The Other Internment Teaching the hidden story of Japanese Latin Americans during WWII

By Moé Yonamine

My unit on the largely unknown hoped to learn from the oral stories of the elders. history of the internment of Japanese Latin Many have since joined the Campaign for Justice, Americans began 12 years ago. I was on a bus seeking redress from the U.S. government for from Portland, Ore., to Tule Lake, Calif., site orchestrating and financing the forcible deporta- of one of the largest Japanese American incar- tion and incarceration of Japanese Latin Ameri- ceration camps during World War II. “I am from cans (JLAs) during World War II. ,” the elder sitting next to me said in Japa- This is the little-known background to the nese. “But I am originally from .” For me, it unit that I decided to teach my 8th-grade U.S. was an honorable coincidence to find myself next history students: Even before Pearl Harbor, in to this elder. October 1941, the U.S. government initiated An elder sitting in front of us turned around plans to construct an internment camp near and said in English, “He looks very familiar.” As I translated their con- versation, it came out that they were both young boys interned at Tule Lake. “I know him!” said the Japanese American elder. “He was my friend!” Grabbing the Peruvian man’s hand and shaking it firmly, he explained that they played base- ball together often but that one day his friend just disappeared. His friend had only spoken Spanish, so he could never ask him what he was doing in the camp. He had won- dered all of these years what had happened to him. The Peruvian Japanese elder’s face beamed with joy as the two continued to shake hands, not letting go. “I am so glad you are safe,” he said. They had reunited after more than 50 years. Among those who attended the Tule Lake Pilgrimage were children

and grandchildren of internees who Jordin Isip

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 1 the Panama Canal Zone for JLAs. The United Teaching Internment States targeted JLAs it deemed security threats and pressured Latin American governments to “Are those refugee houses?” round them up and turn them over, prompting “It looks like people are being treated like Peru to engage in the mass arrest of Japanese animals.” descendents it sought to expel. Beginning in “It looks hot. Is it World War II? Are they 1942, 13 Latin American governments arrested Asian? Are they Jewish?” more than 2,300 JLAs in their countries (more “I think of boot camp and prison.” than 80 percent from Peru), including teach- My students had just walked through a photo ers, farmers, barbers, and businessmen. The gallery showing the forced removal and incar- U.S. government transported the JLAs from ceration of JLAs. Our overcrowded room (40 Panama to internment camps in the United students!) included many immigrants—Mexican, States, confiscating passports and visas. Two Vietnamese, Filipino, Pacific Islander, Russian— prisoner exchanges with Japan took place in along with Chicano/as, African Americans, and 1942 and 1943 of at least 800 JLAs—many of white students. They wrote their impressions of whom had never been to Japan. Fourteen hun- the black-and-white pictures, trying to make sense dred JLAs remained in U.S. internment camps of a story none had ever heard. until the end of the war, when the government Then I wrote on the board: deemed them “illegal aliens.” Meanwhile, the Rounded up in the sweltering yard. Peruvian government refused to readmit any Unable to endure any longer of its citizens of Japanese origin. With nowhere Standing in line to go, more than 900 Japanese were Some collapse. deported to Japan in December 1945. Some JLA survivors are now telling their stories for This is one of 13 poems etched in the stones the first time; new information is still being of the Japanese American Historical Plaza of uncovered. Portland, which honors the internment stories of As an Okinawan, this history hit close to local . I read the poem aloud my heart. In The Japanese in , I to the class and asked students to write what they learned that large waves of Okinawans migrated thought the poem was about. It brought up more to South America beginning in the late 1800s questions than answers. One student wrote: “In as the once sovereign Ryukyu island chain was trouble? Military thing? Why is she there? What brought under Japanese control. By the time did she do to deserve this?” I read a few more of WWII began, the majority of immigrants to the poems and students continued to write. Peru were Okinawan. There was also a large One Mexican American student wrote: “Like group in Brazil. Many families in Okinawa today any group working in the camp, they can’t take have relatives from South America including my the heat anymore because they’ve been working all own, but stories of their migration and their day. Standing outside ready to be transported to a lives thereafter remain largely untold. new place like the Asian people in the pictures.” My own questions turned into my inquiry Throughout the unit students wrote regularly as a history teacher. How can I teach 8th grad- in journals. This particular student often wrote ers to imagine the experiences of people from about his family’s experience as migrant workers another time in history and make connec- and connected their experiences to those of the tions to today? How can I teach them about internees. social injustice in a way that will make them When I showed the class a map of the deten- feel empowered and not cynical? How can I tion centers and incarceration camps, Ashley encourage students to visualize what a just shouted, “That’s !” I explained that many world would look like to them? people from Portland were affected and told the story of the (now used for

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 2 large community events and cultural festivals), Reparations Role Play which was a detention center used to round up Japanese American families from our area. “You I didn’t tell too much of the history because I mean the racetracks up there in North Portland?” wanted the role play I had developed to spark one student asked. “I grew up there!” the students’ curiosity. I based my role play on My students had learned little about the incar- the format of Wayne Au’s “Addressing Redress,” ceration of local families. I explained that many which focuses on the issue of Japanese American people left Japan for the mainland , redress. Au’s activity appealed to me because it Hawaii, and Latin America, beginning in the late is structured so that students are empowered to 1800s, to look for work. “Like the Mexicans now,” imagine a different conversation among groups Javier said. “We come over here because there’s and a different outcome in providing justice. no work, you know. There’s no money. Our par- I introduced the role play by telling the class ents just want to do something so they can make that, since there is not enough information on this sure there’s food and stuff.” A few other Mexican history, a committee has been appointed to hold American students in the room nodded, listening hearings and to make decisions on the issue of attentively. redress: “We are going to imag- “Well, it’s like that for Fili- ine what the outcome should be. pinos, too,” Addel chimed in. “I How can I teach my You are each going to represent know my family came over for a students about social someone who has something to better life. I think it’s like that for injustice in a way that say about this.” I explained that a lot of people.” Javier looked at they would share their character’s Addel and nodded from across will make them feel experiences and different per- the room. I had never seen Javier empowered and not spectives with the committee. and Addel interact with each other cynical? When the students walked before. into class the next day, the group I introduced President Frank- assignments were written on the lin Roosevelt’s Executive Order board. Even before the bell rang, 9066, ordering the internment of Japanese Ameri- all of the students had circled their desks into cans along the West Coast in 1942. I explained groups and seated themselves. I handed each that more than 110,000 Japanese Americans were group a placard to write their group’s name. The incarcerated. But there were also Japanese Latin groups represented Japanese Latin Americans Americans. I pointed to the photo gallery and a interned in the United States who stayed here; student let out a gasp from the back of the room. those who were deported to Japan; the govern- We read excerpts from “Latin Americans,” an ments of Latin American countries that gave up appendix to Personal Justice Denied, a report by the their Japanese descendents to the United States; Commission on Wartime Relocation and Intern- Latin American vegetable growers who lobbied ment of Civilians. Students immediately jumped against the return of Japanese farmers; and con- in with questions: temporary U.S. citizens opposed to reparations. “How could they get away with that?” A final group of students were the judiciary “That’s messed up. How can people just sit committee that would have to make the ultimate there and let this happen?” decision on redress. Sam, an immigrant from Liberia, interjected As I walked around the room introducing the passionately, halfway out of his seat, “Why couldn’t groups to each other, the vibe was good-spirited we [the United States] just let everyone live here?” and eager. There were some high fives and smiles Since Sam had never before participated in class of “What?!” when students learned what their role discussion, his excitement brought smiles from would be. Then I gave each group their full role classmates. play description to read together.

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 3 As part of their regular journal writing, I asked reparations. I was blown away at his gesture of students to introduce themselves to me in charac- respect and solidarity. The class fell into silence, ter to help them internalize the information. surprised by Sam’s comments. I told him that I After students wrote, they proceeded to dis- appreciated what he had said. cuss with their group—staying in character—the “Good job, man!” Addel said. following questions: John, a Russian American student, nodded to Sam from across the room, “Yeah, that was tight.” – Was the removal and internment of Japanese I reinforced to the class that we were taking Latin Americans just or unjust? Why or why the roles of people who may have very different not? views from our own, saying: “The issues that we’ll – If unjust, what kind of redress should there address in our conversations are themes we find be? No redress at all, government apology throughout history. In order to understand how only, commitment to public education cam- such events can occur and how different people paign, or money? were affected, we have to learn from the perspec- tives of others.” Meanwhile, I gave the judiciary committee I opened the forum with a welcoming state- members copies of the role play descriptions of the ment as the facilitator of this judicial hearing and other groups and asked them to predict what each reviewed the decision that the judiciary committee group would propose. would need to make in the end. The following day, students again were in The JLA group that volunteered to go first their grouped seats before class began. Sam raised had studied a narrative taken in great part from his hand and said, “This is for the whole class.” He the memoirs of JLA survivor Seiichi Higashide turned to the class and said: “Guys, I am really, in Adios to Tears. “Nobody had the right to really sorry for what I’m about to say today. I’m take us like that,” Cesar explained. “We had a not trying to offend anybody. This isn’t me. I family, a home, and a country. We were taken know I’m going to make some of you guys mad. just like that and put in the internment camp.” And I’m really sorry about that.” Sam was about They went on to recommend restitution for the to speak on behalf of Americans opposed to JLAs, but didn’t think any amount of money U.S. Army Signal Corps Photo National Archive; Campaign for Justice Panama Canal Zone. Japanese Peruvians en route to U.S. internment camps; April 2, 1942.

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 4 was enough to repay the survivors for what they country either because they were causing a lot of went through. problems for us.” She was referring to the anti- Addel spoke for the JLAs who were sent to Japanese rioting and looting of businesses and Japan. “We were kidnapped. Nobody gave us a homes in Peru. “We feel bad but it wasn’t really choice of where we were going to go. And we were our fault. The U.S. made us because we’re scared just there [in Peru] to work. But then, you guys of them,” they concluded. made us prisoners and sent us to Japan. I had my When I offered all of the groups a chance wife and child. And you took that away from me to add additional arguments, Maria, from the because you sent me to Japan. That’s not even first JLA group, spoke up. She said that people where I’m really from.” This group also wanted need to have immigration documents and to redress, but they demanded the right to live in the feel secure knowing that they won’t be deported. United States or go back to Peru. In the discussion, Maria, who is Sam represented Americans from Oaxaca, Mexico, expressed against reparations. “We don’t I was delighted to see her feelings as a young immigrant believe that any of this even hap- students connecting in today’s anti-immigrant climate. pened,” he said. As Sam counted their personal Cesar added that interning the the reasons on his fingers he JLAs was similar to treating immi- said, “There’s no proof, no evi- experiences to those of grants as terrorists. “We are not dence of these camps, and we people more than 60 terrorists,” Cesar said. “Don’t treat don’t think the Japanese peo- years ago. us like that. That’s racist.” He was ple would’ve been fooled.” He full of emotion and the entire class meant that the Japanese govern- listened quietly. “This is like the ment would not have taken the cops harassing us and stuff. I don’t JLAs in exchange for U.S. prisoners when some know what the word is . . .” of them did not even speak Japanese. Sam con- Pedro looked up and said, “Profiling! Racial tinued, “And besides that, if the U.S. government profiling!” did do all of these things, they probably had a Yeah,” continued Cesar. “That’s what I’m good reason.” Sam sat down. I asked him for talking about.” their recommendation on redress, and several of Although Maria and Cesar stepped out of the kids in the group called out “None!” character, I was delighted to see students connect- Ashley presented the thoughts of Latin Ameri- ing their personal experiences to those of people can vegetable growers. After explaining why they more than 60 years ago. created their organization of small businesses, she ‘They Weren’t Criminals’ said, “We feel that the Japanese are a competition for our business.” She described how Japanese From the energy in the room, I knew that students farmers came to dominate the agricultural market needed an outlet to express their own feelings on in Peru and said: “We don’t want them to come this issue. I asked them to write in their journals back and take our jobs. We’ve worked hard to get again, this time talking back in their own voices to to where we are, and they’re just going to take it their character or another group in the room. A back again.” number of students wrote that the forced removal Last, the group representing the governments and internment of Japanese Latin Americans was of Latin America said, “We feel bad for them based on racism. Rumel, who had portrayed an [JLAs] but it wasn’t like we had a choice.” Tiffany American against reparations, wrote to his group: explained, “If it wasn’t for the U.S. asking us to “They weren’t criminals. They didn’t do anything gather and remove JLAs, we probably wouldn’t wrong. How can you say it’s OK to treat people have done it.” Another student added, “And at like this? It’s just straight racist. Is this what we the same time, we didn’t want them [JLAs] in our want to tell future generations?”

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 5 Ben, from the Latin American vegetable grow- Nick added that they recommend that this ers’ group, reflected on his experiences growing story be taught in U.S. history classes “so that up in Portland as a Vietnamese immigrant: “I everybody knows.” However, they did not want used to feel invisible because I didn’t belong to give money because “our economy is in bad anywhere. . . . I don’t know what I’d do if some- shape right now. . . . People are losing jobs and one told me I can’t be here [in the United States] there’s just no money. We’re sorry, but we just anymore just because of my race.” can’t pay them.” Jenny, who had struggled to stay in her This was an interesting conclusion, and character as the governments of Latin America reflected the students’ recognition of the economic during the role play, disagreed strongly with difficulties of families in the neighborhood and her group. She wrote, “It’s just an excuse to say nationally. Many students in the class were expe- that the U.S. made us [the governments of Latin riencing harsh living conditions as the economic America] do it [the forced removal and intern- crisis disproportionately affected families of color ment of JLAs] because we didn’t want them here and immigrants. During the winter I taught this in the first place. . . . I think everyone’s trying to unit, I worried about whether students were going blame somebody else.” home to heated places. In addition, they had seen As the other students wrote, the judiciary their classroom size explode and understood that a committee had the job of deciding what would lack of money was the underlying factor. All of this be a just response of the U.S. government. Stu- had led students to assume that the U.S. govern- dents in the group felt heavyhearted with this ment has no money, rather than that the money responsibility. “This is a lot of pressure,” Jas- is distributed unequally or that the government is mine remarked. spending money on things that it thinks are more Nick agreed. “How do we decide what’s fair important, like the war in Afghanistan. for these people?” ‘What Really Happened?’ I encouraged the group to think about what they thought was the “messed-up-ness,” a term The next day, Sam walked into the room ask- coined by the class to describe social injustice. ing, “Ms. Yonamine, now are you going to tell us “Why do you think what happened was messed what really happened?” I told the students about up or not messed up? Does the U.S. government the actual bill seeking redress and showed them need to do something to make that wrong right? a timeline of the bill’s development and current And what does that right thing look like to status. As I shared information, students listened you?” Finally, the committee began discussing attentively. Addel jumped in, disturbed that all their thoughts with each other. of the surviving JLAs had not yet received repara- The next day, the committee was eager to tions, “So there’s no decision yet whatsoever by us give its decision. Tina spoke on behalf of the [the United States]?” I explained that we are still group. She explained that they decided “yes” waiting for an official study by a congressional on redress. “What we [the United States] did committee on wartime violations by the U.S. gov- to them was wrong and we’re responsible to ernment against JLAs. fix it.” She said that since the JLAs were forced “What would you recommend to this com- from their homes, they added their own type mittee based on what you have learned?” I asked. of reparation which was “to help them reunite “Write them a letter.” The class fell into silence as with their families.” The committee concluded they busily went to work. This was the most effort that the U.S. government should also issue a I had seen students put into any written assign- formal apology and public education, but no ment all year. The responses showed their ideals money. “We should apologize because we know and empathy. it was wrong,” Tina explained. “We should have “How would we feel if this happened to us?” public education so this never happens again.” asked Beto. “We did it. Now it is time to fix it. . . .

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 6 They should especially include public education. Resources That way in the future it won’t happen again.” Sarah agreed. “They deserve to have their Au, Wayne. “Addressing Redress.” Teach- lives back. . . . Americans should provide apolo- ing About Asian Pacific Americans: Effective gies and money toward building their lives or Activities, Strategies, and Assignments for whatever we took from them. . . . We need to Classrooms and Communities. Lanham, Md.: help put all of the elders’ minds at ease! So many Rowman & Littlefield, 2006. of the elders have not given up in court yet and United States. Personal Justice Denied—Report are still fighting to get back what they lost. We of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and would want the same to be done for us.” Internment of Civilians. Washington, D.C.: By the time our unit was complete, some- U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982. thing important had developed in our class. Stu- Higashide, Seiichi. Adios to Tears—The Mem- dents showed more courage to call out race and oirs of a Japanese-Peruvian Internee in U.S. racism as they analyzed both history and current Concentration Camps. Seattle: University of events. Students began to explore how race has Washington Press, 1993. been a fundamental factor in the history of U.S. foreign and domestic policy. Masterson, Daniel and Sayaka Funada-Classen. Most importantly, through their discussions The Japanese in Latin America. Champaign, and writing, students began to reflect on how Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 2004. race affects their own lives, often incorporating Campaign for Justice. www.campaignforjustice the history of their own families. They began jla.org [“History” and “Resources” tabs]. to see how racism is not just an issue for some Japanese American Citizens League. www.jacl. groups, but is an issue of human rights for all org [“Education” tab]. people. Map of internment camps is found at: Throughout this unit, my 8th-grade class www.jacl.org/edu/MapofConcentration inspired me with their compassion. Later in the Camps.pdf. year, students wrote reflections on their learning from this unit. Many suggested that it be taught each year. Moé Yonamine recently finished her teacher education program at Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Ore. She continues to “I can use the way we learned to talk to each work with students in East Portland. Student names have been other for the rest of my life,” said Rumel. changed. “It challenged us to think like different people, and it gave us power to make the deci- This article was previously published in Rethinking Schools magazine. To order back sion,” said Nick. issues of the magazine or to subscribe, visit And finally, Sam, after sitting silently for www.rethinkingschools.org or call 800-669- several minutes carefully pondering what to 4192. write, left me one line: “We listened to each other.” This article is offered for use in educational settings as part of Note the Zinn Education Project, a collaboration of Rethinking Schools and Teaching for Change, publishers and distributors of social justice educational materials. Contact Rethinking There is discussion among Asian American schol- Schools directly for permission to reprint this material in ars and activists about whether to call what hap- course packets, newsletters, books, or other publications. pened to Japanese Americans (and Japanese Latin For more information: Americans) during World War II “internment” Rethinking Schools Teaching for Change or “incarceration.” In this article, both terms are www.rethinkingschools.org www.teachingforchange.org used interchangeably. 800-669-4192 800-763-9131

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 7 Handout Chuck Yamamoto

Your job is to read and talk about this role that aliens.” The U.S. government even circulated a you’ve been assigned, which is described on this blacklist, called the “United States’ Proclaimed sheet. Decide as a group whether you will read the List of Blocked Nationals” with names of peo- role sheet out loud together or quietly to yourself ple with Japanese backgrounds that the United as individuals. When you are all finished read- States thought were dangerous. These people ing, discuss whether you think (staying in your were ordered to be arrested and deported to the role) that the Japanese Latin American abduction, U.S. internment camps. Your name was on it. internment, and displacement were ju st or unjust. You had no idea why. Come up with specific reasons for why or why There was no way you were going to let any- not. Then discuss whether the JLAs should receive one deport you. Your wife, a Peruvian citizen, was redress. (“Redress” means to set something right expecting your third child. With her help, you hid or to repair something. “Reparations” means the every time the police came to your house. But in repairing or restoring of something.) Why or why January of 1944, five armed detectives came while not? What specific redress is most appropriate? your family sat down for dinner and forced you to This can be a combination of options. The options leave with them. The detectives took you to a jail are as follows: cell in , which smelled of urine. No one told you why you had been arrested. 1. No redress/reparations at all U.S. soldiers carrying rifles put you onto a 2. U.S. government apology only ship. It was then that you finally understood that you were a prisoner of war. You were one of 1,800 3. Commitment to public education campaign Japanese Peruvians taken from Peru between 1942 4. Monetary reparations and 1944. Be ready to say why you chose specific options if your You were taken to a detention center in group chose to give redress. Panama controlled by the U.S. military, and your passport was confiscated. You spent the next three You are 90 years old. You were born in a vil- months in Panama doing unpaid labor. While in lage in northern Japan in 1909. You grew up doing Panama, the U.S. government said that you could a lot of farmwork to help support your family. reunite with your family only if they joined you in As a teenager, you started to hear success stories the detention camp. about Japanese immigrants in Peru, and in 1930 In July of 1944, you were taken to an intern- when you were 21 you got on a ship to migrate ment camp in Crystal City, Texas, with more there. You started a successful new life—first as than3,000 people. In addition to Japanese Latin an elementary school teacher, later running a Americans, there were also people of German small shop. You learned Spanish. You married a and Italian descent who had also been deported Peruvian woman and began a family. Peru became from Latin American countries. (Germany and what you called your “second motherland.” Italy were also enemies of the United States dur- In 1941, racism against ing World War II.) However, most were Japanese increased in Peru when the United States Americans. The American soldiers called it a declared war against Japan. You heard that “camp,” but nothing about the place felt like a many people saw Japanese Peruvians as “enemy vacation. You were surrounded by barbed wire

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 8 fences and armed guards and no way out. Still, no card and become a legal permanent U.S. resident. one told you why you were there. Your only joy You and the 346 other Japanese Latin Americans was that three months after entering this prison, who stayed in the U.S. after the war finally won your wife and children arrived, eager to be with the right to stay in 1952. In 1960, you became a you even if it meant they would stay in this prison U.S. citizen. for who knows how long. You feel that you have three homelands now. In the summer of 1945, the war ended, but At the same time, you believe that if there had been you and many JLAs were not allowed to leave no war, you would have stayed in Peru forever and the internment camp until it closed in 1947. The become a citizen there. You loved Peru dearly. In U.S. government considered you an “illegal alien” 1988, Japanese American internees received an because you had no immigration visa or passport, apology from the U.S. government and $20,000 to though they had taken away your passport when compensate them for their years of imprisonment. they seized you as a prisoner of war. Until the U.S. But you didn’t get anything because you were not government could decide what to do with your a Japanese American during World War II but a deportation orders, you and your family were Japanese Peruvian. You want some justice. But transferred to a food production plant in New what kind of justice and from whom? Mostly, you Jersey to work. You hoped to one day get a green don’t want this to happen to anyone ever again.

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 9 Handout

Jorge Shimabukuro

Your job is to read and talk about this role that worked hard every day in the field, cultivating land you’ve been assigned, which is described on this to produce cotton. sheet. Decide as a group whether you will read the Then, as World War II began, racism against role sheet out loud together or quietly to yourself Japanese people increased. When Peruvians saw as individuals. When you are all finished read- people of Japanese descent, they would often ing, discuss whether you think (staying in your shout, “Chino macaco!” which was a derogatory role) that the Japanese Latin American abduction, term that meant “dirty Chinese.” They didn’t even internment, and displacement were just or unjust. know the difference between Okinawans and Japa- Come up with specific reasons for why or why nese and Chinese people, you thought. To them, not. Then discuss whether the JLAs should receive you were all crazy spies and couldn’t be trusted. redress. (“Redress” means to set something right On May 15, 1940, your home was destroyed or to repair something. “Reparations” means the in a race riot that lasted for two long days. People repairing or restoring of something.) Why or why thought to be Japanese were targeted. Hundreds not? What specific redress is most appropriate? of people were injured and some died as a result, This can be a combination of options. The options while 620 businesses and houses were destroyed. are as follows: And wouldn’t you know that more than 500 of those belonged to Okinawan people, not mainland 1. No redress/reparations at all Japanese? Yours was one of them. With the help of 2. U.S. government apology only neighbors and friends, you and your wife rebuilt a home, while many others became homeless. 3. Commitment to public education campaign When Pearl Harbor was attacked in 1941 and 4. Monetary reparations the United States declared war against Japan, the Be ready to say why you chose specific options if your United States sent out a list of Japanese people group chose to give redress. in Latin America that they said were dangerous. These people were to be arrested and deported to You are 98 years old. Your Okinawan parents U.S. internment camps. You were not on that list. came from the Ryukyu Islands, south of mainland But you heard that, as a result of bribes taken from Japan. In 1879, the Japanese government had Japanese people, the Peruvian police had started to taken over the islands and put the people under arrest many people not on the list who could not Japanese control, but refused to give them rights afford to pay off the local police and other corrupt as citizens. Your parents, hoping to start a new life, Peruvian government officials. Many Okinawans had migrated to Peru in 1900. were arrested because they were easy targets since You were born in Peru in 1922. Peru was they had not achieved high status in Peruvian always your first home, but your parents also told society. Finally, in February of 1943, armed men you to always remember that you are Okinawan, came to arrest you at your home. Your wife was native of your island, and that no one can tell you not home. There was no warning. different. You were put aboard a ship with no expla- You married your Okinawan Peruvian sweet- nation. You ended up at a detention camp in heart in 1940, when you were 18 years old. You Texas called Camp Kennedy. It was fenced in were happy together. You were a farmer and with barbed wire and surrounded by armed U.S.

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 10 soldiers. Weeks after you got there, married men You landed in Japan in 1946. This was your whose families had come to join them were sent first time there and you spoke broken Japanese. out to another internment camp in Texas. But But you remembered your parents’ gentle stories you were not. You had sent your wife a telegram of Okinawa and found your way all the way to the to get on the deportation ship to join you. She was southern islands. The Ryukyu Islands were devas- expecting your first child. You worried that she did tated from war, having been used by the Japanese not make it in time for the last deportation ship government as a site of the bloodiest battle in the out of Peru. You remained in the detention camp history of the Pacific. You found relatives in the with other men for two years. village that your parents used to tell you about and Camp Kennedy closed when World War II settled there with their help. ended in 1945. Even then, you still had not heard You searched for your wife but never found anything from your wife. The U.S. government her again. You heard years later that many Oki- now considered you an “illegal alien” because nawan and Japanese Peruvians who were left they said you had entered the country illegally in behind in Peru emigrated to Argentina after the the first place. But how could you have entered war, where racism against Japanese people was “illegally”? You were kidnapped and forced to thought to be somewhat less. enter the United States. Thus, you were now sub- For many years since then, you have lived in ject to deportation. On top of this, the Peruvian silence. You don’t know what happened to your government would not allow any of its Japanese wife and child. But you’ll go crazy if you start to descendents to return. This included you. With think about that now. No one in Okinawa knows nowhere to go, you joined more than 900 Japanese what happened to you. The truth is that you miss Latin Americans who got on deportation ships Peru even after all of these years. But there’s noth- again, this time to Japan. You hoped that your wife ing that can bring back everything you lost. Every- would do the same and find you there. thing is changed now.

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 11 Handout Representatives of the Governments of 13 Latin American Countries

Your job is to read and talk about this role that of the more than 2,200 total Japanese Latin Ameri- you’ve been assigned, which is described on this can men, women, and children that were sent to sheet. Decide as a group whether you will read the the United States. The U.S. government orches- role sheet out loud together or quietly to yourself trated this mass abduction. as individuals. When you are all finished read- In 1941, the U.S. government asked your ing, discuss whether you think (staying in your governments to participate in this crusade to pro- role) that the Japanese Latin American abduction, tect the Western Hemisphere from the Japanese internment, and displacement were just or unjust. enemy. They told you that your participation was Come up with specific reasons for why or why essential because the danger was real and immedi- not. Then discuss whether the JLAs should receive ate. You also read a report that there were large redress. (“Redress” means to set something right Japanese spy networks both in the U.S. and South or to repair something. “Reparations” means the America. The United States said the danger of repairing or restoring of something.) Why or why Japanese invasion was greatest on the West Coast not? What specific redress is most appropriate? of South America and Panama. This can be a combination of options. The options The United States sent you a list of Japanese are as follows: descendents that they said were dangerous to all of the Americas. This list was called “United States’ 1. No redress/reparations at all Proclaimed List of Blocked Nationals.” You were 2. U.S. government apology only told that they were all potential spies and danger- ous to your countries. Yet, you had not heard of 3. Commitment to public education campaign any criminal charges brought against any of the 4. Monetary reparations named people. The U.S. government said that all Be ready to say why you chose specific options if your you had to do was arrest the people on the list and group chose to give redress. deport them to the United States to be interned. The U.S. was going to pay for everything. They You are representatives of the governments didn’t even ask for a commitment from you to that abducted, interned, and deported some or take back any of the Japanese once they were all of the Japanese-descended people from your shipped out of your countries, even after the war countries during World War II. You represent ended. The U.S. planned to send the Japanese Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican from your countries to Japan to be exchanged Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, with Americans held prisoner by Japan in different Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, and Peru. (Brazil parts of Asia. interned a mass group of Japanese descendents You responded quickly to U.S. requests to within its own country but did not send them to help secure the hemisphere. Many of you closed the United States) Peru alone sent out 84 percent down Japanese newspapers, organizations, and

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 12 schools. Some of you even went as far as freezing not a good idea. After all, they would act to help Japanese assets, knowing that this would bring defend your country against a possible Japanese hardship to a lot of Japanese-owned businesses in invasion, but only if you proved you were on their your countries. Six of your countries (Argentina, side. And the United States has invaded countries Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Uruguay, and Venezuela) throughout Latin America when governments did joined the United States in forming a committee things to upset those in power in the United States. called the Emergency Advisory Committee for So you announced that it was necessary to protect Political Defense in 1942. This committee told the your country and sacrifice the Japanese Latin rest of the Central and South American govern- Americans for military security. ments to intern people from Japan, Germany, What made it easier for your countries was and Italy living in their countries. As a result, that the U.S. government committed to paying more than 8,500 people from Latin America were to remove the Japanese. You didn’t have to do interned, including citizens of your own countries. anything except send in your police, arrest the The U.S. government said that people believed to Japanese, and send them off to the U.S. officials. be dangerous should be interned. Peru took this You had heard that the United States had already further by arresting and deporting many people constructed a temporary prison camp in Panama who were not on the list. to house the Japanese Latin Americans, along The reason for this action, you believed, was with some Latin Americans of German and Ital- that this mass abduction and deportation would ian descent. resolve the problem of racial tensions in your You learned that the U.S. government would countries that had led to rioting in several areas. have taken even more Japanese Latin Americans More than 155,000 Japanese had immigrated to into their internment camps but they could not Latin American countries in the 15 years before figure out how to ship and pay for more to be the war. Racial tensions had escalated everywhere sent to the United States. On top of this, the as economic competition soared. Many of the internment camps in the United States were townspeople who were rioting believed that any- overcrowded with Japanese Americans, since one whose parents were Japanese were taught as they had already interned more than 110,000 they grew up that they were first and foremost Japanese Americans—many of whom were citi- loyal Japanese no matter what, even if they were zens of their own country. citizens of your countries. Even in Peru, the The United States determined that the mass Japanese were unwilling to Peruvianize and mix relocation of Japanese descendents in the West- racially. Thus, many people believed they couldn’t ern Hemisphere was the only way to secure the be trusted. Why else would a U.S. Army general say Americas. Overall, you were convinced by the that, “There isn’t such a thing as a loyal Japanese”? United States that your national security was in In your eyes, the United States was a huge, danger. Rounding up Japanese Latin Americans imperial power. Even if you had thought to ques- was necessary to protect your country during a tion this request of mass abduction by the United time of war. States, fighting this gigantic military power was

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 13 Handout Vegetable Growers Inc.

Your job is to read and talk about this role that immigrant farmers created groups called “coop- you’ve been assigned, which is described on this eratives” in which they shared resources among sheet. Decide as a group whether you will read other Japanese farmers. This gave them advan- the role sheet out loud together or quietly to tage over native Peruvian competitors. Within yourself as individuals. When you are all finished 20 years after immigrating to Peru, the Japanese reading, discuss whether you think (staying in farmers dominated cotton production, beating your role) that the Japanese Latin American out native Peruvian farmers. abduction, internment, and displacement were Your attitude was, so what if their country of just or unjust. Come up with specific reasons for Japan wasn’t doing that well and people needed why or why not. Then discuss whether the JLAs to work? Farmers in South America needed work, should receive redress. (“Redress” means to set too. Why couldn’t the Japanese have stayed in something right or to repair something. “Repara- Japan? tions” means the repairing or restoring of some- Your success came when more than 2,000 thing.) Why or why not? What specific redress is Japanese were deported back to Japan. At least most appropriate? This can be a combination of that’s the story that you were told. The U.S. and options. The options are as follows: South American governments thought they were a security issue. The Peruvian government can- 1. No redress/reparations at all celed all land leases held by Japanese farmers in 1942. Thus, most Japanese farmers who remained 2. U.S. government apology only in Peru after avoiding deportation during World 3. Commitment to public education campaign War II ended up losing their farms. 4. Monetary reparations Native Peruvian farmers stepped in and quickly began to mass-produce vegetables on Be ready to say why you chose specific options if these farmlands. Many of the local farmers cre- your group chose to give redress. ated an alliance, similar to how the Japanese maintained their cooperatives. With the Japanese You are the managers of big agricultural competition out of your way, the alliance grew companies based in Peru. You started out as an and became a large agricultural competitor. alliance of commercial farmers in 1940. In your If the Japanese farmers who were deported mind, the Japanese came to Peru and Brazil in during WWII were allowed to return and take the late 1800s and early 1900s to take over the back their farmland, imagine what would hap- farming business. The Japanese had been farmers pen. They might take over the agricultural mar- for generations in Japan and had acquired exten- ket again. Even before the war, you heard about sive skills in starting new farms. When times got what had happened around the northwest of hard in Japan, they came to South America in the the United States. Before the internment, many thousands, all looking for work. Japanese went to live in rural areas in Oregon, All over Latin America, what started out as Washington, and Idaho and developed large local people giving the Japanese small jobs here farmlands. They were so successful that they out- and there turned into an agricultural indus- competed local farmers. You weren’t going to let try dominated by the Japanese. The Japanese that happen to you.

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 14 After all, look at what happened in Brazil. of small businesses that were maintained mostly Before the war, Japanese farmers rented out land by “beginning merchants” who had worked to grow coffee. On top of this, they grew other themselves up in Peruvian society. The Japanese crops like corn, beans, and other vegetables so used their economic advantage from having that they could use the added profit to buy more made money in farming to start competing for land. Their farming business spread all over Bra- these other Peruvians’ small business (many of zil. When World War II began, these Japanese them barbershops). This wouldn’t be good for farmers in Brazil were arrested and interned. your business if all of those Japanese farmers But unlike the other Latin American countries, were allowed to take their land back. Brazil let the Japanese stay in the country instead You are very proud of the accomplishments. of deporting them to the United States. Can you Now that your company has invested time and believe that when the war ended, more than half money to develop farmlands, you don’t think it’s of the Japanese went right back into farming? As fair to let the Japanese come back. What good a result, the came to domi- would that do? They should stay where they are. nate the fruit and vegetable market in Brazil by If the Japanese who were here before are allowed the 1990s. to come back to countries like Peru, they might If the farming takeover in the U.S. Northwest then fight to get their farms back. But these farm- and Brazil wasn’t a clue enough, look at what lands have skyrocketed in value thanks to your the Japanese did to the small business owners in hard work. You think that the rights of farmers Peru. There used to be so many Peruvian owners who were here first should be protected.

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 15 Handout Members of Americans for American Truth

Your job is to read and talk about this role that 1942, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order you’ve been assigned, which is described on this 9066 ordering Japanese Americans to be removed sheet. Decide as a group whether you will read the from the U.S. West Coast. The order read that “the role sheet out loud together or quietly to yourself successful prosecution of the war requires every as individuals. When you are all finished read- possible protection against espionage and against ing, discuss whether you think (staying in your sabotage to national defense material. . . .” From role) that the Japanese Latin American abduction, there, over 110,000 Japanese Americans from internment, and displacement were just or unjust. the West Coast of the United States were put in Come up with specific reasons for why or why internment camps. The U.S. government did all not. Then discuss whether the JLAs should receive of this based on military necessity. redress. (“Redress” means to set something right Years after the war in 1988, President Ronald or to repair something. “Reparations” means the Reagan apologized for the internment on behalf repairing or restoring of something.) Why or why of the U.S. government. Each surviving Japanese not? What specific redress is most appropriate? Americans was paid $20,000. The U.S. govern- This can be a combination of options. The options ment even issued a public education fund to are as follows: teach the history of the internment camps. This 1988 Civil Liberties Act should have closed the 1. No redress/reparations at all book on this; the nation said, “OK, we’re sorry. 2. U.S. government apology only End of story.” Now this story about Japanese Latin Ameri- 3. Commitment to public education campaign cans has surfaced. Supposedly, the United States 4. Monetary reparations interned more than 2,200 Japanese Latin Ameri- Be ready to say why you chose specific options if your cans in U.S. internment camps with the purpose group chose to give redress. of exchanging them for Americans held prisoner by Japan. However, if some of these Japanese You are a patriotic group of Americans who Latin Americans did not speak Japanese fluently, are completely against any redress for the Japanese why would Japan accept them in the exchange? Latin Americans. You believe that these so-called Wouldn’t they know that many of them were Japanese Latin Americans are trying to take advan- ordinary citizens from Latin America and not tage of the 1988 Civil Liberties Act where Japanese Japanese nationals? There are too many loop- Americans were given an apology and money. holes to this story. At best, these are just rumors You see, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on and not accurate history. History has to have December 7, 1941. Japan had rapidly taken over some evidence and these accusations against the large parts of Asia and the Pacific. The U.S. U.S. government sound more like the result of government had to protect the country from a people trying to get a free ride into the United Japanese attack of the West Coast. So in February States and make money doing it.

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 16 If the U.S. government had helped round up more unemployed people in this tough economy? the Japanese in Central and South America, they You heard that the Japanese Latin Americans who did it to protect the United States. Look, we were have come forward to say that the U.S. govern- at war. So whatever happened was because the U.S. ment directed Latin American governments to government was trying to protect its own people. kidnap and then put them in these internment Isn’t that what a government is supposed to do? camps don’t have any proof of identification in We all know how easy it is to come in from Central the first place. That sounds absurd. How can there and South American into the United States. Look be no way of proving who they are and where they at all of the people hopping the border to get here really came from? That sounds fishy. today! So, the U.S. government couldn’t have just Whatever happened, it was a long time ago. rounded up potential Japanese spies and enemies If the U.S. government evacuated Japanese Latin on the West Coast of the United States. They also Americans, they did it for legitimate national secu- had to grab Japanese Latin Americans before they rity reasons. History called for this government had a chance to sneak into the country. It was just action. In fact, at the time, the U.S. Supreme Court the smart thing to do. even upheld in interning the You think that the movement for redress is Japanese Americans. What are we supposed to do? really a way for a bunch of Latin American immi- Put the Supreme Court of the 1940s on trial too? grants to get U.S. permanent residency with the It was the right and just thing to do at the time. hopes of becoming U.S. citizens. Do we really need Giving redress is absurd.

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 17 Handout Members of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Latin Americans of Japanese Descent

Your job is to read and talk about this role that • Make recommendations for any appropriate you’ve been assigned, which is described on this remedies based on your findings. sheet. Decide as a group whether you will read the Your group was created by the U.S. Congress role sheet out loud together or quietly to yourself to investigate the U.S. government’s involvement as individuals. When you are all finished read- in the deportation, internment, relocation, and ing, discuss whether you think (staying in your possible abduction of Japanese Latin Americans role) that the Japanese Latin American abduction, during WWII. Your group has the power to internment, and displacement were just or unjust. determine: (1) what will be deemed the “official” Come up with specific reasons for why or why historical account as recognized by the U.S. gov- not. Then discuss whether the JLAs should receive ernment and that will thus potentially influence redress. (“Redress” means to set something right people around the world, and (2) what will be the or to repair something. “Reparations” means the U.S. response to the issue of redress for Japanese repairing or restoring of something.) Why or why Latin Americans. If you as a group feel that any not? What specific redress is most appropriate? U.S. involvement was justified, then your explana- This can be a combination of options. The options tion of such will be entered as part of an official are as follows: record. You are a group of nine members—three of 1. No redress/reparations at all you were appointed by the president, three by the 2. U.S. government apology only House of Representatives, and three by the Senate. Your assignment is to stay as neutral as possible. 3. Commitment to public education campaign You will assess the facts of the issue in making 4. Monetary reparations important decisions. Be ready to say why you chose specific options if your Thoroughly consider each person/group’s group chose to give redress. position regarding the U.S. government’s involve- ment and the kind of redress that would be appro- The job of the commission is to: priate. Carefully consider each person/group’s • Investigate and determine the facts sur- justifications on their positions as you evaluate the rounding the wartime deportation, intern- facts and make recommendations as a group. ment, and relocation of Latin Americans of Japanese descent by the U.S. government.

The Other Internment—Zinn Education Project 18