EM 1110-1-321 31 OCT 61

I c- / ,;I ENGINEERING AND DESIGN I I I •• PLANTING. TURF I I.

I TA . · 145 I .U6 .EM ' 1110 .. 1 .. 321 I l 1961 .' I le I I e1 I I I I I I .,I I I I I I I el I Manuals - Corps of Engineers EM 1110-1-321 u. s. Army 31 Oct 61

ENGINEERING AND DESIGN 1e BURi0[[1rn~~~~111i[[M1i~ARV PLANTING TURF 92062871 I &_ I

I Table of Contents Paragraph

I 1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE ...... 1

2 II • I REFERENCES • e 1 3 RESCISSION 1

4 SOILS 1 I a. Composition •••• 1 b. Texture 2 c. Soil Structure 2 I d. Adjusting Plants to Soil. . ••• 3 e. Soil Fertility. • • • . . . . • . • • • • •• 3 f. Soil Ac~ity and Alkalinity .•••••••••••. 4 I g. Soil Salinity . • • • • • • • • 4 h. Soil Tests • • • • • • • • • • • • • , 5 5 CLIMATE ...... 5 •• a. Rainfall ...... 5 l;l. Temperature . . . . 7 I C, Other Factors ...... 7 6 PREPARATION OF S:rnDBED...... 7 a. Clearing and Grading •••• 7 I b. . Subsurface Drainage . • • • • • • • • • 10 c. Topsoil • • • • • . • • . • . . . • • . . . 11 d. Tillage . • • • • • • . . . • • . • . . 12 e. Fertilizers and Amendments .••. 13 I f. A:p:plied Mulches • • • • • • • • • • • • 15 g. Planted Mulches . • • • • • 16

I 7 SELECTION OF FLA.NT SPECIES. 16 a. lawn-Type Plantings ••••••. 17 b. Recreational Areas and Parade Grounds .•• 22 c. Airfields • • • • • • • • • • • • • 23 I d. Ammunition Magazines and Barricades ••••••• 24 e. Unimproved Grounds • • • • • • • • •• 25

I 8 S:rnDING AND PLANTING . 27 a. Seasons for Planting. 27 le I I EM 1110-1-321 Contents 31 Oct 61 I Paragraph 91 b. Planting Methods •••. 28 c. Irrigation . . 30 d. Maintenance .• . .. 31 I 9 SEED . . . . • • 32 a. Seed Quality 32 I b. Federal Standards 32 c. Sampling and Testing 32 d. Pure Live Seed . . • . 33 e. Seeding 13 I APPENDIX I--NOTES ON COMMON PI.ANT SPF.CIES I 1 SOUTHERN PEREl'JNIA.L GRASSES. 1 2 NORTHERN PEREl'JNIA.L GRASSES 2 I 3 DROUTH-RESISTANT PERENNIAL GRASSES 4

4 TEMPORARY OR ANNUAL GRASSES 6 I 5 MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS. 6 I APPENDIX II--SELIDTED REFERENCES •• I I I I I I I I el I Manuals - Corps of Engineers I U. S. Army EM 1110-1-321 1e 31 Oct 61 ENGINEERING AND DESIGN

I PLANTING TURF I 1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE. This manual outlines the factors affecting estab­ lishment of turf, namely climate, soils, and management. It outlines treatment of areas before and after planting, selection of seed and seed I mixtures, and methods of planting. Appendix I provides information on com~ men plant species. The manual will be used by all elements of the Corps of I Engineers responsible for planting turf. 2. REFERENCES. A list of selected references is included in this manual as Appendix II. Raised numerals in the text refer to items in this list.

I 3. RESCISSION. Engineering Manual for Military Construction, Part xrv, Chapter 2, May 1947.(EM 1110-345-321). I 4. sons.

~- Composition. Establishment of turf must be based on the natural I physical and chemical properties of the soil. Soil is composed of minerals, organic matter, water, and air. The relative proportions and arrangement of these components determine the soil's suitability for plant growth. •• ( 1) Minerals. Mineral materials make up the bulk of the solid portion of most soils. This mineral fraction consists of fragments in various stages of disintegration. Sizes of particles range from coarse I gravel to clay.

(2) Organic Matter. Plant and animal residues are commonly re­ I ferred to as organic matter. Normally soils with high percentages of fine sand or silt are benefited by the addition of organic matter. Sands and clays may also be improved with organic matter properly used. Since soils that consolidate upon compaction are extremely difficult to manage, es­ I pecially where traffic is expected, a complete understanding of the problem is essential before plantings are made. large quantities of organic matter do not correct serious soil deficiencies of this kind. Proper proportions I of sand, silt, and clay are re~uired where such conditions exist.

(3) Moisture. Water is the third major soil component, and is held I in or moves through the pore spaces in the soil mass. The texture of the soil and the amount of organic matter have an important bearing on the rapidity with which water from rains or irrigation penetrates the soil mass and is held in the soil layers (horizons). Soils high in clay content hold I large amounts of water, about 3 in. of rainfall per vertical foot of soil. Loa.ms are intermediate and hold about 2 in. per soil foot; sands are le poorest, holding from 1/2 to 1 in. of rainfall per soil foot. 1 I EM 1110-1-321 I 31 Oct 61

( 4) Air. Air and other mixtures of gases are more j_mportant in the e1 soil than is often supposed. Soils that become readily com:pacted exclude air and prevent deep root penetration. Sandy soils, at the other extreme, permit easy flow of air; this tends to evaporate the moisture from the soil surface and to inhibit grasses that have shallow root systems. The proper I balance of air and water depends in a large measure on soil texture and the amount of organic matter present, I b. Texture.

(1) Soil Classification. Physically, soil is an aggregate of min­ eral particles which, for purposes of classification, are divided into I separates or groups. Of the several group classifications in use, the fol­ lowing devised by the U, S. Department of Agriculture serves the purposes of this manual: I

Diameter of Particles Classification in millimeters I Very coarse sand 2.0 to LO Coarse sand 1.0 to 0,5 Medium sand 0.5 to 0.25 I Fine sand 0.25 to 0,10 Very fine sand 0.10 to 0.05 Silt 0.05 to 0,002 I Clay Below 0.002

(2) Other Classification Systems. It should be noted that the above classification does not agree with soil classification:3 normally as­ •• signed to soils used for construction purposes, as defined in TM 5-541, Control of Soils in Military Construction, and other related publications. For example, standard analysis procedures for soils used for construction I purposes provide a separation of sands from silt and clay particles with a No. 200 sieve, whereas agricultural soil laboratories norma.1:·..y use a No. 300 sieve. Agricultural analyses separate silt and clay, but many labora­ I tories analyzing soils for construction do not. For an understanding of the system in use for agricultural soils, see Soil Survey Manual, United States Department of Agriculture Handbook No, 18. 13 A soil analysis for I turf planting should always include percentages of gravel, sand, silt, and clay, regardless of what laboratory makes the test. Determination of fine and very fine sands is of interest for soils used for recreational purposes • I .£• Soil Structure. Soil structure refers to the arrangement of the various sized soil particles in relation to each other. Primary soil particles (sand, silt, and clay) tend to aggregate in productive soils I into compound soil particles. The value of a soil for plant growth depends in a great measure on the tendency of soil particles to aggregate into these clusters. On this characteristic depends the penetration of water and air into the soil. Soils that have poor structure become waterlogged I during long periods of rainfall, forcing plant roots to concentrate near

2 el I I 4c(1) EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61 1e the soil surface. Sandy soils are so permeable that water escapes. Heavy compaction with construction equipment and foot traffic while soils are wet tends to destroy soil structure. The best agricultural soils have good structure at considerable depth, 4 to 6 ft. The bluegrass areas in I Kentucky are ty:pical of this condition as are the loessial soils in the Corn Belt of the Midwest, and the deep irrigated lands of the western I states. (1) Importing Soil Materials. Adjusting the soil texture by im~ porting better soil materials from off the site will improve the surface I soil but not the subsoil. Nevertheless, the use of off-site materials is at times necessary. When sand is added to clay or silt soils of athletic fields to improve structure, the coarser sand fractions rather than fine sands should be used. The use of ungraded sand with a high percentage of I fine sand may intensify the problem rather than alleviate it.

(2) Other Treatments. The addition of organic matter, such as I peat, is advisable under conditions where the problem is not severe. The use of ground limestone will often improve soils in high rainfall areas where structure is poor, and gypsum will improve soils with a high per­ I centage of low-soluble salts • .9:.. Adjusting Plants to Soil. Soils containing high percentages of clay are normally easier to maintain in dense turf, especially when used I for lawns, airfields, and the like. On areas to be used for athletic fields, soils high in sand content are important to prevent compaction and to permit use innnediately after rains or irrigation. Since soils high in sand content do not hold water readily, irrigation is often required on •• such sites. Unirrigated sandy soils are often difficult to maintain in good turf, although on unimproved grounds where maintenance is limited to an occasional mowing, certain bunch grasses with deep roots may thrive. I Adjusting both plant species and management to soil texture is important in the establishment of turf.

I e. Soil Fertility. The elements normally considered necessary for p],ant growth are: nitrogen, phosphorous, potash, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, boron, copper, and zinc. With the exception of the first I three elements, most soils contain sufficient amounts for plant growth. Some soils contain all of them and do not need applications of fertilizers. All but the first three elements may safely be ignored except where agri­ cultural crops have been difficult to grow iri the vicinity, and where I agricultural experiment stations have identified the element that tends to be lacking.

I (1) Nitrogen is the most widely lacking element. The addition of nitrogen is so generally beneficial that its application at the time of turf establishment can be considered standard practice. On excavated or I scalped soils, nitrogen is especially necessary. (2) Phosphorous is lacking in many of the high rainfall areas of

le 3 I EM 1110-1-321 I 31 Oct 61 the world. In such areas, soil analyses should be made to determine its presence and the extent of the deficiency. In low rainfall zones, soil e1 specialists should be consulted since soil tests in these areas may not be reliable. I (3) Potash deficiencies are common in most sandy soils, but may also occur in other soils. Soil tests are reliable for this element. I (4) Calcium and magnesium are lacking in some soils, usually in high rainfall areas. Soil specialists should be consulted on possible de­ ficiencies. Soil tests are usually reliable. I (5) Iron is lacking in many soils with high calcium content. Cor­ rection of this problem may be necessary as a maintenance feat;ure r~ther than as a factor to consider at time of turf establishment. 1~lthough a pH I test may indicate the possibility of an iron deficiency, there is no direct soil test available. Grass becomes a splotched bright yellow in color, and. thus the deficiency is usually readily identified. Recurrent use of iron sulfate or iron chelate as a maintenance practice will correct the problemo I

f. Soil Acidity and Alkalinity. Most grass plants used for turf have a wide range of tolerance to soil acidity and alkalinity. Sone grasses and I many legumes do not thrive on acid soils. Kentucky bluegrass prefers a nonacid soil but tolerates fairly high alkalinity. Bermuda grass tolerates both acid and alkaline soils. Zoysia and centipede grasses tolerate acid I soils but do not thrive on highly alkaline soils as a rule. Chewings, red, and other fine-leaved fescues tolerate acid soils, but tend to be crowded out by other species on neutral or alkaline soils. All the western plain and desert grasses, both native and introduced, thrive en alkaline •• soils; very little is known about their tolerance for acid soi.Ls. Acidity and alkalinity are measured by laboratory procedures in pH (hydrogen- ion concentration) logarithm values which range from 1 to 14. A pH of 7 I is neutral; values below 7 are acid and above are alkaline. Kost soils range from pH 4 to 8. Leaching by use of irrigation water is the most common procedure to reduce alkalinity for turf. Ground limestone is used I to increase pH. Standard pH values are readily determined by labora­ tory methods and should be included in all soil analyses.

_g. Soil Salinity. The presence of excessive amounts of s~lts in t he I soil represents a special problem often extremely difficult of solution. Soils in areas where salt concentrations are known should be analyzed by standard laboratory methods to determine the kinds and concent:ration of I salt present. For a more thorough discussion of this problem, see United States Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 60.14 In some areas, leach­ ing the salts by using irrigation water may suf'fice; gypsum ma,.y be used to I remove sulfates from black alkali soils; and imported soil from nonsaline sources may be required as topsoil in other areas. Normally, advice on this subject is available at state agricultural colleges and experiment stations. I

4 el I I 4h EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61

1e h. Soil Tests. Where soil specialists having a working knowledge of turf requirements for the locality are available, advice furnished by them should be relied on in the selection of fertilizers and other planting practices. Where such specialists are not available, soil samples should I be submitted to a laboratory specializing in the analyses of agricultural soils. Most departments of agrono:uzy- in state agricultural colleges and ex­ periment stations provide soil analyses at reasonable cost. Where such I services are not available, soil samples may be submitted to commercial laboratories specializing in agricultural soil tests. Soil analyses nor- mally include available phosphorous or phosphorous pentoxide (P2G5), I potash (K20), and pH--phosphorous and potash are reported as po~d.s avail­ able per acre, or high, medium, or low, or a similar range of values that can be readily evaluated, and acidity as pH Oto 14 carried to one deci­ mal place (e.g. 5.5). A knowledge of the percentage of organic matter is I of interest, but may be ignored except for soils that are to be mixed with peat or muck to improve them. Where salt or alkaline materials are sus­ pected to be present in injurious amounts, a request for analyses of these I coillJ;)ounds should be included. Analyses for nitrogen should not be required since such tests are unreliable. Where plantings are to be made on im­ proved grounds, mechanical analyses are desirable, especially where ques­ I tions on the use of topsoil are of concern. Percentages of gravel, coarse sand, fine sand, silt, and clay are sufficient for these tests.

5. CLIMATE. Turf plantings must be adjusted to the krown climatic condi­ I tions of the area. Fairly accurate data are available world-wide on rain­ fall, temperatures, wind velocities, humidity, snowfall, 1:r·ost dates, evap­ oration rate from a free water surface, and similar phenomena. The selec­ tion of plant species, timing of the plantings, and other management prac­ •• tices relate directly to climate. Although United States Department of Agriculture Yearbook for 1941, Climate and Man,lO is out of print, copies I are available in most public libraries. This is an excellent reference work for all sections of the United States and.its possessions. The United States Weather Bureau has data available on climatic conditions world-wide. Especially useful is "Climate of the States," for each state in the United I States separately. For overseas plantings, rely on available local data. Standard commercial atlases provide reasonably accurate climatic and natural vegetation information. Detailed foreign weather.data can also I be obtained from Weather Bureau files on request to the Chief of Engineers, ENGMC-ER. I a. Rainfall. (1) Geographical Variability. Rainfall is one of the major deter­ mining factors in the establishment of -turf. Both total amounts and annual I distribution are important. .Annual average precipitation in the United States ranges from almost none to over 100 in. (See figure 1.) In moun­ tainous areas both in the United States and world-wide, there are often I prominent variations in rainfall within a distance of a few miles. le (2) Annual Variability. There are wide seasonal differences in 5 I •. 1.,.)1:Jj -· i--;!( 0 .... n .... rt .... 0 ...... (J'I I wI ....N

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Fig. 1. Mean annual total precipitation (inches) ------I EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61 1e rainfall distribution. Much of the Pacific coast of the United States has what is known as a Mediterranean climate, with rainfall occurring du.ring the fall, winter, and early spring. The plains type of climate is repre­ sented by high precipitation during the spring and swmner, and light pre­ I cipitation during the winter. In desert areas, rainfall is light through­ out the year. In most eastern United States zones, adequate precipitation occurs during the entire year. These variations are illustrated in I table I. I Table [. Examples of Seasonal Precipitation Distribution Precipitation in. Station Jan Feb Mar ~ ~ June July ~ Sept Oct Nov ~ Total Richmond, Va. 3.64 2.76 3.42 3.23 3.64 3,87 5.64 5.05 3.65 2.61 2.49 2.89 42.89 I Phoenix, Ariz, 0.60 0.79 o.66 0,35 0.17 o.o6 0.70 0.99 1.00 o.4o o.47 0.97 7.16 San Francisco, Calif. 3.47 3.44 2.44 1.29 o.4o 0.13 0.01 0.01 0.11 0.92 1.62 3.59 17.43 I North Platte, Nebr, 0.39 0.34 0.91 2.o6 2.67 2,92 2,40 2.11 1.75 1.04 0.55 o.4o 17.54

b. Temperature. Plant species must be carefully selected to antici­ I pate extremes in temperatures. Turf plants are sensitive to both extremely high temperatures and extremely low temperatures. Saint Augustine, Bernruda, centipede, and ca:tpet grasses do not thrive in northern latitudes. Fine-leaved fescues and Kentucky bluegrass do not thrive in southern I latitudes. Average annual or monthly temperatures are not of much interest to the technician in charge of turf planting, but average frost dates (see figures 2 and 3) are of interest in that they determine the time of plant­ •• ing of various grasses. c. Other Factors. Rainfall by itself' is not the only factor that de­ I termines availability· of moisture for plant growth. Moderate and cool tem­ peratures at high altit udes, near the seacoast, and in northern latitudes make for more efficient use of water so that less is required. Shade, I wind velocities, and slope exposures are important factors also. 6. PREPARATION OF SEEDBED. A permanent turf is dependent upon recognized basic factors and principl es of seedbed preparation, none of which should I be ignored. Good drainage, a well-tilled seedbed and judicious use of fertilizers, amendments, and mulching materials are all essential in es­ I tablishing a long~lasting turf. a. Clearing and Grading.

(1) Preservation of Vegetation. The extent of clearing and grading I in an area where turf is t o be established will be governed by site usage, land slope, climatic area, and planting method. Clearing and grading will be limi ted t o a minimum to avoid creation of a dust , eros=toji6.:gt'fi bitJ:thqm. I Existing vegetation, removal of which is unnecessary, wil~'!P~d. f:om damage. . This includes turf a s well as tre~s and s~bs •. . _contractor · will be required to control movement of all equipment and1pel~~~m le i 7 I w t'-1 .... :3! ,-, ! 0n .... l"t .... i 0 ...... I °' I ' I w ! ....r->

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. I 1/ :~------~' I BASED ON PERIOD 1921• 50

R/tPID CHANGES IN ELli:VATIOH IN T"E IIOUNTAU4S PREC:l,UnF. Ar rmlAT5' {lll'lll'lri1r. f\11' ~o n~ •••zs. ;,:~ - ·-----,,. -~~i

OCTOBER l , l 9 58 L.S. ~1!120 U. 9 . DEPARTIIBMT OF CODIUlC'E, WEATHER BUREAU WASffllCGTOR, D.C ,

Fig. 2. Avera~e date of last 32°F temperature in spring ------

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I \ I' I I / \ ) / "L \ ----2!:> ~------, I I BASED ON PERIOD 1921-50 ~~jJ ______RAPID CllAKGES 1" ELEVATION Ill TIIE IIOUNTAillS 'I • .PRECLUOE ACCURATE DRAWING OJ' lSOLllfES. ---t------'· \ l - ··· ------· ..L -----~ '" " " L.S, 5820 U.S. DEPAR1'M!MT OF COMMERCE , lll!ATlliR BUR1.AU OCTOBER 1 t 1958 'IJA9RJXGT0Jf, D .C.

Fig. 3- Average date of first 32 F temperature in autumn EM 1110-1-321 ~(l)(a) I 31 Oct 61 prevent injury to vegetation that is to be preserved. Preservation of e1 vegetation is of extreme importance in dry areas where native vegetation, once removed, takes years to re-establish.

( a) Areas with thin topsoil. Areas that have a t:nn layer of I organic topsoil over an inert and infertile subsoil will not be turned or heavily disked, as this procedure would bury the limited amou:1t of good soil and expose a material on which it would be difficult to establish I vegetation.

(b) Replanting of grasses. Some of the rhizomatous grasses such as Bermuda will stay viable in soil piles for considerable periods. I Grading and topsoiling operations can often be scheduled so aB to salvage the plant material in the topsoil and revegetate the areas without further planting. I (2) Grading for Surface Drainage. Natural contours a.re more pleasing than broad flat expanses and, because of their slope;, do not I present as difficult a drainage problem. At least a '2!1/o slope is required to assure adequate flow of water over turfed areas on average soils. An exception is porous soils in dry climates where flat slopes are frequently desirable to assure absorption of all available moisture. JuBt as it is I important to avoid slopes that are too flat, it is also desirable to avoid steep cut-and-fill slopes which increase erosion-control problems. Where it is not feasible to flatten slopes, adequate protection in the form of I berms and paved or sodded water channels must be provided. On airfields and lawns, turf grades should be established 1 in. below pavement grades . b. Subsurface Drainage. •• (1) Need. Subsurface drainage is at times as important as surface drainage . Free or gravitational water must be removed promptly. Soils of I heavy t exture having r elatively flat contours and soils underlain by hard­ pan will generally be benefited by use of tile drains. The size, spacing, and amount of subdrains used will depend upon the a.mount of water t o be I r emoved, the distance i t i s t o be t r anspor t ed, slope or grade, and t he soil type. See EM 1110-345-282, Subsurface Drainage Facilities for Air­ fields, and reference 1 of Appendi x II f or additional i nformation on in­ stalling tile drains. I

( 2) Tile Drain Layout. In many instances, subdrains laid in de= pressions or natural drainageways will facilitate rapid removal of water I from areas of natural accumulation. In areas where uniform over-all drainage is needed, a herringbone or gridiron tile system rrey be required. Ideal slope of subdrains is 3 to 6 in. per 100 ft; 2 to 10 in. may be I permitted. Laterals should normalJ.y have mor e slope than t he main line.

( 3) Depth and Spacing of Subdrains. Depth and spacing wi l l vary with soil t exture, the subdrains being deeper and more widely.spaced f or I more open soils. Depths range from 4 ft to about 15 in. Distance between

10 el I I EM 1110~1-321 31 Oct 61 drains may vary from 10 ft to 100 ft, depending on desired rate of removal 1e of water and soil texture. Recreational areas require rapid water removal and close spacing of subdrain lines. I (4) Prevention of Clogging. Give careful attention to the design of the outlet of main lines. Clogging of the outlet may cause silting of the entire line and necessitate an expensive repair job. It is desirable for the outlet to be embedded in a concrete or masonry headwall and well I screened to keep out rodents and debris. Cover open tile joints with tar paper, heavy kraft paper, or other material to keep out the soil.

I (5) Backfill. Cover the tile with a layer of porous material such as gravel, sand, stone, or cinders, graded to retard infiltration of fine sand or silt into the drain. The remainder of the backfill should be a I good grade of friable soil of quality equal to or better than the existing surface soil.

c. Topsoil. Topsoil is a select or mixed soil material applied to a I soil surface prior to seeding or planting. The materials used may not necessarily be obtained from a soil surface. The percentages of sand, silt, and clay are of primary importance, not the percentage of organic I matter or the color. (1) Need for Topsoil. Topsoil is generally unnecessary except I where the existing soil has disproportionate amounts of sand, silt, or clay, or is highly alkaline.· Where soil texture is expected to present a management problem, obtain a mechanical analysis of the existing soil and •• determine prospective sources of soil materials available for use. (a) Recreational areas. Clays and some soils with a high per~ centage of silt or fine sand have poor internal drainage (permeability), a I condition that is readily observed locally after heavy rains or irrigation. Turf on such sotls is easily damaged when heavily used. Select a soil for applying to the recreational area (playing surface) that is determined to I be readily permeable; a· sandy loam or a sandy clay loam is normally de­ sirable. Avoid fine sandy loams, soils with a combination of fine sands and silt, and soils with excessive silt (over 45%). Sandy soils are also objectionable on recreational areas, and may be improved by applying top­ I soil containing appreciable quantities of silt and clay. Rotary tillers may be used to mix clay loams into sandy soils or coarse sand into clay soils, but the blended product is normally inferior to natural soil I materials. (b) Nonrecreational areas. Clay and silt loams are preferable to sandy soils on nontraffic areas. Where existing soil is sand, use a I local source of silt or clay loam on top of the existing soil surface with­ out mixing.

I (2) Grading. Be sure that grading has been done and surface drainage provided before topsoil is applied. le 11 I EM 1110-1-321 6c(3) I 31 Oct 61 (3) Depth to Apply. Two to 4 in. of topsoil are normally required e1 on all except recreational areas and parade grounds, where 6 :Ln. may be required.

( 4) Subsoil Preparation. Do not apply topsoil to a packed or I bladed surface. Prior to application, till .the surface to provide a roughened and friable bond between the existing and applied materials; otherwise turf roots may not readily penetrate into the subso:~L I (5) Organic Mixes. I (a) Muck. On sandy soils where muck bogs occur nearby, apply 2 to 4 in. of muck over the area to be planted and thoroughly mix by use of disk or rotary tiller. I (b) Peat. On sandy soils, or soils high in sil~ content (45% or more), peat may be used. in the absence of local productive topsoil mate­ rials or muck. Peat is inferior to mineral soils since it eventually dis­ I integrates. Alkaline soils may be benefited by use of peat. Because of its cost, use peat as a soil mix only on intensively used recreational areas and lawns. Mix peat with the native soil off the site and spread as a topsoil mix over the prepared grade, A rate of 50 lb of pea.t ( oven-dried I basis) to each cubic yard of soil is a suitable mix for most soils. For rough computation, a 100-lb bag of commercial peat will contain 40 lb of oven-dried peat, and an 18- by 18- by 36-in. bale will contair: 50 lb. In I procurement of peat for soil mixing, require that the product be free of sticks, stones, toxic salts, and other objectionable material, and that it contain 90% or more organic matter on an oven-dried basis. Determine from local site conditions (size of project, source of materials, available •• equipment) the type of commercial product required: bales, 100-lb bags, or bulk. Bales of peat will be even-size standard bales of sphagnum peat measuring 18 by 18 by 36 in. (Note: Sphagnum peat may need to be pulver­ I ized prior to mixing with soil.) Bags shall be plastic-lined and contain not less than 100 lb of reed-sedge peat which consists of not more than 50% moisture on an oven-dried basis. (Note: Greater quantities of water I are acceptable but payment on competitive bids should be on the basis ~f 59% material.) Bulk peat -shall be reed-sedge peat procured on the b::i.si.s of cubic yards of the bulk material. (Note: This type of procurement is I useful only where considerable quantities are desired, normaliy a truck­ load for short hauls and a carload for long hauls.)

d. Tillage. I

( 1) Initial Tillage. An ideal seedbed is made by tilling the graded soil surface to a depth of 3 to 5 in. to eliminate consolidated I areas that may be packed and hard. The process also brings th•:'! larger stones to the surface if present. Remove all objectionable material such as stones, stumps, large roots, plaster, and pieces of concret,:'! , Use a I disk harrow to loosen the soil surface except where heavy mach:Lnery has packed the soil so that this implement is not effective. A dfak plow or a tillage tool may be required on heavily compacted soils. el 12 I 6d(2) I EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61 ( 2) Pulverizing the Surface . H arrow or rake the soil surface fol­ 1e lowing tillage. A fine- textured seedbed is important for initial seedli ng growth. Wher e large clods ar e present, use a cultivator-packer instead of I a h arrow. ( 3) Timing. Time seedbed preparation to take advantage of favor­ able soil moisture conditions. Do not cultivate clay soils when wet. cultivate packed soils after a rain or apply irrigation to soften the soil I surface prior to tillage .

( 4) Grade Elevations. Leave the soil surface true and even. Be I sure that the grade elevations are not disturbed to assure that surface drainage is directed away f r om buildings and pavements and t hat there are no depressions where water wi.11 stand. Recheck the grade after the seedbed I has been prepared. Make sure that the final grade is approximately an inch below adjacent sidewalk and runway elevations on lawns and airfields to prevent water from accumulating on t he pavement, and to permit efficient I turf maintenance. (5) Correcting the Grade. The seedbed may sett l e considerably after preparation. Such settlement is seldom uniform but tends to occur I in spots, leading to expensive replanting later. This is especially ob­ jectionable on lawns and r ecreational areas. Where true final gr ades are essential, apply irrigation or wait for a heavy rain before pl anting t he I seed. R echeck the soil surface afterwards for depressi ons, f ill where necessary to bring the grade to the correct elevation, and rake or harrow lightly to scarify the soil sur face. •• e. Fertilizers and Amendments . (1) Kinds. There is a wide assortment of fertilizers and amend­ I ments available . Only standard agricultural type materials are normally required for use in establishing turf. The f ollowing are typical:

(a) Nitrogen-bear ing fertilizers in connnon use with the per- I centage of nitrogen contained are:

Ammonium nitrate I Ammonium sulfate Sodium nitrate I Urea (b) Phosphate-bearing fertilizers in common use with percent- age of p o are: 2 5 I Superphosphate Triple superphosphate Rock phosphate I Bone meal le 13 I EM 1110-1-321 6~(1)( c) I 31 Oct 61 Normally only superphosphate or triple superphosphate is required since the e1 phosphorus in rock phosphate is of unpredictable availability, and bone meal is comparatively expensive.

(c) Potash-bearing fertilizers in connnon use with percentage I of K 0 are: 2 Potassium chloride 50-&:l{a I Potassium sulfate 50% ( d) Mixed-grade fertilizers are available in many· combinations. These combinations are stated in a formula on each fertilizer bag. The I first numeral of the formula is percent nitrogen (N), the second is per­ centage of phosphoric acid (P205), and the third is percentage of potash (K20); thus a 10-6-4 fertilizer contains lO<{o nitrogen, &f; phosphorus, and I 4% potash. (e) Ground limestone varies as to percentage of carbonates and I in pulverized fineness. All ground limestone used will pass an 8-mesh sieve with 25% passing a 100-mesh sieve, and contain not less than 50% calcium oxide for calcareous limestone, When dolomitic limestone is re­ quired to provide magnesium rather than calcium, the material will contain I not less than 40% magnesium oxide. (2) Rates. Apply fertilizers as needed to the finish•~d seedbed, I Determine fertilizer requirements by soil tests or from advic,9 from soil specialists familiar with local conditions , Determine beforehand which deficiencies in the soil are likely to inhibi t plant growth. Use the following rates as guides, •• {a) For soils deficient in phosphorus and potash, use 35 lb of 5-10-5, commercial grade fertilizer per 1000 sq ft (1500 lb per acr e) . I Substitute 5-10-10 for sandy soils, especially those in areas of high rain­ fall ( 30 in. or more annua.JJ.y) . I (b) For soils deficient in phosphorus but not in potash, use 6 lb of annnonium nitrate and 12 l b of superphosphate per 1000 sq ft, or their nitrogen and phosphorous equivalents (26o lb ammonium nitrate and 520 lb of superphosphate per acre ) , On soils wher e iron chlorosis is a I common turf malady, substitute 10 lb of ammonium sulfate per 1000 sq ft (440 lb per acre) for ammonium nitrate. I (c) For soils with adequate phosphorus and pot ash, use 6 lb of ammonium nitrate per 1000 sq ft ( or 10 lb of ammonium sulfate; see para­ graph ( b) above) • I

(d) For soils with pH 6.0 or lower, use 50 l b of agricul­ tural ground l imest one per 1000 s q ft (218o lb per acre) on sandy loam soils ; and on s ilt and clay loams use 100 lb (4400 lb per acre) . I

14 el I I 6f EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61 1e f. Applied Mulches. Erosion and damage from drying winds can be ef­ fectively controlled under most conditions by application of vegetative mulches . On most planting sites, mulching is essential. Blowing dust or I sand will soon destroy new seedings unless they are protected. Heavy rains wash away the surface soil and often the seed with it where mulch is not used. Mulching of sites t o be planted is of special value on improved I grounds , airfields, and embankments. (1) Kinds. Cereal straw and grass hay are the two types of mulch material s in general use. Pine needles, wood chips, and other organic I materials are at times a vailable but are normally more expensi ve and have few advantages in use.

I (2) Equipment. Mulch i s most economically anchored by using equip­ ment especially designed for the p urpose. The cut-away disk designed to f orce the mulch into the soil surface is most effective. This is a tractor­ operated impl ement made in various widths. Another effective i mplement is I the wheatland land packer having wheels with V- shaped edges . Manufacturer's spacing between wheels i s 7 in., which to be effecti ve should be widened to 10 in, Farm implements such as disk harrows are not effective on sites I where high winds occur. The soil surface roust be loose and cloddy to per­ mit use of anchoring equipment.

(3) Asphalt. On .slopes and embankments where farm tractors cannot I be operated safel y, mulch will be anchored using asphaltic materials . SS-1 emulsion and RC-1 cutback asphalt are satisfactory for t his purpose. Procure SS-1 emulsion in accordance with Federal Specification SS-A-674, and RC-1 in accordance with Federal Specification SS-A-671. A hand­ •• operat ed boom from a spreader may be used t o spray the asphalt evenly over the hay or straw. A rate of 10 to 13 gal of asphalt per 1000 sq ft will be I r equired (440-570 gal per acre) for su:tfaces mulched with 70 lb of h ay or straw per 1000 sq ft (3000 lb per acre) . On areas where wind vel ociti es are not high, especially reasonably flat areas and areas protected by timber, as l ittle as 3 gal per 1000 sq ft (130 gal per acre) may suffice. I Mulch may be spread by hand, but i s placed more economically with special equipment. Equipment is available f or applying mulch and asphalt i n o ne treatment, in which case use SS-1 emulsion and require that penetration I test fall between 150-200 rather than 100- 200 as specified for use on roads in the Federal Specif ication. I (4) Rates. A rate of 2 tons of hay or straw per acre is normally adequate where the material is to be anchored with tractor-drawn special packer s . On areas to be anchored with asphalt, 1-1/2 tons per acre is I adequate. (5) Inspection and Repai r. Inspect the finished mulch job, upon compl etion, for rate and uniformity. Provide that repair of all mulch I jobs i s included in t he project. Replace mulch destroyed by high winds immediately after the storm. Remove mulch that has accU11IUlated to a depth that may interfere with seedling establishment.

le 15 I I EM 1110-1-321 6_g 31 Oct 61 _g. Planted Mulches. Under some conditions, applied mulches are not e1 practical. Some areas are so isolated that the purchase and shipment of mulch material make it too expensive to be used. In other Hituations, the planting of temporary cover crops may be the most economical method where time and site permit. In situations where rainfall is abund.ant and the I soil surface does not erode severely, a permanent grass may be planted simultaneously with a companion crop. Determine which method to use by consulting agricultural specialists in this field of interest. I

(1) Kinds. Fall- or early-spring-planted cereal grains are the most co:rmnon plants used; usually oats, barley, or rye is selected since I these mature quickly and provide the maximum in cover and the minimum in competition. Annual ( Italian) rye grass is also valuable for this purpose. Do not use perennial rye grass. Sudan grass, millet, and sorghums are also valuable for this purpose, especially under conditions where cover I during the summer and early fall is required.

(2) Methods of Planting. Cover crops are used prior to planting I permanent grasses, usually the season prior to permanent seeding. Drill the seed at normal agricultural rates used locally. Plant :permanent grasses into the stubble or dead residue of the cover crop d.uring the ap­ I propriate planting season for the permanent grass. In northern cool lati­ tudes, plant rye in the early fall (September) and barley or oats in t he early spring (March or April). In southern latitudes, all cereal grains may be planted in the fall or early spring months. Sudan grass, millet, I and sorghums are planted in the spring or early summer.

(3) Companion Crops. Companion crops (temporary grasses planted simultaneously with permanent grasses) have a somewhat restri cted use, •• since their planting dates·seldom coincide with the optimwn planting dates for permanent grasses. Planting rate for the cover crop should usually be reduced to one-half the normal rate for the area to prevent severe I competition.with the seedlings of the permanent grass. Both may be planted at the same time using the grain drill for the cereal grain or other coarse-seed plants and the grass seed attachment for the permanent grass . I When rye grass is used, the seed may normally be mixed and planted without separate seed compartments. Avoid the use of companion crop:3 in areas of low rainfall: use only applied or planted mulches. I 7. SELECTION OF PLANT SP:OOIES. The areas recommended for the individual species are illustrated in figures 5 through 21. These maps do not de­ lineate areas on which the vari ous species are known to surv:Lve or where I they may occur naturally, but r ather represent areas where their use in new plantings i s desirable . Do not use a species outside the area r ecom­ mended except on the advice of turf specialist s familiar with the specific I problem area and i ts intended mili tary use. The selection o:1' species pro­ vided in the following paragraphs of this s ection must be ad~just ed to local conditions of soil, slope, and climate . The United States has been I divided i nto planti ng zones , as shown i n figure 4, t o provi d€i a convenient grouping of treatments country-wide. The map bas been designed primarily 16 el I I EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61 1e 7~r- -___ __ I, - ..._ _ Cr O II ; _ \\ - -•- - - ,..------·- r- - 1 ...______J \ ,,, 0 If 1 A. I1 rI I i ~ 1 ,., • r• oa, 11 11 -.. 0, .. ~ I t,, , I I • \ . I \ O N ) • ..___ .,..r -·------r------~

'--.. I / :*outlf .,. 1 0 , ... i • I ----~ .f It' ' ! / ! I - ·--- ·-r-~ --. ,: 0 V I W O t---•-·--•---~ t---- / I -; ZONE: 2 / I --~, ' 0 w ! ...__ _ - j • 11 • ll " I a A 1 ~ ,_ ,.. " j Ir ----.L---, \ I \ ,1, 0 4 ;I , , .. , , . , ..... r--I ------'t-•-\·------11 ~~t?.A- I " • .• • 1 ------1------~J __ _ • ... ,. 1 o u • I I t-- - - I I I Fig. 4. Planting zones

for selection of species for improved grounds and recreational areas. To •• avoid numerous zone maps, the. same map is used herein for all plantings. In general, Zone 2 represents an area where Kentucky bluegrass may be used I on lawns unmixed with other species. Zone 6 represents an area whe~e Bermuda grass may be used unmixed with other species. Zones 1 and 3 repre­ sent areas where Chewings or red fescue is of value in a turf mixture. Perennial rye grass is a common component of turf in Zone 1, but not in I Zone 3. The northern edge of Zone 4 represents, in general, the northern limit for Bermuda grass. The northern edge of Zone 5 represents, in gen­ eral, the northern limit for other southern grasses: Saint Augustine, I centipede, and Pensacola bahia. Zone 7 represents an area where such plants as ice plant and kikuyu may be used along with Bermuda grass. I a. Lawn-Type Plantings. Plantings in this category are intended for lawns, cemeteries, and adjacent areas where foot traffic is light or in­ frequent. It is anticipated that irrigation is available in most areas of I these plantings where 30-in, or less average annual rainfall occurs. (1) Planting Zone 1. Use 4<:Y/o Kentucky bluegrass, 4<:Y/o perennial I rye grass, and 2<:Y/o Chewings or red fescue. (2) Planting Zone 2. Use Kentucky bluegrass, unmixed with other species with the following exceptions: 17 EM 1110-1-321 Figs. 5-lO I 31 Oct 61 e1 I

' : • < ' • •• ; •••••• '' . : ;_ --..;: I ·---.. ___ _{.:- -~:.:,· -~~· . . . I ZO'r'SIA, JAflONICA &. MATREtt.A. I Fig. 5 Fig. 6 I I I ••

~C[>

Fig. 7 Fig. B I I ' .- ' f...... ' -/) ·:···._·, ; ..,, ·•--' .. ~-' ..•. · / • ' . ·t -...•. - ~... --, I I \{i\/,~'· ,... ., ,r-~~~'"'"•. •·,_ ;;.:.;_::.; ' -... \_\ I

- P[N$AC0LA. B A H i,&, !(ING RANCH BLUES"'l'EM - TALL F'ESOJE el Fig. 9 Fig. 10 18 I... I Figs. · 11-16 EM 1110-1-321 1e 31 Oct 61 ····· I ...... _ ·)·.\' . . I I

- DI..U( GAi.MA i;lllASS . -c:.,ii.RNT

-lllEOlOP I - AtD AND CMCWo«.S rescue I Fig. 11 Fig. 12 I I zgC~/Li,J(\/~i>

.:.{ ' ···/ . ... , . ·•. . . ·.. _.,. .. •• '\. I ...... K[HTUCKY ILUt

I Fig. 13 Fig. 14

I '•.,··--, -- -- · • , ··-.L I t· .. . '. . . '\/· \ ~J--"••·1 I ····,. .... L-....:·- ·-J '· . . ' . -.._. ' . . \ . ...,---..... ',_.---,\ - I ·\._ ·•. .... r;:mim llililiU] JAPANUC HONCYS UCKl..t le Fig. 15 Fig. 16 ~ 19 EM lll0-1-321 I Figs. 17-21 31 Oct 61 e1 ;· ~- ~- -.. I I I D ALSKC Cl.DWIII

- ,Slb(-0-,.TS 4i,IU,MA

-TIMOTHY - PCRCHNl'M,. IIIY( GAASS I Fig. 17 Fig. 18 I

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____ Jf ··t.···-.J •• \ .'...----.\ __( ~--- •·-·-·: I E:38lN#IX>MOMC

QC.Al..LtTA - CANADA ■LutQAAS.S I -MHD~lO - WHJT[ CI.OV[A

Fig. 19 Fig. 20 I I I I I

E] INOIAH Rte( -L tTTLE IJt.ut.STCM el Fig. 21 20 I I 7,~(2)(a) EM 1110-1-321 1e 31 Oct 61 (a) Along the southern edge of the zone, on sites where blue­ grass does not thrive (slopes facing south or west, in sandy or stony soils), use tall fescue (Kentucky 31 or alta) or U-3 Bermuda grass (or I other improved strain). Meyer Zoysia may be substituted for Bermuda grass in Illinois and eastward.

I (b) In deep shade in Indiana and eastward, especially on the north side of buildings, use 251, Kentucky bluegrass and 75% Chewi ngs or I red fescue. . (c) West of the 97th meridian where irri~ation is ~ractical, use buf'falo, blue grama, and crested wheatgrass within the areas 'G>i recom­ mended use (figures 12, 11, . 8). In areas where these grasses do nof -·sur­ I vive because of low rainfall, use a 1- to 2-in. blanket of crushed rock or gravel aggregate graded as follows: I Passing 1-1/2-in. sieve Passing 1-in. sieve I Passing 1/4-in. sieve ( 3) Planting Zone 3. On clay loam or silt loam soils with good depth, use a 50-50 mixture of Kentucky bluegrass and Chewings or red fescue. On sandy loam or shallow soils, especially those which will not be main­ I tained under high fertility conditions, use 301, Kentucky bluegrass and 7oaj, Chewings or red fescue • . Improved strains of these grasses may be ·available. · •• . (4) Planting Zone 4. Use U-3 Bermuda grass or other adapted, lawn-type improved strain east of the 96th meridian and common Bermuda I west of the 96th meridian. Do not use fine-leaved types intended for golf greens or coarse pasture types (e.g. Coastal). Observe the follow­ ing exceptionst

I (a) For shady areas or deep clay loam soils, . use Kentucky bluegrass in localities where the species is 1n general use. I (b) For areas on which irrigation is not practical in central Oklahoma and Texas within the zone, use a 50-50 mixture of buf'falo and blue grama grasses.

I (5) Planting Zone 5. Use Bermuda grass, centipede grass, Zoysia, or Saint Augustine grass, depending on conditions of shade and sun and local evaluation. Use improved strains of Bermuda and Zoysia grasses upon I advice of technicians having a knowledge of local requirements. In the absence of other local r equirements, use Tiflawn or Sunturf Bermuda in the open sun; Zoysia Manila grass or Meyer in semishade; and centipede or I Saint Augustine in shade. Do not use the fine-leaved Bermuda grasses in­ tended for golf greens or the coarse-leaved types, such as the Coastal le variety. 21 I I EM 1110-1-321 7a(6) 31 Oct 61 ( 6) Planting Zone 6. Use Bermuda grass unmixed with other species. e1 The common strain is acceptable for most sites. Use improved varieties where technical advice on special requirements is available •.~void the fine-leaved strains intended for golf greens and the coarse pasture types I (Coastal Bermuda). In shady situations and in high altitudes (6ooo ft or over) where Bermuda grass does not thrive, use Kentucky bluegrass or perennial rye grass. I (7) Planting Zone 7. Use Bermuda grass on typical ope:1 sites. The U-3 strain is preferred for most conditions. In shady sit;1ations or in high altitudes where Bermuda grass does not thrive, use Kentucky blue­ I grass or perennial rye grass. On slopes adjacent to lawns, wh:Lch may not be irrigated but are part of the improved grounds, use ice pla:1t or kikuyu grass. I ( 8) Planting Zone, Alaska. Use Kentucky bluegrass.

( 9) Planting Zone, Hawaii. Use common, locally available strains I of Bermuda grass in the open sun and Saint Augustine, centipede, or Manila grass in shady situations. I ( lO) Planting Zone, Caribbean. Use Pensacola bahia and common Bermuda grasses. Tiflawn Bermuda grass, centipede, and Meyer Zoysia may be substituted on sites where established planting indicates they will I survive, especially for small, highly improved lawns.

:!2_. Recreational Areas and Parade Grounds. Plantings in this category are intended to be used for ball fields, parade grounds, children's play­ •• grounds, and similar areas where heavy foot traffic is expected. It is anticipated that irrigation facilities will be available for such areas. I ( 1) Planting Zone 1. Use alta fescue or a 50-50 mixture of Kentucky bluegrass and perennial rye grass. I ( 2) Planting Zone 2. Use Kentucky bluegrass unmixed with other species. South of latitude 40, substitute tall fescue (Kentuc}:y 31 or alta) on sandy loam soils. I ( 3) Planting Zone 3. Use a 50-50 mixture of Kentucky bluegrass and Chewings or red fescue . I (4) Planting Zones 4, 5, 6, and 7. Use Bermuda grass. East of the 97th meridian and in Zone 7, use improved selections such as U- 3 or Tiflawn. Substitute tall fescue (Kentucky 31 or alta) in Zone 4 where heavy fall and winter use is expected. In high altitudes (6oOO ft or more) s~bstitute I Kentucky bluegrass or perennial rye grass.

(5) Planting Zone, Hawaii. Use locally available fine-leaved I strains of corrnnon Bermuda grass. el 22 I 7Q(6) EM 1110-1-321 I 31 Oct 61 1e ( 6) Planting Zone, Alaska. Use Kentucky bluegrass. (7) Planting Zone, Caribbean. Use illlproved selections of Bermuda I grass, e.g. Tiflawn. c. Airfields. Plantings in this category are intended to be used for soil-stabilization and cover to prevent dust and water erosion on air­ fields. Where turf is to be used for the landing of aircraft, see para­ I graph }2_ above. Unless otherwise noted, it is anticipated that irrigation will not be available for plantings for airfields. I (1) Planting Zone 1. Use 40% Kentucky bluegrass, 4~ perennial rye grass, and 20% Chewings fescue north of latitude 40 within the zone, and Blando brome grass or Harding grass south of latitude 40.

I (2) Planting Zone 2. Use Kentucky bluegrass east of the 97th meridian within the zone, and crested·wheatgrass in the remainder of the I zone, observing the following exceptions: (a) Within the ranges of their recommended use (figures 11 and 12) on silt loams and clay loams, a 75-25 mixture of blue grama and buffalo I grasses may be substituted for crested wheatgrass. On sands and sandy loams within the ranges of their recommended use {figures 11 and 19), use a 75-25 mixture of blue gra.ma and sand dropseed grasses.

I (b) On sandy loam soils, use smooth brome grass within the range of its recommended. use (figure 7).

(c) In low ra±-nfall areas (approximately- 10 in. and less) or •• other sites where grasses do not thrive, do not use turf; instead use a 1- to 2-in. blank.et of crushed rock or gravel aggregate·as specified in para­ graph 7a(2)(c}. If irrigation is practicable in these low rainfall areas, I use Kentucky bluegrass or crested wheatgrass.

( 3) Planting Zone 3. Use a 50-50 mixture of Kentucky bluegrass and I Chewings fes~ue. On sandy or shallow soils, especially those which will not be maintained under high fertility conditions, use 30% Kentucky blue­ I grass and 70% Chewings fescue. { 4) Planting Zones,-4 and 6. I (a) F.ast of the 98th meridian, use common Bermuda grass. (b) West· of the 98th meridian, use common Bermuda grass where irrigation is practicable; oth~rwise, use native species such as buffalo, I blue grama, black gra.ma, gall~a, and sand dropseed within areas of recom­ mended use. Use crested wheatgrass in elevations over 4000 ft. Where average annual rainfall is less than 10 in., and on other sites where I grasses do not thrive, use crushed rock or gravel aggregate as specified in paragraph 7§:(2)(c). le 23 I EH 1110-1-321 7,£( 5) 31 Oct 61 I ( 5) Planting Zone 5. Use Pensacola bahia within the ra.nge of its reconnnended use (figure 9) and Bermuda grass elsewhere within the zone. e1

( 6) Planting Zone 7. Use Harding grass or Blando brome grass.

(7) Planting Zone, Hawaii. Use locally adapted strains of Bermuda I grass.

(8) Planting Zone, Caribbean. Use Pensacola bahia grass. I

(9) Planting Zone, Alaska. Use smooth brome grass f rom northern United States or Canada seed sources. I d. Ammunition Magazines and Barricades. Vegetative and aggregate cover on ammunition storage magazines and barricades is intended to con­ trol dust and water erosion on slopes typical of these areas. It is I anticipated that irrigation will not be available for these plantings.

(1) Planting Zone 1. Use alta fescue north of latitude 40, and I native annual brome grasses (e.g. Blando brome) south of latitu,ie 40 within the zone. I (2) Planting Zone 2.

(a) In Illinois and eastward within the zone, use tall fescue (Kentucky 31 or alta). Japanese honeysuckle may be substituted for tall I fescue south of latitude 40.

(b) In Iowa, Missouri, and Minnesota, within the zone, and westward to the 98th meridian, use smooth brome grass. •• ( c) North of latitude 40 and west of the 98th merid:lan on pro­ I ductive loam soils, use crested wheatgrass . Little bluestem or blue grama, or a 50-50 mixture of these grasses may be substituted for crested wheat­ grass within the ranges of their recommended use (figures 21 and 11) on productive soil and favorable sites. On unproductive (shallow, sandy, I heavy clay) soils, use crushed rock or gravel aggregate (see (d) below). (d) South of latitude 40 and west of the 98th meridj_an within I the zone, use a 2-in. cover of crushed rock or gravel aggregate of basalt ic rock, limestone, conglomerate granite, or other similar materials which are resistant to disintegration upon weathering, graded: I Passing 1-in. sieve 100% Passing 3/4-in. sieve W-90% Passing 1/4-in, sieve 0-20% I Crested wheatgrass and blue grama may be substituted for aggregs.te where high altitudes (4000 ft or more) permit these species to persist. I (3) Planting Zone 3. Use a mixture containing 30o/o Kentucky 24 el I I 7d(4) EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61 1e bluegrass, 50% Chewings fescue, 10% redtop, and lOo/o alsike clover. (4) Planting Zones 4, 6, and 7.

I (a) F.ast of the 98th meridian within these zones, use coilmlon Bermuda grass. Kentucky fescue Illay be substituted on silt loam or clay I loam soils within its area of recorrnnended use (figure 9). (b) West of the 98th meridian in Oklahoma and Texas, use King Ranch bluestem, blue grama, and buffalo grasses within their respective areas of recommended use (figures 10, 11, and 12) where experience in­ I dicates they will survive on both favorable and unfavorable slopes of earth barricades. Otherwise, in areas west of the 98th meridian, use crushed I rock or gravel as specified in paragraph 7.i(2)(d) above. (5) Planting Zone 5. Use Pensacola bahia or centipede grass "Within their areas of recommended use (figures 8 and 9) and comm.on Bermuda in the I remainder of the zone. (6) Planting Zone, Hawaii. In areas receiving 25 in. or more aver­ age annual rainfall, use kikuyu, or a locally adapted strain of Bermuda I grass from native sources. In areas receiving less than 25 in. annually, use mature grass hay containing seed as a mulch, or use surface soil con­ taining native annual grassy seed as topsoil. On sites unfavorable for 1- grasses, substitute crushed rock or gravel aggregate as specified in paragraph 7d( 2) ( d) above.

1• (7) Planting Zone, Alaska. Use smooth brome where the species is observed to be useful for agricultural purposes locally; otherwise use a 1- to 2-in. layer of crushed rock or gravel aggregate as specified in I paragraph 7d(2)(d) above. ( 8) Planting Zone, Caribbean. Use Pensacola bahia grass. I e. Unimproved Grounds. Plantings in this category are intended to be used principally for the control of dust and soil erosion where the area is used for infrequent troop training, bivouac, and similar purposes. It I is anticipated that irrigation will not be available in these areas. (1) Planting Zone 1, · Use alta fescue north of latitude 40, and annual brome grasses south of i.atitude 40 within the zone (e.g. Blando I brome). I (2) Planting Zone 2. {a) In Illinois and eastward within the zone, use Kentucky bluegrass. On sandy loam soils, substitute Kentucky 31 fescue.

I (b) In Iowa, Missouri, and Minnesota. within the zone, and west­ le ward to the 98th meridian, use_smooth brome grass, 25 I EM 1110-1-321 I 31 Oct 61 7e(2)(c)

.( c) North of latitude 40 and west of the 98th meridian on e1 productive loam soils, use crested wheatgrass. ( d) On unproductive ( shallow, sandy, heavy clay) soils west I of the 98th meridian, use locally adapted native species. Refer to recom­ mended use areas for little bluestem {figure 21), blue gra.ma grass (figure 11), and buf'falo { figure 12), western wheatgrass ( figure 15), 'crested wheatgrass (figure 8), Indian ricegrass (figure·21), galleta (figure 20), I and sand dropseed (figure 19).

( 3) Planting Zone 3. Use a 50-50 mixture of Kentucky bluegrass I and Chewings fescue. On sandy or shallow soils use 30% Kentucky bluegrass and 70% Chewings fescue. I (4) Planting Zones 4 and 6.

(a) East of the 97th meridian, use common Bermuda grass. Korean lespedeza or other annual species of lespedeza within their range I of recommended use (figure 16) may be substituted on waste areas for erosion control. I (b) From the 97th meridian, west to the 104th: In :~one 4, use a mixture of 70% blue grama, 15% buf'falo, and 15% sand dropseed grasses. In Zone 6, use King Ranch bluestem or similar species of Asiatic bluestems within its range of recommended use (figure 10), or the mixture I prescribed above for Zone 4.

( c) West of the 104th meridian, use black gra.ma, sand dropseed, galleta, Indian rice, and other native species that are available within •• their areas of recommended use (figures 18, 19, 20, 21) . In denert areas of low rainfall (less than 10 in. annually), a light covering of ungraded I gravel or other aggregate may be used to prevent soil erosion until native species of shrubs, grasses, and other plants volunteer and stabj~lize the area. I (5) Planting Zone 5, Use Pensacola bahia within its area of recom­ mended use (figure 9) and Bermuda grass elsewhere. Korean lespedeza and other annual lespedeza varieties may be substituted on waste areas for I erosion control.

( 6) Planting Zone 7. Use native annual brome grasses from mature I hay obtained from uncultivated areas, or Blando brome. ( 7) Planting Zone, Caribbean. Use Pensacola bahia grass. I ( 8) Planting Zone, Hawaii. In areas receiving 25 in. or more an­ nual rainfall, use a locally adapted strain of Bermuda grass. In areas receiving less than 25 in. annualzy, use mature hay containing seed where I seed of these plants does not exist natural:cy. el I I 7~(9) EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61

1e (9) Planting Zone, Alaska. Use smooth brome grass from northern United States and Canada seed sources. I 8. SEEDING AND PLANTING. 1!:· Seasons for Planting. The various climatic zones have definite seasons that are most favorable for the establishment of permanent I vegetation.

(1) Planting Zones 1 and 3. Both fall and spring plantings are I used. Late August to early September is the most favorable fall period; April is the most favorable spring period. Sudan grass and sorghums planted for a cover crop should be planted in May or June.

I (2) Planting Zone 2.

(a) Fast of the 98th meridian Qr westward where irrigation is I used, plant Kentucky bluegrass, fescues, smooth brome grass, and crested wheatgrass in September or April to May {depending on latitude). I (b) Under dryland conditions, west of the 98th meridian, plant in the spring for all perennial species, preferably in March in southern parts of the zone to early May in the northern parts.

I (c) Plant Sudan grass and sorghums for cover crops in May or June and wheat or rye in September. •• (3) Planting Zones 4 and 6. (a) Plant seed of Bermuda grass, King Ranch bluestem, tall I fescue (Kentucky 31 and alta), and lespedeza in April. (b) Plant sprigs or plugs of Bermuda grass or Zoysia in April I through June. ( c) Plant dryland species such as buffal o and blue gra.ma I grasses in late March or April. ( d) Plant· Kentucky bluegrass in September.

(e) Plant cover crops such as Sudan grass and sorghums in May I or June, and rye grass, oats, barley, wheat, and rye in September. Rye grass and oats may be planted in-March through May where emergency plant­ I ings for erosion control are required. (4) Planting Zone 5. I (a) Plant seed of Bermuda, bahia, and centipede grasses in March through May.

le 27 I EM 1110-1-321 8~( 4 )(b) I 31 Oct 61 (b) Plant sprigs or plugs of Bermuda, Zoysia, centipede, and e1 Saint Augustine in March through June.

(c) Plant tall fescue (Kentucky 31 or alta) in September or October. I

(d) Plant cover crops such as oats, rye, rye grass, barley, or wheat in October and November, and Sudan grass or sorghum:3 in April I through June. (5) Planting Zone 7. I (a) Plant Bermuda, kikuyu, ice plant, and Saint Augustine in February through June. Where irrigation is not used, for ice plant for example, plant in December through March. I

(b) Plant native brome grasses, Kentucky bluegrass, and tall fescue (Kentucky 31 or alta) in October or November. I (c) Plant cover crops such as Sudan grass or sorghums in March or April, and wheat, rye, rye grass, barley, and oats in September through November. Rye grass may also be planted in February through May as an I emergency soil cover. (6) Planting Zones, Caribbean and Hawaii. I (a) Plant permanent grasses in February through June. (b) Plant cover crop grasses such as wheat, oats, rye, and •• rye grass in October and November.

(7) Planting Zone, Alaska. Plant all perennial grasses in May or I June, and cover crop grasses in July and August. b • Planting Methods. I (1) Seeding. Plant seed by use of special grass drills or grain drill attachments, by broadcasting over the area, or by spreading mulch containing viable seed. Uniform distribution is important. Cover the I perennial grass seed to the extent practicable to a depth of 1/4 to 1/2 in. Cereal grains and similar large-seeded species should be covered to a depth of 1 to 2 in. depending on the soil type. Where seed i,s broadcast I by hand or scattered on the soil surface with seed drills, fo:Uow the operation with light harrowing or raking to cover the seed. I (2) Sprigging.

(a) Planting of Bermuda grass is normally by sprigs rather than seed. The use of sprigs permits planting over a longer period of time, and I assures survival through the first winter. The improved stra:·.ns of Bernru.da. grass are available only as vegetative material, el 28 I I 8~(2)(b) EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61 (b) Keep sprigs moist at all times and protect them from mold­ 1e ing or heating in the piles. For best results, plant sprigs immediately after digging. Where sprigs must be shipped from distant points, be sure to coordinate plant shipments with the planting schedule to permit plant­ I ing immediately upon receipt of shipment. (c) Where possible plant sprigs in shallow furrows and cover with soil at once. Planting machines may be used on larger areas. Spacing I of the rows is normally 18 in. and sprig clusters should be 12 in. apart in the rows. On unimproved grounds and airfields, Bermuda grass may be planted at greater distances; 3 ft is the standard spacing. Space slow­ I spreading species such as centipede and Zoysia not greater than 18 in, be­ tween the rows. Spot sprigging may be necessary on embankments and slopes; this is accomplished by opening a slit with a spade and inserting the sprigs into the opening, then closing it by pressing with the foot. In I planting Zone 5, and North Carolina and Virginia in Zone 4, leave part of each sprig cluster exposed to the air.

I (3) Packing and Correcting Grade. Use a cultivator-packer to smooth and pack seeded or sprigged areas prior to mulching. On lawns and recreational areas, assure that planting operations have not created ir­ I regularities in the grade. Where irregularities occur, fill low spots and reseed where necessary.

(4) Sodding. Repair of previously planted areas may at times be I performed by use of strips or squares of sod. Planting of steep slopes and channels may require sod rather than seed or sprigs. Do not use sodding unnecessarily, since costs are relatively high. The following •• criteria will be observed: I (a) Avoid sandy soil as a source for sodding materials. (b) Provide that sod accepted for planting is of uniform thick­ ness for each site.

I (c) For sites that will be watered until turf is well rooted, use sod 1 in. thick or less where sod can be sliced to this thickness. I (d) For sites that will not be watered until turf is rooted, use sod 2 in. in thickness.

(e) Select sod sources that are free of objectionable bunch I grasses, weedy grasses, and noxious weeds.

(f) Prior to laying sod assure that grade is true and even, I and the surface is firm but not compacted. Roughen by light tillage all soil surfaces that have been compacted to permit normal root development I into the prepared seedbed. (g) See that the sod joints are even and that spaces do not occur between them. le 29 I EM 1110-1-321 8]_(4)(h) 31 Oct 61 I

(h) Correct final turf grade after establishment and settling to assure a true surface for maintenance and drainage. e1 c. Irrigation. The establishment of good turf is often dependent upon a continuous supply of moisture at planting time. Irrigation is especially important for improved lawns, parade grounds, and recreational I areas. Under conditions of low rainfall during the planting period, water should be provided for all sites where a durable, long-lasting turf is re­ quired. The following criteria apply: I

(1) Permanent Systems. I.awns, recreational areas, parade grounds, and the like which are to be irrigated recurrently after establishment I should have an adequate and continuous water supply available prior to planting. For turf in low rainfall areas (less than 25 in. annually-) especially on recreational areas, an underground irrigation Bystem i;, nec­ essary. Provide that: I

( a) Water outlets are properly spaced to obtain uniform coverage. I (b) Where possible, use slow-rotating sprinkler heads. Small or irregular areas may require nonrotating fixed heads, or facilities to irrigate with nonrotating heads on a length of garden hose. I

(c) Pipe sizes are adequate to carry the water required for the area. I

( d) Quick-coupling valves are at proper grade ele!vations, and are protected from maintenance equipment by the use of metal or concrete shields. •• (e) Pop-up systems are of durable construction and are of bronze, brass, or stainless steel. Rotating pop-up heads should be pro­ I vided with a suitable strainer to prevent clogging. Assure that pop-up heads retract fully when the water is turned off. I (f) Contirruous water discharge for the site is assured at a rate of 1/4 to 1/2 in. per hour. For large areas, this may be in in­ crements of 2 to 10 acres depending on the needs of the turf and the area. I ( g) In addition to standard engineering design pla,nning, the completed system be tested using shallow 3- to 5-in,-diameter cans spaced at 4-ft intervals. Operate the system for a specified number of hours I ( usually two), measure the water caught in each can in inches., and compute in inches per hour. The highest application rate should not exceed by 50% the lowest measured application rate. Make can tests at four to six I typical intervals between heads in the irrigated area.

( 2) Temporary Systems. Where irrigation is required only to obtain a well-established turf and where maintenance irrigation is not required, I 30 el I 8.9.( 3) EM 1110-1-321 I 31 Oct 61 use portable pipe, lengths df 3/4- to 1-in. garden hose and slow-rotating 1e sprinkler heads, or similar equipment. Portable pipe should have a riser with appropriate size sprinkler head every 30 to 40 ft. Water for portable systems may be obtained by pumping from ditches or streams, or from avail- . able water mains. Temporary pipe extensions may be made to positions on · I the planted area for hose connections. Arrange watering schedules and lay­ out to avoid walking over muddy, newly seeded areas.

I (3) Applying Water. Thoroughly moisten the seedbed after seeding or sprigging, to a depth of 3 in. or more. After the initial irrigation, light, frequent sprinkling is better than heavy applications. For small I areas, hand watering is preferred, but be sure the stream is not .. directed against the seedbed. Set the nozzle to deliver a spray with large droplets and play the stream over the planted area. For large areas, use a slow­ rotating sprinkler head, but operate the system at one position not more I than 30 minutes to prevent puddling and runoff. Dail:y applications may be necessary during periods of high temperature. For best results, all newl:y seeded areas receiving irrigation should be mulched. Watering unmulched I areas may destroy the prepared seedbed. Continue irrigation as needed un­ til the turf is well rooted, normally 30 to 6o days. I .9:. Maintenance. (1) Mowing. Mow turf after planting, as soon as growth is 2 in, high. This is especially important for lawn and recreational areas. Con­ I tinue to mow planted areas regularly until a firm turf is established, usually about 60 to 90 days. Use mowers with sharp blades to avoid pulling out young seedlings. Do not neglect mowing planted areas; to do so permits •• weedy growths to choke out permanent grasses. (2) Improving the Grade. On improved grounds and recreational areas, provide close inspection for low spots or poor drainage. Repair I where necessary by filling, shaping, and replanting. Correct minor irreg­ ularities by use of top-dressing with friable soil. Do not use sand for I top-dressing, unless the original seedbed was of this material. (3) Repair. Inspect all areas for planting failures. Areas where loss of soil or seed from erosion has occurred will be repaired promptl:y, I seeded, and mulched to take advantage of the proper planting season. Re­ place mulch that may have blown off. Fertilize areas that have been missed in the original treatments.

I (4) Fertilizing. Under some conditions, fertilizer rates used in making the planting have not been adequate to keep plant growth active dur­ ing the establishment period. Where such conditions arise, as determined I by the appearance of the turf, make a supplemental application, normally at a rate of 2 lb of nitrogen per 1000 sq ft (e.g. 6 lb of ammonium nitrate). Stunted growth and a yellowish leaf color are indications that nitrogen is I required, especiall:y when irrigation and rainfall have been adequate for moisture supply. Subsequent fertilizer treatments· should be as prescribed le 31 I EM 1110-1-321 8d(5) 31 Oct 61 I in paragraph 6e and based on results of soil tests. The rates of agricul­ tural limeston~ given in paragraph 6~ may not be adequate to fully correct e1 soil acidity. Where soil tests indicate further correction is necessary apply additional amounts of ground limestone, normally in increments of 50 lb per 1000 sq_ ft until correction has been attained. I (5) Irrigating. Furnish new seedings and plantings wii;h adequate water for plant growth until firmly established, especially on lawns and recreational areas. Neglect of irrigation may result in the loss of the I entire planting. 9. SEED. I

~- Seed Quality. Grass seed, as sold commercially, normally contains many impurities. When analyzed, a seed sample is reported as having a I certain percent purity, which means that a specified weight of the sample • (e.g. 100 g) has a certain percentage by weight of grains or kernels , In many kinds of grass these seed grains may be inclosed in a chaf'fy husk. Chaffy husks without grains, weed seed, and other material not of the de­ I sired kind of seed are weighed and classified as :impurities. 'Ilb.e weed seed component is weighed and computed separately. A specified. number of the seed from the lot weighed and computed as pure seed (e.g. 1.00 seed) I are placed in a germinating chamber, where conditions of moist~re and temperature are favorable for germination. At intervals, the seed that germinate are removed and recorded. Seed that do not germinate and do not I decompose are called "hard seed." Percent germination and percent hard seed are derived from these seed counts after a specified pericd of test for the seed kind. Hard seed may be of good quality, but germination is delayed because of dormancy or impermeable seed coat. Tb.ere are some advantages to having some hard seed in the mixture, especially when plant­ •• ings are made under dryland conditions. Noxious weed seed are counted and recorded in number per ounce or pound. These data are normally included I on the label of the seed container.

b. Federal Standards. Federal seed laws require that the containers of seed offered in interstate trade exhibit the percent germination, per­ I cent purity, percent weed seeds, and name of each seed kind by percent for species in excess of 5%, In addition, the label wilL normally show each noxious weed seed which is considered noxious by the state in which the I test is made. Canad.a thistle, field bindweed, dodder, buckhorn, wild onion, quack grass, and Johnson grass are common examples. The date of test and percent hard seed shall be shown on the label, and where appli­ I cable the source of seed. Specifications will meet the require:nents of Federal Specification JJJ-S-181 and will state minimum percentages of germination, hard seed, weed seed, purity, and kinds of seed prescribed in the contract. For most grass seeds, percent germination and percent hard I seed may be combined into one requirement for purchase or planting con­ tracts. Weed seed will not exceed more than 1.0% of the total. I c. Sampling and Testing. Where question arises as to accu.:~acy of 32 el I I EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61 1e test, or where date of test on the label indicates a new test to be neces­ sary, obtain a composite sample from the seed furnished and send it to the appropriate state or commercial seed laboratory. Such tests provide a sound basis for claim by the Government if it is determined that the seed I did not meet the specification. It is advisable to have samples drawn by a representative of a reputable seed testing laboratory or by a Department of Agriculture representative, where practicable. Seed that has not been I tested for 12 months prior to the planting date will be retested.

d. Pure Live Seed. Guide Specification CE-810, Seeding, provides for I seed procurement on the basis of pure live seed. Tb.is factor is derived by multiplying percent purity by percent germination. The use of pure live seed as a basis for procurement permits the vendor to use available seed supplies having variable purity and germination which result from seasonal I conditions beyond his control. Greater flexibility is permitted the vendor without reducing the quality of the final product, which encourages more and lower bids. It also helps avoid delays due to inadequate stocks of one I or more of the seed kinds of rigidly prescribed standards. Percent pure live _seed for most seed kinds of interest to military installations is shown in table II. For other kinds, use data from available manuals, text­ I books, and specifications (e.g. Federal Specification JJJ-S-181). For single, unmixed species the data in table II are normally adequate without further computation. For mixtures with two or more seed kinds, compute as shown in the following example for a 50-50 mixture of Kentucky bluegrass I and Chewings fescue:

Percent Percent Percent Kind by Pure Live Pure Live •• Weight .in Seed of Seed in Seed Kind Mixture Each Kind Mixture I (1) (2) ( 3) (4) Kentucky bluegrass 50 68 34 I Chewings fescue 50 78 39 Total pure live seed in mixture, % 73 I Other than pure live seed, "/o 27 100

Note: Obtain data for colwnn 3 from table II. Compute I column 4 by multiplying.column 2 by column 3.

For more complete detail in computing seed mixtures, see Federal Specifica­ I tion JJJ -S-181. I ~- Seeding. (1) Seeding Rates. Table II provides a general guide for planting le- single kinds of the principal grasses and cereal grains. Somewhat lower 33 I EM 1110-1-321 9e(1) I 31 Oct 61 e1 Table II. Seeding Rate Table

seedill/?j Rate I 1b 1000 sq ft Acre I Pure Live Weed Seed Recreational Kind Seed1 '! $ ~ Areas"* Elnbanlanentst mill,!!. Unimprovedtt Bahia, Pensacola 50 0.50 2,0 30 20 Barley 89 0.50 3,0 50 50 Bentgrass 86 0.50 I Bermuda, c=n* 82 LOO 1.0 2.0 1.0 30 15 Bluegrass, Kentucky 68 LOO 2.5 2.5 2.5 30 20

Bluegrass, Canada 64 LOO 2.5 30 20 Bluestero, little** 33 2.00 3.0 35 25 I Bluestem, King Ranch** 33 2,00 2.0 30 20 Brome, smooth 78 1.00 3.0 30 20 Brome, annual** 68 2.00 3.0 35 25

Buffalo§ 46 2.00 2.0 2.0 25 15 20 I Carpet 83 1.00 20 Centipede 30 1.00 0.3 5 3 Clover, aJ.sike§§ 87 1.00 0.2 2 2 Clover, white§§ 86 1.00 0.2 2 2

Fescue, Ch

34 el I 9e(2) I EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61 1e boxes, separate passes over the seedbed, or is mixed by the planting con­ tractor prior to planting.

(2) Selection of Mixtures. See paragraph 7 for standard mixtures. I Avoid complex mixtures of many kinds. For a single site there is normally only one or two species which can be expected to persist in a mature, long­ lasting turf (5 years of age or more). Species which do not contribute to I a long-lasting turf should not be planted except for use as a companion crop (e.g. rye grass) to provide a quick cover for eropion control. Use light rates of temporary species to prevent competiti on and smothering of I the permanent plants. I FOR THE CHIEF OF ENGINEERS:

I .2 Appendixes JOSEPH O. KILLIAN I Notes on Common Colonel, Corps of Engineers Plant Species Executive I II Selected References I •• I I I I I I

le 35 I I

. I I , I I

••I I I I I I I el I EM 1110-1-321 31 Oct 61

1e APPENDIX I I NOTES ON COMMON PLANT SPECIES

The following notes provide information on some of the connnon plant I species, not all of which are prescribed for use in the main text of this manual. Some should not be used except under unusual circumstances, but may serve as substitutes for stand.a.rd species. The areas of recommended I use for many of the species described herein are shown in figures 5-21. 1. SOUTHERN PERENNIAL GRASSES.

I §· Bahia grass (Paspalum notatum) is a warm-season bunch grass, widely adapted to various soil conditions. The principal variety is Pensacola. Reproduction is by seed only. Principal uses are for airfields, semi­ I improved grounds, embankments, and unimproved grounds. Numerous tall seed­ heads prevent the species from being useful on most lawns. There are ap­ proximately 160,000 seed per pound of pure seed. The plant does not thrive I in dense shade. b. Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) is a warm-season grass, useful for a wide variety of grounds plantings. Reproduction is by seed, stolons, and I rhizomes. The improved strains reproduce by vegetative means only, and re­ quire planting by plugs, sod pieces, or sprigs. There are numerous varie­ ties, many of them having been selected for use on goli' courses. Useful lawn and recreational area varieties are U-3, Sunturf, Tiflawn, and Texas •• 35, Do not use Coastal, a variety adapted for pastures, unless it is in­ tended to outlease the area for agricultural purposes. Bermuda grass with­ stands moderate but not dense shade. Unhulled seed has approximately I 1,500,000 seed per pound; hulled seed, 2,000,000.

£· Centipede grass (Eremochloa ophiuroides) reproduces by seed and I stolons. Its principal use is for improved and semi-improved lawns, espe­ cially in areas where some shade exists. Planting is normally by plugs, sod pieces, or sprigs. The species becomes matted and tends to smother I itself when overfertilized. Pure seed per pound approximates 400,000 . .9:. Saint Augustine (Stenotaphru.m secundatum) reproduces by means of stolons. Although viable seed are at times produced, seed supplies are I not normally available. Planting is by plugs, sod pieces, or sprigs; principal use is for lawns. The species is rather exacting in its water and fertilizer requirements, and becomes matted and difficult to manage I whenneglected or overfertilized. The species withstands more shade than any other species in common use. The Floratine variety is preferred in Florida.

I .£· Zoysia (Zoysia japonica and z. matrella) reproduces by stolons. Although,these grasses produce seed, planting by use of vegetative material

le 1 I EM 1110-1-321 lf App. I I 31 Oct.61 is necessary to obtain desired strains. Meyer Zoysia ( Z. japonica) and e1 Manila grass (z. matrella) are the two strains most commonly used for lawns and semi-improved grounds. Where newly planted areas ca.n be kept weed.free, Zoysias form a mature turf in approximately two yea:rs; otherwise I several years are required. These species withstand moderate to fairly dense shade.

f. Broomsedge (Andropogon virginicus) is a native bunch grass, repro­ I ducing by seed only. The grass is commonly regarded as a weed in pastures, but is useful for erosion control on barren slopes and poor soils where other species do not thrive. Seed supplies are not commercially avail­ I able. Planting is by use of hay, cut just as the seed ripens in late sum­ mer or fall. There are approximately 300,000 seed per pound of pure seed. The species does not withstand shade. I _g. King Ranch blue stem (Andropogon ischaemum) is representative of several species and varieties of Asiatic introductions useful for air­ fields, unimproved grounds, and erosion control in Oklahoma and Texas. I The species will persist on barren soils, where other grasses do not thrive. Reproduction is by seed only. There are approximate:.y 800,000 seed per pound of pure unhulled seed, and 1,400, 000 per pound of hulled I seed. The species does not withstand dense shade.

h. Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) reproduces by stolons and rhizomes and is used only in California in the United States. Planting I is by sprigs or sod pieces. Principal uses are for erosion control and semi-improved grounds. The species withstands dense shade and requires less water than many grasses. Other grasses provide a superior turf on typical irrigated lawns. •• i. Carpet grass (Axonopus affinis) reproduces by seed and stolons. I Principal uses are for erosion control and airfields. · Persistent seeding habits prevent the species from providing an attractive lawn or recrea­ tional area. Other grasses are better suited to embankments. Planting is by seed or sprigs; seed per pound of pure seed is approxim.cltely I 1,220,000. I 2. NORTHERN PERENNIAL GRASSES. a. Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) reproduces by both seed and I rhizomes. Most plantings are ma.de by use of seed, although solid sod is at times used in drainage channels and on steep slopes. The species is used for lawns, recreational areas, airfields, erosion control, and other purposes. It is the most widely used lawn grass in the United States. I Although used throughout the northern latitudes, it must be maintained by irrigation where raini'all is inadequate. The species is sensitive to mowing closer than 1-1/2 in. There are several varieties, but Merion is I the only improved one widely used. Do not use the Merion variety except under special conditions where a high fertility level is to be maintained. el 2 I I 2b EM 1110-1-321 App. I 1e 31 Oct 61 Normally, the common variety is superior for military use. The species endures some shade. Tb.ere are approximately 2,000,000 seed per pound of I pure seed.

b. Canada bluegrass (Poa compressa) is similar to Kentucky bluegrass I in habit, but does not produce an attractive turf for lawns and other im­ proved grounds. Its principal use is for erosion control on barren and sandy soils that do not support other grasses. Normally, Chewings fescue is superior to this species for infertile sites. Canada bluegrass has ap­ I proximately 2,000,000 seed per pound of pure seed.

c. Tall fescue (Festuca elatior, var. arundinacea) is also called reed I fescue. Tall fescue is a coarse-leaved bunch grass, used in both the northern and southern states. Planting is by means of seed. Principal uses are for airfields, recreational areas, semi-improved grounds, and erosion control. The species is also useful on lawns where bluegrass does I not thrive. Do not use in mixture containing more than 10% of other spe­ cies, since the turf tends to become bunchy and unattractive. There are three varieties in common use. Use Kentucky 31 in the eastern states, I Goar in the Pacific southwest, and alta in other western states. The spe­ cies endures moderate shade. Tb.ere are approximately 200,000 seed per I pound of pure seed. d. Chewings fescue (Festuca rubra commutata) is a fine-leaved bunch grass reproducing by seed only. In areas of its recommended use, the spe­ cies is able to survive on sandy or other low-fertility sites, especial.ly •• where the correction of low pH values is impractical. The grass endures shade better than most northern lawn-type grasses. Tb.ere are approximately I 600,000 seed per pound of pure seed. e. Red fescue (Festuca rubra) is similar to Chewings and may not be readily identified as a separate variety. Red fescue is considered by some I technicians to spread by rhizomes more readily than does Chewings fescue. However, the plants of both va.rieties increase in size by rhizomes under favorable conditions. Disease-resistant varieties of red fescue have been selected that may be used as a substitute for the common variety upon the I advice of technicians familiar with local planting conditions.

f. Bent grasses (Agrostis palustris, A .. canina, A. tenuis) are low I grasses used principally for golf courses~ They are objectionable in most areas within the scope of this manual, and will not be included in seed mixtures except upon advice of technicians familiar with local planting I conditions. Reproduction is by seed for some varieties and by stolons for others. The species withstands moderate to dense shade. Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 8,000,000.

I _g. Smooth brome grass (Bromus inermis) is a wide-leaved grass which reproduces by both seed and rhizomes. Planting is by means of seed only. The species does not make an attractive lawn or durable turf for recrea­ le tional purposes, but is useful for airfields, large open unimproved I 3 ·I EM 1110-1-321 2h App. I 31 Oct 61 e1 grounds, and erosion control. Use southern seed sources for southern latitudes and northern sources for northern latitudes within the area of recommended use. The species does not withstand dense shade or close mow­ ing. Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 150,000. I

h. Perennial rye grass (wlium perenne) is a bunch grass reproducing by seed only. When used outside the areas of its recommended. use, the I species is an annual or short-lived perennial. Do not use the species as a substitute for annual (Italian) rye grass. The principal use is for lawns, but perennial rye grass may be used for other planting including I erosion control and airfields. The S-23 is an improved Oregon strain that should be used upon advice of local turf specialists. Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 250,000. The species is tolerant of shade and is comparable to Kentucky bluegrass in this respect. I

i. Redtop (Agrostis alba) is a bunch grass, reproducing by seed and short rhizomes. Principal use is for erosion control and airfields. The I plant does not provide an attractive turf for lawns. Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 5,000,000. I 3. DROUTH-RESISTANT PERENNIAL GRASSES.

~- Buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides) is a high plains, native grass, reproducing by seed and stolons. The plant is adapted to loams and clay I loams, but not to sandy soils. Its principal uses are for er~sion control and airfields, and it may also be used for lawns where irrigation is im­ practical. Planting is by seed or by plugs or sod pieces. Vegetative planting is more reliable than seed. Adjust the planting to the periods •• of expected rainy seasons. Several years are normally required to obtain a mature turf. Both treated and untreated seed are normally available. I The treated seed has been subjected to chemicals and cool storage to hasten germination. For lawns and airfields, use tr~ated seed; otherwise un­ treated seed is satisfactory. Seed per pound of pure seed is approxi­ mately 50,000. The species does not tolerate dense shade. I

b. Blue grama grass (Bouteloua gracilis) is a high plain:3, native grass, reproducing by seed and short rhizomes. In northern latitudes, the I bunches may spread in time to produce areas several feet acro:,s. Planting is by seed only. Principal uses are for erosion control, air:~ields, and general plantings where irrigation is impractical. Use northern seed I sources for northern plantings, and southern seed sources for southern

plantings. Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 8007 000. The species does not tolerate dense shade. I g_. Black grarna grass (Bouteloua eriopoda) is a southern plains and desert bunch grass, reproducing by seed only. Principal uses are for erosion control and airfields. Seed supplies may not be commercially I available, and mature hay may be used from local range lands. Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 1,300,000. el 4 I I EM 1110-1-321 3.9: App. I 1e 31 Oct 61 d. Side-oats gra.ma (Bouteloua curtipendula) is a bunch grass common in the plains and prairie areas. Planting is by seed only. Principal use is in mixtures for erosion control on slopes. Do not use on improved grounds. I Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 500,000.

e. Sand dropseed ( Sporobolus cryptandrus) is a bunch grass native to I the plains, prairies, and intermountain region. Planting is by seed only. Principal use is for erosion control on barren, stony, or sandy sites, where other species do not thrive. Mixing the species with blue grama. is a I common practice, since the two species have similar areas of adaptation. Do not use the species on improved grounds. Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 5,000,000.

I f. Galleta (Hilaria jamesii) is a high plains, native grass, reproduc­ ing by seed and rhizomes. Planting is by seed only. Principal uses are for erosion control and airfields. Do not use on improved grounds. Seed I supplies may not be commercia.ll:y available, and mature hay from local range lands may be used. Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 150,000. A similar species, tobosa grass (Hilaria mutica), may be substituted for I galleta where the plant occurs nearby in native range lands. _g. Indian rice grass (Oryzopsis hymenoides) is a desert and inter­ mountain bunch grass, reproducing by seed only. Principal use is for ero­ I sion control. Do· not use on improved grounds. The species survives on sandy soils better than most grasses and is used also on barren or rocky soils where other species do not thrive. Seed per pound of pure seed is •• approximately 140,000. h, Little bluestem (And.ropogon scoparius) is a prairie native bunch grass, reproducing by seed only. Principal uses are for erosion control I and airfields. Do not use on improved grounds. It survives on sandy bar­ ren lands, where cultivated species do not thrive. Seed per pound of pure I seed is approximately 270,000. i. Crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) is an introauced bunch grass, widely adapted in low-rainfall areas on loams and clay soils. It I is not well adapted to sandy soils. Principal uses are for airfields, erosion control, and general planting other than improved grounds and recreational areas. The Fairway strain is adapted to similar sites and should be used upon advice of technicians familiar with local conditions. I Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 200,000.

.ii• Bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum) is a native bunch grass, I adapted to the northwestern plains. Planting is by seed only. Principal uses are for erosion control and airfields. Do not use on improved grounds. Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 140,000. Inter­ I mediate wheatgrass is a similar introduced species and should be used only upon the advice of technicians familiar with local planting conditions. There are also other species and varieties having.similar habits of growth le that may be substituted. I 5 EM 1110-1-321 I App. I 31 Oct 61 k. Western wheatgrass (Agropyron sml.thii) is a native gra,ss, repro­ e1 ducing by seed and rhizomes. Principal uses are for erosion (!ontrol and airfields. Do not use on improved grounds and embankments. :3eed per pound of pure seed is approximately 110,000. I 4. Tllt1PORARY OR ANNUAL GRASSES. I .!,• Annual rye grass (Lolium multif'lorum) is a cool-season bunch grass, widely adapted for temporary or emergency plantings, for eros:Lon control, or as a companion or cover crop. Planting is by seed only, uBualJ,y during the fa.11 or early spring. The species is also called Italian rye grass and I domestic rye grass. Seed per pound of pure seed is approximai;ely 225,000. b. Cereal grains are fall- or early spring-planted species, widely I used for erosion control and for emergency cover crops where fLpplied mulches are impractical. Barley (Hordeum vulgare), rye (Seca:~e cereale), oats (Avena sativa), and wheat (Triticum aestivum) are typicaJ_. Planting is by seed only. I

.£.. Annual brome grasses are cool-season, fall-planted, annual bunch grasses used for airfields and erosion control in Pacific Coant states I where perennial grasses do not survive the dry summers. Chesf; and cheat are also names given to this group of grasses. Planting is by seed only. Pastures and uncultivated areas are often dominated by these gra.sseso Seed I supplies are not always available commercially so that planting may require the use of mature hay, obtained from local uncultivated areas, Seed per pound of pure seed varies widely with the species, but is approximately 75,000. •• .d. Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanense) is a warm-season, spri.ng- or sunnner-planted bunch grass, widely used for erosion control and emergency I cover crops where applied mulches are impractical. Permanent grasses may then be planted in1io the dead vegetative residue, Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 50,000. I ~- Sorghum (SGrghum vulgare) is a warm-season, spring- or summer­ planted crop plant used in agriculture for forage and grain. The species in its many forms mey be used for erosion control and emergency cover crop I where applied mulches are impractical. For agricultural purposes, the crop is normally planted in rows, but when used as a planted mulch, plant with a grain drill as for cereal grains. Seed per pound of pure seed varies I widely with the varieties, but is approximately 100,000. 5 • MISCELIANIDUS PLANTS • I .!.• Ice plant (Mesembryanthemum edule) is a fleshy-leaved :plant used for erosion control in California on slopes difficult to maintain in turf. There a.re several species and varieties. Although the plant produces seed, I planting is by rooted sections of an established planting or from nursery grown material. The plant is drouth resistant, normally survi-ving with

6 el I I 5.e_ EM 1110.. 1-321 App. I 1e 31 Oct 61 little or no irrigation. Planting without irrigation should be done during the rainy season.

I b. Japanese honeysuckle (Il>nicera japonica) is a woody, climbing vine used for erosion control on embankments. The plant reproduces by seed and by rooting at the nodes of the running vine. Planting is by collecting · I rooted sections of the established planting or by nursery grown material. Hall's honeysuckle is a variety that is somewhat more attractive for semi­ improved grounds. The species is ad,apted to loams, clay, and sandy soils I with clay subsoils, and is not adapted to deep sands • .£.· Lespedezas are annual and perennial legumes used for erosion con­ trol and unimproved grounds. The perennial form (Lespedeza sericea) is I used on embankments, and the annual form (L. striata) is used for general erosion control throughout the southeastern states. Planting is by use of seed only. The annual plants reseed the area planted each year to provide a continuous plant cover. Native plants eventually invade these areas and I may crowd out the lespedeza.

d. White clover (White Dutch Clover) (Trifolium repens) is a low­ I growing perennial legume usually used in mixtures with cool-season turf grasses. The principal variety is Iadino, and normally has little or no advantage over the common variety for purposes within the scope of this I manual. Seed per pound of pure seed is approximately 800,000 • e. Alsike clover (Trifolium hydridum) is a low-growing perennial legume usually used in mixtures with cool-season grasses for erosion con,.; •• trol on embankments and on unimproved grounds • Seed per pound of pure I seed is approximately 700,000. I I I I I le 7 I I

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•'I I I I I I I el I I EM 1110-345-321 1e 31 oct 61 APPENDIX II

I SELECTED REFERENCES

I 1 . .American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Design and Construction of Tile Drains in Humid Areas. 1953. I 2. Iqon, T. L,, and Buckman, H, o., Nature and Properties of Soils, 5th ed. The MacMillan Co., New York, N, Y,, 1952.

3, Sprinkler Irrigation Association, Sprinkler Irrigation. Washington, I D. C., 1959, .

4. u. S. Army Engineer District, Mobile, CE, Report on Turf;Base Shoulder I Investigation, Maxwell Field, Montgomery, Alabama. Mobile, Ala., 1947. I 5. U.S. Army Engineer District, Savannah, CE, Data Report, Turf-Base Investigations, MacDill Field, Florida, Savannah, Ga., 1948.

6. u. S. Army Engineer Division, New England, CE, Report on Turf­ I Evaluation; Turf Runway Investigation, Fort Ruckman, Nahant, Massa­ chusetts. Section 6, revised March 1950, Boston, Mass., 1949.

7. u. S. Army Engineer Division, South Atlantic, CE, Evaluation of Es­ •• tablishment and Maintenance of Vegetation. Atlanta, Ga., 1946. I 8. u. S. Army Engineer Division Laboratories, Ohio River, CE, The Es­ tablishment and Maintenance of Turf on Stabilized Granular Material. Final report (contract W33-017-eng-3729 and -378o), Mariemont, Ohio, I August 1949. 9. U. S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, '-Topsoil and Seeding Studies at Vicksburg, Mississip:Qi .11 Technical Memorandum No. I 3-354, Vicksburg, Miss., February 1953. 10. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Climate and Man. Yearbook of Agri­ I culture, Washington, D. c., 1941. 11. U. s. Department of Agriculture, Grass. Yearbook of Agriculture, I Washington, D. c., 1948. 12. U.S. Department of Agriculture,''Ma.nual of the Grasses of the United States:i 2d ed. rev. Miscellaneous Publication 200, Washington, I D. C,, 1951.

le l I EM 1110-34.5-321 I App. II 31 Oct 61 e1 13. U. S. Department of Agriculture, "Soil Survey Manual." Hanibook 18, 1951. I 14.. U.S. Department of Agriculture,"Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils.'.' Handbook 60, 1954.

15. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil. Yearbook of Agriculture, I Washington, D. c., 1957.

16. U. s. Department of the Air Force,"Management and Maintenance of I Grounds." AF Manual 85-6, 1956. 17. U. s. Department of the Army,"Re-pairs and Utilities, Grou:1ds Mai nte­ I nance and Land Management." Technical Manual 5-630, 1958.

18. U. S. Department of the Navy," Soil Conserva.tion.U Technical Publica­ tion PW 5, 1953. I I ••I I I I I I I

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