Pastoral landscapes, in the arid and semi-arid CULTURAL LANDSCAPES zone, are an important characteristic, with distinctive elements such as the pastoral wells Summary and cattle enclosures. Itineraries and Michel Le Berre in his presentation on the ~xchange routes constitute a category of "Genesis of African cultural Landscapes" linear landscapes of diverse usage recapitulated the major stages of the (commerce, religion, culture), particularly establishment of African landscapes and important in Africa. The examples of the Salt outlined the future challenges of the 21 st and Slave Routes are illustrative of the century for their conservation. importance and diversity of this category. Finally, the intensive agricultural landscapes, terraced and with original irrigation systems, Africa is the continent where the human translate the efforts of survival under difficult species differentiated itself. It is thus where environmental conditions. The urbanised the most ancient cultural landscapes can be landscapes are multiplying, around the cities, found. These are the original cultural with a specific entanglement of rural practices landscapes, particularly numerous in Africa, and intermediary forms of sedentary habitat. with the sites of the Omo (Ethiopia), Turkana (Kenya), Olduvai (Tanzania), Sterkfontein At the dawn of the 21 st century, these different (South Africa), Koro-Toro (Chad), etc. The categories of landscapes are expected to privileged use of certain trees, such as the evolve rapidly under the double action of baobabs, is also apparent in certain managed increased demography and economic landscapes even though they appear natural. development. It is important therefore that Africa is rich in fossil cultural landscapes as during this meeting the means for the numerous prehistoric sites bear witness. conservation of the most representative Associative landscapes are also numerous. elements of the African landscape be They are amongst the living landscapes, and envisaged, without hindering its necessary they constitute an essential element of the evolution towards sustainable development. In nature- culture link so important in African this perspective, the role of the World Heritage cultural heritage. African associative Centre is determining. landscapes are diverse: woods, rocks, ponds, mountains, etc ..

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Le paysage constitue un concept integrateur Ce continent contribue, de ce fait, de maniere complexe qui procede a la foi des domaines importante et originale au concept de paysage ecologique et productif, perceptif et sensible, culturel. Cela concerne aussi bien les elements patrimonial et culturel. Le paysage associe un identitaires de ces paysages que les processus cadre, constitue par un" pays II et des acteurs, a de leur mise en place ou la diversite de leurs I'origine des" paysans ". II traduit I'integration de formes d'expression. ces derniers dans leur environnement et en constitue Ie resultat. Le paysage est issu de 1. Approche patrimoniale du paysage I'interaction des societes humaines avec Ie culturel africain milieu naturel. II est Ie resultat de pratiques a long terme et il a integre les traditions vivantes Le concept de paysage met en jeu des acteurs des populations locales (en particulier celles des et des referentiels qui ne cessent de se peuples indigenes). recomposer, de fayon plus ou moins facilement perceptible. Le paysage est, de ce fait, un Dans toutes les cultures du monde, Ie paysage concept dynamique qui s'inscrit dans Ie temps. II joue un role identitaire fort et represente une se transforme en fonction des prelevements et entree privilegiee aussi bien pour la gestion et des amenagements que les societes humaines I'amenagement du territoire que pour I'analyse y exercent pour leur vie et leur developpement. des representations sociales de la nature et de La connaissance des dynamiques passees I'espace (mais pas seulement). II constitue, de permet de mieux comprendre les evolutions ce fait, un concept de valeur universelle. presentes. La rapide transformation des milieux et des societes pose Ie probleme de I'evolution On peut egalement considerer Ie paysage rapide des paysages. Cela implique la mise en comme une des formes de memoire de la reuvre de problematiques concertees de culture humaine et, a ce titre, sa conservation conservation, de developpement et d'amenagement. doit etre retlechie et son interpretation peut faire Le probleme est particulierement important en I'objet d'une discipline scientifique a part entiere. Afrique ou I'on assiste, depuis un peu plus d'un demi-siecle, a une explosion demographique : L'UNESCO a pris en compte la notion de avec une croissance moyenne superieure a 3% paysage culturel au debut des annees 90, par an, la population de I' Afrique est passee de lorsque Ie Comite du patrimoine mondial a 220 millions d'habitants en 1950 a 763 millions adopte, en 1992 (16eme session), les criteres et aujourd'hui (prevision pour 2025: 1.300 millions). categories qui sont maintenant precises dans Cette croissance demographique exponentielle les Orientations devant guider la mise en reuvre s'accompagne de mutations des societes : on de la Convention du patrimoine mondial (il s'agit en assiste a un deplacement massif et rapide vers particulier des articles 35 a 40). Le developpement les villes et centres urbains, a un glissement de la Strategie Globale, a partir de 1994, a vers la zone cotiere, Ie tout accompagne de permis de preciser une typologie elementaire profonds remaniements socio-economiques. II y des paysages culturels (paysages associatifs, a donc urgence a definir les caracteristiques des fossiles, spirituels, ... ) et de definir certaines paysages culturels africains et a envisager les composantes caracteristiques des paysages bouleversements qui ne manqueront pas de se comme les itineraires et routes d'echange produire a I'horizon des 25 prochaines annees. (Madrid, 1994), comme les canaux et voies de navigation (Chaffeys Locks, 1994) ou les rizieres Si I'on en juge par les deplacements de et paysages en terrasse d'Asie (Philippines, population observes au cours des trente 1995). Depuis 1993, annee de I'inscription de dernieres annees et par les previsions des Tongariro (Nouvelle-Zelande) a ce titre, Ie demographes, l'Afrique du XXle siecle sera sans Comite du patrimoine mondial a accepte doute une Afrique urbaine et sedentaire. I'inscription de 11 sites dans cette categorie. L'intensification des productions agro-pastorales, Ie Cela represente, en moyenne, pres de 2 sites developpement des polygones industriels et par session, so it pres de 5 % des propositions. I'extension des centres urbains vont fortement marquer I'espace de leurs nouveaux reperes. II L'Afrique a ete marquee par I'emergence de est donc necessaire de definir les I'espece humaine tout au long du Quaternaire. caracteristiques du paysage culturel africain tel

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qu'il se presente aujourd'hui, afin d'en conserver I'espace par I'homme devra etre definie a celles qui ont une valeur universelle travers I'etude des choix de site d'implantation, exceptionnelle et qui contribueront a fonder des prelevements agro-sylvo-pastoraux. La I'identite culturelle et spirituelle des generations comprehension sera assistee par la toponymie futures et a leur donner une originalite dans un et de nombreux elements ethnographiques. monde confronte aux pressions homogeneisantes et nivelantes de la mondialisation. En Afrique, comme dans la plupart des regions du monde ou les societes rurales sont Au dela des definitions savantes, Ie paysage se predominantes, Ie paysage associe des qualites presente comme Ie miroir des societes et des ecologiques et economiques (ressources) a des cultures qui ont utilise cet espace pendant une qualites spirituelles (habitat des entites divines, periode plus ou moins longue. Le paysage genies et dieux, domaine des ames ou des traduit la perception des mysteres de la nature ancetres, siege des forces telluriques et des aussi bien que Ie savoir technologique et la principes metaphysiques). Cela s'observe dans puissance economique d'une societe. Les Ie monde entier et fonde Ie caractere universel societes rurales, a technologie manuelle du paysage culturel. Par exemple, les sommets dominante, ont elabore des paysages qui montagneux, en apparence inaccessibles, sont conservent une grande partie de leurs generalement consideres comme des· lieux caracteristiques ecologiques de depart. Dans charges de legende et dont I'acces etait ou ces societes, Ie mystere du renouvellement des interdit ou reserve a quelques groupes d'inities : ressources animales et vegetales est explique c'est Ie cas de l'Everest dans I'Himalaya, du par differents mythes fondateurs et par des Kinabalu a Borneo, du Tongariro en Nouvelle cosmogonies permettant a I'individu une Zelande, et d'Uluru en Australie. comprehension suffisante pour s'integrer dans Ie paysage. Une categorie d'inities comprendra 2. Des reperes dans Ie paysage africain mieux ou aura des instruments d'explication plus elabores pour interpreter les elements symboliques Existe-t-il des elements qui contribuent a du paysage. caracteriser les paysages africains? On peut aborder ce point en definissant les composants II est important de rappeler que si Ie paysage de base du paysage africain. En particulier, on resulte de I'interaction des societes humaines peut considerer I'organisation topographique et avec les formes particulieres du milieu naturel, les relations reciproques des differents elements l'Afrique est alors Ie continent sur lequel Ie du paysage. Cela peut constituer, en quelque paysage est apparu et a evolue. II est donc sorte, une approche topologique du paysage important d'analyser les composantes de ce africain ou I'on tentera de preciser les points de paysage africain et d'en extra ire les repere, les lignes et reseaux, les plans et caracteristiques. La genese du paysage africain volumes. est d'une certaine fayon la genese de tous les paysages du monde. Elle se comprendra a la 2.1. Les pOints de repere lecture de I'evolution des modes de vie des Les elements ponctuels sont importants dans Ie differentes societes qui se sont succedees au paysage. lis peuvent lui donner une personnalite, cours du temps. L'etude du paysage necessite contribuer a I'identifier. La repetition de points, d'en pratiquer I'archeologie. II faut donc disposer leur espacement, definit des rythmes spatiaux d'une methodologie pour Ie faire rationnellement. dans la reproduction des motifs ou des La lecture d'un paysage est une operation maillages. complexe qui necessite une collaboration interdisciplinaire faisant appel aux techniques de Dans les paysages africains, differents elements la geomorphologie, de I'ecologie, de la ponctuels peuvent jouer des roles varies. Dans geographie et de I'histoire. II convient de bien les regions arides ou les arbres sont I'exception, connaitre les elements physiques qui constituent la seule presence d'un arbre peut etre un I'ossature du paysage : I'histoire geologique, la element important de reperage et d'identification. topographie, la climatologie. L'analyse du Ainsi, on peut citer, au Niger, I'arbre du Tenere, couvert vegetal apporte egalement de nombreux un Acacia seyal perdu dans I'immensite indices dans la comprehension des elements sableuse mais indique sur toutes les cartes, naturels du paysage. Enfin, I'occupation de constituant Ie point de repere de generations

-46- M. Le Berre - La genese des paysages culturels africains de caravaniers et de voyageurs. Les baobabs Une organisation en lignes et reseaux concerne isoles constituent egalement des elements egalement Ie domaine aquatique, avec la structurant du paysage. II en est de meme necessite de transporter I'eau, par exemple pour d'especes qui ont une signification particuliere I'irrigation, ou de I'utiliser comme moyen de dans un paysage donne, comme les dracenas transport. En Afrique sub-saharienne, les marquant I'emplacement d,es sites funeraires du systemes fluviaux perennes constituent des Burundi. voies de circulation et d'echange extremement importants. Le Niger, Ie Senegal, Ie Congo, Ie Les rochers constituent des pOints de repere Nil et la plupart des grands fleuves sont utilises remarquables dans les zones de paysage pour reunir villages, villes et regions, avec ouvert, en particulier dans les paysages de souvent plus de commodite que les voies chaos granitique frequents en Afrique. Dans les terrestres. paysages volcaniques, les dykes constituent des elements de repere remarquables, comme 2.3. Les surfaces et volumes les aiguilles de trachyte Zeuvu qui se dressent Les paysages africains, du fait de I'anciennete verticalement sur plus de 300 m, au-dessus de Rumsiki, a I'ouest de Maroua, dans Ie nord du du continent, sont souvent constitues d'immenses Cameroun. surfaces monoclinales ou tout a fait planes ou les reperes cites precedemment sont les D'autres elements ponctuels ont pris de bienvenus. Les grandes etendues geographiques I'importance dans I'utilisation des paysages par qui correspondent a ces surfaces (collines, les voyageurs. Ce sont les balises ou redjems vallees, bassins versants) s'organisent en unites qui servent de points de reperes lointains ainsi socio-economico-cu/turelles avec des particularites que les puits, indispensables pour abreuver les identitaires. Par exemple, dans I'ouest du voyageurs ou les troupeaux. Cameroun, les paysages contigus du pays La presence de certains edifices funeraires bamileke et du pays bamoun se distinguent par (tombes, tumulus) peut egalement identifier un Ie trace des pistes qui sont en fond de vallee paysage. II en est de meme des lieu x de culte dans I'un, et Ie long des cretes dans I'autre. isoles, marques par des constructions. Le paysage africain est egalement un paysage Enfin, la presence d'oasis, zones de culture ou les volumes ont de I'importance. Le paysage delimitees, contrastant avec Ie reste de vegetal naturel est generalement stratifie I'environnement constitue un point de repere (arbres, arbustes, herbacees). Cette structure se important dans les paysages africains arides. retrouve dans les portions d'espace modifiees par les societes humaines : que ce so it dans les 2.2. Les lignes et reseaux oasis sahariennes, en milieu sec, ou dans les Les points remarquables cites ci-dessus jardins des Comores, en milieu humide, constituent des elements de focalisation des I'homme a conserve cet etagement vegetal qui deplacements. lis sont generalement relies assure a la fois la complementarite des entre eux par des sentiers, des chemins, des productions, la protection des sols, et rationalise pistes qui determinent des itineraires dont les I'utilisation de I'eau. niveaux d'importance varient : reseaux de service entre les cases et les champs; reseaux 3. Oynamique du paysage africain de relation entre villages, hameaux et marches; Les paysages ne sont pas des entites figees et reseaux reliant entre elles differentes chefferies immuables. lis traduisent une relation dynamique d'une region determinee; pistes a longue entre I'homme et son environnement. La distance permettant de franchir desert et forets dynamique d'un paysage depend essentiellement et de reunir commercialement et culturellement de la diversite des milieux d'accueil potentiels et differents ensembles regionaux africains. Dans des forces qui interviennent pour en modifier les regions semi-arides, les lignes reliant les I'apparence. Tout d'abord, etablissons quelques paturages et les puits pastoraux constituent uns des elements qui en fondent la diversite. egalement des reseaux de structuration de I'espace extremement importants.

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3.1. Diversite des milieux d'accueil penetrer au travers des forets primaires massives. Le continent africain s'etend, du nord au sud, sur pres de 70° de latitude (plus de 7500 km de Le gradient climatique qui se repartit presque continuite terrestre), symetriquement de part et symetriquement de part et d'autre de l'Equateur d'autre de l'Equateur, et sur pres de 6000 km definit un emboitement de milieux naturels qui d'est en ouest. Cette enorme surface comprend, en allant vers les extremite nord et continentale va donc presenter une diversite sud du continent, les formations de foret geologique et climatique importante. II en equatoriale pluviale (de type guineen), les decoulera une forte diversite des grandes formations de foret sache (de type soudanien), divisions ecologiques (Ies biomes) et, par Ie jeu les formations de savane arborees ou des facteurs geographiques et humains, une herbacees (de type sahelien), les formations grande variete de paysages potentiels. steppiques arides et enfin les formations discontinues des milieux hyperarides sahariens Le caractere massif du continent va definir les et namibiens. divisions majeures que sont les zones arides, desertiques et hum ides de ce continent. Les Aces grandes categories latitudinales, il est particularites cotieres permettront de disposer necessaire d'ajouter une differentiation verticale, egalement de domaines diversifies : mangroves altitudinale. Celle-ci permet d'enrichir les des paysages de deltas, sable volcanique ou paysages de formations comme les pelouses corallien des plages. L'Afrique presente egalement afro-alpines, tout a fait originales dans leur des paysages insulaires diversifies: de expression sous les latitudes africaines (Kenya, Madagascar a un certain nombre d'archipels qui LPM 1997 ; Tanzanie, LPM, 1987). constituent des cadres d'accueil varies de paysages : archipel des Canaries, du Cap Vert, Les paysages africains peuvent egalement des Seychelles, des Comores, etc. presenter des caracteristiques minerales originales. Lorsque la rudesse du climat limite Le cadre geologique africain est ancien. De ce ou interdit Ie developpement vegetal dans des fait, de nombreux reliefs ont ete rabotes zones importantes du nord et du sud du (plateaux, reliefs monoclinaux) et les cuvettes continent, Ie paysage se resout alors a des comblees par les produits de I'erosion (cuvettes manifestations geomorphologiques caracteristiques f1uviales ou lacustres). Cette monotonie comme les formations tabulaires, les ergs et potentielle est rompue par differents accidents. dunes (Sahara, Namib). Les grandes cuvettes Les accidents orogeniques (generalement d'evaporation, qui parsement nombre des zones volcaniques) determinent des reliefs remarquables : hyperarides, constituent frequemment des mont Cameroun, mont Kenya, Kilimandjaro, salines, paysages que I'homme a su exploiter mais egalement Hoggar, Tibesti et Air. Des depuis tres longtemps (Sahara, Somalie, accidents tectoniques, lies a la dynamique Kalahari). generale de notre planete, determinent de grandes zones de dechirure, comme la Rift En bref, Ie continent africain dispose d'une Valley qui parcourt, du nord au sud, la partie diversite biophysique importante permettant Ie orientale de ce continent. developpement de paysages culturels potentiels tres varies. La diversite des paysages potentiels tient en grande partie a la diversite des grandes 3.2. Diversite des agents operants formations vegetales qui se sont develop pees et La genese d'un paysage est une subtile alchimie qui ont evolue au gre des changements entre les potentialites du milieu biophysique climatiques globaux qu'a connus l'Afrique depuis d'accueil et les actions qu'y developpent les I'ere primaire. Cette diversite, qui va des calottes societes humaines. C'est en quelque sorte une glaciaires du Devonien aux fon§ts pluviales reaction homeostatique, ou un equilibre actuelles, merite d'etre rapidement specifiee. metastable, entre les actions et les reactions de C'est elle, en effet, qui a donne la physionomie ces deux constituants majeurs de I'environnement : generale de l'Afrique et qui lui a valu d'etre Ie decor et les acteurs. Sans vouloir etre appelee, par certains explorateurs, Ie Continent exhaustif, on peut recenser un certain nombre NOir, en raison de la difficulte qu'avait Ie soleH de d'agents operant dans ce domaine comme les

-48- M. Le Berre - La genese des paysages culturels africains grandes concentrations animales, Ie feu et les Le role joue par certains elements de la faune actions concertees des societes humaines. sauvage dans la modification des environnements naturels se poursuit de nos jours en Afrique. En 3.2.1. Des actions biologiques convergentes raison d'une divergence d'interets internationaux, liee a des contraintes convention nelles, certains La transformation et I'evolution d'un paysage Etats africains n'ont pas la capacite de gerer resulte des actions convergentes effectuees par un nombre important d'eHres vivants. Les raisonnablement leurs populations d'elephants. societes humaines, par leur importance Celles-ci, en surnombre par rapport aux numerique et leur duree d'action, sont ressources disponibles dans leur environnement, rapidement devenues des agents importants de provoquent des modifications spectaculaires la genese des paysages. Ce n'est cependant des milieux qui resteront longtemps imprimees pas la seule espece animale agissant de fac;on dans Ie paysage. C'est Ie cas, en particulier, de profonde sur son environnement. plusieurs pays d'Afrique australe.

Les modifications de I'espace naturel sont Ie fait 3.2.2. Le pacage de la repetition des memes prelevements, avec un rythme et une intensite qui ne permettent pas Nous avons vu, ci-dessus, que les grands la reconstitution a I'identique de la ressource, rassemblements d'herbivores sauvages peuvent dans son etat anterieur. On peut citer Ie maintenir "en etat" des formations herbacees qui rem placement de certains elements vegetaux ne sont pas en equilibre stable dans un (par exemple, les arbres) par d'autres (par environnement climatique donne. Cette action exemple, les herbes) ou par des lacunes "conservatrice" du paysage peut etre egalement minerales (par exemple, cuirasses lateritiques, realisee et maintenue par I'action de pacage du socles rocheux). De telles successions ont ete betail domestique. L'introduction des herbivores decrites par les geographes et les ecologistes a domestiques en Afrique, au cours du Neolithique, va propos de I'action d'un nombre limite d'especes determiner des conditions economiques animales dans leur environnement vegetal eVou favorables pour les societes pastorales qui mineral : les bisons d'Amerique du Nord, les occupent Ie nord de ce continent et progressent elephants d'Afrique de l'Est et du Sud, les gnous vers Ie sud. Leur installation dans la zone et zebres d'Afrique de l'Est, I'homme en Afrique saharienne (a cette epoque non desertique, et ailleurs. Certains insectes comme les termites comme I'attestent les nombreuses representations peuvent egalement jouer un role important dans rupestres) a certainement ete facilitee par la I'evolution des paysages de savane en modifiant presence de nombreux herbivores sauvages Ie relief et les reseaux geobiochimiques. La habitues aux espaces herbeux ouverts (girafes, consequence en est I'apparition de nouvelles elephants, antilopes, etc.). Cette action de formations vegetales (passage de la foret a 18 pacage semble avoir prolonge des transformations savane herbeuse). Ces formations nouvelles initiees par Ie developpement de la faune (secondaires) ne sont generalement pas en sauvage, aussi bien dans la zone actuellement equilibre, elles ne sont pas stables. Leur aride du Nord que de l'Est de l'Afrique. maintien necessite un entretien regulier. L'arret entraine, plus ou moins vite, Ie retour a la Une autre forme de modification du paysage formation d'equilibre la mieux adaptee au naturel aboutissant a la formation de pelouses a contexte biogeoclimatique. Par exemple . egalement ete decrite en Afrique, dans certaines I'ouverture des paysages de l'Est-africain aurait regions d'altitude. Cette action pourrait etre, ete realisee, selon certains auteurs, par la dans certains cas, imputee soit a des incendies pullulation de populations d'elephants (naturels ou provoques), soit a des activites de (desequilibre biocenotique dO a I'absence de pacage du betail domestique. L'etagement predateurs). Cette modification a permis Ie altitudinal de la vegetation se traduit, a partir developpement de populations diversifiees de d'une certaine altitude, par I'apparition grands herbivores (gnous, zebres, antilopes, spontanee de pelouses herbacees. En Europe, gazelles) qui ont contribue a entretenir ces cet etage se situe vers 2 500 m (Alpes, paysages ouverts. Ces nouveaux paysages ont Pyrenees). En Afrique, en raison de la latitude constitue un milieu naturel eminemment plus faible, les pelouses afro-alpines n'apparaissent favorable a I'insertion des activites pastorales de spontanement qu'autour de 4 000 m. C'est ce I'homme, au moment adequat.

-49- Paysages Culturels en Afrique que I'on observe sur les montagnes volcaniques patchwork de forets secondaires ou la diversite comme Ie mont Cameroun, Ie Kilimandjaro et la productivite sont plus reduites. Le caractere (LPM, 1987) ou Ie Kenya (LPM, 1997). Dans itinerant de ces bralis a pour consequence quelques cas, on peut observer des pelouses a I'extension des clairieres et Ie mitage progressif des altitudes ou la formation d'equilibre est des formations primaires. II en resulte une encore so it la foret, so it la lande de bruyere transformation progressive du paysage, caracterisee (Landes a Philipsia). C'est Ie cas, par exemple, par I'apparition de nouvelles essences du Mont Manengouba au Cameroun (vers 2 200 (parasoliers, manguiers, bananiers). Au cours m), du mont Nimba(Guinee, a partir de 1000 m) des demieres decennies, I'explosion demographique a fortement accelere ce phenomene. Dans (Snell, 1998) ou du mont Karthala (Ngazidja, certaines regions d'Afrique cela a abouti a la Comores, vers 2300 m). On peut, dans de tels disparition quasi complete des reserves sites, considerer que la presence permanente forestieres. Le paysage s'en est donc trouve de pelouses est Ie resultat de la double action rapidement modifie, avec plusieurs consequences deboisemenUpaturage intensif et que son nefastes comme I'acceleration de I'erosion et origine est anthropique. En eftet, les sites I'epuisement des sols. d'altitude presentent, en Afrique, I'avantage de presenter des temperatures plus basses, plus 3.2.4. Les administrations favorables au developpement des herbivores domestiques que les zones de plaine et, de plus, Du milieu du XIXe siecle au milieu du XXe siOOe, defavorables au developpement de diverses la quasi-totalite de l'Afrique a ete soumise a epizooties. difterents regimes coloniaux qui avaient en commun une exigence de rentabilite economique 3.2.3. Le feu immediate. L'intensification de I'exploitation agricole a entraine Ie developpement de Les regions chaudes, seches, riches en grandes plantations a caractere industriel. vegetaux sont de temps en temps parcourues L'exploitation economique a ete completee par par des incendies naturels ayant leur origine I'introduction de cultures de rente obligatoires. dans la foudre. Toute I'Afrique seche connan ce Ces cultures comprenaient des productions phenomene. Son importance est telle qu'il a ete traditionnelles de l'Afrique. Leur developpement, integre a certains mythes fondateurs, comme sous forme de monoculture, a fortement celui de Dongo, dans la moyenne vallee du bouleverse Ie paysage africain. On peut citer Niger. Le feu constitue egalement I'un des outils dans cette categorie Ie coton et Ie palmier a tradition nels de gestion de la productivite des huile. savanes. La colonisation a egalement introduit des Les feux de brousse provoquent la disparition productions nouvelles pour l'Afrique, comme des elements vegetaux secs et non proteges I'arachide, I'hevea et Ie cacao en Afrique de (herbes, feuilles seches), sur de grandes l'Ouest, Ie the en Afrique de l'Est, I'ylang-ylang surfaces, provoquant la perte de matiere vivante aux Comores, la vanille et Ie giroflier a par aerosol et par mineralisation. Les societes Madagascar. rurales considerent Ie feu comme une solution rentable sur Ie plan energetique pour la mise en Toutes ces monocultures agricoles ont ete culture de grandes surfaces, en ne mobilisant mises en place en moins d'un siecle. Elles ont qu'une main-d'oouvre reduite. Le feu est fortement marque Ie paysage et egalement les egalement utilise pour la gestion des espaces esprits, en raison du caractere contraignant de pastoraux : maintenir ouverts les terrains de leur organisation et de leur caractere exotique : parcours, provoquer par stress limite la reprise l'Afrique est une region ou traditionnellement les de la vegetation et redonner de la valeur productions agricoles sont familiales et pastorale a un paturage desseche. associees, c'est-a-dire completement a I'oppose des principes de la monoculture industrielle. Les cultures sur bralis procedent, dans l'Afrique des forets pluviales, des memes principes : Apres la periode des independances de 1960, eliminer un couvert vegetal defavorable a la ces productions sont res tees profondement culture en investissant un minimum d'energie marquees dans Ie paysage. Une meconnaissance humaine. Ce systeme existe dans toute la zone des conditions du succes agricole a aggrave Ie forestiere intertropicale (tavy a Madagascar). II a phenomene par la creation de grands domaines pour eftet de transformer les fon§ts primaires en d'exploitation d'Etat (rizieres de la vallee du

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Niger, arachides du Senegal). En contradiction d'hominide ancien en Afrique, plus de 2.000 avec Ie substrat culturel africain, la quasi totalite ossements humains et pre-humains ont etes de ces entreprises ont rapidement periclite. Leur retrouves dans de nombreux sites africains. La rem placement par des exploitations familiales, reconnaissance de ces sites en tant que selon un mode participatif, a ete entrepris au paysage culturel originel serait d'autant plus cours des annees 90 et cela devrait entraTner, a possible que Ie developpement actuel de la terme, une reconversion de certains paysages. paleoecologie et de la paleogeographie permettent de retrouver les composantes des paysages du 4. Essai de typologie des paysages debut du Quaternaire comme I'ont montre les culturels africains travaux de Faure et Petit-Maire (depuis 1970) Apres avoir recense quelques uns des elements dans Ie nord du Mali. caracteristiques des paysages culturels africains, ainsi que certains des agents impliques dans C'est en Afrique que les restes des deux plus leur evolution, nous pouvons essayer anciennes especes d'Hominides actuellement d'esquisser les grandes categories de paysages conn us, Australopithecus afarensis et A. culturels africains. Elles peuvent etre definies africanus. A. afarensis mieux connu sous Ie nom par les affectations d'usage que les societes de Lucy, a ete decouvert en 1974 (Y. Copens). humaines y ont developpe. On pourra donc Son" age" est estime a 3,5 millions d'annees. trouver aussi bien des paysages proches de Le site d'origine de ce lointain ancetre de I'ecosysteme intact que des paysages dont la I'homme, se trouve dans I'Hadar, au nord de production est totalement contr61ee par l'Ethiopie. I'homme. Pour les differencier en les organisant, nous allons suivre un axe oriente partant des L'autre lointain ancetre est A. africanus dont paysages peu modifies par I'homme pour plusieurs restes ont ete decouverts en Afrique aboutir aux paysages ou I'action de I'homme est du Sud, en particulier a Sterkfontein. II semble predominante. Cette typologie fonctionnelle que, cette derniere region (Krugersdorp, environ recoupe tres generalement celie proposee dans 50 km 8 I'ouest de Johannesburg) etait alors les Orientations, en y apportant ponctuellement occupee par des forets denses. L'occupation de des precisions. ce site par les australopitheques aurait dure pendant plusieurs centaines de milliers 4.1. Les paysages culturels originels d'annees. L'Afrique est Ie continent qui a la plus longue Parmi les representants eminents des prehistoire connue, so it plus de 3 millions precurseurs de I'humanite en Afrique de l'Ouest d'annees. Une de ses particularites est Ie grand et du Centre, on citera I'australopitheque du nombre de sites qui ont ete temoins de I'activite Tchad ou Tchadanthrope, decouvert en 1961 des plus anciennes societes humaines. Nous par Y. Coppens 8 Koro-Toro, 8 200 km au SSW entendons par 18 les sites ou des vestiges de de Faya (Tchad). Ces individus frequentaient un nos plus lointains ancetres ont ete mis en milieu lacustre aujourd'hui difficilement imaginable, evidence, qu'il s'agisse d'australopitheques ou tant I'aridite de ce milieu est grande. Son 'age' d'hommes fossiles. Ces sites correspondent a serait de 1 million 500 mille ans. On peut autant de paysages culturels originels. lis ne correspondent pas obligatoirement a des sites egalement citer Ie Zinganthrope, australopitheque d'objets paleo- ou neolithique, egalement tres utilisant des outils, decouvert en Tanzanie. nombreux en Afrique. Nous suggerons d'utiliser I'expression " paysages culturels originels " pour Les premiers representants du genre Homo les sites qui, par la presence d'ossements apparaissent en Afrique il y a un peu plus de 2 caracteristiques des differents stades d'evolution millions d'annees, avec les premiers outils de de I'espece humaine (serie des hominides, pierre, premiere contribution anthropique 8 la genres Australopithecus et Homo) ont une modification des pays ages : H. abilis et H. valeur particuliere, universelle et exception nelle, erectus precedent H. sapiens qui apparaTt il y a mais aussi emotionnelle. environ 100.000 ans. Des restes d'Homo abilis (2 8 1,5 Mans) ont ete exhumes en Afrique De tels sites, l'Afrique n'en manque pas. Depuis orientale (Omo, Koobi Fora, Olduvai) et australe 1924, annee de la decouverte du premier crane

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(Sterkfontein, Swartkrans). II est associe a de Les gorges d'Olduvai (Tanzanie) font partie du nombreux outils a Olduvai et a Melka Kunture site du Ngorongoro inscrit sur la liste des biens (Haute vallee de l'Awash, Ethiopie). D'autres naturels en 1979. Dans ce cas egalement, une sites importants existent au Kenya (Lac mention relative aux paysages culturels originels Turkana, Rift oriental), en Ouganda (Nyabusosi, serait possible. rift OCCidental) et en Afrique du Sud (Sterkfontein). On peut se feliciter que plusieurs pays africains aient place sur leur liste indicative du Patrimoine Homo abilis (1,6 a 1,5 Mans) semble avoir Mondial des sites qui pourraient repondre a souvent occupe les memes habitats que Homo cette definition: par exemple Ie site de Konso- erectus. Les sites les plus remarquables Gardula pour l'Ethiopie, les sites de seraient ceux de Nachukui (West Turkana, Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai pour Kenya) ainsi que les sites acheuleens de l'Afrique du SUd. Olorgesailie (Rift Valley, Kenya) et Isimila (Tanzanie). 4.2. Les paysages culturels fossiles

L'un des plus vieux Homo sapiens connus a ete lis ont ete les temoins d'une occupation humaine ancienne, correspondant generalement a des trouve en Zambie (Broken Hill, 1921, 110.000 formes d'exploitation differentes de I'exploitation BP, connu comme Homo rhodesiensis), actuelle de cet espace. Cette reaffectation de la representant du Paleolithique superieur. Autour fonction du paysage est generalement a mettre de 100000 B.P., les sites avec restes de Homo en relation avec I'evolution climatique importante sapiens sont nombreux (Hopefield, Border Cave, qu'ont connue ces espaces au cours du Klasies River Mouth, Afrique du Sud; Jebel Quaternaire. Ces paysages sont des temoins Irhoud, Maroc). Plus proche de notre epoque, importants de I'evolution des societes humaines I'homme d'Asselar (Neolithique, Holocene) a ete confrontees aux defis des changements decouvert par Theodore Monod au Soudan. climatiques globaux. Les ensembles les plus connus en Afrique sont Ie Tassili n'Ajjer, Ie En raison de son importance, nous suggerons Djebel Acacus et egalement l'Air qui pourrait que la typologie du patrimoine mondial integre rejoindre les deux precedents au titre de la cette notion de paysage culturel originel afin richesse de ses vestiges prehistoriques. de conserver une trace physique des sites ou les representants les plus anciens de notre D'autres paysages fossiles, de valeur exceptionnelle espece et leurs ancetres immediats ont ete et universelle, pourront certainement etre decouverts. En plus de marqueurs de I'evolution identifies en Afrique, lorsque I'on aura une meilleure connaissance de I'evolution des biologique, ces sites, par la connaissance et la modes de vie des populations concernees. A cet reconstitution scientifique de leurs paysages effet, I'utilisation des documents ecrits des d'origine permettent de mieux com prendre anciens voyageurs pourra se reveler precieuse. I'integration des societes humaines a leur Par exemple, Ie voyageur arabe EI Bekri, qui environnement ancien. Nous venons de voir que parcourait l'Afrique sahelienne au Xle siecle, l'Afrique peut apporter a cette categorie de mentionne des paysages de rizieres dans Ie paysages culturels, une contribution particulierement Delta interieur du Niger. Cette information est importante. Deja de tels sites ont ete inscrits sur interessante car on pense souvent que la la Liste du patrimoine mondial culturel, sans culture du riz a ete introduite en Afrique par les reference au paysage, mais seulement aux colonisateurs, au XIXe siecle, alors qu'elle fait restes fossiles. II s'agit de la Basse Vallee de partie, de fa<;on ancienne, de I'utilisation des I'Aouache et de la Basse Vallee de 1'0mo, situes especes africaines de riz (reservoir genetique) tous deux en Ethiopie et inscrits depuis 1980. et non des especes asiatiques aujourd'hui repandues. Aces rizieres correspondait un L'ecosysteme du lac Turkana (Kenya) a ete paysage culturel particulier que favorisait integre a la Liste du patrimoine mondial en I'enorme etendue humide du delta central du 1997, Y compris les gisements fossiles qui ont Niger. permis la reconstitution du paleo-environnement du debut du Quaternaire. Ce site pourrait Les paysages technologiques sont les egalement integrer la notion de paysage culturel environnements associes au developpement originel. d'industries diverses et conservant des traces remarquables de ces activites. En Afrique, les paysages technologiques remarquables sont

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surtout des paysages anciennement utilises, cordes et vanneries) et egalement spirituelles. aujourd'hui abandonnes. On les place donc De ce fait, tous ces arb res ont ete proteges par dans la categorie des paysages fossiles dont ils la tradition et ils peuvent atteindre des constituent une variante. Ces sites traduisent dimensions impressionnantes. Dans la zone differentes etapes de la maTtrise technologique forestiere de I'ouest du Niger, on peut observer des societes humaines. Les sites d'industrie localement des peuplements presque purs de lithique sont repandus sur la quasi totalite de baobabs (alors que la foret primaire africaine est I'Afrique. On peut y rattacher les sites lies a la generalement tres diversifiee). Ces peuplements production de ceramique qui comprennent des de baobabs marquent generalement I'emplacement sites d'extraction d'argile et de pigments, des d'anciens villages que I'on reconnaTt a des places de fabrication et des fours de cuisson. Certains de ces sites, qui temoignent d'un savoir vestiges de murailles de terre et a des traces faire vivant, sont encore actifs de nos jours. Les nombreuses d'objets lithiques (meules, sites correspondant aux industries chalcolithiques et broyeurs) et de ceramiques (poteries). Ces siderolithiques, souvent tres anciens en Afrique, ensembles forestiers constituent donc des sont repartis dans plusieurs pays comme Ie elements de paysages culturels qui marquent Niger, Ie Cameroun, Ie Burkina Faso. des habitats souvent aujourd'hui abandonnes. D'autres especes d'arbres procedent de la 4.3. Les paysages peu modifies meme technique de developpement preferentiel Cette categorie de paysages se rencontre dans comme les roniers, les tamariniers et sans doute les regions ou la densite de peuplement humain les colatiers. De tels paysages pourraient porter n'a pas altere la distribution des formations I'appellation de paysages geres. vegetales naturelles mais I'a simplement modifiee. Ces paysages sont iss us d'une 4.4. Les paysages associatifs exploitation des ressources vegetales reposant lis sont issus d'une reflexion initiee en 1992 et sur la cueillette et I'exploitation reguliere de sont definis dans les Orientations (paragraphe 39iii) certaines especes vegetales. De telles pratiques comme des paysages ou .. la force d'association continuent d'exister de par Ie monde. Elles ont des phenomimes religieux, artistiques ou ete particulierement etudiees en Amerique du culturels prime sur les traces culturel/es Sud (bassin amazonien) ou ont ete tangibles qui peuvent etre insignifiantes ou caracterisees les activites extractives. Le meme inexistantes". Le concept de paysage principe de ces activites repose sur Ie fait que associatif est particulierement ouvert et on peut certaines especes vegetales, particulierement y inclure des entites physiques, des images "utiles" a I'economie humaine, sont favorisees : mentales representatives de la spiritualite, de elles ne sont pas abattues lors des pratiques culturelles ou de traditions populaires. defrichements. Leur croissance est favorisee par I'homme. Dans ce cas, on parle d'especes Ce concept est particulierement operant en "gerees" plutot que d'especes "domestiquees". Afrique car nombre de paysages associes a des De ce fait, leur probabilite de presence mythes fondateurs pourralent relever de cette aug mente et depasse leur representation categorie. Ce concept concerne les sites sacres "naturel/e" dans Ie paysage. qu'il s'agisse de bois (comme les Kayas de la region de Tiwi), de rochers, de mares ou de En Afrique, on peut citer plusieurs especes qui sources, ou meme d'arbres isoles. En raison repondent a ce critere. Bien entendu, en terme des particularites liees traditionnellement aces de paysage, ce sont surtout les arbres qui jouent lieux, comme les limitations d'acces, des modes un role remarquable. Dans l'Afrique sah9lienne, de gestion adaptes doivent etre envisages pour I'acacia seyal, ou gommier, est une espece non en respecter Ie secret et I'integrite. Ce sont des cultivee au depart, mais protegee en raison des exemples ou I'investissement de la communaute revenus que I'homme tirait de la recolte de la locale et sa partiCipation sont importants a tous gomme arabique. Cette activite a ete prospere les stades, de I'identification au suivi regulier. au Senegal, au Mali, au Niger et au Soudan. Une autre espece emblematique de l'Afrique, Ie Nombre de sites sacres ont persiste jusqu'a nos baobab, est appreciee de I'homme pour des jours. lis constituent souvent des isolats de raisons multiples : alimentaires (fruits, feuilles), nature" intacte" au milieu de zones fortement medicinales (feuilles), artisanales (fibres pour

-53- Paysages Culturels en Afrique anthropisees. lis presentent donc, en matiere de parcouru par les pasteurs foulbes, d'importantes conservation patrimoniale, un double interet zones d'Afrique orientale, comme les terrains de (culturel et naturel) car ils abritent generalement parcours de la region Masar. L'Afrique etant Ie aussi de nombreuses especes vegetales continent actuellement Ie plus soumis au disparues de leur peripherie. lis constituent donc processus d'aridification (plus de 50% de sa des sites potentiels de repeuplement et de surface est concernee), ces paysages occupent rehabilitation des environnements naturels, en une etendue particulierement importante, allant raison des graines et autres materiels de la Somalie a la Mauritanie, d'Algerie au genetiques qu'ils peuvent produire. Nigeria. Ces paysages sont toujours associes a des societes humaines nomades ayant Les montagnes appartiennent tres souvent a la developpe des pratiques culturelles remarquables ou categorie des paysages associatifs car, en la possession du sol, Ie referent foncier, a moins raison de leur altitude et des difficultes d'acces, d'importance que la relation humaine et la elles ont generalement ete I'objet de legendes et relation homme-animal. La maitrise de I'espace de traditions populaires. Au Sahara, I'un des (connaissance) et de ses ressources est un sommets du massif de la Tefedest, la Garet-el­ element fondamental de la survie de ces Djenoun heberge les Kel es-Souf, des esprits societes qui sont particulierement menacees par redoutes et malfaisants. L'existence d'un mont les progres technologiques et la mondialisation. des Genies sur la chaine du Nimba en Guinee C'est Ie nomadisme qui a perm is Ie maintien des confirme cette hypothese. On peut penser que particularites de ces paysages, empechant la c'est egalement Ie cas du Kilimandjaro et du Mt surexploitation des ressources vegetales. Kenya. 4.6. Les itineraires et routes d'echange Une autre categories de pays ages associatifs africains comprend les sites funeraires qui sont Le Comite du patrimoine mondial a inscrit un I'objet de rites et de ceremonies concernant des premier itineraire culturel, en 1993, Ie chemin de villages ou des clans. Ces sites sont en general Compostelle, en tant qu'itineraire religieux frappes de divers interdits qui en preservent d'Europe occidentale. Cette inscription a ete I'acces et I'integrite. L'lIe de Madagascar est completee en 1998 par I'inscription de la partie bien connue pour I'importance et la diversite de fran(faise de cet itineraire. Une reflexion sur la ses sites funeraires. Les cimetieres royaux du notion d'itineraire a ete faite a Madrid, en 1994, Burundi pourraient egalement entrer dans cette pour definir avec plus de precision Ie cadre de categorie. ce type de site. Le concept d'itineraire et de route d'echanges est un concept ouvert et 4.5. Les paysages pastoraux dynamique qui permet de prendre en compte, a Avec les paysages pastoraux, on entre dans la travers un canevas de points de reperes categorie genera Ie des paysages vivants. spatiaux (villes, ponts, gues, cols, relais, caravanserails, puits, etc.), tout un patrimoine Les pays ages pastoraux sont particulierement economique et social, symbolique et philosophique, representatifs des regions arides et semi-arides. ainsi que de multiples et diverses interactions lis sont structures par les points remarquables que constituent les puits pastoraux, necessaires avec I'environnement naturel. Ce concept pour abreuver Ie troupeau (et les pasteurs) ; les permet d'integrer les travaux de documentation campements avec leurs structures permettant la et de reflexion entrepris par ailleurs par surveillance nocturne de certains animaux I'UNESCO sur les routes de la soie (Asie) et les domestiques sensibles a la predation, comme routes d'esclave (Afrique). En bref, ce concept les chevres; les zones de paturages qui sont permet de valoriser les itineraires qui ont souvent des fonds de vallee, des lits d'oued, des temoigne, avec une continuite suffisante dans Ie zones d'epandage des flux incertains (maaders, temps et I'espace, d'une dynamique d'echange rMirs). Parmi les regions caracteristiques de suffisante pour acquerir une valeur culturelle ces paysages pastoraux, on peut citer les zones universelle. Ce concept s'integre parfaitement montagneuses du Sahara central (Hoggar, dans la notion de paysage dont il devient une Tassili, Air, Tibesti). Avec une rythmicite des composantes. La mise en evidence d'un differente des pluies et des paturages, on peut itineraire reposera sur I'identification de egalement considerer comme paysages temoignages tangibles de son activite. pastoraux Ie nord de la region saMlienne,

-54- M. Le Serre La genese des paysages culturels africains

L'Afrique constitue, depuis la prehistoire, un lieu concernent des regions limitees de l'Afrique et d'echanges et de deplacements. II n'est donc peuvent encore mobiliser localement de grands pas etonnant que I'on puisse y identifier un nombre de participants: les pelerinages nombre important d'itineraires et de routes mourides au Senegal, par exemple. Le debat d'echange. que nous aurons permettra, j'espere, d'en identifier un certain nombre. L'interet de ce Oepuis la prehistoire, les hommes ont concept pour l'Afrique est important et il serait transporte, sou vent a longue distance, les logique qu'une proposition regionale d'etude de matieres premieres de leurs outils (par exemple I'un de ces itineraires soit elaboree au cours de les silex ou I'obsidienne) ou de leurs bijoux cette reunion. (turquoises, agates, emeraudes). Les itineraires africains ont permis d'exporter vers I'Europe et 4.7. Les paysages agro-pastoraux Ie Moyen Orient des produits precieux comme Les paysages agro-pastoraux sont etroitement I'or, I'ivoire, les plumes d'autruche. Elles ont associes aux habitats vernaculaires et aux perm is I'organisation d'echanges economiques modifications structurelles de l'espace qui en entre regions ayant des productions decoulent : villages et champs de case. complementaires : c'est par exemple Ie cas des L'organisation de I'espace rural obeit en Afrique routes du sel au nord de I'Equateur qui se sont des regles qui contribuent rythmer Ie caracterisees par la distribution du sel, matiere a a paysage. L'un des modeles frequemment rare en Afrique et recherchee, et des dattes rencontre en Afrique de l'Ouest est celui de produites dans la zone desertiques contre Ie mil I'habitat en petits hameaux regroupant les cases et d'autres productions manufacturees (cotonnades) par concessions familiales, generalement autour abondantes dans la zone sahelienne et d'un espace central qui constitue un lieu de soudanienne. Une autre route d'echange, qui a rencontre et d'echanges commun. Le paysage evolue mais garde son importance, est la route se structure en s'eloignant de ce centre. A partir de la cola qui permet aux peuples des regions des enclos, on rencontre tout d'abord les saheliennes de disposer de ce fruit produit dans cultures de cases, generalement exploitees par la region boisee guineenne, devenu un des les femmes et les enfants, puis les cultures de supports de la convivialite. rente (coton, arachide, par exemple) ou les cultures cerealieres (mil, sorgho, millet), associees L'Afrique se caracterise egalement par des aux espaces de jachere necessaires la itineraires vocation essentiellement spirituelle a a restauration de la fertilite des sols. Plus loin on dans leur objectif, comme toutes ces pistes qui trouve les zones de paturage des troupeaux et convergeaient vers la Mecque, les routes du enfin on atteint la zone de .. brousse" ou les Hadj. Get itineraire avait egalement un important prelevements sont generalement limites des interet commercial, Ie grand rassemblement de a actions de cueillette (fruits, miel, ecorces, pelerins la Mecque permettant egalement a resines, chaumes, etc.). Get espace n'est plus d'echanger les richesses produites dans les un espace naturel, c'est un espace peu modifie, differentes parties du monde. dont les productions sont gerees. II constitue a la fois Ie tampon et Ie lien avec I'espace vital du Enfin un autre type d'itineraire, que I'on aimerait village voisin. Une grande partie de l'Afrique appeler itineraire de memoire, les routes semi-aride de I'ouest est ainsi structuree et ce d'esclaves qui ont ete utilisees depuis la nuit type de paysage se caracterise par des formes des temps pour exporter des esclaves vers les de case, de greniers et d'enclos caracteristiques pays. demandeurs, empire romain, pays des architectures vernaculaires des differents medlterraneens, colonies d'Amerique, etc. groupes installes. Un tel paysage est complete par un reseau de sen tiers et de pistes de Les itineraires que je viens de citer et dont desserte locale. Les images satellites des tels certains seront developpes par les intervenants sites sont particulierement caracteristiques. suivants sont les plus connus. lis concernent, par leur ampleur, I'ensemble du continent En relation avec I'evolution climatique africain. Le debat montrera qu'ils peuvent faire (pluviometrie plus ou moins abondante et saison I'objet d'un approfondissement et susciter des hum ide plus ou moins longue), de la topographie demandes d'inscription sur la Liste du (plaines, collines, falaises), on obtiendra des patrimoine mondial. O'autres itineraires paysages culturels divers parmi lesquels on peut

-55- Paysages Culturels en Afrique citer les paysages songhar de la vallee du Niger de cases a toit conique pointu sont inserees sur moyen, les villages foulbes de l'Adamaoua au certaines de ces terrasses. Au cours des Cameroun, les habitats en falaise du pays annees, un paysage culturel tres structure s'est dogon au Mali. ainsi organise qui a fortement modifie I'aspect de I'environnement. La production agricole a ete 4.8. Les paysages agricoles intensifs optimisee et presente bien des caracteres de durabilite recherches par les gestionnaires L'accroissement de la population humaine, qu'iI modernes. soit Ie resultat d'une croissance demographique ou d'un blocage spatial, a pour consequence la L'explosion demographique que connaTt I'Afrique necessite d'intensifier les productions vegetales depuis quelques decennies a egalement pour afin d'assurer la securite alimentaire. Cette consequence la mise en culture de zones situation se traduit par des modifications du auparavant considerees comme peu interessantes. paysage. Ainsi, des zones de relief a tres forte pente (souvent superieure a 45°) sont deboisees et L'une des plus anciennes expressions au mises en culture, avec les consequences monde de modifications paysageres destinees a nefastes que cela peut avoir en matiere organiser et a intensifier la production agricole d'erosion. Les tentatives de stabilisation des sols s'observe en Egypte. Dans cette zone aride, la se traduisent, la aussi, bien souvent par la mise maitrise de I'eau etait la condition indispensable en place de structures en terrasses qui servent pour developper un production agricole destinee de support soit a differents types de rizieres une population croissante. La reponse a ete Ie a (comme a Madagascar), soit des productions developpement d'un reseau de canaux d'irrigation a maraTcheres (comme aux Comores). Dans tous tout au long de la vallee du Nil. Certains d'entre les cas, la premiere phase de I'intensification se eux sont en place depuis plus de 4 millenaires. traduit par une perte brutale de diversite Ces paysages ont peu evolue au cours du biologique et par la mise en place empirique de temps. En plus du systeme de canaux, ces techniques culturales peu a peu maftrisees. paysages sont caracterises par Ie regroupement Cette situation, spectaculaire dans toutes les de I'habitat sedentaire sur les buttes ou coliines, zones de relief ou la disponibilite des sols est permettant d'echapper a la montee des eaux limitee, constitue la situation ordinaire de la plus lors des crues. La creation du barrage grande partie de I'Afrique cultivable actuellement. d'Assouan, en modifiant profondement Ie regime Elle inaugure un cycle de transformation rap ide des crues du Nil provoquera a terme des du paysage, avant qu'une forme durable modifications dans I'organisation de ce paysage. d'equilibre erosion/production ne so it mis en place. Dans des situations d'invasion, les montagnes ont bien souvent constitue les refuges de 4.9. Les paysages urbanises populations en place qui ont, dans ces lieux, echappe aux contraintes des nouveaux Le developpement de I'urbain et du bati dans Ie dominants. En Afrique centrale, I'evolution du paysage nous place a I'autre extremite de I'axe paysage des monts du Mandara constitue un de differenciation du paysage culturel africain bon exemple de cette situation. Les montagnes que nous sommes en train de decrire. de la region de Mokolo hebergent un grand L'urbanisation est un pMnomene particulier en nombre de tribus et de clans regroupes par les Afrique. La zone centrale du continent, n'a donne nouveaux venus Foulbes sous Ie nom de Kirdi naissance qu'a des formes architecturales labiles, (parens) qui recouvre les Mofou, les Matakam et temporaires, traduisant en quelque sorte une les Kapsiki. Refugies dans ces montagnes ouverture sur d'autres futurs possibles lorsque arides, rocheuses et a vegetation peu abondante, les elements cles du paysage auront ete effaces ces populations ont ameliore notablement la par la puissance des elements geoclimatiques productivite du milieu en creant des terrasses de ou des hommes. Rares sont donc les points cultures. Les bandes de terre rapportee sont d'ancrage visibles d'un urbanisme africain dans soutenues par des murets de pierres seches Ie paysage. relies entre eux par des plans inclines. Un systeme de drainage canalise les eaux des Les villes les plus anciennes sont bien entendu pluies de mousson et limite les effets de concernees au premier chef. Elles sont I'erosion. Les concessions familiales, constituees

-56- M. Le Berre - La genese des paysages culturels africains generalement situees a la peripMrie de l'Afrique Afrique. Certains d'entre eux, comme les subsaharienne. Leur etude montre que les paysages culturels originels, les paysages formes d'architecture vernaculaire qui se sont pastoraux ou les paysages urbanises presentent developpees en milieu urbain sont une grande importance car leurs formes generalement bien differentes des architectures d'expression sont generalement uniques au vernaculaires rurales proches. Cela traduit bien monde. II sera donc important de faire ressortir souvent Ie fait que ce ne sont pas les memes ceux qui presentent un caractere exceptionnel populations qui occupaient les vi lies et les universel afin d'identifier les moyens qui campagnes. Une autre cause d'evolution est la permettront de les conserver et de les concentration du bati qui, en reduisant les transmettre aux generations futures. surfaces disponibles et en rendant contigues les unites d'habitation a entraine une modification 5. Conclusions generales des formes architecturales. Le concept de paysage culturel trouve, en Afrique, un champ d'application original en L'integration de ces cites a leur environnement raison de la diversite des milieux d'accueil et de en fait des exemples d'architecture vernaculaire la diversite des histoires qui les ont modeles. La remarquable, utilisant des materiaux de construction plupart de ces paysages sont vivants, locaux et des modules de mesure directement dynamiques et souvent d'un interet estMtique iss us de I'environnement naturel immediat : ou historique exceptionnel. lis traduisent les I'identite de courbure des portes de maison du capacite des societes actuelles a proposer des Mzab est due a I'utilisation de la pal me de solutions aux differents defis auxquelles elles dattier comme instrument de coffrage. L'element sont confrontees pour leur survie et leur naturel apporte la directement un element developpement, a I'horizon du XXle siecle. fondamental du rythme architectural et facilite son integration dans I'environnement. Ces paysages traduisent I'importance de la relation nature-culture que les societas africaines Pour cette derniere categorie de paysages actuelles continuent d'entretenir et qui constitue culturels, nous pouvons faire reference a une I'un des elements moteurs de la richesse variete d'exemples repartis sur Ie continent. patrimoniale africaine. Le paysage culturel en Parmi les plus remarquables, en raison de la est une remarquable forme d'expression car il contrainte impnmee par les facteurs permet de mediatiser aussi bien les savoir-faire environnementaux (climat, eau, sol), citons productifs que la spiritualite des populations I'exemple des villes sahariennes qui ont africaines. constitue, par leur duree, des elements cle du paysage aussi bien dans sa dimension picturale Malgre cette diversite, il n'est pas facile de faire que dans sa dimension itineraire. C'est Ie cas de clivage ni d'etablir une classification des des villes anciennes de Mauritanie: Chinguetti, paysages culturels africains sur de simples Tichitt, Ouadane et Oualata (LPM, 1996). C'est bases regionales. Les migrations, les deplacements egalement Ie cas de la pentapole du Mzab, qui de population ainsi que les echanges se developpe au milieu du Sahara algerien commerciaux et culturels ont contribue a (LPM, 1982) depuis Ie Moyen Age, ou des cites disseminer, a travers Ie continent africain, les peripheriques du fleuve Niger : Tombouctou, pratiques qui sont a I'origine des particularites Djenne (LPM, 1988). Dans une toute autre du paysage actuel. Ce paysage traduit forme d'urbanisme et d'integration paysagere, localement I'influence de cultures externes a on citera egalement les villes cotieres anciennes I'Afrique, qui ont trouve des expressions de l'Ocean indien (Mogadiscio, Mombasa, originales dans ce creuset : influence arabe Zanzibar) et les petites villes des archipels dans l'Afrique seche du Nord, influence africains comme les Comores (Iconi, asiatique Ie long des cotes de l'Ocean indien, Mutsamudu), caracteristiques de la culture influences europeennes Ie long des cotes swahili. atlantiques.

4.10. Conclusion Cet inventaire de la richesse des paysages culturels africains ne manque pas de susciter Nous venons de decrire rapidement une dizaine des inquietudes quant a la conservation des de categories de paysages culturels africains ce elements les plus representatifs. En effet, au qui atteste de la diversite de ce concept en cours des prochaines 25 annees, la population

-57- Paysages Culturels en Afrique de l'Afrique doublera et aura besoin de davantage de place pour vivre et produire ses ressources alimentaires. Des bouleversements paysagers rapides sont donc inevitables. Deja, la croissance rapide des nouveaux tissus urbains montre que l'Afrique est associee au processus de mondialisation: la silhouette des cites modernes d'Abidjan, Douala, Dakar, Harare se rapproche plus de celie de leurs homologues europeennes ou americaines que de I'archetype paysager africain.

Des problemes ne manqueront donc pas de se poser pour conserver au paysage africain son identite. C'est pourquoi iI est urgent d'entreprendre rapidement un recensement des paysages culturels et de leurs caracteristiques afin d'en preserver I'essentiel.

La conservation des valeurs paysageres africaines ne peut s'envisager de maniere museale, par la mise sous sequestre de portions d'espace plus ou moins importantes. Elle doit etre etroitement associee a des programmes de developpement economique afin que les populations locales puissent asseoir leur developpement sur I'utilisation usufruitiere de leur patrimoine d~nt font partie les paysages. Le probleme des moyens necessaires a cette mise en oouvre est crucial car l'Afrique reunit la quasi totalite des pays du monde dont I'indice de developpement humain (IDH, UNDP) est inferieur a 0,403 : cela signifie des moyens financiers quasi inexistants et des capacites scientifiques et techniques a accroi"tre. En raison de leur expertise, on peut penser que Ie Centre du Patrimoine Mondial et I'UNESCO joueront un role initiateur important dans I'organisation de la valorisation et de la conservation des paysages culturels africains.

-58- Paysages Culturels en Afrique I Cultural Landscapes in Africa

SITES AFRICAINS

AFRICAN SITES

-59- Cultural Landscapes in Africa

INTRODUCTION TO THE VISITS OF SELECTED KA YA FORESTS

GEORGE ABUNGU ANTHONY GITHITHO

George Abungu (Kenya): les Kaya, forets sites sacres ont ete voues a I'abandon, ont ete sacrees des Mijikenda du Kenya et pilles et ont disparu. Anthony Githitho (Kenya): introduction a la visite de quelques-unes des forets des Actuellement I'intense exploitation economique Kaya de la region entra1"ne de nouvelles menaces sur ces 1"lots forestiers. Toutefois, les Kaya Cet expose general a perm is de cerner representent encore des isolats de diversite I'importance historique, spirituelle, culturelle et vegetale remarquable. naturelle de sites sacres OU, contrairement a la tradition monumentale, rien ne se donne a A. Githitho et Q. Luke ont presente un projet voir. Les Kaya sont des forets sacrees kenyan de preservation de sites sacres. Les protegees par la coutu~e mais eg~lem.ent par bois sacres ou forets des Kaya sont des Ie systeme juridique national. La migration des fragments isoles de la grande fo~et qui Mijikenda, groupe bantou, s'est faite, selon I~ s'etendait dans la plaine et sur les col lines de legende, du sud vers Ie nord du Kenya, .a eme I'est-africain, jusqu'en Tanzanie. Ces fragments partir du Vill siecle. Les forets ont perm IS presentent une grande diversite botanique et I'installation de ces communautes leur a ont une grande valeur pour la conservation de arrivee dans Ie pays. Au depart, il s'agissait la biodiversite. Leur etude est conduite par Ie d'etablissements dans des forets sans Kenya National Museums (KNM) avec caractere sacre. Les groupes se sont installes financement du WWF. La conservation de ces dans des villages fortifies, etablis dans les flots forestiers est directement liee I'histoire, clairieres. Celles-ci sont devenues plus tard a la culture et aux croyances de neuf groupes des sites sacres. Ces sites constituent des a ethniques Mijikenda. Sur les 47 bois sacres centres d'interet politique et religieux avec actuellement identifies, 33 ont ete enregistres aires de danse et de sacrifice. A ces sites comme monuments nationaux. De concert sacres correspondait une structure sociale, avec les communautes locales (comites chaque sous-groupe de la communau~e d'anciens), Ie KNM a mis en CBuvre un assurant une fonction particuliere dans Ie bOIs programme de conservation et de sacre. Avec Ie developpement de la securite, eme developpement qui comprend la delimitation au XIX siecle, ces groupes ont exploite la des difterentes Kaya identifiees, I'education et peripherie des bois sacres. Les clairieres la sensibilisation du public, des actions protegees par la foret ont continue a jouer un economiques pour reduire la pression autour role spirituel et servir de sepulture. Par la a des zones forestieres et, egalement, Ie suite, tensions, conflits et colonialisme ont renforcement des lois nation ales relatives la intensifie Ie defrichement et de nombreux a conservation du patrimoine.

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The Mijikenda Kaya Forests the Kaya as sacred centre has been intensified and even exaggerated only since the relevant The sacred Kaya Forests are situated in the groups ceased to live on the sites, that they Coastal plain and hills of Kenya, in East Africa. were previously simply fortified towns protecting They tend to be residual patches (av.10ha - their inhabitants from enemy raids. Whatever 200ha) of the once extensive and diverse the case, the cutting of trees and destruction of lowland forest of Eastern Africa occurring within vegetation around these sites was prohibited, the Zanzibar-Inhambane Regional Mosaic the main aim being to preserve the surrounding (UNESCO classification). The Kayas are botanically Kaya forest as a screen or buffer for the forest diverse and have a high conservation value as clearings. determined by various biological studies particularly two undertaken by the National Hence while the surrounding areas were gradually Museums of Kenya (NMK) and funded by WWF converted to farmland, the Kaya sites remained (Robertson,1987; Robertson and Luke, 1993). as the few remaining patches of indigenous More than half of Kenya's rare plants are found forests in a manmade landscape which was a in the Coast Region, many within these forests virtual monoculture of cashew, coconut and on the coastal strip. At present over 40 of these mango trees. Many of the forest paths to the sites have been identified in the contiguous historical villages are still quite distinct and in coastal districts of Kwale, Mombasa, Kilifi and some cases remnants of gates and palisades. Malindi. From the air the forests are very distinct and arranged along the top of a ridge of coastal hills Kaya forests are regarded as sacred by the (9) parallel to the sea, many displaying central coastal Mijikenda ethnic groups namely the cleared areas. Giriama, Digo, Duruma, Rabai, Chonyi, Kambe, Jibana, Ribe and Kauma who each identify with The Kayas are an integral element in the history a Kaya or Kayas. According to local traditions of the surrounding communities. Many local and legends, the forests historically sheltered families and clans, indeed all members of the small fortified villages of the various groups ethnic group can trace their origins to the when they first appeared in the region three original settlements in the central clearings. In centuries or more ago pursued by northern many cases, the traditional Kaya Elders enemies ('Kaya' means homestead). Where committees still exist. Although less influential possible they were established on hilltops and socially and pOlitically than before these elders other strategic locations. A typical Kaya would are still revered and respected in the local be several hundred yards across with a wooden community. Some still meet regularly in the fence or stockade all round it and paths leading Kayas and a very small minority actually live in to it through dense primeval forest. The few the old forest clearings. Occasional ceremonies gates into the clearing would be protected by are held there including prayers for good powerful charms and manned by armed guards. harvests, rain, healing and others. The Kaya is Village meetings would be held in a grove of still regarded as the ultimate reference of the trees or large thatched structure called a Mora. customs and identity of the people. in the centre of the Kaya. Certain sacred objects or charms Fingo essential to the well being of Threats to the Kayas the community were, and still are, believed to be Over the past three or four decades there has buried in a secret location in the Kaya. been a decline in knowledge and respect for traditional values due to economic, social, When conditions became more secure and cultural and other changes in society which have populations grew, presumably from the late affected cohesion and the values of local nineteenth century, local folklore maintains that communities. This has been coupled with a the various groups left their forest refuges and rising demand for forest products and land for began to clear and cultivate away from them. agriculture, mining and other activities due to an There are however reports of some Kayas being increased population. One result has been the inhabited well into the twentieth century (Willis, destruction and loss of the small Kaya forests 1996). The sites of the original Kaya settlements, and groves. By the time an active conservation often marked by clearings in the forest, were programme began to be implemented for the maintained by local communities led by their Kayas in the early 1990s, the sacred forests had Elders, as sacred places and burial grounds. It suffered considerably due to agricultural and has been suggested by some that the idea of other land-use and forest utilisation pressures.

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As an extreme example Kaya Chonyi, the The Kayas as Cultural landscapes sacred forest of the Chonyi Mijikenda group had been reduced in forest cover to a fifth of its Cultural landscapes as defined in the UNESCO reported original extent by local agricultural Operational Guidelines for the Implementation encroachment. Other Kayas particularly in the of the World Hefl~age Convention, should north Coast were diminished in size to varying represent "the combined works of nature and degrees such as Kaya Jibana, Kaya Rabai and man" (para 36). They should also be "illustrative Kaya Kambe. These sites fall in fairly fertile of the evolution of human society and settlement areas with relatively dense populations. They over time, under the influence of the physical were also logged for valuable hardwood timber constraints and opportunities presented by their trees some of which disappeared altogether. In natural environment and... social, economic and the South Coast where some of the Digo Kayas cultural forces". The Kaya forests obviously occurred along the beaches, they fell prey to meet many of these criteria. intensive hotel development and some were included in planned settlement schemes. As stated earlier, while Kaya forests are natural biological phenomena, they owe their existence location and shape to the culture, beliefs and Conservation Programmes history of the Mijikenda communities hence are In 1992 the Government intervened to check "the works of nature and man". They are an this trend by gazetting a number of Kayas (23) essential component of the history of the as National Monuments through the National Mijikenda being the original homes of these Museums of Kenya. This process continues groups in the region. Their siting on forested today. The National Museums' Coastal Forest hilltops is a reminder of the priorities and Conservation Unit CFCU has been undertaking concerns of the people who established them, a conservation programme for the Kayas with chiefly security and secrecy and how these have support from the World Wide Fund for Nature changed over time. Their locations are also WWFsince 1992. The work of the NMK (CFCU) closely linked with the movements of the various involves: communities, and their settlement and population pattems. Changing land-use pattems and practices • Demarcation and boundary survey of important have had a strong influence on these forests in Kaya forest sites in consultation with local the sense that they have become more and communities in preparation for gazettement; more sharply defined in the landscape as cultivation in surrounding areas is intensified. • Supporting local communities in the Due to historical and cultural associations of protection of their sacred sites; these forested sites and their vividness, they serve as very poignant symbols of Mijikenda • A public awareness and education programme culture. to increase peoples' knowledge about the Kayas and the need to conserve them for It can be said of the Kayas that they "maintain their biological and cultural heritage; and enhance natural values in the landscape". They significantly improve the visual quality of • Promotion, in partnership with other bodies, of the coastal and inland landscape and are areas altemative wood and other resource development in which nature is conserved. As the guidelines by communities neighboring the Kayas to state: the continued existence of traditional help decrease utilization pressure on the forms of land-use supports biological diversity in forests, many regions of the world. The Convention on Biological Diversity launched in 1992 recognised • Promoting biological, sociological, cultural the need for 'protection and encouragement of and other research to increase our knowledge customary use of biological resources in of the Kayas and Coastal forests in general in accordance with traditional cultural practices order to enhance their management and that are compatible with conservation and conservation, sustainable use requirements' (article 10 of the • Promoting the review and strengthening of Convention). National laws relating to heritage conservation, Botanical surveys of coastal forests of Kenya and supporting the development of local over a number of years have yielded and community and other institutions involved with continue to yield rare and interesting plant Kaya and coastal forest conservation. species. A significant number of these species

-62- G. Abungu & A. Githitho - Introduction to the visits of selected Kay forests are considered to be rare in a global sense. In addition to these features the forests pass the Others are rare in the country and the Kenya required tests of authenticity and integrity. They coast. Out of a list of 260 coastal species listed are authentic in their distinct character and as falling within these three categories by components and indisputably imbedded in the Robertson and Luke (1993), at least 16 % were local cultural, social, historical and natural found in the Kayas and sacred groves with a environment. The continued existence of the total area of roughly 2000 ha or about 2.5 % of Kayas despite intense land-use pressures is the total amount of remaining coastal forest. proof of the existence of a traditional system of beliefs and use rules which have been quite While it is true that the Kayas have been effective in protecting many of the forests from intensively studied in the last 10 years, the complete destruction. The Kenya Government diversity also reflects an ecological reality as the has gazzetted the Kayas thus conferring legal Kaya forests cover a broader range of habitat protection to supplement the traditional mechanisms and micro-climatic conditions increasing the which would on their own not be adequate to number of species likely to be represented maintain the sites indefinitely. The Government within these fragments (Duthie, 1998). has also included them on he new tentative list of Kenya, the first step towards nominating their Cultural landscapes fall into a number of Kayas for the World Heritage List. categories. These include landscape designed and created by man such as gardens and parkland constructed for aesthetic reasons, References associative cultural landscapes and organically Abungu G. H., 1998. Islam on the Kenyan evolved landscapes. In the case of associative Coast: an overview of Kenyan coastal sacred cultural landscapes, there are powerful religious, sites in : Carmichael D. L., Hubert J., Reeves B. artistic or cultural associations of the natural Schanche A. (Eds.) Sacred Sites, Sacred element although there is no material cultural Places (One World Archaeology 23) Routledge. element. An organically evolved one on the 152-162. other hand results from an initial, social, economic, administrative religious and/or religious Robertson S. A., 1986. Preliminary Floristic imperative and has developed its present form Survey of the Kaya Forests of Coastal Kenya. by association with and responding to the Unpublished report to the Director, National natural environment. The Kayas seem to fit well Museums of Kenya and WWF International. into this category. NMK, Nairobi, Kenya. UNEP, 1992. Convention on Biological Diversity. Organically evolved landscapes can be a relict one in which an evolutionary process came to Robertson S. A and W R Q Luke, 1993. Kenya an end, or a continuing one which retains an Coastal Forests: The Report of the NMKlWWF active social role in contemporary SOCiety Coast Forest Survey WWF Project 3256: Kenya, closely linked with the traditional way of life Coast Forest Status, Conservation and (UNESCO, 1998). Kayas fall somewhere Management. Unpublished report to the between the two. If the culture and traditions Director, National Museums of Kenya and WWF. NMK, Nairobi, Kenya. that were responsible for the protection of these sites are completely lost, there is a likelihood Githitho A., 1998a. Institutional Challenges in that they will become fossil landscapes to which Conservation: The Case of the Sacred Kaya local communities do not relate. The work of the Forests of the Kenya Coast. NMKlCFCU. National Museums is in a sense to check or Githitho A. 1998b. A Report on The Intemational reverse this process where possible. Symposium on 'Natural' Sacred Sites - Cultural Diversity and Biological Diversity. (CFCU Outstanding Universal Value internal report, Kilifi). From the above description of the Kaya forests Anon, 1999. Conservation of the Sacred Kaya and their special character, it is appropriate that Forests of Coastal Kenya : The Work of the these sites receive recognition and protection as National Museums. NMKlCFCU (Leaflet). areas of outstanding universal value to the Duthie 0, 1998. Coastal Forest Conservation global community. The manner in which Unit Project WWF KE0074, Mid-term Project traditional culture and values have shaped Evaluation final report (WWF internal report). landscape in a highly distinctive way and been instrumental in the conservation of biological Willis J, 1996. The Northern Kayas of the diversity distinguish the Kayas as unique Mijikenda: A Gazetteer and an Historical heritage sites. Reassessment. Azania XXX I.

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THE SUKUR CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

JOSEPH EBOREIME

LE PAYSAGE CULTUREL DE SUKUR des terrasses agricoles formant un paysage spectaculaire incluant de nombreux elements Resume spirituels (arbres sacres, portails, tombes, Situe dans les Monts du Mandara, Ie site de etc.). Le site reunit un ensemble d'elements a Sukur jouxte la frontiere du Cameroun. II est valeur spirituelle comme les monuments constitue par un plateau dominant des collines funeraires organises par caste (princes, caracteristiques des confins nigeriano­ forgerons, membres des 25 clans de Sukur) et camerounais. Sukur est un site anciennement dedies a la celebration periodique des cycles habite et specialise dans la production et la de la vie et de la mort, ou les autels et diffusion d'outils et d'armes de fer, de fa90n chapelles de ceramique dedies au culte des continue, jusqu'en 1960. Sur Ie site de Sukur, divinites tutela ires de Sukur. Le site de Sukur artisans du fer, maTtres de la pluie et autres traduit toute la diversite et la complexite des habitants sont associes dans une institution paysages culturels africains. Ce paysage pyramidale localisee dans Ie palais de granit reunit des caracteres a la fois associatifs, de Hindi, la femme symbolique et collective de technologiques et agricoles qui constituent Ie la communaute de Sukur. La construction du cadre de vie passe et actuel de toute une palais de Hindi est attribuee a des geants communaute, depuis plusieurs siecles. L'interet et aides par des chamans Seers. Outre ce la qualite de cet ensemble sont a I'origine de la palais, Ie site comprend des enclos coniques proposition d'inscription sur la Liste du de pierre pour Ie betail (destine a patrimoine mondial soumise par Ie Nigeria, et I'engraissement pour certaines ceremonies), qui a ete examinee par Ie Comite du des fourneaux pour la production du fer, patrimoine mondial en decembre 1999.

Background Sukur Cultural Landscape was submitted in Sukur, lies on the Nigerian side of the Mandara­ 1996 as part of Nigeria's Tentative List. Cameroon borderlands on an undulating plateau Following a UNESCO Mission in 1997 further ranging from 1 000 to 3 000 feet above the consultations and consent with the local Maggar valley. It is located 25km West of communities were carried out. After further Moloko in the Cameroon and 17km SW of research and documentation, catalysed by Madagali in Adamawa State of Nigeria. Occupying preparatory assistance from UNESCO, it an area of 764.40 the Sukur cultural landscape became possible to convince budgetary Authorities is bound on the west by River Navu and on the in Nigeria to give a measure of counterpart east by the Muzawah and Guzkc streams. funding for the ongoing UNESCO World Heritage Programme in Nigeria.

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The Sukur Plateau possesses rich soils and development of Sukur as a major iron producing adequate supplies of water which are significant centre, which supplied large areas of north-east natural assets to the Sukur cultural landscape. Nigeria with a critical raw material. This phase, The Plateau is the home of the Hidi and formed mentioned by Barth in 1851, continued until at a strategic location from which the Sukur least 1906 when, when Strumpell visited. In a resisted attacks from hostile neighbours. subsequent phase, 1912-1922, Sukur was raided and ravaged by Hamman Yaji, the Fulbe The Sukur Cultural Landscape encompasses Lamido of Madagali. the Hidi's stone henge palace (i.e. the dwelling place of the spirito-political paramountcy), stone In the colonial and independence period, iron paved walkways linking the low land to the smelting declined, ending in about 1960, and graduated Plateau upon whose upper zenith the there was a significant movement of Sukur Hidi dwells. The landscape also incorporates people from the Plateau to the Plains to the unique architectural features, stone corrals for North and South. During the colonial period, feeding domestic stock, grave yards, stone Sukur was visited by several District Officers gates as well as delicately fashioned stone grain and others, who left significant archival accounts huts, unique vernacular stone settlement summarised by Kirke-Greene in the Nigerian clusters with homestead farms, all in the midst Field Volume XXV No.2 (2 April 1960). of rare species of flora and fauna. In September 1912, the leader of nearby All these architectural and landscape features Madagali, one Hamman Yaji, began to chronicle characterise the unique mode of life in the his diary of attacks on the surrounding montagnard cultural ecology of the lowland hill dwellers all settlements. Between 1912 and 1920 he over the Nigerian Cameroon borderlands from recorded nine raids on the Sukur Plateau: seven the Mandara through the Altantica to the on Sukur itself, which produced a total of 144 Mambilla as well as the Jos Plateau (the Kofyar) slaves, one horse (so much for the Sukur and (the Kabre of) the Northern Togo. Calvary!), 100 cattle and 24 small stock. According to his figures, 66 Sukur people were However, the Sukur have uniquely and successfully killed, including 17 children. fused two pivotal functionaries, the Iron worker and Rain maker, which are separate from other The brutality of Hamman Yaji and his irregular hill dwellers, into one pyramidal institution in the soldiers is matched only by his stupidity. Had office of the Hidi. The Hidi have, through the he concluded an alliance with Sukur, he could delicate manipulation of space and deployment have controlled the iron trade of much of what of ressources, transformed power in the Sukur became north-eastern Nigeria. Hamman Yaji cultural landscape into a relatively fT11)~e was able to conceal the existence of Sukur and dynamic and manipulative resource uncommon the taxes he extracted, from the colonial amongst their Mandara, Alantica and Mambilla authorities until early 1927: Kulp (1935) was the neighbours. first to comment on Sukur's industrial speCialisation in smelting and exporting iron, which others later The hill has economic potential with its water, estimated at 50,000 hoes p.a. harvesting. cattle rearing. game conservation and mutually sustainable eco-cultural tourism The kingdom of Sukur first entered into the resources. ethnographic record in the 1850s when Heinrich Barth, an explorer passed through the plains to History the west of Mandara Mountains on his way to Yola. By the late 19th and 20th centuries, the There is some limited evidence of Neolithic Sukur kingdom under the Hidi, had extended occupation of Sukur: a pre-Sukur iron-age over most of the present Sukur District of the phase is represented by numerous grinding Magadaali Local government (David and Stener, stones; iron ore stones and abandoned 1995, 1996). furnaces. With an estimated population of over 6 000, A later iron-age phase going back at least to the Sukur had emerged as a chiefdom by the 18th 17th century is represented by the establishment of century. the current Dur chiefly dynasty and the

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With her superior iron casting technology, Sukur on the other. had a monopoly on the supply of tools (hoes, cutlasses and sickles etc.) and weapons Paved Ways (poisoned arrow heads, spears and missiles Aproximately 5-7 meters wide, the paved ways etc.). represent the symbolic, spiritual and material The Hidi supplied his subjects with equipment interdependence between the hills and the for cultivation, defence and attack. In return he lowlands, between the Hidi and his people. They were entitled to income from iron taxes, a leg of define the Hidi's exclusiveness as well as his each bull sacrificed at major feasts, as well as reliance on the forces of nature and culture to the charcoal (raw material) required for his own rule over the Sukur, to whom he is perceived as smelting. a 'wife', not as father as in most other African worlds. He combines the forces of production, The entire Sukur people were under obligation reproduction and military prowess. to their collective and symbolic wife, the Hidi, to put in a day's work in his estate four times a The paved ways are constructed on the steep year. part of the hillside, presumably to minimise erosion, and to facilitate climbing and horse­ riding. The Hidi's paved way is separate from Evaluation of Site Features and Potential that of the Sukur folk. Sukur cultural landscape offers rare opportunities for collaborative work and multi-disciplinary It has been suggested (Nicholas David and approaches to issues of Culture Resource Steiner Judith) that the great paved causeway Management as well as adaptive mechanisms may have been built by thousands of slaves to and strategies amongst Africa's hill dwelling provide an easy passage for the Sukur Calvary populations. for their escape mission to the plains.

For example some answers could be found for Domesticated Landscape the unresolved mystery of the Nyanga terraces The domesticated landscape is characterised by in the Mozambique-Zimbabwe borderlands as agricultural terracing, creating a scenic parkland well as Kenya, by looking at the work carried out typical of the traditional Mandara inhabitants as in the Nigerian-Cameroon borderlands, using well as that of the more Southerly Koma hill the Sukur cultural landscape as a case study. dwellers on the Alantica mountains, and the Kofyar hill farmers in the Jos Plateau (Netting The Sukur plateau and associated monuments 1968; Eboreime 1986). is uniquely confined within a small area, showing all the scenic cultural features of the Sukur terraces uniquely embrace a series of Nigerian and Cameroonian Northern Mandara spiritual features not found in either Kofyar or mountains. even the Philippine Cordilleras. These include sacred trees, sacred gateways; festive/ritual The Hidi Palace grounds, tombs and graveyards. These features The infrastructure of the Hidi Palace complex constitute mnemonic evidence of a continued living landscape and heritage; bestowing sacred ~its terrace facings, walls and paved pathways} qualities on the total landscape. IS almost entirely built of granite found in-situ, a few hundred meters away. Sacred qualities are attributed to the palace by the Sukur who credit Vernacular architectural forms with special its construction as well as the terraces and features such as stonewalls, daub domes, paved ways to legendary giants who were sunken bull pens, granaries, threshing floor helped by shamanic Seers. characterise the Sukur cultural landscape from the plains to the adjoining hills and Plateau. Thus the Hidi palace is a residential as well as a Graveyards/mounds are monuments erected social political landscape being used as by the living to celebrate the dead in periodic symbolic statements of authority and power life-cycle rituals that form part of Sukur religion relationships within the domestic domain on the and belief systems. one hand; and between it and the Hidi populace

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Three categories of graveyards are identifiable threshing floors (community and household), (Inuejulawo and Dunkrah, 1997): granaries, sheep and goat-corrals provide clues to communal cohesiveness, the viability of the (i) Those exclusively reserved for Sukur kings household and the interdependence between are located within a sacred vegetation in the culture and nature; man and animal; God and form of a grove near the Hidi's palace. man; hill dwellers and lowland people. Within the grove, ancient herbs and trees with rare fauna exist under strict Thus the low-lying villages in the plains and the prohibitions and taboos that have promoted foot of the hills are symbiotically related in ecological conservation practices down the kinship terms to the Hidi in the hilltop Plateau. ages; The younger generation is at the base and the (ii) Graveyards for the Blacksmiths and; elders on the hilltops, providing an ideological (iii) Graveyards for the ordinary citizen exist and spiritual umbrella for a shared history, distinctly within the landscape. ancient heritage and environment.

Graves are often painted white, mounted with Climbing up and down the steep slopes expressively personal possessions as pots and hoes represents a cyclical renewal of age-long ties, intended to be at the disposal of the living dead loyalty to the elders and the principles of after life on this earth. Each of the 25 clans in gesontacracy inherent in ancestral veneration. the Sukur kingdom have their own ancestral The paved way represents the supremacy of the cemeteries and shrines. older generation over the young, emphasising the interdependence between the spiritual and Built-in Conical Stonewalls - Stonewall cattle the temporal, the sacred over the secular. corrals built-within stone fences are constructed Today, the present, Hidi of the Sukur kingdom within the lower basement of homesteads for the who is the spiritual leader of the people living on fattening of priceless sheep and bull. The pens the Plateau top, is a blood brother to the District have apertures big enough for ventilation and Head in charge of secular affairs within the nurture of cattle but not wide enough for their modern day Madagali Local government Area. escape. They have to be demolished to release Given this relationship, it is easy to understand the fattened calf to the admiration of kinsmen why the whole of the Sukur kingdom is still an and buyers. Cattle are capital commodities as integral part of a total cultural landscape. The gifts for marriage exchanges which are hills have as features, from bottom to top, associated with individual and clan prestige. agricultural terraces which are testimonies to the continuity of tradition handed down from Iron Smelting Furnaces - There is a far greater generation to generation and going back into density of slag and other smelting debris in the centuries of well tested farming technological Sukur Plateau than anywhere in the Mandara. knowledge whose execution and scenic beauty The Sukur iron smelting industry was the basis can perhaps only be compared to the Rice of commercial and military dominance of this Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras which region in the pre-colonial times. was proclaimed a World Heritage Site in 1995. Shrines and Ceramic Alters - Within the In addition, the Sukur terraces embrace a series context of the Sukur worldview and religious of spiritual qualities exemplified by sacred trees, ideology, are visual metaphors in the form of ritual entrances, sacrificial places, graves and shrines and altars expressing religious beliefs festive areas. The abundance of iron, stones, and practices. Zihigela (Zhigal) equivalent to the slags and sludges with a series of furnaces, help Judaeo-Christian God whose incandescent to emphasise the industrial base of Sukur. With qualities are expressed through impartial the terraces and shrines they act as reminder agencies such as Piss, (the Sungod), and TIA that the Sukur landscapes is a living model of the moon and the stars (MAILA). Maidtril is the sustainable use of land and natural resources in forest god while Sukur-Yam is the Rain-God. the context of cultural and community identities, Hiradagwal increases agricultural fertility. retaining their spiritual ethos and self-worth as a people. The Sukur cultural landscape also embodies rich and unique agricultural facilities. The

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Justification of the Inclusion of Sukur landscape development", thus satisfying Cultural Landscape on the World criteria (i), (ii) and (iii) of the Operational Heritage List Guidelines. Following the ICOMOS Guidelines and the 5. The Hidi Palace is the epitome of Sukur's advice of IUCN and the UNESCO Mission's civilisation and history as well as a symbolic advice the site was represented by Nigeria as a monument that combines material-nonmaterial cultural landscape instead of the Hidi Palace values as well as spiritual-secular ones, all alone. This was presented under cultural criteria of which adhere to the personality and office of the Operational Guidelines (para 35ff). of the Hidi. The time and labour that have continued to go into the dextrous arrangements 1. The Sukur Cultural Landscape represents of stones in walling the Hidi's palace and its "the combined works of nature and of man, surroundings from generation to generation of outstanding universal value" within the are a salute to these great heritage. Mandara, Atlantic and the Lake Chad Region 6. The unique architecture and stonewalls are of the Nigeria-Cameroon borderlands, offering reminiscent of the Ziwa Stone Walls of Great comparative materials for the deeper Zimbabwe. However while those of Ziwa understanding of man's creative and adaptive represent a bygone era those of Sukur genius as exemplified in the Philippines, represent a Living heritage bespeaking of "a Zimbabwe and Kenya; already inscribed on unique effort at indigenous technological the World Heritage List. innovation and engineering" unequalled in 2. The architectural features, the shrines, the Western African sub-Region, satisfying paved ways and graveyards as well as the both criteria (i) and (iv) of the Operational religious belief system represent "a diversity Guidelines side by side. of manifestations of the interaction between 7. What is more, the threshing floors, unique humankind and its natural environment" conical stone-built walk-in wells, and iron­ (Guidelines pp.37). smelting fumaces, all ingeniously encapsulated 3. Sukur is therefore a continuing landscape into well defined homesteads and clan having organically "evolved from a Neolithic settlement clusters with buffer zones, through a later iron age into a major 17thc hunting grounds, agricultural spaces, burial distributive centre for iron within the grounds, give proof of the durable systems Mandara Region well into the Cameroons." of land use. They provide livelihoods, are An adaptive use of the environment is socially and spiritually satisfying, harmonising evident in the farming and religious practices with nature, and are aesthetically pleasing; of the Sukur. Their house types, variety of preserving cultural identities of communities groves and hunting grounds bearing (Lucas 1992). testimony to their disciplined and efficient use of minimal space, as well as their way of Conclusions making the most out of life in an otherwise Nigeria is ready to conserve and package this rugged ecological niche. living vibrant soul for posterity, for today's appreCiation and tomorrow's evidence of our 4. Unique and variegated in its in-built cultural commitment to the World Heritage Convention. components (graves, furnaces, shrines, stonewalls and paved ways) which the Follow-up - The Bureau, at its 23fd session, impressive Philippine Cordilleras do not recommended that this property be inscribed on incorporate, Sukur represents a symbiotic the World Heritage List on the basis of Cultural interaction between nature and culture, the criteria (iii), (v), and (vi). living and the dead, the past and the present. It is posited that Sukur Cultural Criterion (iii): Sukur is an exceptional landscape landscape incorporating the Hidi's Palace, which graphically illustrates a form of land-use the stone cattle corrals and pens, amongst that marks a critical stage in human settlement others, bear abundant testimony of human and its relation ship with its environment. creativity "exhibiting an interchange of human values on architectural and

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Criterion (v): The cultural landscape of Sukur David N. & Stener J., 1995-1996. Constructing has survived unchanged for many centuries, a historical ethnography of Sukur II. Parts I and and continues to do so at a period when this II, Nigerian Heritage: National Commission for form of traditional human settlement is under Museums and Monuments, Lagos. threat in many parts of the world. Netting R.McC., 1968. Hill farmers of Nigeria. Criterion (vi): The cultural landscape of Sukur Intensive hill agriculture. Chapter 3: 55-107. is eloquent testimony to a strong and continuing University of Washington Press. spiritualism and cultural tradition that has endured for many centuries. Eboreime J., 1996. Language and culture resources management within the context of The Bureau discussed the importance of pluralism: the Nigerian situation. Ethnicity in spirituality in the African context and decided to Africa: Its Roots, Meaning and Implications. apply criterion (vi). The Bureau also noted the Centre of African studies, University of protection of the site through customary law and Edinburgh, Scotland. also requested the Centre to forward two ICOMOS proposals to the State Party for immediate action:

• the organisation of a round table on the future of Sukur, in association with governmental agencies, the local community, tourism organisms and other potential partners; • the adoption of a cultural and tourism planning management plan which foresees the creation of a body responsible for its implementation, the production of authentic material for tourism purposes, the integration of a visitor centre and lodging infrastructure for tourism and the development of means of transport integrated into the landscape and environment. Part of the income deriving from these activities will be reinvested in the management of the natural and cultural resources of Sukur.

References Nomination Dossier of Sukur Cultural Landscape (C938). Prepared by the Government of Nigeria. 1998.

Barth H., 1995 (1857). Travels and discoveries in North and Central Africa, 3 Vols. London: Frank Cass and co., vo1.2.1 00.

Kirk-Green, A.H.M., 1960. The Kingdom of Sukur. A Northern Nigerian Ichabod. Nigerian Field 25: 67-96.

Kulp H.S., 1935. Notice taken on tour in Madagali District. June 14-22, File Yolaprof, J21, National Archives, Kaduna.

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CITE ROYALE, BOIS SAC RES ET ARBRES ROYAUX D'AMBOHIMANGA: UN EXEMPLE DE PAYSAGE CULTUREL ASSOCIATIF MALGACHE DES HAUTES TERRES

ANDRIANAIVOARIVONY RAFOLO

ROYAL CITY, ROYAL SACRED WOODS around a public square, organised in a AND TREES OF MADAGASCAR symbolic manner. The royal city comprises Summary palaces, basins, a cattle pit, an enclosure and several constructions. The spiritual heritage is Near Antananarivo, the Ambohimanga Hill represented by sacred royal tombs, sacred constitutes a remarkable example of a cultural woods, royal trees, sacrificial stones, as well landscape in the Malagasy highlands. The site as a symbolic occupation of space. The shelters numerous archaeological vestiges association of all these values, where culture (pits, portals, barriers) set up as circular and nature are closely inter-linked, makes for fortifications around the royal city. This the originality and interest of this site inscribed developed from the 15th to the 18th centuries on the tentative list of Madagascar.

Situee a 22 km au nord d'Antananarivo et a 10 I'environnement c'est-a-dire les elements km a I'est de l'Aeroport International d'ivato la naturels et culturels et de mettre en relief: colline sacree d'Ambohimanga, berceau du royaume et de la dynastie qui ont fait de • Ie site historique et archeologique sur une Madagascar un Etat modeme et intemationalement colline boisee et ; reconnu des 1817\ abrite une cite royale • Ie site spirituel et religieux ancre a appelee Rova, une foret sacree des arbres I'environnement. royaux et une multitude de vestiges lies a I'histoire et surtout a la spiritualite des 1. Ambohimanga, site historique et Malgaches des Hautes Terres de jadis et archeologique sur une colline boisee d'aujourd'hui, ce qui en fait un exemple inedit de pays age culturel associatif. Ambohimanga est une colline couverte de formation boisee residuelle cachant de L'objet de la presente contribution sera donc de nombreux vestiges archeologiques et abritant la presenter la colline sacree d'Ambohimanga en cite royale. tant que paysage culturel associatif en • Les vestiges archeologiques dissemines dans soulignant les interactions entre les hommes et la colline sont constitues par les amenagements de defense protegeant la cite royale que nous allons examiner plus loin.

1Traite Anglo-Malgache de 1817.

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Ces amemagements sont d'abord de grands adoptees par la societe 6 : ainsi Ie nord est Ie fosses larges et profonds qui ont ete creuses secteur du pouvoir, de I'autorite et de la afin de ceinturer la colline a travers la foret. puissance; Ie sud, celui de la soumission (ici Ce sont ensuite les "portes" ou portails de reserve a la population); I'est, celui des pierre au nombre d'une bonne douzaine et de Ancetres, du sacre et du Createur (ici materialise types varies associes aux fosses et aux par I'enclos royal et surtout les tom beaux chemins d'acces menant a la cite royale. Ces royaux sacres qu'il abrite) et I'ouest, Ie portails peuvent etre couverts, a linteaux, a secteur du profane et de I'impur (ici disque de pierre ou simplement naturels materialise par I'habitat du peuple legerement c'est-a-dire formes de blocs de rocher en contrebas). laissant un passage. Beaucoup d'entre eux ont des fonctions particulieres et sont de ce L'enclos ceinturant la cite royale est forme d'un fait empreints de symbolisme social et mur epa is et eleve surmonte d'une palissade en religieux. Ainsi les portails de I'ouest de la bois imputrescible, du genre tambourissa sp .. Le colline etaient royaux et interdits aux corteges mur est fait d'agregats de pierre et d'un mortier funebres; ceux du nord et du sud etaient des a base de chaux, de sable fin et de blanc portails de guet; d'autres enfin etaient d'oeufs. II com porte deux portails, au nord et a interdits aux animaux. Par ailleurs, au pied de I'ouest. Ce dernier est solennel et est surmonte la colline dans sa partie nord se trouve un d'un belvedere reserve aux souverains et datant petit lac artificiel compris dans Ie domaine comme I'enclos des annees 1830. Le belvedere royal et declare sacre, reserve aux usages de 2 attribuait aux souverains une position dominante la cite royale et des ceremonies rituelles • par rapport a la place publique lorsqu'ils n'y 7 descendaient pas , et dans raire sacree, il eta it • La cite royale admis qu'ils etaient des dieux visibles et objets La cite royale, datant du XVe siecle A.D. et de culte et de veneration. La cite royale qui se developpe aux XVlle et XVllle, est proprement dite comprend trois palais ou /apa composee d'un ensemble coherent delimite dont celui du grand roi Andrianampoinimerina par un enclos et associant une place (1787-1810) 8, simple case en bois a piece publique. Cite royale et place publique etaient unique, datant de 1790 et representant Ie type jadis Ie point central de la colline sur Ie plan de maison traditionnelle malgache des Hautes social, politique et religieux. Terres; celui de la reine Ranavalona II (1868- 1883), toujours en bois mais deja moderne avec 3 ses portes et fenetres vitrees, son balcon, son La place publique, appelee Fidasiana , eta it etage et ses pieces, datant de 1871 et un petit Ie lieu de reunion et de rencontre entre les pavilion en bois de la meme epoque, avec un souverains et la population. Situee a I'ouest et etage aux parois vitrees accueillant les conseils au pied de I'enclos royal, on y trouve une de gouvernement lorsque celui-ci etait sur place. pierre sacree sur laquelle les souverains 4 On voit egalement dans la cite une fosse a pronongaient leurs discours , une autre ou breufs sacres. pour les zebus destines aux I'on faisait les sacrifices et surtout les arbres sacrifices; deux bassins ou douves remplis royaux a I'allure majestueuse composes de d'eau de I'etang sacre; une maison mortuaire en ficus, particulierement ficus baroni Bak et bois ou I'on gardait les depouilles des 5 ficus megapoda Bak . Le mode d'occupation souverains avant les funerailles et juste a cote, de I'espace ici est fonction des valeurs des tom beaux royaux qualifies egalement de sacres et que nous allons voir plus en detail dans la deuxieme partie consacree aux valeurs spirituelles et religieuses de la colline 2 F~te du bain royal (Fandroana) , circoncision des princes, d'Ambohimanga. prelEwement d'eau pour les douves. 3 Litt. "La OU I'on campe".

4 Kabary _ en malgache, vehicule, message, exhortation et 6 Ces valeurs sont communes a travers tout Madagascar a proverbes bien choisis qui faisaient vibrer I'auditoire. quelques exceptions pres. 5 De la famille des Moracees. Ces arb res avec d'autres 7 S'ils descendent, ils s'y placent au nord-est, secteur OU se varietes et especes (ficus pyrifolia Link. dracoena reflexa jOignent Ie pouvoir (nord) et Ie sacre (est). Lam.) etaient reserves aux residences royales et les 8 Pere de la dynastie des souverains du Royaume de caracterisaient dans Ie paysage. Madagascar (1810-1896).

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2. Ambohimanga, site spirituel et • Les tombeaux royaux sacres religieux Les souverains etaient, de leur vivant, veneres et consideres comme des dieux Ambohimanga est un site spirituel a travers ses visibles. Mais, a travers leurs tom beaux, ils bois sacres, ses tom beaux royaux et ses accedent, comme tous les autres morts, au nombreux lieux de culte et elle etait la capitale rang d'ancetres, ayant pouvoir de protection religieuse et la ville sainte du Royaume de ou de punition sur les vivants. Dans I'espace Madagascar au XIXe siecle en etant Ie lieu de la cite et de I'enclos royaux, les tom beaux d'enterrement des souverains. Ces vestiges et royaux sont sis a I'est, secteur du sacre. Leur ces endroits sont aujourd'hui encore au creur presence et les depouilles royales ensevelies des pratiques religieuses de nombreux conferaient et conferent a la Cite et au site Malgaches et constituent une memoire vivante d'Ambohimanga un caractere sacre. lis etaient de la religion traditionnelle. surmontes de maisonnettes sacrees en bois, Les phenomenes religieux ont marque et symbole de la royaute. lis occupaient une marquent encore les paysages et les espaces telle grande place dans la spiritualite et la par Ie culte des morts et des ancetres royaux et religion traditionnelle malgache que les par les rites et/ou pelerinages sur les lieux autorites coloniales frangaises, pour frapper sacres comme les pierres de sacrifice, les bois un grand coup, ont transfere a Antananarivo et les arbres, les sanctuaires, I'etang et la en 1897 tous les restes mortels des 9 fontaine royale . souverains ensevelis dans ces tom beaux. Mais Ie respect et la veneration ont persiste • Les bois sacres et les arbres royaux jusqu'a nos jours. Ambohimanga est donc un La foret d'Ambohimanga, formation originelle site funeraire historique desaffecte dont Ie residuelle constituee d'essences locales et role spirituel est toujours actif. pour la plupart endemiques, recouvrait la colline depuis des temps immemoriaux et Ie • Les lieux de culte nom du site lui-meme evoque d'ailleurs une Ce sont des lieux naturels ou batis a "forat touffue ". I'interieur de I'enclos royal ou a I'exterieur.

Composee de varietes de ficus, de pandanus, Dans I'enceinte, outre les tom beaux de dragonniers, d'orchidees, de lianes et d'autres essences, elle est I'une des rares precedemment presentes, il y a egalement forets qui ont subsiste sur les Hautes Terres. les deux bassins situes a I'est des palais et C'est qu'elle a ete, et continue a etre des tom beaux et creuses dans Ie rocher. Des consideree comme un bien exclusif appartenant pelerins continuent d'y prelever de I'eau qu'ils au Souverain et a conserve un caractere considerent comme benite. II y a aussi Ie coin sacre jusqu'a notre epoque. Sa preservation nord-est de I'interieur de la case royale du autrefois fut I'objet de severes instructions grand Andrianampoinimerina ou I'on invoquait royales. (et I'on continue de Ie faire encore) son esprit et ceux des autres ancetre royaux. Associes a la foret et surtout a la cite royale, les arbres royaux, dont nous avons deja dit A I'exterieur de I'enceinte royale, iI faut quelques mots, sont des arbres specifiques signaler en premier lieu les pierres de reserves aux cites royales. Composes de ficus et de dragonniers, ils sont dans I'espace sacrifice situees a I'est de la place publique. les marques distinctives du commandement Des sacrifices y sont encore faits par les et I'objet de respect voire de veneration. On tenants de la religion traditionnelle : apres la les appelle des Hazon'Andriana c'est-a-dire mise a mort du zebu soigneusement choisi a "des arbres des princes .. 1o cause de sa robe particuliere 11, Ie sang collecte est deverse sur les pierres de sacrifice, les coins des tom beaux, les pierres du foyer et Ie secteur nord-est de I'interieur de la case d'Andrianampoinimerina et sur un

9 Cette derniere toujours active se trouve en contrebas et a I'ouest de la place publique. C'est une source perchee qui a ete amenagee en fontaine. 10 La langue malgache utilise Ie seul mot andriana pour 11 Pelage rouge ou noir marque d'une tache blanche au designer sans distinction Ie seigneur, Ie prince ou Ie roi. milieu du front ou sur les extremites des pattes ou de la Pour ce dernier, on adjoint au mot Ie suffixe manjaka queue. Ces bates, considerees d'office, mame jusqu'a ("qui regne") pour Ie distinguer des autres seigneurs nos jours, com me bien des souverains, sont destinees (RAFOLO A., 1994). aux sacrifices en leur hommage ou a ceux des Ancetres.

-72- A. Rafolo - Cite royale, bois sacres et arbres royaux d'Ambohimanga grand rocher au sud-est de I'enceinte royale ou L'association de toutes ces valeurs et surtout il y a un petit trou assimile a un vagin de femme I'extraordinaire enchevetrement du naturel et du et accueillant des pelerins 12. culturel font I'originalite du site d'Ambohimanga ou I'on pourrait dire que ce qui peut y paraitre Par ailleurs, la fontaine royale deja evoquee, est "naturel" est en fait "culturel". C'est la raison egalement un lieu de culte. La source a ete pour laquelle Madagascar I'a inscrite sur la liste amenagee et a re9u un abri construit. Toujours indicative en se reterant aux criteres culturels alimentee, des pelerins viennent y puiser de (ii) et (vi) en vue de son inscription sur la Liste I'eau ou s'y purifient avant de penetrer dans du patrimoine mondial. I'enclos royal ou d'aller sur les autres lieux sacres. Bibliographie Le dernier lieu de culte est I'etang situe en contrebas au nord de la colline boisee. Creuse CAMO P., RABEARIVELO J.J., MAHNES Y., artificiellement pour les souverains, iI accueillait, TREVIS P. 1924 - Ambohimanga, ville royale et avons-nous dit, la tete du bain royal et la colline sacre, Revue 18° Latitude Sud, circoncision des enfants princiers entre autres. Tananarive, W 11 et 12. L'etang recevait egalement les visceres des souverains decedes. L'importance du bain royal FAUREC U. 1935 - Ambohimanga colline de solennel, effectue une fois par an, est tres legende, Revue de Madagasgar, Tananarive, grande dans la spiritualite malgache : Ie Impimerie, W10, avril, pp.99-124. Officielle, 21p. souverain est en effet cense porter tous les FAUREC U. 1953 - Ambohimanga colline de peches et impuretes du royaume et en prenant legendes, Berceau de la dynastie Hova, son bain d'une maniere symbolique - on lui Tananarive, Imprimerie Officielle, 21 p. deverse de I'eau que I'on recueille - et en projetant I'eau du bain sur ses sujets, il se purifie HIRSCH B., LEVI-STRAUSS L. et SAOUMA­ et purifie egalement la societe et ses sujets et FORERO G. - African Cultural Heritage and the fait regenerer la nature. World Heritage Convention, Second Global Strategy Meeting, Addis-Ababa 1996, Paris, En conclusion UNESCO, 170p. En conclusion, la presente contribution a voulu MANHES Y. 1933 - Ambohimanga, Trianon montrer que Ie site d'Ambohimanga est un bel malgache, Tananarive, Imprimerie des Arts exemple de paysage culturel associatif en etant: Graphiques. • patrimoine archeologique avec ses nombreux PRESSOUYRE L. 1996 - The World Heritage vestiges comme les fosses, les portails et les Convention, Twenty Years Later, Paris, habitats anciens; UNESCO, 65p. • patrimoine historique avec sa cite royale RAFOLO A. 1994 - Les expressions materielles comprenant les palais, les bassins, la fosse a du pouvoir dans les sites archeologiques breufs, I'enceinte, les portails royaux, la place malgaches des Hautes Terres (Xlle -XVI lie), Les publique et ses amenagements; Assises du pouvoir, Temps medievaux, territoires • et surtout patrimoine spirituel avec ses africains (REDON.O et ROSEMBERGER B. ads.), tombes royales sacrees, ses bois sacres, ses Paris P.U.v., pp.91-107. arbres royaux, ses pierres de sacrifices et tous les autres lieux sacres de culte, sans Dr. RAHARIJAONA J., 1931 - Anciennes oublier la symbolique de I'occupation de residences royales, essai de monographies sur I'espace. Ambohimanga et Ambositra, Bulletin de l'Academie Malgache, Tananarive, t.XIV, pp.111- 128. Dr. RAHARIJAONA J. - Les tombeaux royaux du Rova d'Ambohimanga, Bulletin de l'Academie Malgache, Tananarive, t.XXXII, pp.29-30. UNESCO 1998 - Africa Revisited/Nouveaux regards

12 lis essaient de placer des cailloux dans Ie trou en les sur I'Afrique, Paris, World Heritage Centre, 40p. lan<;:ant. La reussite de I'exploit est Ie gage que Ie voeu prononce sera exauce, particulierement pour avoir une progeniture.

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LA ROUTE DES ESCLAVES

JULES BOCCO

SLAVE ROUTE codified in 1727 by King Agadja. This new Summary route contributed towards the structuring of economic exchanges within the kingdom. It The slave trade on the African continent used was marked by numerous rituals and numerous routes, each with their peculiarities. landmarks of representative sites and monuments. For many centuries, the phenomenon of Amongst these, mention may be made of the slavery was integrated into the fundamental markets, the rest places, the sorting or storage socio-economic way of life of many African places situated in the different forts and states as, for example, the Kingdom of warehouses along the Abomey Road to the Abomey. The Slave Route of Abomey, which sea. This road, which has a value of universal Benin will submit for inscription on the World and exceptional memory, totally integrates the Heritage List, dispatched the captives of the historic memory of the slave trade in Benin. capital of Abomey to the embarkation port of Its conservation is necessary for the Ouidah. This 117 km road, busy in the season safeguarding of the collective memory of of the trade winds, was recognised and humanity.

Introduction La capture des Noirs, consideres comme infideles, n'etait nullement prise pour un L'aventure maritime des Portugais dont Ie point scandale. Et quand Nuno Tristao, en 1441, eut de depart fut la prise de Ceuta en 1415 a lance « I'honneur» de ramener directement les les nations europeennes a la conquete des autres continents y compris l'Afrique. Ces premiers noirs des cotes occidentales d'Afrique, peregrinations portugaises et europeennes au Sud du Cap Bojador, et qu'un Edit royal de avaient des mobiles biens connus : 1502 autorisa I'introduction des esclaves au nouveau monde, I'histoire ne mesurait pas • retrouver Ie royaume du pretre Jean, et nouer I'importance millenaire de ces actes. La une alliance contre les infideles; consequence, la traite negriere aura contribue au depart du continent africain de 15 a 50 • atteindre les sources de production de I'or du millions de noirs. Soudan, mais surtout L'ampleur du phenomene fut telle qu'au XVllieme • decouvrir une route maritime vers les Indes et eme ses marches de soieries et d'epices. et au XIX siecle, la plupart des nations europeennes et americaines y etaient

-74- J. Bocco - La route de I'esclavage impliquees. Mais par-dela cette participation des A partir de ce moment, I'acces a la capitale Europeens ou des Americains avec la complicite depuis la cote se fit exclusivement par cette active et consciente des Africains a ce route ou etaient installes de nombreux postes dramatique commerce, c'est I'ingeniosite des de gardes et de douane. Au debut du XIXeme structures de collecte, de passage, d'entreposage siecle, Ie voyageur anglais Burton note que des et de transfert des esclaves qui permet de parler hommes y stationnaient a distance reguliere et aujourd'hui d'itineraire, de parcours que nous qu'en I'espace de quelques heures, un message denommons « la Route des esclaves ». ou un objet pouvaient etre ainsi envoyes au roi depuis la plage. Ce bien culturel, en tant que « itineraire culturel et route d'echange» est commun a plusieurs Voie economique et politique, « la route des Etats. On peut citer Ie Benin, Ie Ghana, Ie esclaves » possedait egalement une dimension Senegal, l'Angola pour l'Afrique; la Jamarque, sacree: Ie roi Agadja installa plusieurs vodun Harti, Saint-Domingue et les Antilles pour les « Legba » tout Ie long pour Ie proteger. Cara'lbes; la Louisiane, la Virginie, la Nouvelle Espagne, la Havane, la Nouvelle Grenade, et Le nouvel axe modifia la geographie de la Bahia pour les Ameriques. Au Benin (ex region ou la plupart des echanges se faisait par Dahomey) les paysages portent encore les la lagune cotiere, parallele a I'ocean. Desormais traces de cet itineraire et de nombreux signes et une verticale nord-sud ordonna un royaume qui monuments temoignent de ce fait. s'etendait a I'interieur du continent sur presque deux cent kilometres. L'itineraire d'Abomey it la mer Lorsque les esclaves atteignaient Ouidah, les La « Route des esc/aves» entre Ouidah et la gardes les enfermaient a I'exterieur de plage n'est que la partie finale de I'itineraire I'agglomeration dans des « barracons », expression accompli par les esclaves. Les hommes et les d'origine portugaise qui designe un enclos garde femmes captures par les troupes du roi etaient ou sont disposes des « baraques» en paille regroupes a Abomey ou ils etaient attaches les servant d'abris. Les dignitaires choisissaient les uns aux autres par de lourdes chaines ou des esclaves auxquels ils avaient droit et les tiges en bois qui ne leur laissaient guere I'espoir tractations commenCiaient entre les courtiers et de s'enfuir. Ces hommes ou femmes captures les Europeens. Les esclaves etaient ensuite venaient, soit du pays Oyo au Nigeria, ou des achemines vers les forts, avant d'etre convoyes royaumes ennemis au royaume du Danxome. vers les navires mouilles a la rade. 115 empruntaient alors la portion de la route des La periode du commerce des esclaves esclaves a travers Ouidah. correspond a celie des alizes, car ceux-ci favorisent la circulation des navires entre La description de I'axe qui traverse Ouidah l'Europe et I'Afrique. Le Koussougan (douanier) faisait alors acheminer les esclaves vers Les esclaves, apres avoir quitte la ville, Ouidah. Sous la surveillance de gardes armes, passaient pres de « I'arbre des capitaines». ils parcouraient a pieds plus de cent kilometres. Sous cet arbre (aujourd'hui disparu), Ie roi L'actuelle route des esclaves etait moins AGADJA aurait rencontre des negriers et aurait importante avant la conquete de Savi et de debouche pour la premiere fois une bouteille de Ouidah par les troupes dahomeennes. En effet, gin provenant d'un bateau. II y installa un autel les esclaves etaient achemines par differents pour Ie vodun « Legba». L'arbre fut divinise et routes. Ce n'est qu'en 1727, que Ie roi AGADJA appele Agadjatin. Les negriers qui rendaient a demande a son conseiller charge des travaux, visite au roi y faisaient la pause. Le Koussougan Ie « Tokpo», de tracer une route et de la (Ie douanier) y choisissait les cadeaux destines mesurer. Plusieurs centaines d'esclaves au Roi, au Yovogan, aux cabeceres (terme participerent aux travaux de cette route qui portugais designant les dignitaires) et a lui­ mesurait 23502 perches de bambou de cinq meme. Si les cadeaux etaient suffisants, il metres, soit environ 117510 metres (117,510 km) du palais royal d'Abomey au littoral. autorisait les donateurs a poursuivre leur chemin.

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Dans I'autre sens, les esclaves en partance pour etre regroupes et diriges vers les ports faisaient trois fois Ie tour de I'arbre sacre de d'embarquement. Tous ne partaient pas au I'oubli « afin d'y laisser leur haine contre celui meme moment ni par Ie meme bateau. II y avait qui leur assigne ce sort ». L'endroit est des lieux d'attente qui parfois se transformaient aujourd'hui materialise par un jeune arbre et un en de veritables charniers, temoins d'une monument. Une fois ce rituel accompli, les histoire douloureuse. Ces lieux, nous pouvons esclaves reprenaient la route jusqu'au village de encore les interroger aujourd'hui, car au Benin Zoungbodji, fonde par Ie roi AGADJA. Les ils ont ete amenages pour servir de lieux de esclaves etaient alors marques au fer chaud memoire. dans Ie barracon du chef du village de Zoungbodji, un dignitaire fon (Kakanaku). Les esclaves etaient ensuite amenes au bord de la L'exemple de ces sites Ie plus cite au Benin lagune ou etaient amarrees des pirogues pour la demeure incontestablement celui de Zoungbodji traversee. lis etaient regroupes en fonction du a Ouidah. Lieu d'entrepat et de transfert des type d'echanges auquel ils etaient destines esclaves, Ie barracon de Zoungbodji est aussi (tabac, fusil, alcool ... ). La marchandise qui I'endroit ou les esclaves malades ou n'etait pas stockee dans les forts etait apportee recalcitrants etaient acheves et enterres. Le depuis les navires jusqu'a ce site ou elle etait Gouvernement du Benin, a I'occasion des echangee. Les pirogues traversaient ensuite la lagune, composee de plusieurs bras, et les festivites du premier festival mondial des arts et esclaves etaient receptionnes par un representant cultures vodun den om me Ouidah 92, y a erige du roi, Gankpe, qui effectuait un dernier contrale un memorial qui a transforme ce site « muet » avant de les remettre aux negriers. Ces derniers mais historique en un lieu vivant, garant de la les dirigeaient vers la plage et les regroupaient memoire collective. dans les enclos en attendant I'arrivee des pirogues qui les transportaient jusqu'aux navires. Ce deplacement, de quelques dizaines de Une serie de sites de cette nature, temoins de la kilometres, necessitait la totalite d'une journee. tragedie que fut la traite negriere, existe a travers Ie Benin, tout Ie long des itineraires que Les sites et les monuments de la traite les esclaves empruntaient. Ces sites attendent negriere au Benin d'etre I'objet d'etude et d'amenagement pour Les esclaves captifs en route pour les contribuer au rayonnement culturel du pays. Ameriques parcouraient d'enormes distances L'on peut tenter de les classer selon Ie rale joue a I'epoque de la traite.

Classification des sites de la traite negriere au Benin

Role joue par Ie site Noms de la localite Etat actuel (site)

Marches d'esclaves Godomey, Abomey-Calavi, Non localises avec precision Ganvie, Hevie, Logozohe

Sites de passage des esclaves Cotonou, Porto-Novo, Ketou, Non amenages en tant que site Avlekete, Ekpe, Seme ... de la traite

Sites de sejour des esclaves Allada, Abomey, Savi, Ketonou Idem

Sites de tri des esclaves Savalou ... Idem

Entrepats et lieu Ouidah, Agoue, Grand-Popo En partie amenages (niveau d'embarquement Ouidah)

-76- J. Bocco - La route de I'esclavage

D'autres sites lies 8 la traite negriere et situes 8 aux esclaves. Les autres edifices s'articulaient divers endroits du territoire national, attendent autour d'une vaste cour interieure et formaient d'EHre identifies et eventuellement amenages en une enceinte supplementaire. Actuellement tous lieux de memoire. les vestiges du fort ont completement disparu. Un hopital est eleve sur une partie du site et sur S'agissant des monuments de la traite, leur I'autre, une place plantee a ete amenagee sur survivance releve egalement du role joue et des les anciens jardins. conditions de leur realisation. On en distingue deux types: les monuments lies directement au Le Fort Anglais traitement des esclaves et ceux qui n'auraient Le Fort William, tres semblable au Fort St Louis pas existe si Ie phenomene de la traite n'avait de Gregoy perdure jusqu'au debut des annees pas mis la cote des esclaves en contact avec 1780, I'independance des Etats-Unis ayant les Ameriques. signifie pour les negriers anglais la perte d'un debouche important pour leur negoce. Dans Ie premier cas se retrouvent les differents Concurrencee par les Fran<;ais et les Portugais, forts, les comptoirs, les objets divers de traite et la compagnie anglaise delaissa alors plusieurs meme les epaves de navires. Ainsi les Fran<;ais, postes sur la cote. Le Fort de Ouidah fut les Anglais et les Portugais ont re<;u des rois de definitivement abandonne en 1807. Quelques Ouidah (Juda) des concessions de terre 8 annees plus tard, Ie site fut vendu a la maison I'actuel Savi pour eriger leurs forts ou forteresses, de commerce allemande de Hambourg, Goedelt, constructions strategiques qui servaient d'habitation qui achetait I'huile de palme aux planteurs. mais egalement d'entrepot pour les esclaves. Actuellement, rien ne subsiste du monument. Ces forts situes 8 Ouidah 8 environ trois Des commerces se sont installes sur Ie site. kilometres de la cote, ne possedaient pas de fonction defensive. lis ne pouvaient repousser Le Fort Portugais I'accostage d'un navire d'une nation Le Fort portugais n'a pas connu la meme concurrente, d'autant plus que seuls les rois destinee que les deux autres. II est Ie seul a decidaient d'accepter la venue dans Ie comptoir subsister encore aujourd'hui. Son aspect de negriers de toutes nationalites. cependant a beaucoup evolue depuis sa construction au XVllleme siecle. Ouidah fut Le Fort Fran~ais conquise par Ie roi du Danxome des I'installation Aucune trace ne reste du plus ancien fort de du premier gouverneur portugais en 1721. La Ouidah. En revanche, son aspect au XVllleme destruction du comptoir de la capitale amena les siecle est bien connu grace aux plans conserves Portugais a s'y regrouper. A cette occasion, les en France, aux Archives Nationales. En outre, batiments furent remanies. Au fil du temps, la une maquette, elaboree 8 partir de ces puissance portugaise s'est desinteressee de la documents, est actuellement conservee dans Ie place. En 1788, Ie negociant bresilien, Francisco musee d'histoire de Ouidah (ancien fort Felix de souzA. arrive dans la place pour en portugais). Les premiers batiments eurent une assurer Ie commandement, decouvre un site en duree de vie limitee et firent I'objet de ruines. En 1818, il s'installa dans un autre lieu et reconstructions. Le corsaire Jean DOUBLET Ie Fort fut alors totalement abandonne. II Ie rebatit Ie fortin fonde en 1671, qui sera 8 restera jusqu'en 1861, date a laquelle il fut plusieurs reprises modifie, puis laisse 8 occupe par les missionnaires catholiques I'abandon. Peu de temps apres la conquete de fran<;ais. la ville, un nouveau directeur, Pruneau de Pommegorge, trouva en 1750 I'etablissement en L'eglise fut alors restauree mais plusieurs ruine. II fit eriger sur place un fort de briques batiments furent detruits peu apres par la cuites surmonte d'un colombier. En 1772, les foudre. L'autorite portugaise reprit possession fortifications n'ont pas evolue, mais I'interieur du Fort en 1865 et y installa un Resident. s'est densifie. Certains batiments etaient Actuellement, Ie Musee d'Histoire de Ouidah est accoles 8 I'enceinte : 8 I'ouest, celui accueillant installe dans Ie fort restaure. Ie Directeur (8 I'etage) et au nord, ceux destines

-77- Paysages Culturels en Afrique

Les Comptoirs Les comptoirs ont egalement disparu. Cependant, celui de Djegbadji, en bordure de mer, certainement Ie plus recent communement appele « /a douane»; survit subissant I'agression du « modernisme irrealiste» en attendant une restauration.

En conclusion «La Route des esc/aves» integre donc totalement la memoire historique de la traite au Benin. Les sites et les monuments qui la jalonnent doivent etre rehabilites et sauvegardes pour devenir des lieux ou des objets de curiosite, d'admiration et de reflexion .... Ainsi, les monuments et les sites du Benin lies a la traite negriere pourront contribuer a une meilleure connaissance de I'histoire et etre amen ages en consequence.

Deja Ie memorial de Zoungbodji, la statue de Toussaint LOUVERTURE a la sortie d'Allada, Ie Musee d'Histoire de Ouidah, la Casa do Brazil, realisations qui temoignent d'embarquement des esclaves, constituent des exemples vivants a soutenir pour la sauvegarde de la memoire collective internationale.

-78- M. Kamuhangire - The salt gardens of Kibiro

THE SALT GARDENS OF KIBIRO

EPHRAIM KAMUHANGERIE

LES JARDINS DE SEL DE KIBIRO sel est une activite penible. Toutes les actions sont realisees exclusivement par des femmes, Resume y compris la commercialisation sur les La region de Kibiro presente un paysage marches environnants. Ces jardins de sels particulier lie a une technologie originale de constituent des patrimoines dont la production de sel. Situees sur Ie bord du Rift transmission se fait exclusivement par les occidental, huit zones de production de sel femmes: de mere en fille ou en belle-fille. Le sont associees a des sources chaudes. La paysage technologique vivant de Kibiro traduit production du sel se fait sur des surfaces donc une profonde originalite sur Ie plan delimitees, les jardins. Cette production met culturel et sur Ie plan sociologique. Sa en jeu une succession d'operations visant a conservation est directement liee a la isoler, concentrer et purifier Ie sel. La perpetuation de ce savoir-faire et a la cristallisation est provoquee par ebullition competition du marche economique. Ce site d'une saumure sursaturee. La production du figure sur la liste indicative de l'Ouganda.

Introduction approximately 300 metre high escarpment that forms the eastern side of the Western Rift of Apart from reports by European explorers, Uganda. There is no road to Kibiro, the main Egyptian administrators, missionaries and approach being by a steep footpath down the colonial administrators, two publications have face of the escarpment. Alternatively, the village been produced with precision and detail about can be approached by boat from the town of salt production and the salt gardens at Kibiro. Butiaba, on the shore of Lake Albert some 25 (Graham Connah, Ephraim Kamuhangire and kilometres to the north-east. and from which a Andrew Piper, 1990), (Graham Connah et ai, rough footpath also leads to Kibiro along the 1996). I was a co-author of these two side of the Lake. From an economic point of publications and therefore much of the view. therefore, Kibiro has poor accessibility. In information in this paper is derived from them. addition, its soil is shallow and rocky and the adjacent escarpment creates some thing of a Kibiro is a large village situated on the eastern rain-shadow. As a result virtually no cultivation is shore of Lake Albert (at 31°18'E, 1° 42'N) in an practised, although short horned cattle, goats, area that was part of the Kingdom of Bunyoro­ pigs, chickens and sometimes sheeps are kept. Kitara. It lies on a narrow stony plain of about Nevertheless, Kibiro has a population of about three-quarters of a kilometre in width, between 2,000 people, for not only is it heavily involved in the Lake shore and the base of the fishing, like most of the villages on the eastern

-79- Cultural Landscapes in Africa shores of Lake Albert, but it also produces salt The salt gardens of Kibiro and has long been famous for doing so. The The present village of Kibiro is a settlement of basis of this salt-production consists of several relatively scattered dwellings extending for hot springs, which are sufficiently well known to several kilometres along the Lake shore. It is have been marked on the Hoima sheet of the divided into two main parts by a shallow flat­ 1:250,000 survey map (Uganda, 1962). bottomed valley (known as Mukihanga) through However, that map also records the existence of which flows a hot stream, the main source of salt-pans at Kibiro and in this respect it is which is a spring at the bottom of gorge (known technically incorrect, for the making of salt at as Mukabiga) which is cut back into the face of Kibiro is not by the solar evaporation method. the escarpment. The larger part of the village Instead, it involves dissolving the salt out of lies to the west of the valley and is known as recyclable saline soil, in which the concentration Bubare. The part to the east of the valley is of salt has been previously increased by the known as Kihenda and is said to be the oldest sun's capillary attraction, and then boiling the part of the village. This seems quite likely resulting liquid. In general, the method because although broken pottery (known as resembles one of those outlined by Morgan nkibo) can be found scattered over most of the (1974, pp.33-35) for Tanzania but the Kibiro village of Kibiro, it is particularly dense in the process is technically more sophisticated than area of Kihenda. This part of the village also appears to have the greatest depth of that which he describes. In particular, it should archaeological deposits, and it is indeed in be noted that it differs from that recorded from Kihenda that archaeological excavation was Ivuna, in Tanzania, where salty earth was carried out. leached and discarded and the resulting brine boiled (Fagan and Yellen, 1968, pp.4, 30-31), The hot springs and the resultant hot stream at and also differs from that at Uvinza, also in Kibiro carry several chemicals in solution, of Tanzania, where natural brine was merely which sodium chloride appears to be one concentrated and then boiled (Sutton and (Johnston, 1902, VaLl, p.312). Relatively little of Roberts, 1968' PP .61-62). the water in the stream reaches Lake Albert, the greater part being absorbed by the adjacent To survive, the inhabitants of Kibiro must be deposits of the low lying parts of the lacustrine able to sell their salt and their dried fish to the plain and Mukihanga valley. As a result, the communities above the escarpment and to deposits become impregnated with salt so that obtain various types of food and other supplies during hot dry weather salt can actually be seen like clothing in exchange. However, the crystallising on the ground surface, forming escarpment at Kibiro is neither so high nor so noticeable white patches. This happens particularly precipitous as it is to the north-east and south­ in places where the salt is being exploited, west. The footpath from Kibiro reaches the top especially if there is a brief halt in activities such of the escarpment at Kabiribwa and from there a as a Sunday. The production of salt in Kibiro motorable track leads to Kigorobya Trading involves the preparation of areas on the surface Centre, 9 kilometres away. This latter place has of the salt-bearing deposits by scraping the grass on top. Then soil from the vicinity such as a large and flourishing market which operates that along paths as well as the residues from twice a week; it is here that the Kibiro salt and another worked area are spread on the exposed fish are mainly sold and from which Kibiro surfaces to dry. presently obtains most of its food products. This symbiotic relationship between people at the The people of Kibiro call these prepared areas bottom of the escarpment and those at the top ebibuga (pI., sing. Ekibuga) meaning 'salt­ seems to have existed in one form or another for gardens', rather than calling them salt-pans, a long time, for Kibiro has deep and extensive because in the first instance it is from them that archaeological deposits which, as stated above, they derive much of their livelihood, and indicate both substantial occupation and large­ secondly because the areas concerned are dry. scale salt production over the last 700-800 years Salt-pans like those of Lake Katwe (Fawcett, (Connah, 1989). For this reason it is particularly 1973) and Lake Bunyampaka, in the region of important to examine both the traditional method Lakes Edward and George further south along and organisation of salt-making at this place. the Rift, in Kasese district have water in them, and the salt forms on top of that water as solar evaporation proceeds. (Kamuhangire, 1993)

-80- M. Kamuhangire - The salt gardens of Kibiro

The production process surface. It is this which enables individual salt­ gardens to be exploited for so long a period. Yet There are four stages in the production of salt at for this to happen, constant maintenance is Kibiro : (1) the preparation of the salt-garden; (2) needed, with close attention to drainage and the the spreading, drying and scraping together of removal of any stones or superficial mud that the salt-impregnated soil; (3) the leaching of that appear on the working surface. Significantly, soil with water to dissolve out the salt; (4) the substantial dumps of stones and earth are boiling of the resultant solution in order to associated with the salt-garden areas, evaporate the water. particularly those in and around the Mukihanga Valley. 1. Preparation of the salt-garden and its maintenance 2. Spreading, drying and scraping together Salt gardens can remain in use for a long time, the salt-impregnated soil although eventually their salt-yield falls off and This stage of salt production entails the they are fallowed, or too many stones, appear spreading of loose soil over the surface of the on the surface of the garden and they have to salt garden. This loose material may be got be abandoned. Areas in fallow, or which have initially by scraping the surface of the garden, not been worked before, tend to be marshy and but in extant gardens it is often obtained by covered by a luxuriant growth of short grass breaking up the banks of dried residue that liked by cows and goats, probably because of its result from the leaching process. The resulting salt content. To prepare a new salt-garden, this soil is known as biburu; patches of salty soil on grass cover has first to be dug off and, as it is footpaths or along the sides of disused salt­ removed, the sods are heaped up in low banks gardens, which may also be scraped up and that are used to demarcate the boundaries of utilised, are also known as biburu. the new garden. There is no predetermined size or shape for a salt-garden; it can be as big as 10 Every morning that the weather is suitable, metres square, or it can be a narrow strip of 2 before 9 a.m., girls of 15 years of age and above metres width along a hot-stream channel. After and their mothers proceed to the salt-gardens to the grass has been removed, dry soil is spread the loosened salty soil on their surfa~e~. scattered over the wet exposed surface to This process is called kwabya and the SOil IS absorb the salty water and to dry and harden the spread by means of broadcasting it from surface. In addition, small channels are usually elongated wooden bowls known as nzoho (pI., dug into the surface to drain excess water off sing.rwoho) (Fig. 5). As already explained, the the garden. This water is led into larger scattered dry soil draws moisture from the channels within the adjacent established salt­ exposed surface of the salt-garden, this gardens. These larger channels not only rro'!:ce moisture being in turn evaporated by the sun. As essential communal drainage but also act as this process continues, so the salt content of the boundaries between salt-gardens and provide scattered earth increases; the hotter the sun, the water for use during the leaching process. The quicker the process. Unless rain threatens, the new salt-garden is now left to dry completely, drying of this material is continued to about 4 but to assist this process, loose dry soil may be p.m. Around this time, the girls and women, this scattered over the wet exposed surface to time including younger girls of 10-14 years of absorb surplus water. age, return to scrape the scattered soil off the surface of the salt-gardens. This task is known Once the surface of the salt-garden is dry, the as kubirya and is carried out using iron scrapers action of the sun begins to draw the salt from known as bisinga (pI., sing. kisinga. The scraped the exposed deposits, so that loose dry soil soil is collected in the same wooden bowls that which has been spread over them absorbs it were used to spread it and is made into a but, drying quickly in the sun, retains only the number of heaps for the night or is heaped salt. The salt-garden is now ready to produce. against the low banks that form the edges of the Beneath the stable surface of the salt-garden, salt-gardens. The surfaces of these heaps ~ay however, the ground remains saturated with then be compacted by hitting and smoothing salty water and in some salt-gardens it is so them with the iron scrapers. This helps to spongy that one can feel the ground move under prevent rainwater from soaking the salty soil and one's feet as one walks over the prepared

-81- Cultural Landscapes in Africa from dissolving out the salt which would then be this is said to be an indication that the salty soil lost by percolation back into the ground. The has a sufficiently high salt concentration to make next day, and for some days following, the leaching worthwhile. The water percolates process of spreading, drying and scraping up through the salty soil and within a minute or two the loose earth is repeated. Indeed, the same salty water, known as omwizoro, trickles through material will be treated in this way for about a the stones at the bottom of the saucepan and week in an old salt-garden and for up to two or begins to run out. It is collected in a similar but three weeks in a new one. As already smaller saucepan, known as katerekezo, which mentioned, it depends on the weather, as there is placed beneath the larger saucepan and can be no drying of the salty earth during or between the three supporting stones. after rain, when the surface of the salt-garden Sometimes the wooden bowl is also used for becomes wet and slippery and may even flood. this purpose. The liquid collected in this lower In fact, if rain threatens before the end of a day receptacle is dark brown and very salty, its salt on which the salty earth has already been content being very much higher than that of the spread, the salt-workers will scrape it into hot stream. When the saucepan or wooden bowl compacted heaps earlier than would otherwise fills up, it is emptied into other large saucepans be the case, in order not to have their previous or plastic basins and carried to the house of the efforts wasted. Provided the weather remains salt-worker. When all the water has percolated dry and hot, however, the salt content of the through the salty soil, a second lot of water is loosened earth will gradually increase. The added, and the whole process of leaching can extent to which this has happened can be take about an hour to complete. When it is over, judged from the colour of the material which will the muddy residue is scraped out of the larger change, as the days go by, from dark brown to saucepan and spread on the banks at the edge greyish brown. When the salt-worker, thinks that of the salt-gardens adjacent to the leaching the salt concentration is sufficiently high, then location. Here it dries hard and will eventually be the material is ready for the next production broken up and recycled through the spreading, stage, that of leaching. drying and scraping process before being leached yet again. In this way, the same earth 3. Leaching the salt-impregnated soil may have salt extracted from it many times. This process is known as kwitira omwizoro. The leaching process can be repeated as many Depending on how much dried salty soil has times as there is an adequate supply of dried been prepared, leaching can take place salty soil, but the amount of firewood available throughout the day and on all days of the week. for the final evaporation process may also However, it is mainly done on Tuesdays and determine how much is leached at one time. Fridays, the two days preceding the biweekly Leaching, of course, can be carried on in market days at Kigorobya where the finished conjunction with other work at the salt-gardens, salt is sold. Leaching requires careful and some women move from one garden to arrangement and is mostly done by older girls another spreading, drying and scraping up the above 15 years of age and by married women. It salty soil while they also have leaching in is usually carried out along the edges of the progress. Once the resulting brine has been individual salt-gardens. Three large stones are transported to the salt-worker's house, it may be placed on the ground to act as supports for a evaporated immediately or it may be poured into large aluminium sufuria (saucepan) which is large earthenware pots which are kept within the stood on top of them and which is known locally salt-boiling building. Here it may remain for four as kiganiko. This has a perforation of about 8 days or more before it is boiled, and it is millimetres in diameter in its base, into which a asserted that the longer it is stored the more small stone is placed, surrounded by a pile of concentrated it becomes and the higher will be smaller stones. Using the wooden bowl and the the quality of the salt produced from it. scraper, the dried salty soil that has been so carefully prepared is poured into this saucepan 4. Boiling the brine until it is full. Water drawn from a nearby drainage channel (and therefore itself also This is the last stage in the production of salt at containing some salt) is then poured onto the Kibiro. The brine collected by leaching the dried top of this soil which shrinks as it becomes salty soil must be boiled until all the water is saturated. Bubbles form on top of the water and evaporated. For this process the most important

-82- M. Kamuhangire - The salt gardens of Kibiro prerequisite is a good supply of firewood. and two hours for the salt to form. In its final However, the area around Kibiro, both the stage it is porridge-like and white, and some of lacustrine plain and the face of the escarpment, this boiling salt is then ladled (with a wooden or supports grassland and bushes with relatively gourd ladle known as kakege) from the few trees. Firewood must, therefore, be found at evaporation pan and poured on the surface of the top of the escarpment and, as with all other the mud platform near the hearth. It solidifies aspects of salt-production, this is a female task. instantly and thus forms the base of a salt cone, Very early in the morning on all days of the onto the top and sides of which more hot salt is week except Wednesday and Saturday, the ladled until a sizeable cone of salt weighing about 3.S kg is formed. In 1990 again, eight salt Kigorobya market days, older girls and women cones were weighed at random, three being climb the steep slopes of the escarpment into made by one woman, two by another, and the the empty wilderness immediately at its top to remaining three by separate individuals. It was cut firewood. Lengths of dry firewood are tied found that seven of them were 3.S kg in weight, together into large elongated bundles, the but one was 4.S kg. When first made the cone is weight of each being determined by the strength soft, but it hardens as it dries, a process that is and age of the individual who is to carry it down helped by its proximity to the fire. It can then be the precipitous escarpment. In 1990 a sample of quite readily transported as part of a head-load sixteen such loads was weighed, and it was but is sometimes tightly wrapped in banana found that girls aged about 11-14 years were leaves to protect it during the journey. This is carrying 18 to 29 kg each, whereas adult women now unusual, however, as such leaves are not were carrying 32 to 48 kgs. Thus the average of available in Kibiro itself and have to be obtained all loads weighed was about 33 kgs and of adult from elsewhere. loads about 40 kg. At about 10 a.m. one sees long lines of firewood cutters slowly and After each use, the evaporation pan has a hard carefully snaking down the various paths of the residue at its bottom which is broken off and escarpment with their heavy loads on their used for domestic purposes such as cooking heads. The bundles are carried to their dried beans. Cement-like deposits also build up respective homes and then, depending on the on the side of the pan and eventually make it number of females in a given home, some of the very heavy. These residues may contain insoluble carbonates but they probably consist firewood cutters, without resting immediately mainly of sodium chloride. Certainly the commence leaching or boiling. evaporation pans do not last long, being both corroded by the salt and burnt away by their Boiling the brine is done in specially constructed lengthy periods on the fire. salt-boiling buildings, with mud walls and grass­ thatched roofs. As may be imagined, the Residues scraped from the evaporation pan, as temperature and humidity inside the buildings well as salt that breaks off cones when they are when boiling during hot weather can be moved from the mud platform, and even the ash uncomfortably high. Thermometer readings, in from the fireplace, will be leached and boiled four different salt-boiling buildings, in 1990 into salt during the wet season when the salt­ showed a constant air temperature of 34 °C, gardens are not producing. This type of salt is which was SoC above the outside shade called wakara and is less tasty. It is not traded temperature at the time. Evaporation is often but retained for domestic use. done in the evenings because, it is said, there is less wind then so that the fire is more It is estimated that 20 litres of brine will produce concentrated and less firewood is consumed. one salt cone of about 3.Skg. An average bundle of firewood, weighing about 40 kg, can produce Large karaya (steel head-pans) or improvised five such cones of salt. Hence, the number of steel basins, made out of empty oil drums, are cones of salt that may be taken by one salt­ used in the evaporation process. These are worker on any market day will depend not only placed on three stone supports which are on what she is able to carry but also on how located on flat mud built platforms inside the much brine she has previously prepared and on salt-boiling buildings. The fire is made between how much firewood she has collected. In turn, the stones, beneath the evaporation pan, and this will depend on the size of the female labour some salt-boiling buildings have several such force that a particular household can muster to hearths which can be used simultaneously. As participate in the various stages of salt­ the brine boils the water evaporates; it takes one production that have been described above.

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Twentieth-century innovation in Kibiro occupation. The only difference in Roscoe's time salt-production (1968[1923J, p.234) was that men brought the firewood but even in 1885 salt-making was a The methodology which has been outlined women's job (Schweinfurth et aI., 1888, pp.175- appears to be essentially the same as .that 176). At present the salt-gardens are owned by which has been practised in the past. That IS to women, some owning as many as ten of them. say, the processes resemble those described by Ownership is by female inheritance, through a the more reliable early commentators such as mother or an aunt or a mother-in-law, and Roscoe (1968[1923J,pp.232-235) and Emin although recently it has become possible to hire Pasha (Schweinfurth et aI., 1888, pp.178-179), a salt-garden, it is impossible to buy one. As can although the latter recorded slightly different be seen from the discussion of the methodology techniques perhaps because of errors in of Kibiro salt-production, it is both labour observation. Also Kibiro has archaeological intensive and time-consuming. During salt­ traces of both old salt-gardens and salt-boiling production the women are fully occupied hearths. It would appear that the poor throughout the day, sometimes from before accessibility of Kibiro has insulated the industry dawn till late evening. Also both the young and from much technological or economic the old participate in salt-working at one stage or innovation. Only in one obvious respect is the another. Thus, girls as young as 10-14 years of salt-production observed in 1989 and 1990 'non­ age go with their elder sisters or mothers or traditional', and that is in the adoption of metal grandmothers to the salt-gardens to scrape and containers for leaching, brine transportation and pile up the dried salty soil in the late afternoon. boiling. It is apparent that pottery containers Equally, girls of 15 years of age and above, with would have formerly been used for these tasks; their mothers, not only scrape up and spread the Trowell and Wachsmann (1953,p.121) provide dried salty soil but also leach it and boil up the evidence that this was still the case in the first resulting brine. (FigA and 6). They also fetch half of this century. It is presumably the long­ firewood from the escarpment, and on market standing and heavy use of pottery for these days climb the escarpment with salt cones and purposes that is responsible, along with more then walk the 9 kilometres to Kigorobya, where usual domestic activities, for the large amounts they exchange the salt for food and other goods of broken pottery both lying on the surface at before trekking back to Kibiro loaded with the Kibiro (especially in Kihenda) and to be found in latter. the archaeological deposits there. It also seems likely that some of the pottery used at Kibiro in Thus, salt-trading like salt-production is a female the past was made specifically for s~lt­ preserve. Early on Wednesdays and Saturda~s, production. Thus small globular pots with the market days at Kigorobya, women and girls restricted mouths could have been used as set off up the escarpment each carrying brine receivers in the leaching process, just as anything from 7 to 21 kg of salt, depending on very large shallow bowls with pOinted bases their strength and age. In 1990 each woman had could have been used for boiling the brine. to pay 30 shillings local government levy in Where these pots were made is unknown; order to sell in the market, and salt-vendors however, the pottery used now at Kibiro comes were allocated their own area within the market. from the Kigorobya market, being made in the During the dry season of early 1990 it was Kigorobya area, and a similar source is possible observed that salt cones were selling at 200 to for the past. 250 shillings each, depending on the customer's opinion of their taste and also on the size and The social and economic organisation of colour of each cone. Prices also vary Kibiro salt-production seasonally, tending to be higher during the wet seasons because there is less salt available. The inhabitants of Kibiro are a Lunyoro­ speaking people belonging to a patrilineal, There certainly seems to be no lack of demand for Kibiro salt. Not only do the people of exogamous, clan-structured society. However, it Kigorobya sub-county prefer it to imported salt will by now be apparent that, unlike the salt­ but others come from Hoima, 22 kilometres production of Lakes Katwe and Bunyampaka away, to buy it. Apart from being tasty in food, it (Syahuka Muhindo, 1989; Kamuhangire 1993), is also said to have nourishing properties also in western Uganda, the production of salt at particularly for children. Within the Kigorobya market Kibiro and its marketing is an exclusively female itself, some women even buy salt cones from the

-84- M. Kamuhangire - The salt gardens of Kibiro

Kibiro women and cut them up into smaller Albert, using boats and nets. Some of the fish is pieces, to sell to those who cannot afford a consumed locally, but much of it is salted and whole cone. sun-dried on specially constructed racks and sold either to traders who visit Kibiro or at the In the Kigorobya market a wide variety of Kigorobya market. The trade in dried fish merchandise can be found including foodstuffs, appears to be highly lucrative, but it is clear how pottery, clothing, paraffin (kerosene) and many much of the profits are spent by the men to other things, but the main interest of the Kibiro sustain their families. Although some men send woman is in foodstuffs. They buy cassava and their children to school, buy iron sheets for their maize flour, sweet potatoes, fresh cassava, house roofs, timber to construct boats, nets to beans, groundnuts and other foods after they catch fish, or even outboard motors for their have sold their salt (most of which is in fact boats others seem to spend much of what they bartered for food). They then begin their walk gain on recreation. Thus the direct burden of back to Kibiro between 1 and 2 p.m. The first get sustaining families seems to fall prinCipally on to Kibiro by about 4.30, others later in the the women, whose salt-production not only evening. They return just as heavily laden as procures food for their families but also clothes when the set out. Besides food, some of them for themselves and their children and sometimes bring banana beer (tonto), distilled liquor indeed for their husbands as well. They have to (waragi), bottled beer, soft drinks, soap, sugar, purchase such equipment as is necessary for cigarettes and so on, which they sell in the their salt-working, such as aluminium village. saucepans, wooden bowls and iron scrapers, all of which are obtained from Kigorobya. Although Apart from the bi-weekly market at Kigorobya, some of them augment their salt income by there is also a small one at Kibiro itself. To this, selling liquor or even trading fish, it is clear that especially on Tuesdays and Fridays, women the profits of salt-production are of the utmost from Ndaragi, a village 5 kilometres from the top important to them. Therefore, the woman with of the escarpment towards Kigorobya, bring numerous daughters who can help with the salt­ foodstuffs like sweet potatoes and cassava working is most fortunate, whereas those with (both raw and in flour form) and sell them only sons or who remain childless mush do all expensively for cash or exchange them for fish. the work themselves unless other female The Kibiro women do not sell salt at this market, relatives can be persuaded to help. but if the Ndaragi women want to, they can buy directly from the households engaged in its Conclusion production. In addition to food, the Ndaragi women sometimes also bring grass for thatching The production of salt at Kibiro is carried out in a and firewood to Kibiro. basically traditional manner, although the present century has seen some changes in the During 1990, in the course of investigating the equipment used and in social and economic Kibiro salt-production, I interviewed Mr. Edward organisation. Because of the location of Kibiro Sabiti, a man who had lived all his life in Kibiro and the peculiar circumstances of its and who gave his age as 87 years. He stated environment, trade in salt, along with that in that the marketing of Kibiro salt in Kigorobya dried fish, is vital for the continued viability of the only commenced about thirty years ago. village. Archaeological evidence suggests that Previously, the salt had been marketed either at such has been the situation for the last 700-800 the top of the escarpment, at Kabiribwa, or in years; indeed it seems likely that the production Kibiro itself, as indeed was recorded by Roscoe of salt from Kibiro was an economic factor of (1968[1923], p.234). Nevertheless, the symbiotic some importance in the development of the economic relationship of Kibiro with the Kingdom of Bunyoro-Kitara. Thus it is communities at the top of the escarpment particularly worthwhile to understand both the seems to have been similar to that at the unusual methodology employed and the present time, the recent change in the location distinctive social organisation of this industry. It of marketing merely reflecting a falling demand is also equally important to consider Kibiro as a for traditional salt. typical living cultural landscape worthy of consideration and nomination on the World While the women of Kibiro produce and trade Heritage List. their salt, the men of the village fish in Lake

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References Mounteney-Jephson, A.J. 1890. Emin Pasha and the Rebellion at the Equator, 2nd ed. Baker, S.W. 1866. The Albeit N'yanzi, Great London: Sampson Low, Marston, Searle and Basin of the Nile, and explorations of the Nile Rivingston. sources, 2 vols. London: MacMillan. Roscoe, J. 1968 [1923]. The Bakitara or Casati, G. 1891. Ten years in Equatoria and the Banyoro. Farnborough: Gregg Press return with Emin Pasha, (trans. J.R. Clay I. W. [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press]. Savage Landor). London: Fredrick Warne. Schweinfurth, G.F. Ratzel, R.W. Felkin and G. Colvile, H. 1895. The land of the Nile springs. Hartlaub (eds.). 1888. Emin Pasha in Central Being chiefly an account of how we fought Africa. Being a col/ection of his letters and Kabarega. London: Edward Arnoid. journals (trans. Mrs R.W. Felkin). London: Connah, G. 1989. 'Kibiro revisHed: an archaeological George Philip. reconnaissance in south-western Uganda', Speke, J.H. 1863. Journal of the Discovery of Nyame Akuma 32, 46-54. the Source of the Nile. Edinburgh and London: Graham Connah, Ephraim Kamuhangire and William Blackwood. Andrew Piper 1990., "Salt production at Kibiro", Sutton, J.E.G. and Roberts. 1968. 'Uvinza and Azania, XXV. its salt industry', Azania 3, 45-86. Graham Connah et ai, Kibiro: The salt of Bunyoro. Syahuka Muhindo, A. 1989. Altisanal past and present. British Institute in East Africa production of salt in Lake Katwe, Lobour Studies Memoir 13,. Project, Paper No.3, Centre for Basic Research Graham Connah 1990: 'Archaeology in Paper No.6, Kampala, Uganda. Western Uganda, Nyame Akuma, 34. 1991 "The Thruston, A.B. 1900. African Incients: Personal Salt of Bunyoro: seeking the origins of an Experiences in Egypt and Unyoro. London: John African Kingdom" Antiquity, 65. Murray. Dunbar, A.R. 1969. A history of Bunyoro-Kitara, Trowell, M. and K.P. Wachsmann. 1953. Tribal rev. ed. Nairobi: Oxford University Press. Crafts of Uganda. London: Oxford University Fagan, B.M. and J.E. Yellen. 1968. 'Ivuna: Press. ancient salt-working in southern Tanzania', Uganda. 1962. East Africa 1:250,000 survey Azania 3, 1-43. map, Hoima sheet, series Y 503, Sheet NA-36- Fawcett, A.H. 1973. 'Katwe salt deposits', 9, Edition 1-USD, Lands and Surveys Department, Uganda Journal 37, 63-80. Uganda. Grant, J.A. 1864. A Walk across Africa. Edinburgh and London: Blackwood. Hiernaux, J. and E. Maquet. 1968. L'age du fer a Kibiro (Uganda), Musee Royal de l'Afrique Centrale, Tervuren, Belgium, Annales serie in 80, Sciences Humaines, NO.63. Kamuhangire, E.R. Unpublished Ph.D thesis, "The Pre-colonial History of the Salt Lakes Region of South Western Uganda, C. 1000- 1900 A.D.", Makerere University, 1993. Johnson, H. 1902. The Uganda Protectorate, 2 vols. London: Hutchinson. Morgan, D.R. 1974. 'Salt production in Tanzania: past and present', Tanzania Notes and Records 74,31-37.

-86- Y. Dladla - KrOger National Park as a cultural landscape

KROGER NATIONAL PARK AS A CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

YVONNE DLADLA

PARC NATIONAL DE KROGER COMME populations voisines de I'empire de Monomotapa PAYSAGE CULTUREL et avec des visiteurs etrangers, arabes et Resume portugais. L'age industriel est marque, dans Ie KrUger, par I'installation des premiers colons Cet expose a souligne I'approche novatrice europeens au XIXeme siecle, avec Ie des autorites sud-africaines qui considerent developpement d'une ligne de chemin de fer et que Ie parc national KrUger recele des valeurs I'intensification de I'activite miniere en Afrique naturelles et culturelles. australe. Le parc national KrUger a joue un role important durant la periode d'apartheid en Le parc national KrUger est une aire protegee abritant aussi bien des forces repressives de creee en 1898. Sa creation s'est accompagnee I'apartheid que des groupes de combattants d'un deplacement autoritaire des populations. de la liberte. Cet immense espace (2 millions d'hectares) est tres diversifie: 155 types de paysages L'evolution du parc national, d'aire naturelle naturels y ont ete recenses. II presente protegee a paysage culturel, a ete facilitee par egalement un grand nombre de paysages la creation d'un departement d'ecologie culturels que I'administration du parc et I'unite sociale en 1994. Le projet est de rehabiliter les d'ecologie sociale souhaitent rehabiliter (plus elements culturels de cet environnement et de 254 sites culturels). d'impliquer les communautes locales dans leur gestion, dans les activites de conservation et Le parc KrUger est riche en vestiges lithiques d'interpretation a destination des visiteurs. Le retrayant I'evolution culturelle de I'humanite developpement d'un partenariat avec les tout au long de la prehistoire, sur plus d'un communautes locales permettra de diversifier million d'annees. Les vestiges de I'age du fer les ressources de cet environnement et de sont la preuve d'une maTtrise technologique reapproprier cet espace par les communautes qui s'etend sur pres de 2,000 ans. A I'evidence, qui en ont ete ecartees depuis un siecle. Ce cette technologie etait accompagnee de site figure sur la liste indicative de l'Afrique du nombreuses activites socio-economiques et Sud. commerciales faites de contacts avec les

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Introduction We are busy with the inventories of the cultural resources in KrOger and other national parks. It is an honour and pleasure for me to present a We recently held an international symposium paper on KrOger National Park as a cultural entitled, "Voices, Values and Identities: the landscape. Many of you may be aware that Social Ecology of Cultural Interpretation." The KrOger National Park is celebrating its symposium provided an opportunity for a centenary, whilst at the same time the South diverse group of participants, representing local African National Parks is undergoing a major communities, academics, conservation heritage transformation. The South African National Parks officials, non-governmental organisations and is grappling with questions such as, how can we government organisations to engage in a redress the injustices of the past, by using constructive dialogue on KrOger as a cultural conservation as a vehicle to bring the people of heritage site, which has diverse and rich cultural South Africa and the world together? How do we resources, both tangible and intangible. interpret our natural and cultural heritage in an equitable and empowering manner to the local Therefore, KrOger centenary celebration communities and the visitors? provided us with the opportunity to reflect on the past and the future, it also enabled us to identify We acknowledge that the history of conservation the critical elements required to enrich our in South Africa, is marked with the legacies of conservation efforts, as we collectively engage colonialism and apartheid. In our efforts to in the process that pulls the thread that will transform, we derive our mandate from the reconnect cultural and natural resources as Constitution of South Africa, our Board of integrated system that has to be conserved for Trustees at South African National Parks and the benefit of present and future generation. We the international policy guidelines such as those are working towards bringing the custodianship espoused by UNESCO, UNDP and IUCN of both cultural and natural resources of KrOger amongst others. The approach that we have to local communities and the larger South adopted recognises that cultural, natural and African society. sustainable human development are critical to the management of heritage sites such as In brief, the KrOger National Park is one of South KrOger National Park. Africa's most well known national parks. The park covers an area of almost two million Furthermore, we accept that both the tangible hectares. This eastern Lowveld stretch of land and intangible heritage resources are essential is bordered by Mozambique on the east, in reconstructing our past and present heritage. Zimbabwe in the north and falls in two South Thus, one area that could facilitate this process African provinces, N. Province (north) and is through an in-depth re-examination of the Mpumalanga in the south, where the Maputo cultural landscape. From the onset, I would like Corridor touches its southern boundary, the to indicate to you that KrOger as a cultural Crocodile river. landscape is work in progress that is quite a challenge to the Social Ecology Department. The park's documented conservation history The department that is being charged with the begins in March 1898, when its forerunner the task of developing this "mind, heart, soul and Sabi Game Reserve was proclaimed. The cognitive maps" that will present and interpret KrOger in its present form was proclaimed in the KrOger National Parks in a holistic manner; 1926, coinciding with the formation of the KrOger is a diverse and rich cultural and natural National Parks Board and the passing of the heritage site, that is critical for both the local and National Parks Act, giving the park national and global conservation efforts. The history of statutory status and a governing body. The park KrOger as a cultural landscape is an unfinished was mainly proclaimed for biodiversity protection business, it is still lost in the written colonial and purposes, and tourism development through the apartheid documentation. The local years was always based on the natural communities' interpretation of KrOger is still resources environmental management hidden in their collective memory and we are in programme. the process of unravelling and reconstructing that cultural landscape from local and African The park is world renowned for its biodiversity perspectives. research and management. The staff structure has mirrored this basic philosophy of

-88- Y. Oladla - Kruger National Park as a cultural landscape protectionism. The nature conservationists set Early stone age the standards and norms, against a backdrop of a national park consisting of 35 natural Substantial concentrations of Early Stone Age landscape types, which took in consideration the tools such as axes, cleavers and spearheads geology, topography, soils, climate and (±1 000 000 to ±125 000 years ago), indicating associated fauna and flora. The human living sites and cultural activity, have been found component and the cultural landscapes were at Makahane (in the Punda Maria region), ignored. Thulamela and Hapi Pan (in the Pafuri region), which form part of the Limpopo-Luvuvhu river The Sabi Game Reserve in 1898 never complex. In the central part of the KrOger experienced any conservation-related National Park, similar sites occur at Makhadzi development at the time of Paul KrOger's "Zuid (in the Letaba area) and Timbavati (in the Afrikaansche Repub/iek" because they soon Satara area). became involved in two wars with the British Empire. The last war was lost, and the Sabi Middle stone age Game Reserve's first warden was the British Artefacts from the Middle Stone Age (±152 000 colonialist, James Stevenson-Hamilton - the to ±40 000 years ago) occur widely in the park. local communities named him Skukuza, which However, finds are dependent on erosion or means "he who sweeps clean". He forcefully human activities and to date no intensive evicted the local people to create space for excavations or research has been done. The colonial trophy hunters. park remains an undisturbed, protected area for future research. During this period, a systematic separation of the local communities from that park became intensive. The black people in the park area The late stone age were resettled west of the boundary, and only The KrOger National Park has one of the best labourers, game scouts (the so-called police preserved and biggest concentrations of Late boys) could stay only in the compounds Stone Age (±40 000 years ago to ± 200 AD) San provided. The "tribal map" compiled by (Bushman) sites in Africa, in most cases Stevenson-Hamilton in 1903 provides evidence accompanied by occurrences of rock art. To of this, together with the local communities oral date 115 sets of San rock art sites have been historians living adjacent to the park. documented, the majority occurring in the southern part of the park. In addition, at least I would like to provide you with a brief outline on three rock engraving sites have been identified, what the cultural landscape looked like, before which are unique to the larger area. the local communities were removed by the Stevenson-Hamilton "clean sweep': and what This archaeological period has been intensively the South African National Parks' approach researched in other parts of Southern Africa, but policy is towards redressing these mistakes from the documentation of the social and spiritual life the past. of the San people and their interaction with the environment in the area of the KrOger National The pre-history of the area is not well Park remains sketchy. First discoveries of San documented, but extensive studies over the last shelters were recorded in 1911 by James two decades have produced relatively detailed Stevenson-Hamilton and for many decades no information on this period. To reconstruct the further work was done. However, during the last history and pre-history of the KrOger in any kind two decades park staff and archaeologists have of chronological order is difficult if not recorded many more sites and shelters, of which impossible. However, the Thulamela Project three were excavated. which was started in 1990, showed that the new concept of cultural mapping of the KrOger and The iron age environs can contribute towards bringing the human and cultural landscapes back into the It has been suggested by the researchers, that park. the San occupied the area which is today known as the KrOger National Park during the Stone Age period. By ±400 AD, the first settlement of

-89- Cultural Landscapes in Africa a different cultural group had taken place in the Great Zimbabwe where it reached its peak. The northern part of the country, as well as in the economic centres shifted southwards to include, present park. among others, sites such as Makahane and Thulamela in the present-day KrOger National This, we are told, marked the end of an era of Park. This important era came to an end in the San hunter-gatherers who lived in shelters, 1th century. hunted game and gathered plants from the veld for food. They were gradually replaced by We are told that the first non-Africans to have an Bantu-speaking people who were influence on the area of the KrOger National technologically totally different, as they brought Park, as mentioned earlier, were the Arabian with them metal-working skills as well as a traders, up to the 18th century. They hardly ever lifestyle based on a more residential system of ventured into the hinterland themselves and until pasturalism, made possible by domesticated 1725 no European had set foot into the harsh plants and animals. inland wilderness. The Portuguese later controlled the gold and slavery trade, through The early iron age control of the East African ports. They were displaced by the Dutch, Francois de CUiper was In the KrOger National Park, several Early Iron the first white man to visit the southern part of Age (0 to ± 1 000 AD), sites have been the KrOger National Park area, followed by discovered, sometimes in the form of a few groups of Afrikaaner "Voortrekker" a century scattered potsherds, or ash-middens at sites later, from the north and west. where the remains of hut floors and other structures can be seen. By means of In the 19th century the first European to settle in radiocarbon dating techniques, these sites have the KrOger National Park area, was Joao been dated and research will eventually cast Albasini. The restored ruin of his dwelling can more light on these ancient and unique cultural be found near Pretoriuskop. The other group remains. were the colonial hunters, names like, De Santa Rita Montanha, Das Neves, Erskine, Carl The late iron age Mauch, Elton, Cohen, Napier and missionaries It has been stated that the formal division like Cuenod and Courtin appear in diaries, between the Early and Late Iron Age (± 800 to 1 historical documents, and even on ancient baobab trees along old routes through the bush. 800 AD), lies between ± 800 and 1 000 AD because of migrations of different communities into the KrOger National Park area, which Industrial age marked a period that included economic, The prospectors and miners following the "re­ technological and political activities. It has been discovery" of gold in the area, paved the way for recorded that there were settlements in what is transport riders and the first mail coaches today the northern part of the KrOger National through the malaria ridden KrOger National Park Park. There is evidence of socio-economic area and tsetse fly belt to the port of Delagoa activities, as well as political structure and trade Bay (Maputo). This soon led to further that brought the local people into contact with development. The first railway line linking Arabian, and later, Portuguese traders using the Delagoa Bay to Pretoria was built, with a famous eastern seaboard. This marked the beginning of branch line to the Selati Gold Fields, passing a famous and prosperous trading era linked to through the southern part of the park which was gold (which reached peak point during the 1ih th th about to be proclaimed at the end of the 19 and 13 centuries); slavery, ivory and other century. In fact, the first part of the line was animal products. The development of Great finished when the Anglo-Boer War broke out, Zimbabwe and the Monomotapa Kingdom is with the Sabie Game Reserve already associated with this era. proclaimed.

Research over the last ten years in the KrOger The discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand in National Park and adjacent sites suggests that 1886 not only exponentially added to the South trade in gold took place in the south at African industrial revolution which started in Mapungubwe, a Northern Province site not far Kimberley, linked to the diamond rush, but had from the park and that it moved northwards to

-90- Y. Dladla - Kroger National Park as a cultural landscape a dramatic influence on the lives of the majority Thulamela of people in South Africa. The mineworkers' Archaeological excavations such as the recruitment era began, drawing black contract Thulamela, the Makahane and the Masorini workers from mostly neighbouring countries to ruins give us glimpses into the cultural the gold mines. The KrOger also played its part landscape of KrOger. It is known from in this chapter of the South Africa's history. Two archaeological evidence that Makahane and mine recruitment stations were built in the park, Thulamela were culturally related. They were on the border with Mozambique, by the both part of the Levuvhu-Limpopo Complex in Chamber of Mines. terms of cultural historical landscape, and included Zimbabwe, Botswana and Mozambique. One was established at Nwanedzi, the other at The excavation of Thulamela has received Pafuri in the north. The first was handed to extensive media coverage. The Thulamela KrOger and was converted into a rest camp and Project is one of the first project, where the picnic site, but the latter is still being used by South African National Park invited all key Chambers of Mines as an exclusive retreat for stakeholders, local communities, archaeologists, its senior officials. Negotiations are at present academics and other to engage in a underway to erect a museum for the area on the participatory process in planning and site, and to possibly use part of the implementing the Thulamela project. infrastructure for staff housing or as a tourist area. Masorini The Palaborwa region covers the area from the Border crossing Palaborwa entrance gate. Mopani, Olifants and Letaba camps. During the 19th century, land use KrOger National Park played an important role traditions included pastorialism and agriculture. during the apartheid era. It was used by both the The people who lived there were renowned iron­ Freedom fighters and the Apartheid Security smiths and the remains of an iron smelting forces as route and a base to fight or defend "village" was partially excavated at Masorini. apartheid system. The stories and unmarked Descendants of the people are still found in graves of the Freedom Fighters still need to be Palaborwa today as the Malatji tribe. told and uncovered, as part of political and cultural landscape. The South African National Parks is engaged in a process that is attempting to build mutually Transformation of parks beneficial partnerships with local communities living adjacent to the park. During the Apartheid South African National Parks has, as part of its era, the KrOger National Park was managed by transformation programme, established a Social the white Afrikaner people, who protected Ecology Department (1994) to bring local KrOger Park from anthropogenic pressures, by communities and parks closer together, thereby well-organised paramilitary techniques. Systematic restoring the human element in the overall data collections on ecological communities and landscape of the KrOger National Park and other processes assisted with the success of parks. biodiversity management of the park but indigenous people were not allowed in the park We work on the assumption that the cultural except as labourers and this resulted in strong heritage of KrOger stretches much into the negativity of the local people to the park. Many distant past than the archives would make us of the people in the local villages still think that believe. The challenge for the Social Ecology the park is only a place for tourists and that they department and the South African National have no access to it. Parks is moving beyond the marks left by pen Some of the programmes we are involved in are and ink, into the KrOger landscape itself. settlements of land claims. The South African Currently, the past historians have identified National Parks has recently, settled a land claim 254 cultural heritage sites, we hope that through between KrOger and the Makuleke community. the rich oral traditions of the local communities This has opened up opportunities to access the and extensive research we are going to collective memory of the communities that has been undertake, the rich tapestry of the landscape passed on by elders, about their lives and that makes up KrOger will unfold.

-91- Cultural Landscapes in Africa

experiences in KrOger. Their testimonies indicate that documented data has colonial, apartheid and "western" interpretation of KrOger as a cultural artefact, the information on cultural landscape from the local people and African perspectives is non-existence.

KrOger National Park is managed today as a protected area where both ecological and cultural heritage is conserved for the pride and joy of South Africans. Land use varies from tourism related activities, scientific investigation, and interpretation activities with local people as well as visitors and economic empowerment activities that are targeting local people.

Concluding remarks In conclusion, I would like to state that the challenge for the South African National Parks and Social Ecology programme in particular, is to create mutually beneficial partnerships with local communities and to integrate cultural perspectives in the management, educational and interpretation programmes of the park. By concentrating only on natural resources in the conservation of KrOger National Park, the experience we offer to our visitors is limited, it also undermines the development of sustainable conservation efforts. A more holistic approach towards conserving this heritage, would enhance how we conserve and present cultural heritage and contemporary cultural values. The inclusion of cultural landscape which goes back through centuries and the present will provide KrOger National Park with a spirit and soul that could be experienced and enjoyed by present and future generations.

-92- A. Bidi - La route du sel

LA ROUTE DU SEL

ALI BIDA

THE SALT ROUTE Kano, but also for Gao, Dosso, Say. The Summary Oasis of Kaouar is both the centre for salt production (saltworks of Fachi and Bilma) and After having recalled the important role that the point of exchange of this product for millet, commercial exchanges played in the trans­ cotton products and other southern produce. Saharan itineraries which, since prehistory, The route is as short as possible between the have relayed Africa to the Mediterranean exchange points obligatorily taking into account world, the author described the different the wells and the availability of grazing land. aspects of the Salt Road of Niger. With the This road is just a component in the vast competition of the coastal saltworks and road exchange system linking the Saharan zone to transport, the activity on this route has sub-Saharan Africa, and extends from the dwindled. The Salt Road of Niger is organised ancient towns of Mauritania to the banks of around two major crossroads, Agadez and the Lake Chad. It is therefore of real regional Oasis of Kaouar. Agadez was the main importance in Africa. This site is inscribed on destination of the caravans and the marketing the tentative list of Niger. of salt for the Haussa Sultanates of Zinder and

Introduction Certains de ces itineraires, comme les routes du sel, ont continue d'exister jusqu'a une epoque La vie economique de l'Ouest africain recente, meme si leur importance economique a precolonial est difficile a saisir. L'historien progressivement regresse. Ces itineraires beneficie, pour la reconstituer, du fait que les conservent, de nos jours, une trace structures economiques de l'Ouest africain ont emotionnelle et spatiale importante et font partie du subi peu de modifications fondamentales au patrimoine culturel des populations qui, en tant cours des siecles passes. Ceci est dO aussi bien que producteurs, commen;ants ou caravaniers, a la stabilite des techniques de production ont contribue a leur developpement et beneficie, utilisees, qu'a I'utilisation, sur Ie long terme, des des siecies durant, de leur activite. memes itineraires de distribution et d'echange des produits. Les pistes du desert saharien, 1. Gimeralites sur Ie commerce reunissant l'Afrique de l'Ouest a l'Afrique mediterraneenne, ont ete depuis la plus transsaharien lointaine Antiquite utilisees pour les echanges Les voies de communications et d'echanges commerciaux. Leur connaissance nous est transsahariens ont ete les premiers liens de Parvenue, grace aux recits des voyageurs l'Ouest africain avec I'exterieur, bien avant . Xeme XVl eme anciens : voyageurs arabes du au I'essor du commerce maritime. Ces voies sont siecle, voyageurs europeens par la suite.

-93- Paysages Culturels en Afrique essentiellement des itineraires meridiens dont Elle reunissait Sidjilmasa, dans Ie sud du Maroc, I'existence est tres ancienne. Au Neolithique, a Walata et a Tombouctou, en passant par les deja, I'art rupestre semble attester, dans tout Ie salines de Teghazza. Ces salines ont fait la domaine aride nord-africain, I'existence de fortune de bien des commeryants, car Ie sel routes (Ies routes des chars) dont la fonction gemme saharien s'echangeait alors avec les semble avoir ete Ie commerce. L'accentuation populations du Soudan, au poids de I'or, dit-on. du climat aride, a la fin de la periode holocene, En effet, Ie sel marin, exploite a I'epoque a Awlil a rendu plus difficile Ie maintien des echanges sur la cote mauritanienne n'etait pas diffuse vers nord-sud dans Ie continent africain mais ne les a I'interieur. Les populations du Soudan, pas interrompus. Leur permanence est liee, enclavees loin des bordures maritimes, ne depuis I'epoque romaine, au developpement disposaient pas de mines de sel gemme et des caravanes de dromadaires et a I'entretien utilisaient, en guise de sel, des substances d'oasis qui pouvaient fournir I'eau necessaire a tirees de la cendre des tiges de cereales. La I'abreuvage de caravanes reunissant plusieurs route de Teghazza, vehiculant Ie sel vers Ie centaines, voire plusieurs milliers, d'animaux de centre de l'Afrique, devint donc la plus grande bat. La disponibilite de pOints d'abreuvement et artere commerciale entre I'empire du Mali et d'affouragement stables et fiables a toujours ete I'exterieur. Tombouctou, Djenne et Gao I'une des bases necessaires du commerce profiterent amplement des retombees caravanier, en Afrique comme en Asie. economiques de cette voie r,our leur developpement. A partir du XIV me siecle, L'autre condition de la perennite d'un itineraire I'exploitation de Teghazza fut abandonnee et et de la permanence d'un commerce est la des routes plus orientales prirent alors de securite des routes. Elle semble avoir ete I'importance. Parmi celles-ci, on peut citer la assumee par les empires du Ghana et du Mali, route des Garamantes qui reunit Ie Fezzan meme en I'absence d'armees permanentes. (Libye) a la region de Gao (Soudan central). Des groupes mobiles permettaient d'operer des C'est I'une des plus anciennes routes de interventions rapides, dans un point quelconque l'Afrique. II en est de meme de la route reliant de ces empires. Ghadames a l'Alr et au fleuve Niger. L'A'Ir a, depuis les temps les plus anciens, joue Ie role L'existence d'itineraires d'echange, entre I'Afrique d'une plaque tournante economique, etant du Nord et l'Afrique noire, est connue grace aux egalement liee a la zone mediterraneenne par recits des voyageurs arabes qui, comme EI les itineraires caravaniers passant par Bilma. Ce Bekri, Ibn Battouta ou Leon I'Africain, les ont massif etait un carrefour du commerce suivis, a partir du Xl erne siecle, pour se rendre caravanier, avec des centres historiquement dans les vi lies qui, comme Chinguetti ou importants comme Iferouane et surtout Agadez. Tombouctou, avaient alors un fort prestige C'est Ie point de depart d'itineraires au trace intellectuel et une activite commerciale importante. souvent mal defini, caracterises par de nombreux embranchements et bretelles, que les L'etude des recits laisses par ces voyageurs guides empruntaient selon les conjonctures montre que, du Xl eme au XIXeme siecle, ces politiques ou les necessites de la caravane. Ces itineraires ont connu des fortunes variees et que itineraires convergeant vers I'AIr ont fait la fortune d'Agadez qui s'est rapidement accru a de nouveaux itineraires ont succede aux me anciens, que ce soit sous la pression de partir du Xlve siecle, comme I'atteste la I'economie, de la politique ou du climat. construction de I'originale et importante mosquee Amesni dont Ie minaret de 27m sert, depuis Du Vlleme au Xlleme siecle, I'itineraire reliant Ie lors, de point de repere aux guides caravaniers. Maroc au Soudan a connu une grande activite. Cette route reliait les villes de Tamedelt, au 2. L'exploitation et Ie commerce du sel nord, et d'Awdaghost, au sud, par un trajet de sur Ie territoire nigerien 90 jours. Lorsque la securite n'a plus ete Sur Ie territoire actuel du Niger, les centres de garantie par I'empire du Ghana, I'itineraire production du sel sont principalement localises periclita, au profit d'une route situee plus a l'Est. dans la region aride du nord (Teggidan AI Yacoubi evoque cette route dans Ie Kitab al Tessoum, Kaouar). D'autres productions, plus Bouldan (Livre des Pays). localisees, concernent I'ouest et I'est du pays.

-94- A. Bidi - La route du sel

Dans !'ouest, la preparation du sel donne lieu a entre les populations sedentaires kanouries, qui une grande affluence humaine, les populations maitrisaient les techniques saunieres, et les convergeant alors vers Ie Dallol Gogha. Les populations nomades touaregues et touboues salines du Mangari offrent egalement un sel, qui maitrisaient parfaitement les parcours mais de qualite mediocre. Dans ces deux cas, Ie caravaniers et la gestion des animaux de bat procede de production consiste a porter a (dromadaires). Les commergants qui finangaient ebullition de I'eau saturee de sel. et contr61aient ces echanges etaient Arabes ou Haoussa, residant dans les centres urbains Dans Ie nord-ouest, les salines de la region de importants du Soudan : Agadez, Zinder, Kano, Tegguidan Tessoum produisent un sel de bonne Say. Les routes du sel ont ainsi constitue un qualite. Son utilisation donne lieu, chaque element de brassage humain important, entre annee, a de grands rassemblements d'eleveurs des regions que les conditions climatiques et de nomades foulbes et touaregs qui viennent soumettre leurs chameaux a la traditionnelle difficiles vouaient a I'isolement et au declin. "cure salee", necessaire au bon equilibre physiologique des animaux. La materialisation de I'itineraire d'echange que constitue la route du sel du Kaouar repose sur La region du Kaouar situee dans Ie nord-est du I'identification de plusieurs points de passage Niger, constitue un ilot de vie dans la mer de obliges. Cette identification est tout a fait sable du Tenere. Cette zone est caracterisee possible de nos jours, car il existe de nombreux par une falaise de 150 m de haut, s'etendant du documents ecrits et !'on peut encore interroger nord au sud sur plus de 150 km. Le long de cet des acteurs de I'epoque ou la caravane du sel axe, se trouve une nappe d'eau salee, fossilisee etait un moteur economique important de la a une profondeur moyenne d'un metre. Cela region. On peut considerer que cinq types de permet Ie developpement d'une frange verte de reperes spatiaux importants permettront de petites oasis, comme Bilma et Fachi, se caracteriser cet itineraire : a} Ie pOint de prolongeant vers Ie nord jusqu'a Seguedine et formation de la caravane ; b) Ie lieu d'echange jusqu'au Plateau du Djado. Le sel de Bilma se aupres des salines; c) les sites de production; presente sous forme de cristaux qui peuvent d) les points de passage obliges des itineraires ; etre tasses dans des moules pour en faciliter Ie e) les points d'aboutissement du produit, lors de transport. sa commercialisation, dans les principaux centres urbains de la zone sahelo-soudanienne. 3. Les routes du sel du Kaouar et de I' AIr Comme nous I'avons dit plus haut, la region de a} Le point de formation de la caravane l'Air et du Tenere a represente depuis les temps Le point de depart et de concentration, Ie lieu ou les plus anciens un important carrefour de routes se concluaient les contrats est la ville d'Agadez, commerciales, entre la zone mediterraneenne au capitale du sultanat de l'A'Ir. II s'agit plus nord et la zone soudanienne au sud, entre la precisement du quartier du marche, dans la Mauritanie et Ie delta interieur du Niger a I'ouest vieille ville d'Agadez, ou residaient les principaux et la region du lac Tchad a I'est. negociants et ou se concentraient chameliers et guides, avant Ie depart. Un autre point important Le sel du Kaouar est exploite depuis plusieurs pour constituer la caravane, concerne I'origine siecles. Les salines ont cependant connu un des dromadaires, animaux de bat, qui au developpement plus important au cours du nombre de plusieurs milliers permettaient Ie siecle. XIX~me transport des marchandises. Ces animaux etaient en partie originaires de la region Le commerce du sel n'est qu'un element d'un d'iferouane (centre de culture ancien du nord de ensemble d'echanges que permettaient les I'Air, siege du site du patrimoine mondial des caravanes de chameaux. Ce commerce reserves naturelles de l'A'Ir et du Tenere) et en permettait aux populations sedentaires (Kanouris) plus grande partie de la region des Monts des oasis du Kaouar d'echanger leur production Baghezans, situes au sud du massif de l'A'Ir. Le de sel et de dattes contre des produits des lieu de rassemblement et Ie point de depart de regions du sud: mil, millet, objets manufactures. cet itineraire peuvent donc etre identifies avec II a perm is d'etablir et de maintenir un contact precision par les anciens d'Agadez.

-95- Paysages Culturels en Afrique b) Le lieu d'echange aupres des salines largement un cadre national et devraient etre prises en consideration, dans Ie contexte meme Au niveau des oasis du Kaouar, I'echange des des echanges, au niveau de la sous-region. produits avait lieu dans un espace "neutre", en Elles ont, par leur importance et la diversite des dehors de la zone d'habitat oasien, ou les echanges qu'elles permettaient, contribue au caravaniers ne penetraient pas. developpement economique et social de regions souvent eloignees de plusieurs centaines de c) Les sites de production kilometres les unes des autres. Elles ont perm is II s'agit des salines ou la saumure est de developper des relations humaines, en concentree et ou Ie sel cristallise, ainsi que les particulier culturelles et religieuses, entre des installations qui permettent Ie moulage des peuples aux origines et aux modes de vie tres pains de sel avant leur transport. Ces lieux de differents. Meme si les aleas de I'histoire production sont situes principalement a Bilma et economique et coloniale en ont reduit egalement a Fachi. Malgre la concurrence du I'importance actuelle, les routes du sel sel marin, ils continuent d'avoir une activite transsahariennes ont une dimension patrimoniale reduite. evidente qui permet aujourd'hui d'envisager leur prise en consideration dans Ie cadre de la d) Les pOints de passage obliges des Convention du patrimoine mondial. C'est ce que itineraires souhaite faire la Republique du Niger, apres avoir inscrit dans sa liste indicative les routes du En milieu desertique, la notion d'itineraire sel du Kaouar. On ne peut que souhaiter que designe la meilleure facton de relier deux pOints rapidement, une etude soit entreprise au niveau separes par des distances importantes (ici plus sous-regional, afin que les pays limitrophes de 700 km). Le trajet n'est jamais inscrit de con cernes par les routes du sel mettent en facton rig ide dans Ie paysage, comme peut I'etre cornmun leurs moyens pour preparer conjointement une voie routiere. II fluctue, au hasard des une proposition d'inscription simultanee de cet paturages disponibles pour alimenter les element culturel commun qu'est I'echange du animaux, des sources de bois pour la cuisine, sel, source de vie et de developpement pour de des puits actifs pour I'abreuvement. Ces trajets nombreuses civilisations africaines. sont la responsabilite du guide principal de la caravane, Ie Madougou, qui dispose de I'expenence necessaire pour apprehender a la fois les Bibliographie ressources naturelles et Ie contexte politique et economique permettant la securite du trajet. Cornevin R. Histoire de l'Afrique, tome /I - Concretement, on peut identifier certains points l'Afrique precoloniale, 1500-1900. de repere Ie long du trajet, comme l'Arbre du Ki-Zerbo J. Histoire generale de I'Afrique noire. Tenere ou les puits utilises Ie plus souvent par les caravanes. Salifou A. Histoire du Niger. e) Les points d'aboutissement du produit Etude de la sauvegarde du Patrimoine Culturel (Projet 7 NIR 74). Apres son retour a Agadez, la caravane se fragmentait et approvisionnait en sel les Le Berre & Messan: Le Patrimoine Culturel principaux marches de la region. A partir Nigerien in Hirsch B., Levi-Strauss L., et d'Agadez, Ie sel eta it vehicule vers Gao et Saouma-Forero G. - Le patrimoine culturel Tombouctou, a I'est, vers Zinder et Kano, dans africain et la Convention du Patrimoine Mondial la region du lac Tchad, vers Dosso et Say dans - pages 117-128. UNESCO WHC. 1997. Ie sud. Le fonctionnement de ces caravanes du Messan L.: Les itineraires, sites du patrimoine sel jouait un role important sur Ie plan du mondial in: Hirsch B., Levi-Strauss L., et fonctionnement des Etats soudanais, a travers Saouma-Forero G. - Le patrimoine culturel la perception de taxes et de droits d'entree, dont africain et la Convention du Patrimoine Mondial beneficiait, par exemple, Ie Sultanat d'Agadez. - pages 39-44. UNESCO WHC. :1997. Conclusion Castro Henriguez I.: Cultural itineraries and exchange routes - pages 98-101 in Munjeri D. Les routes du sel du nord du Niger appartiennent a Ndoro W., Sibanda C., Saouma-Forero G., un vaste ensemble transsaharien d'echange de Levi-Strauss L., Mbuyamba Eds. L. African matieres et d'idees qui ont, durant des siecles, Cultural Heritage and the World Heritage anime et rythme la vie de la region. Par leur Convention NMMZ - Harare: 1996. importance geographique, elles depassent

-96- Y. Beyene - Konso-Gardula: an archaeological site and cultural landscape witness of a living culture

KONSO-GARDUlA: AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE AND CULTURAL lANDSCAPE WITNESS OF A LIVING CULTURE

YONAS BEYENE

KONSO-GAROULA, SITE population qui continue de construire des ARCHEOLOGIQUE ET PAYSAGE monuments megalithiques, les Waka, dedies CULTUREL TEMOIN O'UNE CULTURE au culte des heros de la communaute. Cet VIVANTE ensemble constitue un paysage culturel vivant de qualite exceptionnelle. Les structures en Resume terrasse gardent leur fonctionnalite agricole. Le site de Konso-Gardula presente un interet La construction de stales maintient vivant un archeologique exceptionnel en abritant des patrimoine culturel. II participe en particulier objets acheuleens et de nombreux restes au passage des pouvoirs entre generations, d'Hominides (de 1,4 a 1,7M annees BP). II selon une periodicite de 18 ans qui rythme la s'agit egalement d'un paysage culturel vivant vie des individus et des communautes. Le qui presente a la fois une technologie originale maintien de ce paysage fait partie de la vie de terrasses agricoles, de vi lies a rem parts de quotidienne des Konso et a prouve, au cours pierres et une culture megalithique vivante. du temps, sa durabilite. Ce site figure sur la Les Konso sont, actuellement, la seule liste indicative de l'Ethiopie.

Introduction The Konso area is inhabited by the Konso people who speak one of the Eastern Cushitic The Konso land is located in the southern part of languages of Ethiopia, called Konsogna. Ethiopia, about 600 kilometres from Addis According to the 1994 census, there are an Ababa. It is situated at the southern terminus of estimated 157 585 Konso people. the Main Ethiopian Rift at 5.23.97 degrees North and 37.21.95 degrees East and the altitude lies The Konso people and their unique traditional between 1200m and 2000 metres. The area is socio-economic life ways had attracted, since marked by volcanism giving it a landscape the end of the last century, the attention of very where basaltic mountains dominate the low lying many scholars. So far, more than seventy precamberian formations and quaternary lake scholarly papers and reports are published margin sediments. The Konso land is an active focusing on Konso. This makes Konso, perhaps geological area where earth tectonic activities the most thoroughly studied area in Ethiopia. are demonstrated by recent faulting.

-97- Cultural Landscapes in Africa

The Konso people are admired for their amazing Konso. Radiometric dates lacking in Olduvai terracing and soil conservation tradition and Bed II level are clearly archived at Konso exploitation of hard environment, for their stone providing an accurate calibration of emergence walled towns, for their tombs with decorated and development of the Acheulian cultural and carved wooden stele, and for their living tradition. tradition of stele erection. The Konso paleoanthropological sites are In addition to the living tradition, the discovery in unique when compared to the Middle Awash, 1991 of the world's oldest Acheulian site with Melka-Kunture, Omo and Gadab sites in diverse faunal fossil remains, human ancestors Ethiopia and Olduvai, Ubeidia and other sites and abundant lower Pleistocene cultural materials from elsewhere. has contributed to the importance of the Konso area as an important cultural landscape meriting The following points would give some basic a place on the World Heritage List. information about the importance of the Konso­ Gardula paleoanthropological sites. The Konso archaeological sites Since 1993, a jOint Ethio-Japanese paleo­ The Konso-Gardula paleoanthropological sites anthropological research program was devised were discovered by the paleoanthropological to undertake multi-disciplinary research in the inventory team of the Ministry of Culture and Konso-Gardula (KGA). This research program Sports of Ethiopia led by Dr. Berhane Asfaw in was initiated and led by Gen Suwa of the 1991 (Asfaw et al.,1992). These sites consist of University of Tokyo, Japan and Yonas Beyene a series of fossiliferous early to middle from the Centre for Research and Conservation Pleistocene sedimentary exposures located to of Heritage (CRCCH), Ethiopia. Geologists, the north, east and north-west of Konso town. palaeontologists and archaeologists from both The sites cover an area of approximately 200 countries and the U.S.A. have taken part in the square kilometres. So far 21 places are designated. research activities. These localities are in the order of one kilometre in diameter and most of them lie close to the Six successive years of research work in the western precambrian escarpment flanking the field and in laboratories have resulted in a Chamo graben. Radiometric dates were used to number of scientific reports and publications, of determine the ages of the different localities and which two are Nature cover page articles (Asfaw they were estimated to be between 200 000 and et aI., 1992; Beyene et aI., 1996; Suwa et aI., 1.9 million years old. The Konso sites are 1997; Beyene et al.,1997; Uzawa et al.,1997). represented by an ancient lake margin, a river channel and alluvial fan deposits. Geological works have demonstrated that over 30 independent tuff layers are recognised in the Acheulian stone tools of varied traditions are KGA area and over half of them are forming key abundant in all the localities. Some localities outcrops which enable correlation between have produced an earlier cultural tradition localities. Seven horizons have been successfully known as the Oldowan. Lower Pleistocene dated for chronometric control of the composite faunal fossil bones are very abundant in most sequence. The overall chronostratigraphy of the localities. So far 18 hominid remains KGA early Pleistocene series, focussing on the representing Homo ere cuts and core study area is now submitted for publication Austra/opithecus boisie were recovered from (Katoh et aI., in press). The paleotopographical some localities. Hominid and carnivore induced and ecological changes as viewed from the bone modifications have also been recorded. advancement and retreat of a paleolake from reconstructions based on deposition of clay The Konso paleoanthropological sites are very sediments and diatomites are in light (Nagaoka important as source of information about human et aI., in press). biological and cultural evolution during the lower Pleistocene witnessing the lower Pleistocene Palaeontological work was conducted in the paleo-landscape and the interrelation between KGA area with the aim of documenting the geological and ecological changes that occurred paleontological content of the deposits, to in this region. They also fill the gap missing in establish the taxonomic compositions and the Omo deposits located further south of characteristics of the fauna and to recover

-98- Y. Beyene - Konso-Gardula: an archaeological site and cultural landscape witness of a living culture hominid remains. Over 7000 identifiable non­ a) ExplOitation of hard environment through hippo faunal remains are collected. This traditional terracing and soil conservation: includes hominid remains representing 18 Agriculture is the basis of the Konso economy. individuals so far collected from the different The Konso are devoted to their fields and localities and housed at the National Museum of environment. In order to make use of the difficult Ethiopia. The faunal remains include: Parmularius hilly country, the Konso employ an indigenous angusticomis, Damaliscus niro, Deinotherium, stone terracing system by using the dry stone Tragelaphus nakuae, Notochoerus euilus, resource available. They call this terrace system Kolpochoerus olduvaiensis and Elephas recki. Kabata. The Kabata are constructed contouring the rocky hills. These beautifully constructed The individual taxonomic groups, including the stone terraces attain a total length of several hominids are being studied by the appropriate hundreds of kilometres giving the Konso scientists. The KGA faunal assemblage is landscape its specially marked features. already a major reference collection for the 2 Metasebia Bekele (1998) reported that in one million year to 1 million year time range of East area the Kabata a range between a height of 98 Africa. to 197cms high, in other places they are higher. As Ambron H. (1989) puts it, these terraces are Archaeological investigations were undertaken sometimes wider than a meter and are planted to clarify the context of the unique Konso lithic with bushes to increase the water holding assemblages through excavation and surface faculty; and thereby the leaves of these bushes occurrence stUdies. Data collection and are used as fodder and manure. documentation of near in situ surface assemblages focusing on key archaeological horizons is underway in an attempt to interpret The soil and water conservation tradition of the hominid land use patterns. Investigation of Konso, according to Adebo Simon (1993), arises hominid land use pattern undertaken at one from a shortage of land, water and an locality, KGA 10, through multiple sampling abundance of stones in the region. This excavations within the confines of a precise conservation strategy is maintained in the 1: 1000 topographic map, targeting one horizon traditional ways of terrace building techniques of on the paleo-landscape is completed. Large the Konso. These terraces provide cultivatable scale excavations conducted at KGA4-A3 (1.4 surface on the mountain slopes. They also myr) and KGA6-A 1(1. 7myr) have resulted in the control erosion, soil moisture and facilitate recovery of large number of artefacts and bone ventilation by applying "... bench terraces/stones materials, providing a great amount of band and tie ridge" (Simon: 1993). Teferi Abate information regarding the beginning of the (1992) had noted that "... Nowhere else in Acheulian culture in Konso. Ethiopia has the hand of man so impressed itself on the landscape in such an extraordinary The Konso Landscape and Living efficient use of available resource than in Konso~ Culture The Konso belong to the Eastern Cushitic Interviews made with the local people by linguistic group. Their culture share basic Metassebia Bekele, indicate that the terraces elements with the Borena Oromo where the are several generations old: "age grading system" of the society plays an important role in their traditional socio-economic "They [the KonsoJ explain that even their life (Hallpike, 1972). The less fertile and forefathers did not have the experience of mountainous nature of their country seems to building Kabata during their life time. To this have forced the Konso to adopt a different way date, the building of new Kabata have never of life from that of their neighbours. In dealing taken place. The only experience of the actual with their landscape and cultural life, I would like generation with regard to building Kabata is to to highlight the following points: restore when damages happen". This makes the Kabata as " .. .one of the surviving heritages a) Exploitation of hard environment through inherited by each of the successive generations" traditional terracing and soil conservation (Bekele: 1998). It is worth noting that because techniques, b) the stone walled towns, c) the of efficient soil and water conservation strategy decorated carved wooden stele on tombs and a adopted in the country, the Konso are sharing living tradition of stele erection. their traditional techniques to farmers of other parts of Ethiopia.

-99- Cultural Landscapes in Africa b) The Konso stone walled towns: The Konso c) Decorated carved wooden stele on tombs build their traditional towns in the high points of and a living tradition of stele erection: their mountainous country. Their houses are Heroism is highly regarded and heroes are round, made of local wood, rarely of stones, with venerated by the Konso people. They have a grass thatched roofs. tradition of erecting carved wooden stele on the graves of their heroes. People who have killed The traditional towns are surrounded by multiple an enemy or one of the great felines like a lion rounds of stone walls, fodder trees and logs. It is or a leopard or a buffalo are regarded as heroes by the Konso. These heroes are called said that these walls are constructed and used Hedalayta. When a HedaJayta dies it is the duty for defensive purpose against rival neighbours. of his eldest son to erect the carved wooden stele called Waka. Waka are presented in The stone walls are made without using mortars. various ways depicting the life of the Heda/ayta. As reported by Metassebia Bekele (1998), these These heroes have an important roll in the walls are between two and five metres high. He Konso cultural events. remarked that at Chomote and Dera villages, the walls are as high as seven metres. Each The HedaJayta lead and conclude the traditional town has a number of gates. There is a network ceremony of the transfer of power from the of paths within these walls leading either to retiring generation to the younger and stronger individual homesteads or public place called generation in the Konso age grading system. Mora. Thus, the HedaJayta are highly regarded and a carved wooden stele, Waka is erected for them, Metassebia Bekele has reported that there are upon their death, to commemorate their place in twenty-eight walled towns in Konso with an the society. average of 1200 inhabitants in each town. He further states that these walled towns were Heda/ayta eyes, nose, ears and teeth are constructed several hundred years ago and the carved on all Waka. The male genital organ is duty of the present generation is, like with the carved at its natural place and when the stone terraces, to up keep them through deceased is an elderly person it is also continuous maintenance work. positioned at the forehead. Necklaces and bracelets are also carved depending on the The construction of stone walled villages is an deceased lifetime merit. The hero Waka is ancient tradition. One cannot find these walls usually surrounded by other carved Wakas around the more recently founded villages in depicting his wife, children, victims (presented ruro and Kolme areas. without genital marks) and big animals he killed. The Waka are painted with charcoal and ochre The Konso traditional towns are organised in powder mixed with butter. such a way that collective cultural practices are given paramount importance. For example, the Apart from graveyards, some Wakas are placed Mora public places where multiple social and at the centre of the villages at a place called cultural activities take place, are given priority Mora, where public activities take place, and at and are placed at the most central part of the the roads leading to the terraces usually at high villages. As the Konso age-grading traditional places where they could be seen by everybody, system obliges, active men in the 'responsible' usually turning their faces away from their age group are not permitted to sleep in their villages (B. Hirsch and M. Bekele, 1998) and private houses. Specially constructed houses, blending into the landscape. Pafta are constructed for them. This system is designed to facilitate a rapid mobilisation of all B. Hirsch and M. Bekele (1998) reported that the strong Konso men in the 'responsible' age most ancient Wakas, found in the traditionally group, against any possible danger such as fire conserved Kala forests, date back t250 years. and aggression. It is also the responsibility of Some Wakas in the traditionally walled villages these groups of strong young men to up keep are said to be 150 years old. Azais (Azais and the traditional stone walls. Detailed work about Chambard: 1931) stated that around the turn of the Konso traditional walled towns has been the last century, there were a large quantity of prepared by M. Bekele in 1998 in his better made Wakas erected at the cemeteries. "preliminary report on Konso" submitted to Even now, the tradition of Waka carving and World Heritage Centre (UNESCO). erection is practised in Konso, although the number of artisans is very few.

-100- Y. 8eyene - Konso-Gardula: an archaeological site and cultural landscape witness of a living culture

Waka are often stolen because of the high price Summary and Conclusion they get in illicit antiques markets. Many ancient Wakas have been removed from their original This paper has attempted to present the natural places and sold, sometimes by the 'intervention' sites and the dynamics of the Konso living of local and regional authorities. This alarming cultural landscape. The archaeological sites situation requires an immediate intervention have become world famous for their very rich programme so that these valuable heritages can early to classical Acheulian artefacts and very be saved from this fate. abundant mammalian fossils including hom in ids, and fossil bones modified by hominids. In order to prevent the theft of Wakas a programme was devised to fully document them The Konso people have developed a in their original placements. A local museum is remarkable sustainable and environment­ to organise an exhibition of Wakas thereby friendly agricultural system which renders the using them as an educational tool to teach the landscape with beautiful and unique scenery. local Konso people about the importance of This beautiful landscape is a result of many preserving these important heritages, which generation's of effort. have become the symbol of the Konso people. The Konso social organisation based on their In addition to the erection of Waka, the Konso age grading system called the Gada system and also have a living megalithic cultural tradition of their social system related to cosmology, strong dressing stone stele. These stele erections are religious values linked with plants, animals and related to the socio-cultural life of the Konso. natural sites have all contributed to the Stele are erected periodically, every seven and realisation of their living culture. eleven years, in relation to the Konso cosmology calendar, to mark and commemorate the event Their system of exploitation of the hard environment of the transfer of power from the old to the new through the traditional stone terracing and soil and stronger generation in their age grading conservation techniques, and protection of the system. This transition from one age group to traditional sacred Kala forests is a heritage that the other is directly related to the transfer of they protect as part of their daily life. social responsibilities between age groups within a generation or subsequent generations. The present Konso cultural dynamism as a This tradition has its role to play in the socio­ mirror image of the past is also demonstrated by economic life of the Konso. the construction and conservation of the traditional stone walled towns and organisation In recent times, most of the Southern peoples of within these towns. The Konso culture and Ethiopia had a widespread and strong tradition landscape are inseparable whereas past of dressing stele. To cite an example, the traditions are alive and actively practised. This is famous site of Tiya (already in World Heritage reflected through the erection of the hundreds of List), is a very sound witness of this highly Wakas and the few but regularly dressed stone sound megalithic culture. Other areas in stele. . southern Ethiopia, such as Gurage, Sidama, Wolayta, Gedeo, Hadya, Yem, Bench-maji are The cultural landscape and archaeological sites very rich with stele and one can count are protected by the Ethiopian Cultural Policy thousands of stele made in the recent past. and provisions are made for their protection in the Antiquities Legislation which is in force. In The Konso stele tradition is the only megalithic addition, the Konso people are aware of the one in the making in the region and perhaps importance of their heritage and have elsewhere in the world. The role of this tradition demanded for support and attention to protect as a corner-stone of the cultural and economic their archaeological sites and cultural ways of life of the people. These stele are landscape. Konso has been inscribed on regarded as historical and archaeological Ethiopia's tentative list in 1997. monuments in the making and manifestation of a living tradition.

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The UNESCO World Heritage preparatory Bekele, M. (1998) A preliminary report on assistance request was rewarded to Metasebia Konso report submitted to UNESCO, World Bekele, through the CRCCH, and resulted in Heritage Centre. "Preliminary Report on Konso" outlining the major aspects of the Konso culture. The Konso Beyene, Y. et al., (1996) "Prehistoric research archaeological sites and cultural landscape at Konso-Gardula", Proceedings of the 10th Pan meet the criteria for the inclusion of cultural African Association for prehistory and related properties in World Heritage List and could be Studies. University of Zimbabwe. Harare. inscribed as a living cultural landscape with associated values. Beyene, Y. et aL, (1997) "The Acheulian at Konso-Gardula: results from locality KGA4-A2". Acknowledgements In K.Fukui et al. (eds.), Ethiopia in Broader Perspective - Vol. 1, pp:376-381. I would like to thank the Konso people for their warm hospitality and continuous support they Hallpike, C. R. (1972) The Konso of Ethiopia: A provided to the paleoanthropological research I study of the values of a Cushitic People, Oxford conducted with my colleagues Gen Suwa, University Press, 342p. Berhane Asfaw (who also helped in editing this text), and other researchers. The Southern Hirsch, B. and Bekele, M. (1998) The Memory Ethiopian Peoples Culture and Information of Heroes: the Konso experience, unpublished Bureau and the CRCCH, Ministry of Information field report. and Culture have continuously supported our research activities. I would like to thank Bertrand Katoh, S. et aI., (in press) "Lithological Hirsch of CFEE, Addis Ababa, for facilitating Characteristics, Geochemistry, and Geomorphology access to relevant bibliography and documentation. of the Plio-Pleistocene Tephra of the Konso The tentative list and nomination efforts on Formation, Southern Main Rift". Submitted to: Konso would have been impossible without the Quaternary International. continuous support of Galia Saouma-Forero, World Heritage Centre, UNESCO. Nagaoka, S. et aL, ( in press) "Stratigraphy of the Plio-Pleistocene Konso Formation in the Southern Main Ethiopian Rift". Submitted to: References Quaternary Research. Abate, Teferi (1992) "Resource use in Konso", Sociology Ethnology Bulletin, VOI..1, n.2. Addis Simon, Adebo (1993) " Report of Diagnostic Ababa University, pp. 22-25. Survey Using Rapid Rural Appraisal Techniques of Gersale Village in Duraite peasants Ambron, H. (1989) "Agricultural Intensification Association in Konso Wereda", Farm Africa In the Burji-Konso Cluster of Southern-Western Addis Ababa, 91 p. Ethiopia", Azania: Journal of the British Institute in Eastern Africa, VoI.XXIV, Nairobi, pp. 71-83. Suwa,G. et aI., (1997) "The first skull of Australopithicus boisei", Nature, vol. 389. Asfaw, B. et aL, (1992) "The earliest Acheulian from Konso-Gardula", Nature, vol. 360 n. 6406. Uzawa, K. et al., "A brief report on some preliminary zoo-archaeological studies at the Azais, R. P. and Cham bard, R. (1931) Cinq Konso paleoanthropological sites". In: K. Fukui Annees de recherches Archeo/ogiques en et al. (eds.), Ethiopia in Broader Perspective. Ethiopie, Paris, pp. 257-259, pI. LXXXI-LXXXVIII.

Bekele, M. (1997) "Notes on the megalithic sites of southern Ethiopia with highlights on late paleolithic occupation sites" In: K. Fukui et al. (eds.), Ethiopia in Broader Perspective.

-102- Paysages Culturels Africains / Cultural Landscapes in Africa

1. Arbre saere - 1995 - Pare Naturel du W de Niger (Niger) Sacred tree - 1995 « W» National Park of Niger (Niger)

-103- Paysages Culturels Africains / Cultural Landscapes in Africa

2. Caravane de chameaux, Desert du Sahara-1979- Parc National du Tassili n'Ajjer (Algerie) Camel caravan, Sahara Desert - 1979 - Tassili n'Ajjer National Park (Algeria)

3. Rizieres - 1996 - Reserve de Biosphere de Mananara Nord (Madagascar Rice cultivation - 1996 - Mananara North Biosphere Reserve (Madagascar)

-104- Paysages Culturels Africains / Cultural Landscapes in Africa

4. Piste saharienne - 1990 - Region de l'Air (Niger) Saharan trail - 1990 - Arr Region (Niger)

5. Paysage culturel desertique fossile aux confins de l'Air et du Tenere - 1990 (Niger) Fossil desert cultural landscape in the Arr and Tenere region - 1990 - (Niger)

-105- Paysages Culturels Africains / Cultural Landscapes in Africa

6 : Bois sacre de Charewa - 1995 - Region d'Harare (Zimbabwe) Charewa sacred wood - 1995 - Harare area (Zimbabwe)

7 : Exemple d'architecture vernaculaire - 1995 - Region de la Tapoa (Niger du Sud) Example of vernacular architecture - 1995 - Tapoa region (South Niger)

-}06- Rapport syntMtique de la Reunion d'Experts sur les Paysages Culturels Africains

RAPPORT SYNTHETIQUE DE LA REUNION D'EXPERTS SUR LES PAYSAGES CULTURELS AFRICAINS

TIWI, KENYA, 9-14 MARS 1999

Resume reseau operationnel d'experts africains en matiere de paysages culturels. Enfin, I'interet A cette reunion organlsee par Ie Centre du des forets des Kaya du Kenya a fait I'objet d'une patrimoine mondial et Ie Bureau de I'UNESCO recommandation pour leur sauvegarde et leur (Nairobi), 9 Etats parties africains la a inscription, en reponse a I'inquietude des Convention etaient invites. La reunion s'est communautes locales. deroulee avec la participation de representants des organismes consultatifs (ICOMOS, UICN) et Introduction d'un observateur (Bureau nordique du patrimoine mondial). Les participants ont Une reunion tMmatique d'experts sur "Ies presente des etudes de cas iIIustrant la diversite paysages culturels africains" s'est tenue a Tiwi de la notion de paysage culturel en Afrique et (Kenya), du 9 au 14 mars 1999, a I'invitation du I'importance de la liaison entre nature, culture et Centre du patrimoine mondial de I'UNESCO. Elle faisait suite a la decision prise a Naples en spiritualite. La discussion a permis de souligner 6me la specificite de quelques points comme Ie decembre 1997, lors de la 21 session du mode de propriete, la definition des limites et Comite du patrimoine mondial. La reunion a ete financee par Ie Fonds du patrimoine mondial. surtout la necessaire implication des Elle a ete organisee par Ie Centre du patrimoine communautes locales to utes les etapes du a mondial et Ie Bureau de I'UNESCO Nairobi, processus d'inscription et de la gestion des a avec I'appui de deux pOints focaux, Dawson sites. Les participants ont adopte des Munjeri (Zimbabwe) et Michel Le Berre recommandations visant a considerer (France). Cette reunion etait la cinquieme systematiquement les valeurs culturelles et reunion thematique d'experts regionaux sur les naturelles des sites africains, a reconnaitre Ie paysages culturels dans Ie monde et faisait droit traditionnel aussi bien pour la protection suite a la quatrieme reunion de Strategie que pour Ie mode de propriete des sites, a globale en Afrique (Porto Novo 1998), apres envisager leur gestion dans une perspective de celie de Harare (1995) et Addis-Abeba (1996). developpement durable. Le groupe d'experts a La troisieme reunion s'etait deroulee dans Ie egalement souhaite que les conditions Pacifique en 1997. d'authenticite et d'integrite soient definies d'un point de vue africain, et que les Orientations Elle a ete suivie par 20 experts representant 9 integrent des indications quant a la gestion des pays d'Afrique anglophone et francophone paysages culturels. De meme, la necessite (Afrique du Sud, Benin, Ethiopie, Kenya, d'une approche interdisciplinaire des Madagascar, Niger, Nigeria, Ouganda, Zimbabwe) evaluations de paysages culturels a ete et des representants de I'ICOMOS, I'UICN et de formulee, en relation avec la creation d'un I'UNESCO (voir - Liste des Participants). La reunion a ete articulee en quatre phases:

-107- Paysages Culturels en Afrique

1) Lors de la premiere journee, les objectifs de " a detini les principaux objectifs de la reunion: la reunion ont ete precises et des exposes ont rendu compte de "La notion de paysages • Contribuer a une meilleure representativite culture Is dans Ie monde" et de la mise en de la Liste du patrimoine mondial en ceuvre de "Ia Strategie globale" en Afrique identifiant les categories potentielles de depuis son adoption par Ie Comite en paysages culturels representatives du decembre 1994. Les experts qui avaient ete patrimoine africain, dans Ie cadre de la designes comme pOints focaux, ont Strategie globale pour une Liste du egalement presente la problematique et les patrimoine mondial equilibree et defis poses par la notion de paysage culturel representative. en Afrique sub-saharienne. Un juriste a • Provoquer une prise de conscience au esquisse les dilemmes de la protection niveau des organisations responsables de la juridique. Deux exposes ont perm is de conservation des patrimoines naturels et prendre connaissance des specificites des culturels et de la communaute scientifique de sites Kaya. la region en ce qui concerne la Convention du patrimoine mondial et la categorie des 2) Le deuxieme jour, apres une visite au site paysages culturels. sacre des Kaya et une rencontre particulierement fructueuse avec les Anciens • Preciser les caracteristiques particulieres qui ont auto rise la visite d'une des zones les des sites africains de valeur universelle et plus sacrees de la foret, chacun des experts exceptionnelle en matiere d'authenticite et invite a presente un paysage culturel de d'integrite. valeur universelle exception nelle, susceptible • Renforcer les liens de collaboration entre les d'etre inscrit sur la Liste du patrimoine experts et les representants de la region et Ie mondial. Centre du patrimoine mondial de I'UNESCO.

3) Le troisieme jour a ete consacre a la Aspects gimeraux presentation du format des propositions Mechtild Rossler (UNESCO Centre du d'inscription par les representants des patrimoine mondial) dans son expose sur "La organismes consultatifs, et des groupes de categorie des paysages culturels dans Ie cadre travail sur les themes "Paysages culturels de la Convention du patrimoine mondial'~ a vivants", "Routes et patrimoine technologique" rappele I'origine du concept de paysage culturel ont debattu des problematiques specifiques defini en 1992 (La Petite Pierre, France) et a a ces categories et prepare les precise les categories actuellement reconnues recommandations de la reunion. Les par Ie Comite du patrimoine mondial (166me representants des organismes consultatifs session, 1992) et I'etat de mise en ceuvre de ce (UICN, ICOMOS) ont explicite leur role dans concept dans Ie monde. Ie processus d'evaluation des propositions d'inscription. Selon les Orientations, les paysages culturels comprennent trois categories: 4) Le quatrieme jour, apres une visite des forets des Kaya et de la vieille ville de Mombasa, • Les paysages clairement definis con~us et les recommandations ont ete adoptees. crees par I'homme. • Les paysages evolutifs qui peuvent etre Le Representant de I'UNESCO en accueillant fossiles (temoignages de civilisations les participants, a explique Ie choix du site ou se disparues) ou vivants (poursuivant leur deroule la reunion: la region des forets des evolution). Kaya, dans la zone critere proche de Mombasa qui constituent un ensemble remarquable de bois • Les paysages associatifs qui font une large sacres, sauvegardes et utilises traditionnellement part aux croyances, traditions et elements par neuf tribus autochtones. Ces forets spirituels associes a un espace donne. constituent des exemples eminents de La relation entre les six criteres culturels et les sauvegarde de la biodiversite et un exemple trois categories de paysages culturels a ete remarquable de paysage culturel associatif. clairement illustree par un tableau synthetique.

-108- Rapport synthEltique de la Reunion d'Experts sur les Paysages Culturels Africains

Depuis 1992, 11 paysages culturels ont ete anthropologique aussi large que possible de la inscrits sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial. Les notion de patrimoine, de fac;on a prendre en categories de paysages culturels presentent des compte la diversite culturelle de,I'humanite. Des difficultes particulieres en matiere d'inscription themes ont ete retenus comme fils directeurs : que plusieurs reunions d'experts ont tente de la coexistence de I'homme avec la Terre, preciser. Par exemple, I'interet de la protection I'interaction des societes avec I'environnement et de la gestion traditionnelle a ete admise par et les cultures vivantes. La Strategie globale Ie Comite, en 1992, pour les biens culturels et constitue desormais Ie cadre de reference et la en 1998 pour les biens naturels. D'autres methodologie pour la mise en oouvre de la particularites restent a prendre en consideration Convention du patrimoine mondial et I'etablissement comme I'integration des criteres naturels et de la Liste. culturels, qui a ete discutee durant la reunion d'experts qui s'est tenue a Amsterdam (mars Le patrimoine africain est sous-represente sur la 98). Liste du patrimoine mondial. Seuls 30 des 45 pays africains representes a I'UNESCO ont Le paysage culturel apparalt comme un concept signe la Convention du patrimoine mondial. federateur, non seulement dans Ie cadre de la Actuellement, l'Afrique compte 16 sites Convention du patrimoine mondial (ou il cree un culturels, 31 sites naturels et 1 site mixte. Les pont entre patrimoine naturel et culturel) mais, listes indicatives n'existent que pour 17 pays egalement, entre plusieurs conventions africains et concernent 77 sites potentiels. De 1994 a 98, plusieurs actions de sensibilisation et internationales comme la Convention sur la d'information ont permis de diffuser la Strategie diversite biologique. Dans ce cas, cela concerne Globale en Afrique: trois reunions d'experts et aussi bien la presence d'especes domestiques deux ateliers ont deja ete organises. L'une des (animales et vegetales) dans Ie paysage, que Ie caracteristiques du patrimoine africain est la role joue par certains types de paysages dans la continuite nature-culture. Les categories conservation de la biodiversite: par exemple, les identifiees comme susceptibles de diversifier la differentes categories de sites sacres (forets, representation africaine sur la Liste du rochers, mares, sources, grottes, montagnes, patrimoine mondial sont Ie patrimoine etc.) ont permis, notamment en Afrique, de arcMologique, les cultures vivantes, les savoir­ conserver des especes ailleurs disparues. Un faire tradition nels et Ie patrimoine technique et projet UNESCO "Sites sacres - Integrite les paysages culturels: les routes et itineraires culture/le et diversite biologique" se met en et Ie patrimoine spirituel associatif. place dans Ie cadre du Secteur des Sciences de I'UNESCO; ce projet, initie au Ghana, est Afin de soutenir les efforts en vue d'une etendu a I'ensemble du monde. meilleure representativite du patrimoine africain, Ie Centre du patrimoine mondial en L'un des objectifs de la reunion est d'identifier collaboration avec I'ICCROM, a lance en mars de nouveaux types de sites pour aboutir a une 1998 Ie programme de formation ''Afrique 2009" meilleure representation de la diversite du pour la conservation du patrimoine immobilier. patrimoine naturel et culturel. En raison de leurs En juin 1998, les Etats de l'Afrique australe ont lance un projet commun sur les sites rupestres caracteristiques, la protection des paysages visant a assurer leur conservation et leur culturels est souvent complexe, necessitant des gestion. modes de gestion adaptes ou les communautes locales jouent un role important. Les activites approuvees par Ie Comite du patrimoine mondial en Afrique pour I'annee Galia Saouma-Forero (UNESCO Centre du 1999 visent a: patrimoine mondial) a fait Ie point sur "Ia Strategie globale en Afrique". La Strategie • sensibiliser, a I'echelon national, a la Convention globale est issue de la preoccupation du Comite. du patrimoine mondial et aux differentes du patrimoine mondial d'assurer une meilleure questions liees a sa mise en oouvre; representativite de la Liste du patrimoine mondial. En effet, les disparites et desequilibres • renforcer la capacite des institutions nationales constates sur la Liste ont amene a definir une chargees du patrimoine culturel; methodologie pour assurer un reequilibrage. • obtenir une Liste du patrimoine mondial plus Cette methodologie englobe une definition representative.

-109- Paysages Culturels en Afrique

Depuis 1994, les progres realises par la mise en Dawson Munjeri (Zimbabwe) dans sa "Revue oouvre de la Strategie globale sont evidents et des paysages culturels en Afrique", attire ont perm is une meilleure connaissance de la I'attention sur certaines particularites et Convention de 1972, et I'identification de sites problemes specifiques aux paysages culturels de valeur universelle exceptionnelle et la africains, illustres par de nombreux exemples creation d'un reseau d'experts africains, mais issus de I'experience africaine. II propose plusieurs questions prioritaires sUbsistent encore. egalement des idees de solutions pertinentes. Parmi les questions qui presentent des II importe d'abord de faire passer les nouveaux approches specifiquement africaines, on peut relever: concepts de patrimoine dans les faits et de transformer les conclusions des reunions • L'importance de la relation symbiotique entre regionales d'experts en processus decisionnels ecosysteme et ethnosysteme qui particularise incitatifs pour les Etats. En ce qui concerne un grand nombre des questions l'Afrique, un effort particulier devraient viser a subsequentes a I'inscription des paysages ameliorer la collecte et I'analyse de la sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial, comme Ie documentation et la preparation des plans de mode de propriete ou les limites des sites. Le conservation et de gestion. L'inscription de sites probleme de la delimitation des paysages est transnationaux et la reconnaissance des valeurs souvent Ie resultat d'une histoire longue et complexe. II est souvent preferable de spirituelles des espaces devrait encourager Ie considerer les limites d'un site, plus comme processus d'inscription. De meme, il est important une combinaison d'elements stables et de developper les capacites d'expertise de la flexibles, formant un contour approximatif, region africaine dans Ie domaine patrimonial. que comme une delimitation lineaire et L'absence d'inventaires, de protection juridique, exacte. Le droit de propriete des terres et des et la faiblesse des agences nationales de espaces est particulier a l'Afrique. II est donc conservation, constituent des obstacles importants. pertinent que les Orientations aient inclus la II est donc necessaire de definir des politiques prise en compte d'une protection traditionnelle nationales en matiere de conservation, et pouvant se substituer a celie des protections d'accroTtre la disponibilite de moyens financiers modernes (legales ou reglementaires). Leur prise en compte est necessaire pour et surtout, de former des profession nels de la conserver I'esprit des relations qui se sont conservation et d'experts du patrimoine en etablies, souvent depuis des millenaires, Afrique. entre les hommes et leur environnement. • Les communautes locales responsables de la La tache qui incombe aux Etats parties pour mise en place de ces paysages en sont un finaliser les inscriptions est importante et element essentiel qui a prouve sa capacite a concerne autant les politiques de conservation, en tirer, de fac;;on durable, non seulement des que la protection juridique et la formation revenus mais egalement des satisfactions d'experts. Le developpement de la Strategie spirituelles, sociales et esthetiques. Leur globale a perm is de faire ressortir ces besoins implication dans les activites de conservation et aussi d'interesser un grand nombre d'Etats est donc normale et necessaire. La parties du Nord a I'inscription de ces nouveaux conservation de sites ou paysages presente types de patrimoines et a y apporter des aides de necessaires correlations economiques et financieres. Cependant, la determination des culturelles. II ne paralt pas deplace que les habitants souhaitent tirer un benefice de la Etats africains est decisive dans Ie domaine de conservation de patrimoines qui peuvent des la reconnaissance mondiale de leurs patrimoines, lors etre de veritables investissements pour tout autant que la creation d'un reseau les generations futures. international d'experts africains. Les Etats les • La production de ressources, partir de plus avances d'Afrique dans ce domaine a I'exploitation patrimoniale des paysages, ne pourraient jouer un role determinant (Kenya, doit pas se faire aux depens des habitants. Zimbabwe, Nigeria). Les actions de developpement et de conservation doivent etre organisees, dans Ie cadre d'un plan directeur. Les objectifs de celui-ci seront de renforcer la conservation et la gestion des patrimoines, de developper les

-110- Rapport synthetique de la Reunion d'Experts sur les Paysages Culturels Africains

revenus du tourisme local et international, de Michel Le Berre (France) dans son expose sur telle fac;on que ces revenus profitent aux la "Genese des paysages culturels africains" a communautes locales et, egalement, aux recapitule les grandes etapes de la mise en acteurs nationaux de la conservation et du place des paysages africa ins et esquisse les developpement. II y a une interaction etroite defis qui s'annoncent au XXlerne siecle pour leur entre les activites de conservation et Ie conservation. developpement du tourisme culturel, I'un etant Ie support de I'autre. II est important de L'Afrique est Ie continent sur lequel I'espece veiller a ce que la mise en place de nouvelles humaine s'est differenciee. C'est donc celui qui activites n'altere pas certaines des qualites a abrite les paysages culturels les plus anciens. qui ont permis Ie classement d'un site. La Ceux-ci constituent des paysages culturels planification devrait incorporer des elements originels, particulierement nombreux en Afrique, permettant de conserver I'esprit des relations avec les sites de l'Omo (Ethiopie), Turkana entre hommes et paysages. (Kenya), Olduvar (Tanzanie), Stekfontein (Afrique du Sud), Koro-Toro (Tchad), etc. L'utilisation • La planification des activites de gestion privilegiee de certains arbres, comme les devrait permettre de conserver un equilibre baobabs, est egalement marquee dans certains correct entre les exigences de conservation paysages geres bien qu'ils paraissent naturels. des sites et celles de developpement des L'Afrique est riche en paysages culturels personnes qui ont imprime leur trace dans la fossiles comme I'attestent les nombreux sites nature. A cet effet, les connaissances et les prehistoriques. Les paysages associatifs sont savoir-faire des communautes devraient etre egalement nombreux et sont au nombre des preserves. Les equipes en charge de la paysages vivants. 115 constituent I'un des elements essentiels du lien nature-culture si gestion de tels sites devraient avoir rec;u une important dans Ie patrimoine culturel africain. formation interdisciplinaire (en raison de la Les paysages associatifs africains sont divers: multiplicite des questions a considerer) et bois, rochers, mares, montagnes, etc. Les specifique (en raison du caractere original de paysages pastoraux sont, dans la zone aride et chaque situation). Le plan de gestion devra semi-aride, une caracteristique importante, avec traduire un delicat equilibre entre les interets des marqueurs particuliers comme les puits divergents des differentes parties prenantes pastoraux et les enclos a betail. Itineraires et concernees. L'elaboration de ces plans routes d'echange constituent une categorie de demande une expertise encore rare. C'est paysages lineaires a vocation diverse (commerce, egalement une operation coOteuse ou Ie religion, culture), particulierement importants en Fonds du patrimoine mondial joue un role Afrique. L'exemple des routes du sel et des important. esclaves est une illustration de I'importance et de la diversite de cette categorie. Enfin, les • L'exigence d'authenticite et d'integrite a paysages agricoles intensifs, avec amenagements laquelle sont soumis les paysages culturels en terrasse ou formes d'irrigation originales, convient parfaitement a la situation africaine traduisent les efforts de survie dans des ou les aspects naturels et culturels agissent environnements difficiles. Les paysages urbanises en synergie. De ce fait, il parall extremement se multiplient, a I'oree des villes, avec une souhaitable de considerer simultanement intrication particuliere des pratiques rurales et ces deux conditions, comme il fut souligne des formes intermediaires d'habitat sedentaire. lors des reunions d'Harare, Addis-Abeba et erne Porto-Novo. A I'oree du XXl siecie, ces differentes categories de paysages sont appelees a evoluer • Les paysages culturels peuvent constituer rapidement sous la double action de la des periscopes permettant de decouvrir les croissance demographique et du developpement attentes des communautes, leurs connaissances economique. II importe donc, au cours de cette tradition nelles, leurs modes de pensee et les reunion, d'envisager les moyens de conserver valeurs de leurs modeles de reference. II ya les traits les plus representatifs du paysage donc un nouveau role a jouer en matiere de africain, sans entraver la necessaire evolution conservation et de developpement. II vers un developpement durable. Le role de la convient d'en definir les regles dont la Convention du patrimoine mondial est, dans premiere est la connaissance des peuples et cette perspective, determinant. de leur culture.

-111- Paysages Culturels en Afrique

Albert Mumma (Kenya) dans son expose sur En Afrique, la notion de pluralisme juridique est les "Aspects juridiques de la protection des pourtant graduellement reconnue. II s'agit de paysages culturels en Afrique", s'est propose de considerer Ie droit comme un ensemble developper certains aspects juridiques de (superposition) de couches de systemes I'application du concept de paysage culturel differents, valides et valables selon les differents valables pour I'ensemble de l'Afrique plutot que domaines de predilection. Dans I'exemple du de considerer des pays particuliers. II a mariage kenyan, iI y a une mise en reuvre demontre que I'evolution de la notion de successive des droits coutumiers, religieux et patrimoine entraine un dilemme sur Ie civil. Les modalites de conciliation et de fonctionnement des lois, rendant necessaire cohabitation des differents regimes juridiques I'adaptation du droit. Devant la necessite de demandent a etre definies. revoir les mecanismes juridiques de protection, il a souligne: • Les etudes d'impact

• L'implication des communautes locales Lorsqu'il s'agit de paysages culturels vivants, Ie processus d'inscription sur la Liste du En Afrique, I'interaction homme-nature est patrimoine mondial ne doit pas aboutir a une importante au niveau des communautes locales. fossilisation des paysages et ne doit pas freiner L'inscription des paysages culturels doit se faire Ie developpement local. Cependant, il importe avec Ie concours des communautes, en de proteger les parties ou proprietes qui ont reservant a l'Etat-nation la mise en reuvre de la permis I'inscription. Souvent, il est indispensable loi. Le hiatus vient du rem placement, dans toute de realiser des etudes d'impact l'Afrique, du regime des droits coutumiers par environnemental (EIE) qui incorporent a la fois un regime moderne de lois issues de la une etude de faisabilite (interet patrimonial et colonisation. La tradition est de ce fait toujours communautaire) et une etude de marche subordonnee a la loi nationale. (impact economique). C'est une procedure qui se generalise dans Ie monde y compris en Les aires protegees classiques excluent les Afrique ou 15 pays ont deja integre I'EIE dans communautes locales qui sont spoliees de leurs leur arsenal juridique. L'etude d'impact doit droits tradition nels, par exemple dans les parcs integrer I'ensemble du paysage (tous les nationaux. Les activites et usages tradition nels elements analysables) et son evolution sur Ie deviennent des activites reprehensibles par la long terme. Dans Ie cas des paysages culturels loi. Le droit n'existe que si la tradition se vivants, les differentes activites synergiques perpetue et s'il y a continuite des droits d'usage, doivent etre considerees (agriculture, elevage, par exemple en matiere de croyance, la exploitation de faune sauvage, par exemple) possibilite de frequenter les sites sacres. dans Ie cadre d'actions integrees pour limiter les conflits. Les modifications technologiques (usages Alors, comment definir I'implication des d'intrants de synthese et de biocides) et les communautes locales et determiner qui a la speculations potentielles devraient etre responsabilite de la gestion? Au Kenya, la loi ne egalement envisagees et Ie role de pratiques agricoles nouvelles, comme les monocultures, reconnait pas aux communautes Ie droit de devrait etre analyse en terme d'evolution du propriete. La designation de personnes paysage. responsables est necessaire. Par exemple, dans Ie cas des Massar, Ie domaine communautaire • Les difficultes de mise en muvre du est sous la responsabilite de dix aines qui systeme juridique gerent I'ensemble des terres au nom de la communaute, au risque de deviations personnelles L'etablissement des lois coloniales et leur et d'appropriations de ressources. Le ou les revision ne s'est pas faite dans Ie sens d'une administrateurs deviennent decideurs pour toute protection active des patrimoines et des la communaute, ce qui pose un probleme. Dans ressources naturelles. d'autres cas, les chefs de communaute sont Les nouvelles lois introduisent des changements nommes par l'Etat et sont donc peu credible:s qui ne sont pas toujours appliques dans la aupres des communautes. pratique et induisent des conflits d'interet. Une relation doit s'etablir entre la loi, Ie

-112- Rapport syntMtique de la Reunion d'Experts sur les Paysages Culturels Africains gouvernement et les communautes dans la Les Kaya sont des forets sacrees protegees par mise en reuvre du "droit de justice" par les la coutume mais egalement par Ie systeme autorites locales. Par exemple, dans Ie cas juridique national. La migration des Mijikenda, d'une antilope en extinction, Ie service de faune groupe bantou, s'est faite, selon la legende, du du Kenya (KWS) decida de deplacer ces sud vers Ie nord du Kenya, a partir du Villeme animaux du nord du pays vers Ie parc national siecle. Les forets ont perm is I'installation de ces du Tsavo. Lors de I'operation, les communautes communautes a leur arrivee dans Ie pays. Au locales ou vivait ceUe an til ope se sont opposees depart, il s'agissait d'etablissements dans des a I'action du KWS, car ces animaux etaient un forets sans caractere sacre. Les groupes se des elements du cadre de vie de ces sont installes dans des villages fortifies, etablis populations. lis suggeraient que les actions de dans les clairieres. Celles-ci sont devenues plus protection soient entreprises sur place. Le conflit tard des sites sacres. Ces sites constituent des a ete resolu par une decision de justice donnant centres d'interet politique et religieux avec aires raison aux populations concernees. Dans Ie de danse et de sacrifice. A ces sites sacres cadre de reglement juridique, iI importe que les correspondait une structure sociale, chaque communautes puissent avoir I'autorite reelle sur sous-groupe de la communaute assurant une leurs ressources, meme si elles sont d'importance fonction particuliere dans Ie bois sacre. Avec Ie nationale. II importe donc de developper la developpement de la securite, au XIXeme siecle, gestion des ressources patrimoniales au niveau ces groupes ont exploite la peripherie des bois local, de fa~on participative. sacres. Les clairieres de ceux-ci ont continue a jouer un role spirituel et a servir de sepulture, L'acces a I'information doit etre liMralise. Les les forets protegeant, comme des zones documents juridiques et administratifs sont tampons, ces espaces de I'activite exterieure. souvent consideres comme propriete de l'Etat Par la suite, tensions, conflits et colonialisme par les fonctionnaires qui developpent des ont abouti a une intensification du detrichement politiques, sans proceder a des consultations et a I'abandon des cimetieres et de certains prealables. sites sacres. Actuellement, I'intensification de I'exploitation economique de la region entraine • Le contexte international de nouvelles menaces sur ces ilots forestiers. Beaucoup de ces sites ont disparu avant 1980, L'existence de multiples conventions intemationales apres avoir ete pilles. Les Kaya constituent rend necessaire de reflechir a la meilleure egalement des isolats de diversite vegetale maniere d'integrer les avancees de ces textes remarquable. juridiques dans Ie contexte particulier des legislations nationales. C'est pourquoi, il est Anthony Githitho et Quentin Luke (Kenya): important de mentionner Ie role que doivent introduction a la visite de quelques unes des jouer les communautes locales dans Ie texte forits des Kaya meme des conventions internationales, pour eviter les hiatus entre conservation et Cet expose a presente un projet kenyan de developpement. preservation de sites sacres. Les bois sacres ou forets des Kaya sont des fragments isoles de la Etude de cas africains grande foret qui s'etendait dans la plaine et sur les coUines de I'est-africain, jusqu'en Tanzanie. Huit etudes de cas avaient ete preparees, sept Ces fragments presentent une grande diversite ont ete presentees, du fait de I'absence de botanique et ont une grande valeur pour la I'expert de Madagascar. conservation de la biodiversite. Leur etude est conduite par Ie Kenya National Museums (KNM) George Abungu (Kenya): les Kaya, forits sacrees des Mijikenda du Kenya avec financement du WWF. La conservation de ces ilots forestiers est directement liee a Cet expose general a permis de cerner I'histoire, a la culture et aux croyances de neuf I'importance historique, spirituelle, culturelle et groupes ethniques Mijikenda. Sur les 47 bois naturelle de sites sacres OU, contrairement a la sacres actuellement identifies, 33 ont ete tradition monumentale, rien ne se donne a voir. enregistres comme monuments nationaux. De concert avec les communautes locales (comites d'anciens), Ie KNM a mis en reuvre un

-113- Paysages Culturels en Afrique programme de conservation et de developpement Le parc KrOger est riche en vestiges lithiques qui comprend la delimitation des differentes retraCfant I'evolution culturelle de I'humanite tout Kaya identifiees, I'education et la sensibilisation au long de la prehistoire, sur plus d'un million du public, des actions economiques pour d'annees. Les vestiges de I'age du fer sont la reduire la pression aut~ur des zones forestieres preuve d'une maitrise technologique qui s'etend et, egalement, Ie renforcement des lois sur pres de 2 OOOans. A I' evidence, cette nationales relatives a la conservation des technologie etait accompagnee de nombreuses patrimoines. activites socio-economiques et commerciales faites de contacts avec les populations voisines Andrianaivoarivony Rafolo (Madagascar): de I'empire de Monomotapa et avec des cite royale, bois sac res et arb res royaux de visiteurs etrangers, arabes et portugais. L'age Madagascar industriel est marque, dans Ie KrOger, par I'installation des premiers colons europeens au A proximite d'Antananarivo, la colline XIXeme siecle, avec Ie developpement d'une d'Ambohimanga constitue un exemple remarquable ligne de chemin de fer et I'intensification de de paysage culturel dans les hautes terres I'activite miniere en Afrique australe. Le parc malgaches. Le site abrite de nombreux vestiges national KrOger a joue un role important durant archeologiques (fosses, portaHs, palissades) la periode d'apartheid en abritant aussi bien des organises en fortifications circulaires aut~ur de forces repressives de I'apartheid que des la cite royale. Celle-ci s'est developpee du eme groupes de combattants de la liberte. xyeme au XVlli siecle, aut~ur d'une place publique, organisee dans I'espace de faCfon L'evolution du parc national, d'aire naturelle symbolique. La cite royale comprend des palais, protegee a paysage culturel, a ete facilitee par des bassins, une fosse booufs, une enceinte a la creation d'un departement d'ecologie sociale et divers amenagements. Le patrimoine spirituel en 1994. Le projet est de rehabiliter les est represente par les tombes royales sacrees, elements culturels de cet environnement et des bois sacres, des arbres royaux, des pierres d'impliquer les communautes locales dans leur sacrifICe, ainsi qu'une symbolique de I'occupation a gestion, dans les activites de conservation et de I'espace. L'association de toutes ces valeurs, d'interpretation a destination des visiteurs. Le ou naturel et culturel sont etroitement imbriques, developpement d'un partenariat avec les fait I'originalite et I'interet de ce site inscrit sur la communautes locales permettra de diversifier liste indicative de Madagascar. les ressources de cet environnement et de reapproprier cet espace par les communautes Yonne Dladla *(Afrique du Sud): Ie paysage qui en ont ete ecartees depuis un siecle. Ce site culturel du parc national Kruger figure sur la liste indicative de l'Afrique du Sud. Cet expose a souligne I'approche novatrice des autorites sud-africaines qui considerent que Ie Yonas Beyene (Ethiopie): Konso-Gardula, parc national KrOger recele des valeurs site archeologique et paysage culturel naturelles et culturelles. temoin d'une culture vivante Le site de Konso-Gardula presente un interet Le parc national KrOger est une aire protegee archeologique exceptionnel en abritant des creee en 1898. Sa creation s'est accompagnee objets acheuleens et de nombreux restes d'un deplacement autoritaire des populations. d'Hominides (de 1,4 1,7M annees BP). II s'agit Cet immense espace (2 millions d'hectares) est a egalement d'un paysage culturel vivant qui tres diversifie: 155 types de paysages naturels y presente a la fois une technologie originale de ont ete recenses. II presente egalement un terrasses agricoles, de villes a rem parts de grand nombre de paysages culturels que pierres et une culture megalithique vivante. Les I'administration du parc et I'unite d'ecologie Konso so nt, actuellement, la seule population sociale souhaitent rehabiliter (plus de 254 sites qui continue de preparer des monuments culturels). megalithiques, les Waka, dedies au culte des heros de la communaute. Cet ensemble constitue un paysage culturel vivant de qualite exceptionnelle. Les structures en terrasse *La communication etait presentee par Zulaiga Rossouw gardent leur fonctionnalite agricole. La (SANP) construction de steles maintient vivant un

-114- Rapport synthetique de la Reunion d'Experts sur les Paysages Culturels Africains patrimoine culturel. II participe en particulier au Ephra"im Kamuhangire (Ouganda): les passage des pouvoirs entre generations, selon jardins de sel de Kibiro une periodicite de 18 ans qui rythme la vie des La region de Kibiro presente un paysage individus et des communautes. Le maintien de particulier lie a une technologie originale de ce paysage fait partie de la vie quotidienne des production de sel. Situees sur Ie bord du Rift Konso et a prouve, au cours du temps, sa occidental, huit zones de production de sel sont durabilite. Ce site figure sur la liste indicative de associees a des sources chaudes. La l'Ethiopie. production du sel se fait sur des surfaces delimitees, les jardins. Cette production met en Joseph Eboreime (Nigeria): Ie paysage jeu une succession d'operations visant a isoler, culturel de Sukur concentrer et purifier Ie sel. La cristallisation est provoquee par ebullition d'une saumure Situe dans les Monts du Mandara, Ie site de sursaturee. La production du sel est une activite Sukur jouxte la frontiere du Cameroun. II est penible. Toutes les actions sont realisees constitue par un plateau dominant des collines exclusivement par des femmes, y compris la caracteristiques des contins nigeriancrcamerounais. commercialisation sur les marches environnants. Sukur est un site anciennement habite et Ces jardins de sels constituent des patrimoines dont la transmission se fait exclusivement par specialise dans la production et la diffusion les femmes: de mere en fille ou en belle-fille. Le d'outils et d'armes de fer, de fac;on continue, paysage technologique vivant de Kibiro traduit jusqu'en 1960. Sur Ie site de Sukur, artisans du donc une profonde originalite sur Ie plan culturel fer, maitres de la pluie et autres habitants sont et sur Ie plan sociologique. Sa conservation est associes dans une institution pyramidale directement liee a la perpetuation de ce savoir­ localisee dans Ie palais de granit de Hindi, la faire et a la competition du marche economique. femme symbolique et collective de la Ce site figure sur la liste indicative de communaute de Sukur. La construction du l'Ouganda. palais de Hindi est attribuee a des geants aides Ali Bida (Niger): la route du sel au Niger par des chamans Seers. Outre ce palais, Ie site comprend des enclos coniques de pierre pour Ie Apres avoir rappeiE3 Ie role important joue dans betail (destine a I'engraissement pour certaines les echanges commerciaux par les itineraires ceremonies), des fourneaux pour la production transsahariens qui relient, depuis la Prehistoire, du fer, des terrasses agricoles formant un l'Afrique au monde mediterraneen, I'auteur paysage spectaculaire incluant de nombreux decrit quelques aspects de la route du sel du elements spirituels (arbres sacres, portails, Niger. Avec la concurrence des salines littorales tombes, etc.). Le site reunit un complexe et du transport routier, cet itineraire a beaucoup d'elements a valeur spirituelle comme les perdu de son activite passee. La route du sel du Niger s'organise aut~ur de deux points monuments funeraires organises par caste d'articulation importants, Agadez et les oasis du (princes, forgerons, membres des 25 clans de Kaouar. Agadez etait Ie point de concentration Sukur) et dedies la celebration periodique des a des caravanes' et de commercialisation du sel cycles de vie et de mort, ou les autels et vers les sultanats haoussa de Zinder et Kano, chapelles de ceramique dedies au culte des mais egalement vers Gao, Dosso, Say. Les divinites tutelaires de Sukur. Le site de Sukur oasis du Kaouar sont a la fois Ie centre de traduit toute la diversite et la complexite des production du sel (salines de Fachi et Bilma) et paysages culturels africains. Ce paysage reunit Ie lieu de I'echange de ce produit c~ntre Ie mil, des caracteres a la fois associatifs, technologiques les cotonnades et autres produits du sud. et agricoles qui constituent Ie cadre de vie L'itineraire passe au plus court, entre les points passe et actuel de toute une communaute, obliges que sont les puits, en fonction de la depuis plusieurs siecles. L'interet et la qualite de disponibilite des paturages. Cette route n'est cet ensemble sont a I'origine de la proposition qu'un element d'un vaste systeme d'echanges d'inscription sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial reliant la zone saharienne a l'Afrique sub­ soumise par Ie Nigeria, et qui sera examinee saharienne et qui s'etend des villes anciennes par Ie Comite du patrimoine mondial en de Mauritanie aux confins du lac Tchad. Elle a decembre 1999. donc une reelle importance regionale, en Afrique. Ce site figure sur la Iiste indicative du Niger.

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Jules Bocco (Benin): la route des esclaves " importe de clarifier Ie role joue par l'Etat et de au Benin definir son interaction avec les droits coutumiers. Les problemes causes par la La traite des esclaves sur Ie continent africain a justification de I'inscription et par la gestion du emprunte de nombreux itineraires ayant chacun site ont ete examines. Le debat a ete leurs particularites. Pendant plusieurs siecles, Ie abondamment illustre par I'etude de cas des phenomene de I'esclavage a ete integre aux forets des Kaya et egalement par d'autres fondements socio-economiques de nombreux exemples comme les sites du patrimoine etats africains comme, par exemple, Ie royaume mondial "Region de Laponie" (Suede). Ces d'Abomey. La route des esclaves d'Abomey, etudes de cas ont perm is d'examiner les que Ie Benin soumettra pour inscription sur la problemes poses par les systemes juridiques, Liste du patrimoine mondial, acheminait les en particulier, sentiment d'injustice et de captifs de la capitale Abomey vers Ie port menace, en raison d'une longue alienation des d'embarquement d'Ouidah. Cet itineraire de 117 cultures et des terres par I'autorite de tutelle. km, actif en saison des alizes, a ete fixe et Ces problemes affectent les notions de codifie en 1727 par Ie roi Agadja. Ce nouvel axe signification, d'authenticite et d'integrite des a contribue a structurer les echanges patrimoines. economiques a I'interieur du royaume. Cet itineraire etait marque de nombreux rituels et Dans Ie cas general ou la terre appartient, en jalonne de sites et monuments representatifs. Afrique, aux ancetres, il sera utile que les Etats Parmi ceux-ci, on peut citer les marches, les associent au projet d'inscription toutes les sites de repos, les sites de tri ou les entre pots situes dans les differents forts et comptoirs communautes de base concernees. Une large jalonnant la route d'Abomey a la mer. Cet place pourra etre accordee aux mesures de itineraire, qui a une valeur de memoire protection et aux moyens de les mettre en universelle et exception nelle, integre totalement ceuvres, en tenant compte necessairement du la memoire historique de la traite au Benin. Sa respect de I'environnement et des perspectives conservation est necessaire pour la sauvegarde de developpement durable. de la memoire collective de I'humanite. La delimitation des sites Aspects theoriques et methodologiques Les problemes de limites concernent egalement abordes au cours de la reunion un certain nombre de sites africains. La L'analyse des paysages vivants a ete centree definition du site et de ses particularites (Iimites, sur les problemes que les Etats parties africains fonctions) est souvent complexe car un site rencontrent au cours du processus d'inscription africain est souvent fragmente en divers d'un site sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial qui elements relies par leur fonctionnalite : par se fait a travers Ie formulaire standardise, et qui, exemple, un site technologique comprendra un sur de nombreux points, presente des difficultes site de production, un site de transformation un specifiques a l'Afrique. Les contributions de site de production d'energie (bois), un' ou I'UICN (M. Melamari) et de I'ICOMOS (Mme plusieurs sites de diffusion et de commercialisation. Hammarskiold) ont ete vivement appreciees. Tous ces elements fondent I'integrite du bien et Des problemes particuliers se posent lorsque doivent etre identifies. Par contre, selon les les paysages font partie integrante des types de biens culturels, la notion de zone traditions et des cultures vivantes. tampon peut se reveler inutile ou peu pertinente, par exemple, dans Ie cas des itineraires Le mode de propriete culturels et routes d'echanges. Dans Ie cas des forets Kaya, il n'est pas toujo·urs correct de En matiere de gestion, Ie probleme de la considerer Ie bord de la foret comme la limite de propriete et des modes de concession de la zone sa cree car ces limites peuvent etre I'espace est primordial car tres diversifie en situees au-dela de la bordure actuelle des Afrique. La notion africaine de propriete fonciere forets, comme c'est Ie cas a Kayafungo. doit etre expliquee et developpee, au-dela du cadre strict des lois, pour que soient reconnus La participation des communautes les concepts de propriete fonciere par les communautes, par les ancetres, les divinites, La discussion a porte sur les concepts les esprits et autres entites qui sont invoques principaux tournant autour de I'investissement et soit dans I'utilisation, soit dans Ie mode de de I'integration des populations locales dans Ie concession des terres ou des proprietes.

-116- Rapport synthEltique de la Reunion d'Experts sur les Paysages Culturels Africains processus d'inscription. Les communautes traditionnelle des phenomenes et des ressources locales devraient etre impliquees a tous les de I'environnement naturel. Cette relation stades de la preparation de I'inscription, du intrinseque entre nature et culture fonde debut a la fin. Leurs interets devraient etre I'originalite des patrimoines culturels africains consideres dans I'ensemble des programmes qui participent davantage de I'esprit que de la de mise en reuvre, de surveillance, d'education matiere. La prise en compte de ces patrimoines et de SUIVI. II est apparu comme culturels diversifiera et enrich ira la Liste du particulierement important que la population patrimoine mondial. L'eventail progressif des comprenne bien son role dans Ie processus de paysages culturels africains montre egalement classement. II est donc necessaire de privilegier Ie caractere artificiel de la scission du les actions d'information et d'education en patrimoine en deux categories distinctes et direction des populations locales. opposees et plaide pour une approche holistique d'un patrimoine global de I'humanite, Developpement et conservation representatif de la diversite des cultures. Les mesures de protection et les moyens de les Les notions d'authenticite et d'integrite appliquer doivent etre envisages dans une perspective de developpement durable, respectueux Les notions d'authenticite et d'integrite ont ete de I'environnement naturel et de ses debattues a la lumiere des etudes de cas ressources. Les initiatives communautaires peuvent africains. L'etroite liaison entre elements contribuer de fa<;on decisive a la conservation naturels, spirituels et culturels, Ie mixage du d'un site: la preservation des Palais Royaux tangible et de I'intangible, necessitent une d'Abomey (Benin) a ete reussie par I'implication definition particuliere de ces concepts deja des families concernees par la gestion du site. debattus dans Ie cadre de reunions d'experts Un equilibre prudent devrait etre maintenu entre (Nara 1994, la Vanoise 1996, Amsterdam conservation des sites et developpement durable, 1998). II importe, en effet, de preciser, comment dans la perspective de reduire la pauvrete et la ces conditions doivent s'appliquer dans un precarite. Menaces et press ions environnementales contexte africain et etre appreciees lors de pourraient etre considerablement allegees par I'examen de propositions d'inscription sur la Liste du des programmes de developpement durable, de patrimoine: est-ce leur structure materielle, les conservation et d'education centres sur les savoir-faire associes ou la fonction de ces sites communautes. qui doivent etre pris en consideration ? Dans Ie cas des patrimoines africains, ou les aspects Le pOint crucial du formulaire d'inscription est naturels et culturels sont imbriques, la prise en constitue par Ie plan de gestion du site. Celui-ci compte simultanee des conditions d'authenticite devra definir les objectifs et les moyens de les et d'integrite semble necessaire. realiser en precisant les responsables, les etapes et les ressources (humaines, financieres, En adoptant la Recommandation II, Ie groupe materielles) ainsi que les criteres et indicateurs d'experts ayant souligne I'importance des permettant d'en evaluer la mise en reuvre. II conditions d'authenticite et d'integrite dans Ie parait necessaire que Ie plan de gestion processus d'inscription de paysages culturels mentionne les apports concrets de la sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial, a souhaite communaute, les activites de conservation et de clarifier les concepts et leur applicabilite dans Ie promotion du site et les evalue. contexte africain. II a de nouveau fait remarquer les liens etroits entre les elements tangibles et La relation nature-culture en Afrique intangibles et entre les aspects naturels et culturels et il a souligne Ie caractere symbolique Les patrimoines culturels africains presentent la et fonctionnel de ce patrimoine. II a demande au particularite de conserver de tres importants Centre du patrimoine mondial d'organiser une fondements naturels. Les societes africaines reunion d'experts africains en mars 2000, en actuelles ne se sont pas develop pees sur un cooperation avec les organismes consultatifs, clivage entre productions du genie humain et pour donner suite aux recommandations du reuvres de la nature. Au contraire, elles document de Nara. L'ideal sera it d'elaborer, a s'appuient sur une synergie dans laquelle leur partir d'exemples, une Charte africaine. culture et leur spiritualite sont profondement enracinees et se nourrissent de I'interpretation

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Suivi et evaluation des sites du patrimoine processus complexe a cause de leur nature mondial souvent difficile a identifier. Pour apprecier, dans toute leur ampleur, Ie role et I'importance Les modalites de suivi de I'etat du site doivent de ces routes et itineraires, les elements les etre definies dans Ie processus d'inscription et plus caracteristiques a prendre en compte ne prises en compte dans Ie plan de gestion. Celui­ sont pas necessairement leurs dimensions mais ci devrait mentionner les operations necessaires les points et reperes immuables, indispensables pour evaluer periodiquement I'etat du bien a leur comprehension, ainsi que Ie role joue par concerne, de fagon preparer Ie rapport a ces itineraires dans Ie developpement spirituel, quinquennal au Comite du patrimoine mondial. culturel, economique et social des populations Dans Ie cas des sites caractere a concernees. technologique, il n'existe pas de methodologies etablies pour effectuer Ie suivi. Le groupe La complexite d'une route ou d'un itineraire d'experts a exprime son interet pour que des releve aussi de son statut juridique qui reste un lignes directrices soient elaborees. element a determiner, so it au niveau d'un pays, soit au niveau de toute une region. Dans Ie cas Dans I'exercice d'evaluation des paysages precis de la route du sel, on pourrait etre conduit culturels, Ie groupe d'experts a souhaite que Ie a considerer la vieille ville d'Agadez, centre de role de chacun des organes consultatifs soit stockage et de commercialisation du sel, les precise lorsqu'jf s'agit de sites ou les elements lieux de depart des caravanes, les oasis et les d'appreciation transcendent des situations points d'eau indispensables pour abreuver classiques, s'agissant par exemple des aires hommes et animaux. Pour la route des esclaves protegees. II faudrait egalement prendre en au Benin, I'itineraire incfura la ville d'Abomey, compte la situation des communautes locales. II capitale du royaume esclavagiste, to utes les est important que les experts en charge de ces villes et villages empruntes par les esclaves dossiers aient regu une formation specifique aux avec tous les points d'arret, ainsi que la ville de problemes africains. Ouidah, sur la cote. Problemes specifiques aux paysages Dans tous les cas, quand bien meme I'activite a technologiques I'origine de la route ou de I'itineraire n'existerait L'importance des systemes et des savoir-faire plus, ou arriverait a etre reduite, Ie fil conducteur technologiques traditionnels a ete reconnu pour justifier I'inscription serait la memoire du aussi bien pour la production et I~ role passe, actuel et futur, du point de vue de la commercialisation du sel (mode de production a memoire collective, et les valeurs a transmettre Kibiro, Ouganda; commerce et route d'echange aux generations futures. : Agadez, Nigeria, et Tombouctou, Mali) que Visites de terrain pour les technologies du fer et du bronze (region du Benin au Nigeria). Les structures de Quelques visites ont permis de developper, sur solidarite communautaire de la plupart des Ie terrain, la plupart des points qui avaient ete societes africaines ont ete identifiees comme abordes au cours des exposes et debats de la autant de patrimoines et de ressources reunion tMmatique et d'en avoir une approche diversifies, de valeur universelle exceptionnelle concrete. pour I'humanite. Visite des forats des Kaya (district de Kwa/e): En ce qui concerne expertise et formation, il est sous la direction de Quentin Luke et Anthony important d'utiliser et de valoriser, chaque fois Githitho, les participants se sont rendu dans que possible, les savoir-faire locaux et de pl.usi~ur~ bois sacres de la region de Tiwi (Waa, preciser Ie mode de transmission traditionnel Dian!, Klnondo). Ces espaces constituent des des connaissances et des savoir-faire vestiges fragmentes de I'ecosysteme forestier indispensables la perennisation des qualites qui s'etendait autrefois dans la plaine cotiere et a les collines, au nord et au sud de Mombasa. Les et valeurs du site. fragments residuels de foret actuellement preserves (de 10 a 200 ha) Ie doivent a leur Problemes specifiques aux itineraires caractere sacre pour les membres des neuf Le principe d'inscription des itineraires et routes, groupes ethniques Mijikenda. Une quarantaine sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial, releve d'un de ces fragments ont ete enregistres en tant que

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Monuments Nationaux par les Musees Visite de la vieille ville de Mombasa*: cette visite Nationaux du Kenya. Ces visites ont permis aux a permis de decouvrir la richesse du patrimoine experts de discuter avec les comites d'anciens urbain swahili de la cote orientale d'Afrique. L'Tle qui gerent les Kaya de fa<;on collective et fortifiee de Mombasa reunit des exemples de la traditionnelle. Elles ont egalement perm is de continuite d'occupation d'un site par les populations prendre connaissance de I'organisation regionale humaines pendant plusieurs millenaires (pheniciens, des comites d'anciens de I'ensemble des forats arabes, portugais, etc.). des Kaya. La discussion entre les experts et les anciens a permis de mieux comprendre Ie caractere spirituel de ces espaces et des Conclusions et recommandations coutumes et ceremonies qui y sont organisees. La reunion d'experts de Tiwi etait la premiere La visite de Kaya Kinondo a perm is de se reunion concernant les paysages culturels de rapprocher des zones les plus sacrees de la valeur universelle exceptionnelle en Afrique. forat. L'interat de ces sites residuels, en matiere Elle constitue la premiere tentative de mise en de conservation de la biodiversite, a ete oouvre du concept de paysage culturel dans Ie souligne, de nombreuses especes africaines ne cadre de la Strategie globale pour une Liste du se trouvant plus que dans ces espaces patrimoine mondial equilibree et representative proteges. Les discussions ont porte sur les pour la region africaine. Les debats qui ont suivi pressions qui s'exercent sur les Kayas et qui en menacent I'existence: extension des peri metres les exposes et etudes de cas ont permis de agricoles et surtout intensification des developper et de faire avancer la definition des peri metres touristiques due a la concentration paysages culturels africains, de mettre en des hotels dans la zone cotiere. Le comite evidence leur universalite et leur representativite, d'anciens de Kaya Kinondo a exprime son tout en soulignant leurs particularites que ce soit inquietude quant a la conservation du caractere en matiere d'integrite et d'authenticite ou de sacre de ces fon§ts et demande une action de la synergie entre naturel et culturel, elements communaute internationale en ce sens. La tangibles et intangibles. L'importance de la mise conservation de I'integrite de ces fragments en place de plans de gestion durable pour forestiers et de leur caractere forestier passe assurer I'avenir et la conservation des paysages par la mise en place d'un plan de gestion et de culturels africa ins dans une perspective de developpement durable et concerte avec developpement humain durable, a I'oree du I'ensemble des communautes locales impliquees XXleme siecle, a egalement ete soulignee. Les dans la dynamique de cet espace. points forts de la reunion de Tiwi ont ete condenses dans trois series de recommandations Visite des aires protegees des Shimba Hills: adoptees par acclamation. Cette visite de terrain a permis de decouvrir Ie patrimoine naturel de la region et d'en constater la diversite. La Reserve de Shimba Hills inclut aussi des Kaya anciens qui sont visibles dans Ie paysage avec une couverture forestiere plus intense. Elle a permis de comparer un mode de gestion gouvernemental classique (Shimba Hills National Reserve) et un mode de gestion dans lequel la communaute locale est directement impliquee (Mwalugandje Community Elephant Sanctuary). Ce dernier site constitue une interessante experience de gestion durable d'un patrimoine naturel commun par les communautes de base. Ce mode de gestion correspond tout a fait a une exploitation usufruitiere des revenus du patrimoine naturel, recommandee par l'Agenda 21.

* incluse dans la liste indicative du Kenya

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SYNTHESIS REPORT OF THE EXPERT MEETING ON AFRICAN CULTURAL LANDSCAPES

TIWI, KENYA, 9-14 MARCH 1999

Summary Kenya was the subject of a recommendation for Nine African States Parties to the Convention their safeguarding and inscription. were invited to this meeting which was organised by the World Heritage Centre and the Introduction UNESCO Office in Nairobi. The meeting was A thematic expert meeting on "African cultural held with the participation of representatives landscapes" was held in Tiwi (Kenya) from 9 to from the advisory bodies (ICOMOS, IUCN) and 14 March 1999 at the invitation of the UNESCO an observer (Nordic World Heritage Office). The World Heritage Centre. It was a follow-up to the participants presented case studies illustrating the decision taken during the twenty-first session of diversity of the notion of cultural landscapes in the World Heritage Committee in Naples in Africa and the importance of the link between December 1997. The meeting was financed by nature, culture and spirituality. The discussions the World Heritage Fund. It was organized by provided the opportunity to emphasise the the World Heritage Centre and the UNESCO specificity of some notions such as ownership, Office in Nairobi, with support of two key the definition of boundaries, and, more particularly, resource persons, Dawson Munjeri (Zimbabwe) the necessary involvement of local communities and Michel Le Berre (France). This meeting was at all stages of the inscription process and the the fifth regional thematic expert meeting devoted to cultural landscapes in the world and management of the sites. The participants a follow-up to the fourth Global Strategy meeting adopted recommendations for the systematic in Africa (Porto Novo 1998), after the one in consideration of the cultural and natural values Harare 1995 and Addis Ababa 1996. The third of African sites, the recognition of traditional meeting was held in the Pacific in 1997. rights for the protection and ownership of the sites, and for their management in a perspective Twenty experts representing nine African of sustainable development. The expert group anglophone and francophone countries participated also expressed the wish that the conditions of in this meeting (Benin, Ethiopia, Kenya, authenticity and integrity be defined from the Madagascar, Niger, Nigeria, South Africa, African point of view, and that the Guidelines Uganda and Zimbabwe) as well as representatives include indications concerning the management of ICOMOS, IUCN and UNESCO (See List of Participants). The meeting was divided into four of cultural landscapes. Furthermore, the need parts: for an interdisciplinary approach in the evaluation of cultural landscapes was voiced in 1) During the first day the objectives of the relation to the creation of an operational network meeting were identified, and presentations of African experts for cultural landscapes. reflected upon "The notion of cultural Finally, in response to the concern of local landscapes in the world" and the communities, the interest of the Kaya Forests of implementation of the "Global Strategy" in

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Africa since its adoption by the Committee in • Encourage recognition by the organizations December 1994. The experts who had been responsible for the conservation of natural appointed as key resource persons also and cultural heritage and the scientific made presentations of the problems and the community of the region, of the World challenges posed by cultural landscapes in Heritage Convention and the category of sub-Saharan Africa. A jurist made a presentation cultural landscapes. with regard to the dilemmas of legal protection. Two presentations drew attention • Identify the particular characteristics of to the specificities of the site of Kaya. African sites of outstanding universal value with regard to authenticity and integrity. 2) The second day, after a visit to the sacred • Strengthen the collaborative links between site of Kaya and an extremely rewarding experts and representatives of the region meeting with the Elders who had authorised and the UNESCO World Heritage Centre. the visit to one of the most sacred areas of the forest, each invited expert presented a cultural landscape of outstanding universal General aspects value eligible for inscription on the World Mechtild Rossler (UNESCO World Heritage Heritage List. Centre) in her presentation " The implementation of the World Heritage cultural landscape 3) The third day was devoted to the categories ", recalled the origin of the concept of presentation by the advisory bodies of the cultural landscapes defined in 1992 (La Petite format for the inscription of nominations, and Pierre, France) and listed the categories working groups on the themes of "Living recognised to date by the World Heritage Cultural Landscapes" and "Routes and Committee (sixteenth session, 1992) and the Technological Heritage" discussed the state of implementation of this concept in the problems specific to these categories and world. prepared recommendations for the meeting. The representatives of the advisory bodies According to the Operational Guidelines, cultural (IUCN, ICOMOS) explained their respective landscapes comprise three categories: role in the process of the evaluation of nominations. • Landscapes clearly defined, designed and 4) On the fourth day, following a visit to the created intentionally by man. Kaya Forests and the Old Town of • Organically evolved landscapes which can Mombasa, the recommendations were be "relict" or "fossil" landscapes (testifying to adopted. lost civilisations), or "continuing" landscapes (where the evolutionary process is still in The UNESCO Representative, in welcoming the progress). partiCipants, explained the choice of the site for the meeting: the region of the Kaya Forests, in • Associative 'landscapes which are largely the coastal zone near to Mombasa, constitutes associated with beliefs, traditions and spiritual a remarkable ensemble of sacred woods, elements within a given space. safeguarded and traditionally used by nine autochtone tribes. These forests are outstanding The relation between the six cultural criteria and examples of safeguarding of the biodiversity and the three categories of cultural landscapes was a remarkable associative cultural landscape. clearly demonstrated by a synthetic table.

He defined the principal objectives of the Since 1992, eleven cultural landscapes have meeting: been inscribed on the World Heritage List. Several expert meetings have attempted to • Contribute to a better representation of the identify the particular problems and difficulties World Heritage List by identifying potential concerning the categories of cultural landscapes categories of cultural landscapes representative for inscription. For example, the need for their of African culture, within the framework of the protection and traditional management was Global Strategy, for a balanced and recognised by the Committee: in 1992 for cultural representative World Heritage List. heritage and in 1998 for natural heritage.

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Other aspects remain to be considered such as African heritage is under-represented on the the integration of natural and cultural criteria, as World Heritage List. Only thirty of the forty-five discussed by the Global Strategy meeting in African countries represented in UNESCO have Amsterdam (March 1998). signed the World Heritage Convention. At present, Africa lists sixteen cultural sites, thirty­ The cultural landscape appears as a federative one natural sites and one mixed site. Only concept, not only in the framework of the World seventeen African countries have submitted Heritage Convention, (where it links natural and tentative lists concerning seventy-seven potential cultural heritages) but, also between several sites. From 1994 to 1998, several awareness­ international conventions such as the Biological raising and information actions have enabled Diversity Convention. In this case, this involves the diffusion of the Global Strategy in Africa: the presence of domestic species (animal and three expert meetings and two workshops have vegetable) in the landscape, as much as the already been organized. One of the characteristics role played by certain types of landscape in the of African heritage is the nature-culture conservation of biodiversity. For example, the continuum. The categories identified as capable different categories of sacred sites (forests, of diversifying African representation on the rocks, ponds, springs, caves, mountains, etc.) World Heritage List are archaeological heritage, have permitted, especially in Africa, to preserve living cultures, traditional know-how, technological species which have disappeared elsewhere. A heritage and cultural landscapes in the form of UNESCO project "Sacred Sites - Cultural routes, itineraries and associative spiritual Integrity and Biological Diversity" is being heritage. developed in the Science Sector. This project, initiated in Ghana, is being extended on a world­ In March 1998, in order to support efforts wide basis. towards a beUer representation of African heritage, the World Heritage Centre, in co­ One of the objectives of the meeting was to operation with ICCROM, launched the "Africa identify new types of sites to result in a better 2009 " training programme for the conservation representation of the cultural and natural of immovable heritage. In June 1998, the diversity of heritage. Due to their characteristics, southern states of Africa launched a common the protection of these cultural landscapes is project on rock art sites to ensure their often complex, requiring adapted management conservation and management. methods, with the local communities playing an important role. The World Heritage Committee has approved the following activities for Africa in 1999: Galia Saouma-Forero (UNESCO World Heritage Centre) gave an update on the • raise awareness, at national level, of the .. Global Strategy in Africa". This Global World Heritage Convention and the different Strategy stems from the concern of the World issues linked to its implementation; Heritage Committee to ensure a better • strengthen the capacities of the national representation of the World Heritage List. In fact, institutions responsible for cultural heritage; the acknowledged disparities and imbalances of the List have led to the development of a • obtain a more representative World Heritage methodology to ensure its re-equilibrium. This List. methodology engulfs an extremely wide anthropological definition of the notion of Since 1994, progress made in the implementation heritage, so as to take into account the cultural of the Global Strategy is obvious. This has led diversity of humanity. Themes have been to increased awareness of the 1972 Convention, retained as guiding lines : coexistence of man the identification of sites of outstanding and Earth, interaction of societies with the universal value and the creation of a network of environment and living cultures. The Global African experts. However many priority issues Strategy is now the frame of reference and still remain. methodology for the implementation of the World Heritage Convention and the establishment of the The new heritage concepts must gain wide List. acceptance and the conclusions of regional expert meetings must be transformed into decisional processes for States Parties. With

-122- Sythesis Report of the Expert Meeting on African Cultural Landscapes regard to Africa, a particular effort should be boundary. The ownership of land and areas made to improve the gathering and analysis of is particular in Africa. Therefore it is pertinent documentation and the preparation of that the Operational Guidelines include conservation and management plans. The elements concerning a traditional protection inscription of transborder sites and the which could be substituted for modern forms recognition of the spiritual values of spaces of protection (legal or reglementary). They should encourage the inscription process. must be taken into consideration for the Furthermore, it is important to develop the conservation of the spiritual relationship established between man and his expert capacities of the African region in the environment, which often dates back heritage domain. The absence of inventories, thousands of years. legal protection and the weakness of national conservation agencies are major obstacles. It is • The local communities responsible for the therefore necessary to define national policy establishment of these landscapes are an with regard to conservation and to increase the essential element which has proven its availability of funding, and especially to train capacity to benefit from, in a sustainable conservation professionals and heritage experts manner, not only the revenue from them, but in Africa. also to gain spiritual, social and aesthetic satisfaction from these landscapes. Thus, The task of the States Parties to finalise the involvement of the communities in inscriptions is important and concems conservation conservation activities is normal and necessary. The conservation of sites or policies as much as legal protection and the landscapes has requisite economic and training of experts. The development of the cultural coefficients. It does not seem Global Strategy has highlighted these needs improper that the inhabitants wish to draw and has also interested a large number of benefits from heritage conservation which can northern States Parties in the inscription of subsequently be true investments for future these new types of heritage and in providing generations. funding for this purpose. However, the determination of the African States is decisive • The production of resources emanating from heritage exploitation of landscapes must not for world recognition of their heritage, as well as be carried out at the cost of the inhabitants. the creation of an international network of Development and conservation activities African experts. The African States which are must be organised in the framework of a more developed in this domain (Kenya, master plan. Their objectives shall be to Zimbabwe, Nigeria) could play a determining strengthen heritage conservation and role. management, and to develop local and international tourism revenue in such a way Dawson Munjeri (Zimbabwe) in his II Review of that this income benefits the local Cultural Landscapes in Africa" highlighted some communities and also the national bodies specific problems and particularities of African involved in conservation and development. cultural landscapes, illustrated by numerous There is a close interaction between examples from the African experience. He also conservation and development activities and proposed ideas for pertinent solutions. Amongst cultural tourism, one supporting the other. It the issues that present specifically African is important to ensure that the implementation approaches, the following can be noted: of new activities does not affect certain aspects which were integral to the nomination • The importance of the symbiotic relationship of the site. Planning should incorporate between the ecosystem and the elements which conserve the spirit of the ethnosystem which distinguishes a great relationship between man and the number of issues subsequent to the landscape. inscription of landscapes on the World Heritage List, such as ownership or the • Planning of management activities should boundaries of the sites. The problem of the permit a correct balance between the boundaries of landscapes is often the result conservation needs of the sites and the of a long and complex history. It is often developmental needs of the peoples who preferable to consider the boundaries of a have left their imprint on nature. To this site more as a combination of stable and effect, the knowledge and know-how of flexible elements, forming an approximate communities should be preserved. The contour, rather than a lineal and exact teams in charge of the management of such

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sites should have received an interdisciplinary mountains, etc. Pastoral landscapes, in the arid and specific training (due to the multiplicity of and semi-arid zone, are an important questions to be considered and the original characteristic, with distinctive elements such as character of each situation). The management the pastoral wells and cattle enclosures. plan should reflect a delicate balance Itineraries and exchange routes constitute a between the divergent interests of the category of linear landscapes of diverse usage different parties concerned. The elaboration (commerce, religion, culture), particularly of these plans requires a rare expertise. It is important in Africa. The examples of the Salt also a costly operation in which the World and Slave Routes are illustrative of the Heritage Fund plays an important role. importance and diversity of this category. Finally, the intensive agricultural landscapes, • The requirement of authenticity and integrity terraced and with original irrigation systems, to which the cultural landscapes are translate the efforts of survival under difficult submitted perfectly suits the African situation environmental conditions. The urbanised landscapes where the natural and cultural aspects act in are multiplying, around the cities, with a specific synergy. Because of this, it seems highly entanglement of rural practices and intermediary desirable to consider these two requirements forms of sedentary habitat. simultaneously, as was emphasised during the meetings in Harare, Addis-Ababa and At the dawn of the 21 st century, these different Porto-Novo. categories of landscapes are expected to evolve • Cultural landscapes can act as periscopes rapidly under the double action of increased for the discovery of the expectations, demography and economic development. It is traditional knowledge, ways of thinking, important therefore that during this meeting the values and reference models of communities. means for the conservation of the most Therefore there is a new role to play in the representative elements of the African landscape field of conservation and development. It be envisaged, without hindering its necessary would be appropriate to define the rules, the evolution towards sustainable development. In first of which is a knowledge of the peoples this perspective, the role of the World Heritage and their culture. Centre is determining.

Michel Le Berre (France) in his presentation on Albert Mumma (Kenya) in his presentation on the "Genesis of African cultural landscapes" the /I Legal aspects of the protection of cultural recapitulated the major stages of the landscapes in Africa nproposed the development of establishment of African landscapes and certain legal aspects for the application of the outlined the future challenges of the 21 sl century concept of cultural landscapes which would for their conservation. apply throughout the whole of Africa, rather than in individual countries. He illustrated that the Africa is the continent where the human species evolution of the notion of heritage engenders a differentiated itself. It is thus where the most dilemma with regard to the functioning of the ancient cultural landscapes can be found. These laws, making an adaptation of the law are the original cultural landscapes, particularly necessary. In view of the need to revise the numerous in Africa, with the sites of the Omo legal mechanisms for protection, he emphasised (Ethiopia), Turkana (Kenya), Olduvai the following: (Tanzania), Stekfontein (South Africa), Koro­ • The involvement of local communities Toro (Chad), etc. The privileged use of certain trees, such as the baobabs, is also apparent in In Africa, the man-nature interaction is important certain managed landscapes even though they at the local community level. The inscription of appear natural. Africa is rich in fossil cultural cultural landscapes must be carried out with the landscapes as numerous prehistoric sites bear involvement of the local communities, leaving witness. Associative landscapes are also the implementation of the law to the nation numerous. They are amongst the living state. The hiatus stems from the replacement, landscapes, and they constitute an essential throughout Africa, of customary rights by a element of the nature-culture link so important in modern regime of laws issuing from African cultural heritage. African associative colonisation. Tradition is thus subordinate to the landscapes are diverse: woods, rocks, ponds, national law.

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The classic protected areas exclude the local landscape (all the analytiC elements) and its communities who are deprived of their long term evolution. In the case of living cultural traditional rights, for example in the national landscapes, the different synergetic activities parks. The traditional activities and uses must be considered (agriculture, breeding, become reprehensible acts by the law. The exploitation of wild life, for example), in the right exists only if the tradition perpetuates itself framework of integrated actions to limit conflict. and if it has continuity in its rights of use, for Technological modification (use of synthetic example, with regard to beliefs, the possibility to additives and biocides) and potential speculations visit sacred sites. should also be considered. The role of new agricultural practices, such as monocultures, Then, how should the involvement of local should be analysed in terms of evolution of the communities be defined, and how to determine landscape. who has management responsibilities? In Kenya, the law does not recognise the right of • The difficulties in the implementation of communities to ownership. The designation of the legal system persons responsible is necessary. For example, in the case of the Massai, the community is The establishment of the colonial laws and their under the responsibility of ten elders who revision has not been implemented with a view manage all the lands in the name of the to the active protection of heritage and its community, at the risk of personal failings and natural resources. appropriation of resources. The administrators become decision makers for the entire community, The new laws introduce changes which are not which raises a problem. In other cases, the always applied in practice and cause conflicts of chiefs of the community are named by the State interest. A relationship must be established and therefore are not very credible in the eyes between the law, the government and the of the community. communities in the implementation of the U right ofjustice" by the local authorities. For example, In Africa, the notion of legal pluralism is however in the case if the extinction of the antelope, the slowly gaining ground. It means considering the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) decided to legal aspects as a group (superposition) of relocate these animals in the north of the layers of different valid and valuable systems country in the Tsavo National Park. At the time according to the different domains of choice. In of the operation, the local communities where the example of a Kenyan marriage, there is the the antelope lived opposed the action of the successive establishment of customary, religious KWS, because the animals were one of the and civil rights. The modalities of the conciliation elements of the way of life of these populations. and cohabitation of the different legal systems The conflict was resolved by a legal decision require definition. that gave reason to the populations concerned. In the framework of the legal jurisdiction, it is • Impact studies important that the communities may have real authority over their resources, even if they are of When considering a living cultural landscape, national importance. It is therefore important to the World Heritage List inscription process develop the management of heritage resources should not result in a fossilisation of landscapes at the local level in a partiCipatory manner. and should not impede local development. However, it is important to protect the parties or Access to information must be opened up. properties that facilitated the inscription. Often, Legal and administrative documents are often it is indispensable to carry out environmental considered as state property by civil servants impact studies (EIS) which incorporate both a who develop poliCies without prior consultation feasibility study (heritage and community on procedures. interest) and a market study (economic impact). It is a procedure which is becoming general • The international context practice throughout the world, including in Africa where fifteen countries have already integrated The existence of numerous international the EIS into their legal system requirements. conventions makes it necessary to reflect upon The impact study must integrate the entire a better manner to integrate progress in these

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legal texts in the particular context of national Anthony Githitho and Quentin Luke (Kenya): legislation. Thus, in the text of international Introduction to a visit to some of the Kaya conventions, it is important to mention the role Forests which the local communities should play in order to avoid the hiatus between conservation and This paper presented a Kenyan project for the development. preservation of sacred sites. The sacred woods or forests of Kaya are isolated parts of a large African case studies forest that stretch across the plain and the hills of eastern Africa, to Tanzania. These areas Eight case studies had been prepared, but only present a wide botanical diversity and are of seven were presented due to the absence of the great value for biodiversity conservation. Their expert from Madagascar. study is conducted by the Kenya National Museums (KNM) with funding from WWF. The George Abungu (Kenya): The Kaya, sacred conservation of these forested islands is directly forests of the Mijikenda of Kenya linked to the history, culture and beliefs of nine This general presentation drew attention to the Mijikenda ethnic groups. Of the 47 sacred historical, spiritual, cultural and natural woods presently identified, 33 have been importance of sacred sites where, contrary to registered as national monuments. In the traditional monumental ones, there are no agreement with the local communities, apparent cultural landmarks. (Committees of Elders) the KNM has implemented a conservation and development programme The Kaya are sacred forests protected by which comprises the boundaries of the different tradition but also by the national legal system. Kaya identified, public education and awareness­ According to legend, and ever since the 8th building, economic action to reduce pressure century, the migration of the Mijikenda, a Bantou around the forest zones and also the group, occurs from the south towards the north of Kenya. The forests encouraged the installation of strengthening of national laws relating to these communities upon their arrival in the heritage conservation. country. At the outset, it involved settlements in certain forests having no sacred character. The Andrianaivoarivony Rafol 0 (Madagascar): groups settled in fortified villages built in Royal City, royal sacred woods and trees of clearings which later became sacred sites. Madagascar These sites constitute centres of political and Near Antananarivo, the Ambohimanga Hill religious interest with dance and sacrificial constitutes a remarkable example of a cultural areas. A social structure developed at these landscape in the Malagasy highlands. The site sacred sites with each sub-group of the community responsible for a particular function shelters numerous archaeological vestiges (pits, in the sacred forest. When security was not portals, barriers) set up as circular fortifications th around the royal city. This developed from the longer a problem, in the 19 century, these th th groups exploited the periphery of the sacred 15 to the 18 centuries around a public square, forests. The clearings of the forest continue organised in a symbolic manner. The royal city today to play a spiritual role and to serve as a comprises palaces, basins, a cattle pit, an sepulchre, with the forest providing protection, enclosure and several constructions. The spiritual like a buffer zone, for the exterior areas of heritage is represented by sacred royal tombs, activity. Later, tensions, conflicts and sacred woods, royal trees, sacrificial stones, as colonialism led to increased clearing of the well as a symbolic occupation of space. The . forest and the abandon of the cemeteries and association of all these values, where culture certain sacred sites. At present, intensification and nature are closely inter-linked, makes for of economic exploitation of the region the originality and interest of this site inscribed engenders new threats to these forested on the tentative list of Madagascar. "islands". Many of these sites disappeared before 1980, after having been pillaged. The Kaya also constitute contained areas of remarkable vegetal diversity.

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Yvonne Dladla* (South Africa): KrUger National Yonas Beyene (Ethiopia): Konso-Gardula, Park Cultural Landscape archaeological site and cultural landscape, witness to a living culture This presentation underlined the novel approach of the South African authorities who consider The site of Konso-Gardula is of exceptional that the KrUger National Park has both cultural archaeological interest as it harbours Achelian and natural values. KrUger National Park is a objects and numerous remains of Hominides (of protected area created in 1898. The creation 1.4 to 1.7 M years BP). It also represents a was accompanied by obligatory displacement of living cultural landscape comprising an original the populations. This vast area (2 million hectares) technology of agricultural terraces, fortified is very diverse: 155 types of natural landscapes stone towns and a living Megalithic culture. The have been inventoried. It also presents a large Konso are, at present, the only population who number of cultural landscapes that the park continue to prepare Megalithic monuments, the administration and the social ecology unit wish Waka, dedicated to the worship of community to rehabilitate (more than 254 cultural sites). heroes. This ensemble constitutes a living cultural landscape of exceptional quality. The KrUger Park is rich in lithic vestiges retracing the terraced structures retain their agricultural cultural evolution of humanity throughout functional use, and the construction of steles prehistory, over more than a million years. keep alive a cultural heritage. In particular, it Vestiges of the Iron Age are proof of a maintains the passage of power between the technological mastery spread over nearly 2,000 generations, over 18-year periods, in years. In evidence, this technology was accordance with the rhythm of life of individuals accompanied by numerous socio-economic and and communities. The upkeep of this landscape commercial activities carried out through is a part of the daily life of the Konso and has contacts with neighbouring populations of the proved, over time, its sustainability. This site Monomotapa Empire and with foreign visitors, figures on the tentative list of Ethiopia. Arabs and Portuguese. The industrial era is marked, in KrUger, by the installation of the first Joseph Eboreime (Nigeria): Sukur cultural European colonials in the 19th century, with the landscape development of a railway and the increased Situated in the Mandara Mountains, the site of mining activities in southern Africa. KrUger Sukur is next to the frontier of Cameroon. It National Park played an important role during comprises a plateau dominating the hills which the apartheid period in sheltering both the are characteristic of the Nigeriano-Camerooni repressive forces as well as the freedom fighting area. Sukur was inhabited in ancient times and groups. speCialised in the production and dissemination of tools and firearms, in a continued manner, The evolution of the national park, protected right up to 1960. At Sukur, craftsmen in iron natural area cultural landscape, was facilitated work, rainmakers, and other inhabitants are by the creation of a department of social associated in a pyramidal institution located in ecology in 1994. The project is to rehabilitate the granite palace of Hindi, the symbolic and the cultural elements of this environment and to collective woman of the Sukur community. The involve the local communities in its management, construction of the Hindi Palace is attributed to conservation and interpretative activities aimed giants assisted by shaman seers. Other than the at visitors. The development of a partnership palace, the site comprises conical stone enclosures with the local communities would allow the for cattle, (to be fattened up for certain diversification of the resources of this ceremonies), ovens for the production of iron, environment and the reappropriation of this area agricultural terraces forming a spectacular by the communities who have been distanced landscape including a number of spiritual for a century. This site figures on the tentative elements (sacred trees, doors, tombs, etc.). list of South Africa. The site unites a complex of elements of spiritual value such as the funeral monuments organised by caste (princes, blacksmiths, members of the 25 clans of Sukur) and dedicated to the periodic celebration of cycles of • The communication was presented by Zulaiga Rossouw life and death, or the ceramic altars and chapels (SANP)

-127- Cultural Landscapes in Africa dedicated to the cult of guardian divinities of both the centre for salt production (saltworks of Sukur. The site of Sukur contains all the diversity Fachi and Bilma) and the point of exchange of and complexity of African cultural landscapes. this product for millet, cotton products and other This landscape unites associative, technological southern produce. The route is as short as and agricultural characteristics which constitute possible between the exchange points the story of past and present day life of an entire obligatorily taking into account the wells and the community, over several centuries. The interest availability of grazing land. This road is just a and the quality of this ensemble are the basis component in the vast exchange system linking for the proposal for inscription to the World the Saharan zone to sub-Saharan Africa, and Heritage List by Nigeria and which will be extends from the ancient towns of Mauritania to examined by the World Heritage Committee in the banks of Lake Chad. It is therefore of real December 1999. regional importance in Africa. This site figures on the tentative list of Niger. Ephra"im Kamuhangire (Uganda): The Salt Gardens of Kibiro Jules Bocco (Benin): The Slave Route of The region of Kibiro presents a particular Benin landscape linked with an original technology of The slave trade on the African continent used salt production. Situated on the borders of the numerous routes, each with their peculiarities. western Rift, eight areas of salt production are For many centuries, the phenomenon of slavery associated with hot springs. The production of was integrated into the fundamental socio­ salt is carried out in marked areas, the gardens. This production brings into play a series of economic way of life of many African states as, operations aiming at the isolation, concentration for example, the Kingdom of Abomey. The and purification of salt. Crystallisation is achieved Slave Route of Abomey, which Benin will submit for inscription on the World Heritage List, through the boiling of an over-saturated brine. The production of salt is a toilsome operation. dispatched the captives of the capital of Abomey to the embarkment port of Ouidah. This 117 km All the activities are carried out exclusively by women, including its commercialisation in the road, busy in the season of the trade winds, was neighbouring markets. These salt gardens recognised and codified in 1727 by King Agadja. constitute the heritage that is transmitted This new route contributed towards the exclusively by women: mother to daughter or structuring of economic exchanges within the daughter-in-law. The living technological landscape kingdom. It was marked by numerous rituals of Kibiro translates therefore a deep originality and landmarks of representative sites and on the cultural and sociological level. Its monuments. Amongst these, mention may be conservation is directly linked to the perpetration made of the markets, the rest places, the sorting of the know-how and the competition of the or storage places situated in the different forts market economy. This site figures on the and warehouses along the Abomey Road to the tentative list of Uganda. sea. This road, which has a value of universal and exceptional memory, totally integrates the Ali Bida (Niger): The Salt Route of Niger historic memory of the slave trade in Benin. Its conservation is necessary for· the safeguarding After having recalled the important role that of the collective memory of humanity. commercial exchanges played in the trans­ Saharan itineraries which, since prehistory, Theoretical and methodological aspects have relayed Africa to the Mediterranean world, discussed during the meeting the author described the different aspects of the Salt Road of Niger. With the competition of the The analysis of living landscapes focused on the coastal saltworks and road transport, the activity problems that the African States Parties on this route has dwindled. The Salt Road of encounter during the process of inscription of a Niger is organised around two major site on the World Heritage List, using the crossroads, Agadez and the Oasis of Kaouar. standard form, and which, with regard to Agadez was the main destination of the numerous items, presents specific difficulties to caravans and the marketing of salt for the Africa. The representatives of IUCN (L. Melamari) Haussa Sultanates of Zinder and Kana, but also and ICOMOS (B. M. Hammarskiold) were highly for Gao, Dosso, Say. The Oasis of Kaouar is appreciated. Particular problems arise when the

-128- Sythesis Report of the Expert Meeting on African Cultural Landscapes landscapes are an integral part of the living the notion of a buffer zone may become useless traditions and cultures. or hardly applicable, for example, in the case of cultural itineraries and exchange routes. In the Ownership case of the Kaya Forests, it is not right to With regard to management, the problem of consider the borders of the forest as the limit of ownership and the question of granting of land is the sacred area because these limits may be primordial due to its very diversified character in situated beyond the present edge of the forests, Africa. The African notion of land ownership as is the case of Kayafungo. must be explained and developed beyond the narrow confines of the law, in order that the Community involvement concepts of land owned by communities, elders, Discussions covered the principal concepts divinities, spirits and other entities evoked in the concerning the investment and integration of use or in the granting of land or properties, be local populations in the inscription process. recognised. Local communities should be involved at all stages of the preparation of the nomination, It is important to clarify the role played by the from start to finish. Their interests should be State and to define its interaction with traditional taken into account in all of the implementation, rights. The problems caused by the justification safeguarding, education and monitoring for inscription and by the management of the programmes. It became evident that the local site have been examined. The debate was population should understand the important role abundantly illustrated by the case study of the it plays in the inscription process. Therefore Kaya Forests and also by other examples such priority must be given to information and as the World Heritage sites of Laponian Area education actions directed at the local (Sweden). These case studies have facilitated populations. the examination of problems posed by the legal systems, in particular, the feeling of injustice and Development and conservation threat, because of a long alienation of cultures and lands by the guardian authorities. These Protection measures and the means of applying problems affect the notions of the significance, them should be envisaged in a sustainable authenticity and integrity of heritages. development perspective, respecting the natural environment and its resources. Community In general, in Africa where the land belongs to initiatives may be a decisive factor in the the ancestors, it would be beneficial if the State conservation of a site: the conservation of the associated all the communities concerned in the Royal Palaces of Abomey (Benin) was successful process of inscription. Full attention could be through the involvement of the families given to protection measures and to their meOilS concerned with the management of the site. A of implementation, necessarily taking into wise balance should be maintained between account respect of the environment and conservation of the sites and sustainable perspectives for sustainable development. development, with the goal of reducing poverty and precarity. Environmental threats and Site boundaries pressures could be greatly reduced through sustainable development, conservation and The problem of boundaries also concerns a education programmes focused on communities. certain number of African sites. The definition of the site and its specificities (boundaries, The critical item of the nomination form is the functions) is often complex because an African management plan of the site. This should define site is often fragmented into different the objectives and the means of attaining them, components linked by their functionality : for and name the responsible officials, the stages example, a technological site will comprise a and the resources (human, financial, material) production site, a processing site, a site for the as well as the criteria and indicators to allow an production of energy (wood), one or several evaluation of the implementation. The management sites for dissemination and marketing. All these plan should mention the concrete inputs from the elements are a basis for the integrity of the community, the conservation and promotional property and must be identified. However, activities of the site and their evaluation. depending upon the types of cultural properties,

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The nature-culture relationship in Africa African expert meeting in March 2000, in cooperation with the advisory bodies, to respond African cultural heritage presents the originality to the recommendations of the Nara Document. of preserving very important natural aspects. It would be highly desirable to elaborate, Present-day African societies did not arise from drawing upon examples, an African Charter to a distinction between products of human genius· this effect. and works of nature. On the contrary, they are based on a synergy in which their culture and Monitoring and evaluation of World Heritage their spirituality are deeply buried and feed upon Sites traditional interpretation of phenomena and natural environment resources. This intrinsic The modalities of monitoring the state of relationship between nature and culture is the conservation should be defined in the inscription basis for the originality of African cultural process and taken into account in the heritage which has more in common with the management plan. This plan should indicate the spirit than the subject matter. Recognition of necessary actions required to periodically this cultural heritage will diversify and enrich the evaluate the state of the property concerned, in order to prepare a 5-yearly report to the World World Heritage List. The progressive range of Heritage Centre. In the case of technological African cultural landscapes also demonstrates sites, for which no methodology exists for their the artificial character of the split of heritage into monitoring, the group of experts felt that two distinct and opposite categories and calls for guidelines should be established. a holistic approach of a global heritage of humanity, representative of the diversity of In the exercise of the evaluation of cultural cultures. landscapes, the group of experts wished that the role of each advisory body be defined when it The notions of authenticity and integrity pertained to sites where the elements of appreciation go beyond the classic situations, as The notions of authenticity and integrity have for example protected areas. Account must also been discussed in the light of African case be taken of local communities. It is important studies. The close link between the natural, that the experts responsible for these dossiers spiritual and cultural elements, the mix of the have received a specific training in African tangible and intangible require a particular problems. definition of the concepts already discussed during expert meetings (Nara 1994, La Vanoise Specific problems related to technological 1996, Amsterdam 1998). It is important to define landscapes how these conditions should be applied in the The importance of the systems and knowledge African context and be taken into account during of technological traditions has been recognized, the examination of proposals for inscription on as much for the production and marketing of salt the World Heritage List: is it their material (production process at Kibiro, Uganda; trade structure, the associated knowledge or the and exchange routes, Agadez, Niger and function of these sites that should be taken into Timbuktu, Mali) as for the iron and bronze account? In the case of African heritage, where industries (region of Benin in Nigeria). The the natural and cultural aspects overlap, the structures of communal solidarity of most simultaneous consideration of authenticity and African societies have been identified as diverse integrity appears necessary. heritage and resources of exceptional universal value for humanity. With regard to expertise In adopting Recommendation 11, the group of and training, it is important to use and to experts having underlined the importance of the promote local knowledge whenever possible, conditions of authenticity and integrity in the and to define the traditional methods of inscription process of cultural landscapes to the transmission of knowledge and essential know­ World Heritage List, wished to clarify these how for the perpetuity of the qualities and values concepts and their applicability in the African of the site. context; it once again remarked upon the close links between the tangible and intangible Specific problems related to itineraries elements and between the natural and cultural The principle of the inscription of itineraries and aspects, and underlined the symbolic and routes on the World Heritage List stems from a functional character of this heritage. It requested complex process due to the often difficult nature the World Heritage Centre to organise an of their identification. In order to understand fully

-130- Sythesis Report of the Expert Meeting on African Cultural Landscapes the role and importance of these routes and traditional and collective manner. The visits also itineraries, the most characteristic elements to made it possible to become acquainted with the be taken into account are not necessarily their regional organisation of the committees of dimension but the fixed points and landmarks, elders of the entire Kaya Forests. Discussion essential for their comprehension, as well as the between the experts and the elders brought role played by the itineraries in the spiritual, about a better understanding of the spiritual cultural, economic and social development of character of these areas and the customs and the populations concerned. ceremonies which are organized there. The visit to Kaya Kinondo allowed an approach to the most sacred zones of the forest. The interest of The complexity of a route or an itinerary these residual sites, with regard to the subject of depends also upon its legal status which biodiversity conservation, was underlined, as remains an element to determine, either at numerous African species are only found in national or regional level. In the particular case these protected areas. Discussions touched of the Salt Route, one might consider the Old upon the pressure exercised on the Kaya and Town of Adagez, centre for the storage and which threaten its existence: extension of the marketing of salt, the pOints of departure of agricultural perimeters and especially the caravans, the oasis and the water points broadening of the tourist perimeters due to the indispensable to provide water for people and concentration of hotels in the coastal zone. The animals. For the Slave Road in Benin, the Elders' Committee of Kaya Kinondo expressed itinerary would include the Town of Abomey, its concern with regard to the conservation of capital of the slave kingdom, all the towns and the sacred character of these forests and villages traversed by the slaves with the halting requested that the international community take places, as well as the town of Ouidah on the action in this respect. The conservation of the coast. integrity of these forest fragments and their inherent characteristics can only be ensured In all cases, even when the original activity of through the establishment of a management the road or the itinerary no longer exists, or plan and sustainable development in becomes greatly reduced, the raison d'etre to concertation with all the local communities justify the inscription will be the memory of the involved in the dynamic of this area. past, present and future role from the pOint of view of the collective memory, and the values to Visit to protected areas in the Shimba Hills: This transmit to future generations. field visit enabled the discovery of the natural heritage of the region and its diversity. The Field visits Shimba Hills Reserve also includes ancient Kaya which are identifiable in the landscape by Several field visits provided the opportunity to a thicker forest cover. It provided the possibility develop most of the points which had been to compare a classic style of government discussed during the presentations and debates management (Shimba Hills National Reserve) of the thematic meeting and gave a more with a management style where the local concrete approach. communities are directly involved (Mwalugandje Community Elephant Sanctuary). This latter site Visit to the Kaya Forests (KwaJe District): Under constitutes an interesting experience in the direction of Quentin Luke and Anthony Githitho, the participants visited several sacred sustainable development of common natural woods in the Tiwi region (Waa, Diani, Kinondo). heritage by the original communities. This kind These areas constitute fragmented vestiges of of management completely corresponds to the forest ecosystem which in the past, tenant exploitation of natural heritage income, stretched across the coastal plains and hills to recommended by Agenda 21. the north and south of Mombasa. The residual fragments of the forest presently preserved Visit to the Old Town of Mombasa *: this visit (from 10 to 200 hectares) are considered sacred permitted the discovery of the rich urban Swahili to the members of the nine Mijikenda ethnic heritage of coastal eastern Africa. The fortified groups. About forty of these fragments have island of Mombasa contains examples of the been registered as National Monuments by the continued occupancy of a site by human National Museums of Kenya. These visits gave populations over several millennia (Phoenicians, the experts an opportunity to discuss with the Arabs, Portuguese, etc.). committees of elders who manage the Kaya in a *Included in the Tentative List of Kenya

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Conclusions and recommendations The Tiwi Expert Meeting was the first one concerning cultural landscapes of outstanding universal value in Africa. It was the first attempt to implement the concept of the cultural landscape in the framework of the Global Strategy for a more representative World Heritage List for the African region. The debates which followed the' presentations and case studies encouraged the development and expansion of the definition of African cultural landscapes, whilst emphasising their universality and representativity, as well as their particularities with regard to integrity and authenticity, or synergy between natural and cultural, tangible or intangible elements. The importance of the establishment of sustainable management plans to ensure the future and the conservation of African cultural landscapes in a perspective of sustainable human development, at the dawn of the 21 st century, was also underlined. The strong points of the Tiwi meeting have been summarised in three series of recommendations which were adopted by unanimity.

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RECOMMANDATIONS

Recommandation I Le groupe d'experts a par consequent recommande que: Recommandations aux Etats parties A. Considerant I'adoption recente du concept 1) les Etats parties amendent leur legislation de paysage culturel pour I'inscription sur la pour reconnaTtre, comme il convient les Liste du patrimoine mondial. droits des communautes locales sur les paysages culturels. A cette fin, les relations Considerant egalement la specificite du entre Ie droit national et Ie droit coutumier patrimoine africain, qui associe directement devront etre expliquees clairement en des elements tangibles et intangibles, reconnaissant de maniere appropriee Ie role naturels, spirituels et culturels, Ie groupe du droit coutumier dans la protection des paysages; d'experts a recommande aux Etats parties que les sites naturels africains actuellement 2) Ie concept de propriete collective so it inscrits sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial compris comme incluant un droit de propriete soient reetudies, Ie cas echeant, en tenant par fideicommis accorde aux generations compte des categories de paysages culturels actuelles des membres d'une communaute, ou d'autres valeurs culturelles. lis pourraient pour les generations actuelles comme pour en ce cas devenir des sites associant des les generations passees et futures de cette valeurs naturelles et culturelles. communaute.

B. Lors de leur debat sur les questions du droit c. Le groupe d'experts a egalement note qu'il de propriete et du statut des paysages etait important que les communautes locales culturels en droit interne* et dans les participent effectivement aux processus de prise de decision lies aux paysages culturels systemes juridiques, Ie groupe d'experts a sur lesquels elles ont un droit de propriete note que Ie concept de ''propriete'' tel qu'il est et/ou de controle. actuellement compris, est excessivement restrict if dans la mesure ou il ne reconnait Le groupe d'experts a par consequent pas comme il convient, la propriete collective recommande que: des paysages culturels. 1) les Etats parties creent les mecanismes necessaires en vue d'une participation effective des communautes aux activites de gestion et de developpement liees aux paysages culturels sur lesquels les * « interne » dans ce contexte designe la legislation des communautes locales ont un droit de Etats nations par opposition au droit international propriete et/ou de controle;

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2) Ie mecanisme participatif mis en place c) Notant I'importance de la protection cherche a favoriser la gestion durable des traditionnelle et des mecanismes de gestion paysages culturels. dans les paysages culturels vivants, il a ete suggere de retiiger des que possible des D. Considerant I'importance des paysages culturels Orientations de gestion pour les paysages vivants, Ie groupe d'experts a recommande : culturels, a partir d'etudes de cas qui tiendraient compte des legislations et pratiques 1) d'entreprendre, en collaboration avec les coutumieres, ainsi que des mecanismes de communautes locales, des programmes de gestion traditionnelle. developpement durable des paysages culturels qui respectent I'integrite des ressources B. Recommandations aux organismes culturelles et naturelles; consultatifs

2) de mettre au point des programmes de Tenant compte du fait que les paysages conservation et des programmes educatifs culturels representent tIles ouvrages combines centres sur la communaute; de /a nature et de I'homme" fondes sur I'environnement naturel et des facteurs sociaux, 3) que, lors de la preparation de propositions economiques et culturels successifs (internes et d'inscription pour la Liste du patrimoine externes), Ie groupe d'experts a recommande : mondial, les communautes locales soient impliquees a toutes les etapes. Leurs a) que I'evaluation entreprise par les organismes interets devront etre pris en compte dans Ie consultatifs soit realisee sur Ie principe d'une programme general de mise en reuvre, Ie collaboration directe qui soit suivi, Ie volet educatif et I'exploitation des interdisciplinaire, et non pluridisciplinaire, de resultats. facton a tenir compte de I'originalite et de la specificite de ces sites; Recommandation II A. Recommandations au Centre du b) que les experts affectes aux missions d'evaluation pour des propositions d'inscription patrimoine mondial possedent les competences appropriees a) Le groupe d'experts, ayant souligne I'importance concernant les questions techniques aussi des conditions d'authenticite et d'integrite bien que Ie contexte culturel africain; dans Ie processus d'inscription de paysages culturels sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial, c) que I'on cree un reseau d'experts africains a souhaite clarifier les concepts et leur qualifies et que les organismes consultatifs applicabilite dans Ie contexte africain; il a de organisent des seances de formation en nouveau fait remarquer les liens etroits entre collaboration avec Ie programme Africa 2009 les elements tangibles et intangibles et entre afin de donner a des specialistes africains les aspects naturels et culturels et il a les competences necessaires pour preparer souligne Ie caractere symbolique et fonctionnel et evaluer des dossiers de propositions de ce patrimoine. 1\ a demande au Centre du d'inscription sur la Liste du patrimoine patrimoine mondial d'organiser une reunion mondial; d'experts africains en mars 2000, en cooperation avec les organismes consultatifs, d) qu'a partir des debats portant sur les etudes pour donner suite aux recommandations du de cas des Jardins de sel de Kibiro document de Nara. L'ideal serait d'elaborer, (Ouganda), des routes du sel (Niger), de la a partir d'exemples, une Charte africaine. production du fer (Sukur, Nigeria; KrOger, Afrique du Sud) et du bronze dans la region b) Considerant les exigences de suivi enoncees du Benin (Nigeria), I'ICOMOS realise des dans Ie formulaire de proposition d'inscription etudes comparatives de differentes methodes et prenant en compte les paysages culturels de production. 1\ est evident que Ie vivants comme des systemes dynamiques, patrimoine technologique de l'Afrique les participants ont insiste sur la necessite constitue une categorie non encore d'inclure des indicateurs sociaux et culturels representee sur la Liste du patrimoine dans les processus de suivi. mondial.

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Recommandation III Recommandations suite it la visite du terrain a) A la suite de la visite des forets sacrees de Kaya (Waa, Diani et Kinondo), Ie groupe d'experts a note que la gestion traditionnelle de ces sites mise en place par les communautes locales sous la direction du comite des anciens s'est revelee capable de proteger et de conserver les valeurs culturelles, spirituelles et naturelles de cet environnement. b) Le groupe d'experts a recommande :

-que la protection legislative soit renforcee de maniere a ce que les sites continuent a maintenir leurs fondions culturelles, spirituelles et naturelles;

-que Ie gouvernement kenyan, par I'intermediaire des Musees nationaux du Kenya et en collaboration avec les communautes locales, prenne les mesures appropriees pour la protection et la conservation de ces sites;

-que, considerant les menaces et impacts potentiels du developpement touristique intensif, des mesures soient prises pour proteger les communautes kenyanes de I'exploitation et que I'on recherche les moyens d'ameliorer les perspectives economiques par une utilisation non consommatrice et durable de ces monuments forestiers;

- d'envisager des que possible une extension de I'etendue de ces forets morcelees en utilisant les ressources genetiques preservees sur ces sites;

-que Ie gouvernement kenyan envisage de placer les forets de Kaya sur la liste indicative du Kenya afin de preparer un dossier de proposition d'inscription sur la Liste du patrimoine mondial.

-135- Cultural Landscapes in Africa

RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendation I 2) The concept of communal ownership be understood as including ownership in trust by Recommendations to States Parties the current generations of community A. Considering the recent adoption of the members for the present, as well as the past cultural landscape concept for inscription on and future generations of their communities. the World Heritage List; C. The expert group also noted that it was important that local communities participate Considering also the specificity of African effectively in decision-making processes heritage, which associates directly tangible related to cultural landscapes under their and intangible, natural, spiritual and cultural ownership and/or control. elements, the expert group recommended to States Parties, that the African natural sites The expert group therefore recommended that: currently inscribed on the World Heritage List be reconsidered, whenever appropriate, 1) States Parties establish the necessary taking into account cultural landscape mechanisms for effective participation of categories or other cultural values. In such a communities in management and case they may become sites of combined development activities related to cultural natural and cultural values. landscapes under the ownership and/or control of local communities; B. In their discussion on the issues of ownership and status of cultural landscapes in 2) the participatory mechanism established municipal* law and legal systems, the expert should seek to promote the sustainable group noted that the concept of "property" as management of cultural landscapes. it is currently understood is unduly restrictive in so far as it does not give due recognition to D. Considering the importance of living cultural communal ownership of cultural landscapes. landscapes, the expert group recommended: The expert group therefore recommended that: 1) to undertake in collaboration with local communities sustainable development 1) States Parties amend their laws to give programmes, which respect the integrity of proper recognition to the rights of local the cultural and natural resources; communities over cultural landscapes; To this end, the relationship between national 2) to develop conservation and education law and customary laws should be explicitly programmes which are community centred; spelt out with due recognition given to the role of customary laws in landscape 3) that in preparing nominations for the World protection; Heritage List, local communities should be involved at all stages. Their interests should be accommodated within the overall * « municipal » in this context refers to the laws of nation programme of implementation, monitoring, sates as opposed to intemationallaw. education and follow-up.

-136- Recommendations

Recommendation II c) that a network of qualified African experts be established and that the Advisory Bodies A. Recommendations to the World organise training sessions in collaboration Heritage Centre with the Africa 2009 programme in order to provide African specialists with the necessary a) The expert group, having underlined the expertise to prepare and evaluate nomination importance of the conditions of authenticity files for the World Heritage List; and integrity in the process of inscribing cultural landscapes on the World Heritage d) on the basis of discussions of case studies of List, wished to clarify the concepts and their the Salt Gardens of Kibiro (Uganda), the salt applicability in the African context; once routes (Niger), the production of iron (Sukur, again pOinted out the close links between Nigeria; KrOger, South Africa) and bronze in tangible and intangible elements, natural and the Benin region (Nigeria), that ICOMOS cultural aspects, and underlined the symbolic carries out comparative studies of different . and functional character of this heritage. It production methods. It is evident that the requested the World Heritage Centre, in technological heritage of Africa constitutes a cooperation with the advisory bodies to category not yet represented on the World organise a meeting of African experts in Heritage List. March 2000 to follow-up the recommendations of the Nara Document and Recommendation III to formulate, on the basis of examples, ideally an African Charter; Recommendations from the field trip b) Considering the monitoring requirements a) Following the visit to the sacred Kaya forests outlined in the nomination form and taking (Waa, Diani, Kinondo) the expert group noted into account living cultural landscapes as that the traditional management of these dynamic systems, the participants stressed sites put in place by the local communities the need for the inclusion of social and under the leadership of the committee of cultural indicators in monitoring processes; elders has demonstrated the capacity to protect and conserve the cultural, spiritual c) Noting the importance of traditional and natural values of this environment. protection and management mechanisms in living cultural landscapes, it was suggested b) The expert group recommended: that Management Guidelines for cultural -that the legislative protection be reinforced landscapes be prepared as soon as possible, in a way that the sites continue to maintain on the basis of case studies, which take into their cultural, spiritual and natural functions; account customary laws and practices, as -that the Government of Kenya, through the well as traditional management mechanisms. National Museums of Kenya and in collaboration with local communities, take B. Recommendations to the advisory appropriate measures for the protection and bodies conservation of these sites; Taking into account that cultural landscapes -that considering the threats and potential represent the "combined works of nature and impacts of intensive tourism development, man" based on the natural environment and measures be taken to protect the Kaya successive (internal and external) social, communities from explOitation and that economic and cultural factors, the expert group ways be explored to improve the economic recommended. opportunities through non-consumptive, sustainable use of these forest monuments; a) that the evaluation undertaken by the advisory bodies be carried out on the basis of - to envisage as soon as possible a spatial a direct collaboration, which is extension of these fragmented forests interdisciplinary, as opposed to utilising the genetic resources preserved in multidisciplinary, in a way that takes into these sites; account the originality and specificity of these sites; -that the Government of Kenya considers placing the Kaya forests on Kenya's b) that the experts assigned to the evaluation tentative list with a view to preparing a missions for nominations should have nomination dossier for the World Heritage adequate expertise in technical matters as List. well as the African cultural context;

-137- Paysages Culturels en Afrique / Cultural Landscapes in Africa

LlSTE DES PARTICIPANTS I LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Personnes Ressources I Resource Persons MALI1 Mr Dawson Munjeri M. Togola Executive Director Direction National des Arts et de la Culture The National Museums and Monuments B.P.91 Bamako Mali Penrose Hill Fax.: 223.21 5721 or 231909 107 Rotten Row Tel.: 223223382 P.O. Box CY 1485, Causeway Harare - Zimbabwe MADAGASCAR Tel.: 263.4.752876 or 774208 Mr A. Rafolo Fax: 263.4.75 30 85 Directeur E-mail: [email protected] Centre d'Art et Archeologie Universite d'Antananarivo Dr. Michel Le Berre Imm. R. Depui - BP 4129 Socioecologie & Conservation 45-47 avenue du 26 juin CNRS 5558 101 Antananarivo - Madagascar 43 Boulevard du 11 novembre 1918 Tel. 261 22227356 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex Fax: 261 228218 France E-mail: [email protected] Tel.lFax: 33.4.72431248 NIGER E-mail: [email protected] M. Ali Bida Participants I Participants Chef service du patrimoine culturel Ministere de la Communication et de la Culture - BENIN BP 215 Mr Jules Bocco Niamey - Niger Directeur du Patrimoine Tel.: 227.722681 poste 325 ou 724131 Ministere de la Culture et des Communications Fax.: 227.72.23.36 Direction du Patrimoine culturel e-mail: [email protected] B.P. 03-2103 Cotonou - Benin NIGERIA Tel.: 229.303219 Fax.: 229.315931 Dr. Joseph Eboreime Coordinator Nigerian World Heritage Committee ETHIOPIE (NWHC) National Museum Dr. Jonas Beyene Benin-City CRCCH Nigeria P.O. Box 30795 Tel.: 234.52-242675 Addis-Ababa - Ethiopie Fax.: 234.52-252675 Fax: 251.1.51 07 05 e-mail: [email protected]

1 Absent lars de la reunion

-138- Liste des participants/List of participants

AFRIQUE DU SUD Organismes consultatifs de la Convention du patrimoine mondial I Advisory Bodies to Ms. Zulaiga Rossouw the World Heritage Convention South African National Parks P.O. Box 7400 UICN Roggebay 8012 - South Africa Mr. Lota MELAMARI Tel.: 27.-21 4222816 WCPA Regional Vice Chair for Eastern & Fax.: 27.12.343 27 23 Southern Africa, e-mail: [email protected] C/o Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA) P.O. Box 3134 OUGANDA Arusha - Tanzanie Dr. E. R. Kamuhangire Tel: +255573471 or 4082 or 8040 Commissioner for Antiquities and Museums Fax: +255 57 8216 or 4075 Department of Antiquities and Museums E-mail: [email protected] P.O. Box 5718 Kampala - Uganda ICOMOS Tel.: 256.41.232707 Fax.: 256.41 241247 Ms Britt-Marie Hammarskiold Vice President KENYA ICOMOS Sweden Lansstyrelsen Dr. George Abungu S-39186 Kalmar - Suede Director General Fax: 46-480 82 153 National Museums of Kenya E-mail: [email protected] P.O. Box 40658 Nairobi - Kenya Tel.: 254.2.74 21 31/4 or 254.2.7421 61/4 UNESCO Fax.: 254.2.74 1424 E-mail: [email protected] UNESCO Office Nairobi, Kenya Dr Robert Hoft Mr. Albert Mumma Project Coordinator Faculty of Law University of Nairobi. P.O. Box 30592 Nairobi - Kenya PO. Box 30197 Nairobi Kenya Tel.: 254.2.622353/4 Tel.: 254 252842/225219 Fax.: 254 2 211192 UNESCO Centre du patrimoine mondiall E-Mail: amumma@arcc-or-ke UNESCO World Heritage Centre

Mr. Anthony Githitho 7. place Fontenoy Coastal Forest Conservation Unit 75352 Paris 07 SP National Museums of Kenya France Fax.:33.1.45 68 5570 P.O. Box 596 Kilifi - Kenya Tel.: 254.125.22140 Dr Mechtild Rossler Fax: 254.127.2391 Program Specialist Email: [email protected] Tel.:33.1.4568 18 E-mail: [email protected] Mr. Mohamed Pakia Coastal Forest Conservation Unit Galia Saouma-Forero National Museums of Kenya Senior Program Specialist P.O. Box 86 Ukunda - Kenya Tel.: 33.1.4568 1474 Tel.: 2541272518 E-mail: [email protected] Fax: 2541272391 Email: [email protected] Observateurs I Observers Ms Kris Endersen Mr. Quentin Luke Director Coastal Forest Conservation Unit Nordic World Heritage Office National Museums of Kenya P.b. 8196 Dep. P.O. Box 24133 Nairobi - Kenya 0032 Oslo Tel.: 254.2.884475/882521 Norway Fax: 254.2.882728 Fax: +4722940581 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

-139- Acheve d'imprimer

31240 L'UNION (Toulouse) Tel. 05 61 37 64 70 DepOt legal : avril 2000 Imprime en France

N° impression: 8830.36