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DEVELOPING A SUSTAINABLE HARVEST OF SAKER ( FALCO CHERRUG ) FOR IN

ANDREW DIXON 1, N YAMBAYAR BATBAYAR 2, G ANKHUYAG PUREV -O CHIR 2, AND NICK FOX 1

1International Wildlife Consultants (UK) Ltd, P.O. Box 19, Carmarthen, SA33 5YL, UK. E-mail: [email protected]

2Wildlife Science and Conservation Center, Office 404 Undram Plaza, Bayanzurkh District, Ulaanbaatar 51, Mongolia

AbstrAct .—Arabian falconry creates a significant demand for falcons that is met through cap - tive-breeding and wild-take. In relation to wild-take, the convention on International trade in Endangered (cItEs) currently only allows the international trade of one important fal - conry species, the saker ( Falco cherrug ), and this trade is effectively limited to one source country, Mongolia. Market demand for wild-sourced saker Falcons is greater than can be supplied by Mongolia alone; consequently there is also an illegal, unregulated trade in this species along with the ( Falcon rusticolus ) and ( F. peregrinus ). the vast majority of these falcons are sourced from Asian countries. We describe recent advances in the develop - ment of a program in Mongolia that uses artificial nests to create a demonstrably sustainable har - vest of saker Falcons for the Arabian falcon trade. the development of a credible sustainable harvest requires a sound biological basis, a transparent system of monitoring, recording and report - ing together with a strong regulatory framework. the potential conservation benefits of such a system, together with the potential for developing legal, sustainable harvests in other countries for different falcon species, are discussed. Received 9 March 2011, accepted 7 June 2011.

DIxon , A., n. b AtbAyAr , G. P urEv -o chIr , AnD n. F ox . 2011. Developing a sustainable harvest of saker Falcons ( Falco cherrug ) for falconry in Mongolia. In r. t. Watson, t. J. cade, M. Fuller, G. hunt, and E. Potapov (Eds.). and Ptarmigan in a changing World. the Peregrine Fund, boise, Idaho, usA. http://dx.doi.org/10.4080/gpcw.2011.0315

Key words: cItEs, falconry, harvest, international trade, Mongolia, saker Falcon, Falco cherrug .

FAlconry Is PArt of the traditional cultural nomic factors in the Middle East, central Asia heritage of the people and is widely and beyond. trade in falcons to the Arabian practiced in the , saudi Peninsula initially came from countries of the Arabia, Kuwait, , and bahrain (Al-tim - Middle East, the Maghreb, and , imi 2007). there has always been a small fal - mainly involving passage (Platt 1983, con trade associated with Arabic falconry (bär riddle and remple 1994), but since the break- 2006), but this has developed markedly in up of the , the falcon trade has recent decades, driven by changing socio-eco - moved into the breeding distribution range of

1 –DIXON ET AL .– the saker Falcon ( Falco cherrug ) in central niqué 2. by February 2009, this ‘non-compli - Asia, including Mongolia and (Flint ance’ led to a cItEs recommendation that 1995, Zahler et al. 2004, yi-Ming et al. 2000). countries should suspend trade in saker Fal - uncontrolled and unregulated trapping of cons with Mongolia 3. saker Falcons is thought to be the main cause of rapid and extensive population declines in At this point, there was a risk that the saker parts of central Asia, particularly in the coun - trade in Mongolia might follow the same path tries of the former soviet union (birdlife as that of and other former soviet International 2011). states to become illicit and unregulated. con - sequently, in 2009, we proposed a potential In russia and the former soviet states of cen - solution to the problem of demonstrating a tral Asia, trade in wild saker Falcons is illegal, ‘sustainable harvest’, which was based on our but enforcement is limited and the illicit trade experimental work with artificial nests for can be associated with corruption at various saker Falcons. this ‘conservation through levels of administration (Wyatt 2009). In con - sustainable use’ initiative was supported by trast, the Mongolian government oversees a the Environment Agency-Abu Dhabi (EAD) harvest and trade of saker Falcons within the and was adopted by the Mongolian Ministry framework of the convention on International of nature, Environment and tourism (MnEt) trade in (cItEs), though and cItEs as a potential means of resolving an additional illicit trade also occurs in the the problem. subsequently, for 2009 and country (Wingard and Zahler 2006). the saker 2010, cItEs imposed a maximum annual Falcon is listed under Appendix II of cItEs, quota of 300 birds on Mongolia, which is to i.e., a species for which trade must be con - be reviewed in 2011 pending satisfactory trolled in order to avoid utilization incompati - development of the artificial nest program ble with its survival. described here 4.

A cItEs review of significant trade in 2005 the artificial nest program is designed to cre - highlighted a number of ‘urgent concerns’ ate a new breeding population of saker Fal - relating to the saker Falcon trade in Mongo - cons in nest site-limited habitats, which will lia 1. one of the problems faced by the Mongo - produce sufficient offspring to compensate an lian government was to demonstrate to cItEs annual harvest of up to 300 birds. the program that their harvest had no detrimental impact on comprises (1) biological field research to the wild saker Falcon population. Accurate measure vital rates to develop a model for an data on the size of the saker Falcon population age and sex specific harvest level of saker Fal - in Mongolia does not exist, nor is there any cons, (2) the development of an administrative information recorded on the age and sex of protocol to control and monitor trapping and sakers caught, making it impossible to assess trade, and (3) the development of a policy the impact of a harvest. nevertheless, Mongo - framework to ensure that the saker Falcon lia continued their harvest through 2008, trade meets international criteria for sustain - despite assuring cItEs that “no further export able use and provides national and regional permits would be issued” in a 2006 commu - benefits for Mongolia.

1 www..org/eng/com/AC/21/E21-10.1.1.pdf 2 www.cites.org/eng/notif/2006/E061.pdf 3 www.cites.org/eng/notif/2009/E003.pdf 4 www.cites.org/eng/com/SC/58/E58-21-1.pdf

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Table 1. Numbers of Saker Falcons exported annually from Mongolia and the recipient countries.

Saudi Year Arabia Kuwait Qatar UAE Syria USA Germany Total 1997 116 29 0500 0150 1998 0 25 0000 025 1999 0 40 0 21 00 061 2000 0 50 0000 050 2001 0 102 0 75 10 00187 2002 87 121 15 0 75 5 15 318 2003 85 171 82 10 54 00402 2004 77 180 49 30 49 00385 2005 151 131 5073 00360 2006 100 41 26 0000167 2007 60 141 40 0000241 2008 30 185 51 0000266 2009 25 151 81 35 00 0292 2010 0 105 88 44 00 0237 731 1472 437 220 261 5 15 Total 3,141

THE MONGOLIAN SAKER FALCON TRADE falcons were illegally trapped in Mongolia each year, but it is thought to number at least the capture and international sale of saker 300 per annum (Zahler et al. 2004). Falcons in Mongolia began after the 1990 Democratic revolution, during a period of Mongolia has exported an average of 286 economic and social upheaval following the saker Falcons per year over the last decade collapse of the soviet union. As far as we can (table 1), with 99% of these birds destined determine, the trade began in 1993 and was directly for the Arabian falconry market. In operated by private individuals who estab - 2010, the price for a single saker Falcon lished commercial companies to export sak - export permit was set at us$11,760, with ers, mainly to Middle Eastern countries us$10,800 going to the state budget and (badam 2001, boldbaatar 2009). control of us$960 going to the regional ‘aimag’ admin - the trade was gradually removed from these istration. At present, no money goes to the private companies and by the time Mongolia local ‘soum’ administrations. thus, the sale of became a party to cItEs in 1996, it was 237 saker Falcons in 2010 (table 1) generated wholly controlled by the government. From an income of us$2.79 million for Mongolia, 1997–2010, Mongolia exported a total of which is relatively insignificant in relation to 3,141 saker Falcons, ranging from 25 to 402 an estimated GDP of at least us$4 billion. the birds per annum (table 1, cItEs trade Data - 5 real benefit of the saker Falcon trade to Mon - base, unEP-WcMc , MnEt Mongolia). golia is the connection it brings to leaders in however, there are discrepancies in the pub - Arabian states and the inward investment that lished figures for the numbers of saker Fal - can be derived from these relationships. cons exported and it is not known how many

5 www.cites.org/eng/resources/trade.shtml

3 –DIXON ET AL .–

ARTIFICIAL NESTS FOR SAKER FALCONS over the period 2006–10, we studied occu - pancy levels, nesting success, and post-fledg - the saker Falcon is a widespread breeding ing survival of saker Falcons breeding at species occurring across the whole territory of artificial nests erected in two experimental Mongolia in a variety of landscapes and land areas, 130 km apart, in the steppe zone of cen - cover types, including mountainous areas, for - tral Mongolia. one experimental area (Darhan) est steppe, steppe, desert steppe, and desert. consisted of 100 artificial nests of four differ - sakers do not build nests and they normally ent designs, erected in a grid at 2 km intervals use structures built by other species for breed - in an area with a low density. the sec - ing. saker Falcons very rarely nest on flat ond experimental area (bayan) consisted of ground and generally prefer elevated nest sites 150 artificial nests, erected in six grids of 25 on trees, cliffs, rocks, buildings, and power nests, placed at 1 km intervals in an area with poles. Accurate data on the size of the breeding a high rodent density. small (espe - population is lacking, but it is estimated that cially brandt’s vole Lasiopodomys brandtii 2,000–5,000 pairs breed in the country, with and Mongolian Gerbil Meriones unguicula - the highest densities found in the central steppe tus ), whose populations vary both spatially and zone (Dixon 2009). the central steppe zone is temporally in irregular cycles (Zhang et al. characterized by extensive, flat or rolling 2003), are an important food resource for rap - plains with scattered blocks of hilly country tors in the central Mongolian steppe (Gom - that provide pockets of potential nesting habi - bobaatar et al. 2006). saker occupancy tat for sakers in a landscape that is otherwise increased year by year, for at least the first largely devoid of nesting sites. consequently, three years after establishing the artificial nest a lack of suitable nest sites limits the breeding grids, suggesting that there was a finite number population of saker Falcons across a vast area of potential colonists in the artificial nest of the central Mongolian plains. experimental areas each year. the breeding density of saker Falcons was greater in high saker Falcons and other raptorial species such than in low rodent population areas (table 2). as upland buzzards Buteo hemilasius and Corvus corax, ravens frequently resort to our nest monitoring revealed that laying dates using anthropogenic structures, such as build - were earlier, clutch sizes larger, and nesting ings, bridges, and power poles in the prey-rich success better at artificial nests in the experi - but nest-site limited steppe grasslands of cen - mental area with higher rodent abundance tral Mongolia (Ellis et al. 1997). saker Fal - (table 3). cons readily adopt artificial nests erected on the poles and pylons of electricity lines for breeding (Ellis 2010) and where such support PROJECT TO DEVELOP A structures for artificial nests were lacking in SUSTAINABLE HARVEST OF SAKER FALCONS Mongolia, sakers, together with upland buz - In autumn 2009, we began a large-scale proj - zards and ravens, also readily took to breed - ect to erect a further 5,000 artificial nests in ing on especially created ‘tripods’ with a central Mongolia. by autumn 2010, in each platform on top (Potapov et al. 2003). We of 20 administrative districts (soums), we had have further developed these early initiatives erected 250 artificial nests in grids with nest- to design artificial nests that are suitable for spacing intervals of 1.5 km. A mean breeding use by these raptorial species, inexpensive to 2 density of 5.3 pairs/100 km across these produce (ca. us$50 per nest), simple to erect, grids of artificial nests would result in a pop - and extremely durable.

4 –ARTIFICIAL NESTS FOR SAKER FALCONS IN MONGOLIA –

Table 2. Saker Falcon breeding density at artificial nest grids in the Darhan and Bayan experimental areas with low and high rodent abundance respectively. Breeding density in adjacent natural nesting areas is shown for the years when surveys were undertaken. Darhan natural sites A and B are mountain blocks 9 and 27 km from the Darhan artificial nest grid respectively, and Bayan natural is a mountain block 18 km from Bayan artificial nest grid.

2 Experimental Area Breeding Pairs/100 km (N) 2 Area (km ) 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Darhan grid 324 na 0.6 (2) 2.8 (9) 3.7 (12) 5.2 (17) 6.5 (21) Darhan natural A 36 19.4 (7) 16.7 (6) na na na na Darhan natural B 236 4.2 (10) 5.1 (12) na na na na Bayan grid 96 na na 5.2 (5) 11.5 (11) 16.7 (16) 15.6 (15) Bayan natural 240 na na 4.6 (11) 6.3 (15) 5.8 (14) na

Table 3. Saker Falcon mean laying date, clutch and fledged brood size, and percentage of nests that successfully fledged at least one chick at artificial nest grids in the Darhan and Bayan experimental areas in 2007 –10.

Experimental Mean Laying Mean Clutch Mean Chicks % Successful Area Date (N) Size (N) Fledged (N) Nests (N) Darhan grid 05 April (38) 4.1 (58) 2.3 (22) 77.3 (22) Bayan grid 01 April (47) 4.7 (46) 3.3 (47) 87.2 (47)

ulation of 500 breeding pairs of saker Fal - molted adult feathers from around the nest sites cons, producing an estimated 1,150 to 1,650 during monitoring visits. these feather samples fledglings per annum. the results of our will be used as a source of DnA to individually experimental study indicate that this level of identify and sex each , and to undertake occupancy and productivity is achievable, genetic population analyses. through the and provides a potential basis for a sustain - genetic identification of individuals we can able saker Falcon harvest. determine the turnover rate of breeding adults, the extent of breeding dispersal across our net - Recording Saker Falcon Productivity, Survival work of artificial nests, and recruitment to the and Harvesting. —over the five-year period breeding population. since 2007, we have been 2011–15, we shall monitor the 5,250 artificial able to identify individuals breeding at our nests that have been erected (i.e., including the bayan artificial nest experimental area using 250 artificial nests in the pre-existing experi - both genetic and visual markers. this process mental areas) to determine occupancy levels. will be continued and expanded to provide data All the artificial nests will be initially visited on breeding adult turnover as a proxy measure in May (when most saker Falcon nests should of survival (thus any breeding adult dispersal contain eggs or chicks), with at least two fur - away from the study area will be included in ther visits made to the occupied nest sites to our mortality estimates). implant microchips in the chicks (at age 21–35 days old) and to determine fledging success. Measuring the survival rates of sakers from fledging to breeding age is more problematic, We shall also collect samples of plucked feath - as we do not currently know the extent of natal ers from the chicks during microchipping and philopatry (though over the period of the study

5 –DIXON ET AL .– we will be able to obtain genetic measures of from the artificial nests, but also on the age and gene flow across our network of 5,250 artifi - sex ratios of the harvested birds. currently, no cial nests). Juveniles that survive to breed out - information exists on the age and sex of side our study area are unlikely to be detected trapped sakers, as only the number of exported and we are reluctant to undertake further satel - birds is recorded. A harvest that is significantly lite telemetry as a means of tracking these sak - biased towards one sex and comprises a signif - ers, as our experience suggests that this icant proportion of older birds will have a technique significantly increases mortality greater impact on saker populations than one rates (unpublished data). consequently, we where the sex ratio is more evenly balanced propose to use a conservative measure of juve - and comprises mainly juvenile birds. conse - nile survival by using breeding recruitment at quently, a sustainable quota will vary accord - our artificial nests as an indicator of survival ing to the age and sex ratios of the harvest. from fledging to breeding. Furthermore, microchip recoveries from birds harvested by Protocols for Trapping and Trade of Saker falcon trappers will provide additional data to Falcons. —Previously, there was little regula - estimate pre-breeding survival rates. tion to govern the way falcon trappers oper - ated in Mongolia, but in June 2010, the Productivity and survival data from sakers Environment Minister introduced a prelimi - breeding at our artificial nests can be used to nary system of regulation 6. the trade process model a sustainable harvest quota. the aim of currently involves a buyer purchasing permits the project is to set a harvest quota that is from MnEt that allows them, or their agents, determined solely from the saker population to trap and export, with cItEs permits, a breeding at the artificial nests. the quota fixed number of saker Falcons (depending on derived from our model will compensate for how many permits are purchased). the regu - the annual harvest; however, it should be lations introduced in 2010 determine inter alia noted that not all of the birds that are har - where and when the trappers can operate and vested will have been produced at the artificial the number of persons allowed to participate nests. sakers are mostly trapped from July to in trapping, and provides rules for displaying December, after breeding dispersal, thus the permits in vehicles and co-ordination with birds that are harvested will include a propor - local administrators. tion that has not been produced at the artificial nest sites. We can determine the proportion by In 2011, we shall work with MnEt and the scanning all sakers for the presence of falcon trappers to introduce a microchipping microchips prior to export (at this point all program. All trapped falcons, prior to export, birds destined for export will be implanted will be scanned for the presence of microchips with microchips and the number recorded on to detect birds that have fledged from the arti - the cItEs export permit). ficial nests. Any birds that do not have microchips will be implanted and the In addition to recording the natal origin of har - microchip number recorded on the cItEs vested sakers (i.e., from within or outside the export permit, which can be used by the pur - managed artificial nest population), we shall chaser as proof of wild Mongolian origin. Fal - also record the age and sex of the falcons that con hospitals in the Middle East will be are destined for export. the size of the annual provided with all the microchip numbers used harvest quota will not only depend on occu - in Mongolia and any sakers detected during pancy, productivity, and survival rates of birds admission to hospital can be reported via the

6 Ministerial Order of Nature, Environment and Tourism of Mongolia #A-205, 30th June 2010.

6 –ARTIFICIAL NESTS FOR SAKER FALCONS IN MONGOLIA –

Middle East Falcon research Group. In this nests over natural sites, perhaps as a response way, we can determine whether or not the to prey abundance. Potentially, sakers could microchipped individuals have arrived in Ara - abandon natural breeding sites with low prey bia via the cItEs regulated trade route or not, density to breed at artificial nests in areas with which will enable us to estimate the scale of a higher prey density. however, we found no any illicit trade from Mongolia. tendency for sakers to abandon breeding sites with a low local prey density; on the contrary, Policy Development.— to facilitate their devel - the numbers increased each year (table 2). In opment of a policy and regulatory framework addition, there has been no reduction in the for the Mongolian saker Falcon trade, MnEt breeding population at natural sites in hills (with support funding from EAD) has pro - adjacent to our artificial nest grids (table 2) vided a member of staff on secondment to and sakers show territory fidelity within the undertake a Ph.D. at leicester university, uK, grids, which indicates that breeding dispersal to examine how the saker Falcon trade can be is limited (unpublished data). Furthermore, we implemented to meet Mongolian environmen - know that at least one young saker reared at an tal obligations at international, national and artificial nest subsequently bred in a natural regional scales. A key aim of this study is to nest site. provide guidance on how government policy can be developed at these various scales in It seems plausible, therefore, that the majority order to ensure that the saker Falcon trade is of saker Falcons breeding at our artificial nests ecologically sustainable, meets Mongolian are likely to have come from an existing non- obligations under international conventions breeding population inhabiting the prey-rich, such as cItEs, the convention on Migratory but nest-site limited, habitat of the central species (cMs), and the convention of biodi - Mongolian steppe (newton 1979, Kenward et versity (cbD), and provides socio-economic al. 2000). the grids of artificial nests create benefits at national and regional levels. over new breeding opportunities and the sakers that the three-year period 2010–12, this project will colonize these grids represent an expansion of provide an appraisal of what policy develop - the Mongolian breeding population in terms of ments are required to establish a transparent numbers and spatial distribution. the manage - and verifiable cItEs regulated trade. ment of bird populations through the provision of artificial nest sites is well established (new - ton 1994); for example, the erection of artifi - DISCUSSION cial nests for barn owls ( Tyto alba ) in palm oil the use of artificial nests to underpin a sustain - plantations in Malaysia and agricultural fields able saker Falcon harvest in Mongolia is based in Israel have resulted in dramatic population on the premise that the sakers occupying these increases (hafidzi and Mohd 2003, Meyrom et artificial sites are additional to the existing al. 2009). our aim is to manage the breeding population breeding at ‘natural’ nest sites. saker population at artificial nests to provide a however, we do not know the origin, age or demonstrably sustainable harvest for the fal - prior breeding experience of the sakers that conry trade, which in turn will provide the occupy our artificial nest grids. It is possible income for the Mongolians to maintain and that the birds at our artificial nests do not rep - monitor the nests in order to determine the resent a new breeding population but instead annual harvest quotas. comprise experienced breeding birds that have relocated to the artificial nests (breeding dis - the determination of an annual harvest quota persal) and/or new breeders that would have depends on the survival and productivity of otherwise bred elsewhere. this requires a sakers at the artificial nests and the age and strong preference for breeding at artificial sex of the sakers harvested by the falcon trap -

7 –DIXON ET AL .– pers. this creates a logistical difficulty as age - nest areas or limits on the number of birds ing (even sexing) of sakers can be problematic originating from outside the managed popula - and can only be determined when the birds are tion may be required. presented for microchipping prior to export. In autumn it is possible to assign a sex to most In order for a legitimate saker Falcon harvest birds based on size and to categorize them as to exist, it is necessary to control the illicit juveniles (1 st calendar year) and adults (≥2 nd trade. In Mongolia, there are social and eco - calendar year) based on plumage, leg and cere nomic benefits of maintaining the cItEs reg - coloration. Effectively, this means that key ulated trade at local and national levels. Illegal parameters (i.e., age and sex) required to deter - falcon trappers operating in Mongolia will be mine the harvest quota can only be obtained in direct competition with legal trappers who after the trapping has taken place. there are have purchased permits. consequently, legally two potential solutions to this dilemma: (i) set permitted trappers will have an incentive to quotas for each category of age and sex, such prevent illegal trappers operating in the same that there is a permitted harvest of juvenile and areas. In addition, socio-economic benefits to adults based on their sex, and any individuals local communities of having artificial nests that are presented for export once this allow - and/or legally permitted trappers operating in able limit has been reached must be released or their district means that they also have an (ii) set quotas based on the age and sex of the incentive to prevent illicit trapping. to distin - birds removed in the harvest of the previous guish legal and illegal trappers, MnEt has year. there are logistical and biological impli - now introduced a regulatory system where per - cations with both, but we believe that the latter mitted trappers register with local authorities option offers the most practical solution as it in each area where they are operating and all enables potential purchasers to know what their vehicles are clearly marked with an offi - quota is available prior to embarking on an cial sticker. In a vast, sparsely populated coun - expensive and time consuming trapping effort. try where there are logistical constraints to law Furthermore, by informing and educating trap - enforcement, such incentives for locals and pers about sustainable harvests, we hope, over permitted trappers to ‘police’ their own areas the course of the project, to be able to direct are an important way to restrict the activities trapping efforts towards juveniles with an of illegal trappers. evenly balanced sex ratio. the project outlined here is an attempt to there is a further potential conservation issue approach saker conservation in a pragmatic relating to the natal origin of the sakers manner through the concept of sustainable use, trapped for export in that the harvest will which is a key element of the convention of include birds from outside the artificial nest biological Diversity. At present we are only project areas, even from outside Mongolia. able to report on the early stages of its devel - the impact on breeding populations elsewhere opment and to address some of the foreseeable of harvesting falcons that originate from out - practical and biological issues that may arise. side the region covered by our artificial nests We recognize that this scheme is ambitious and is not known. If sakers exhibit a strong degree that there are likely to be many unforeseen dif - of natal philopatry then the birds produced at ficulties to overcome in its implementation, our managed population in central Mongolia but at present there is an opportunity to adopt will not necessarily compensate for trapping such a conservation strategy in Mongolia losses that affect regional breeding populations whilst there is still a relatively large and elsewhere. A better understanding of saker healthy saker Falcon population. In our opin - dispersal is required to address this issue and ion, the alternative approach of relying on careful targeting of trapping efforts in artificial strict protection is unlikely to succeed, as

8 –ARTIFICIAL NESTS FOR SAKER FALCONS IN MONGOLIA –

Mongolia does not have the capacity to ACKNOWLEDGMENTS enforce protective legislation against illegal trapping, and this approach has failed in neigh - the Mongolian Artificial nest Project is boring countries such as russia and Kaza - funded by the Environment Agency-Abu khstan, where illegal trapping is believed to be Dhabi under a Mou with the Ministry of the main cause of rapid population declines. nature, Environment and tourism, Mongolia. We especially thank hE Mohammed al the principle of managing a falcon population bowardi and hE Majid al Mansouri for their so that it can support a sustainable harvest can interest and support. We are grateful to the be applied to other species elsewhere. Manage - assistance provided by Amarsaikhan, s., ment can be the protection of the birds and Amarkhuu, G., Ariunzul, I., choikhand, J., their habitats and/or the manipulation of fac - Gombobaatar, s., M. Etheridge and numerous tors that limit population growth such as nest field assistants who have participated in this site availability, predation, or food supply. In project since 2005. the usA, management has involved the re- establishment of Peregrine populations LITERATURE CITED through reintroduction, together with the intro - duction of legislation to restrict the types of Al-t IMIMI , F. 2007. Falconry and hunting in pesticides that caused the initial population Arabia. Gulfosaker canada Inc. decline and strict protection coupled with bADAM , K. 2001. cItEs and sustainable use effective enforcement (cade and burnham of saker Falcon in Mongolia. Pages 202– 2003). this management has contributed sig - 208 in E. Potapov, s. banzragh, n. Fox, nificantly to the current healthy state of the and n. barton (Eds.). saker Falcon in Mon - Peregrine Falcon population in north America golia: research and conservation. ulaan - and has enabled a limited sustainable harvest baatar, Mongolia. for falconry to be permitted (Millsap and Allen bär , n. 2006. Falkenfang und Falkenhandel in 2006). International trade in wild-taken Pere - der Arabischen republik syrien. Mitt. Mit - grines and Gyrfalcons is not allowed at present teilungen der Fränkischen Geographischen as they are both Appendix I-listed species Gesellschaft 44:191–223. under cItEs. In such cases, it may be possible bolDbAAtAr , s. 2009. Influence of commer - to apply appropriate management to support a cial activity on number and condition of sustainable harvest for captive propagation population saker Falcon ( Falco cherrug within the source countries, so that subsequent Gray, 1834) to Mongolia and problems of captive-bred generations can be traded interna - its protection. Pages 32–38 in t. F. tionally. trappers who currently operate ille - Andreeva, t. A. vershinina, n. v. Karpov, and l.v. Kuzmina (Eds.). birds of Prey and gally could potentially become engaged in the th legal management and harvest of falcons, and owls in Zoos and breeding stations: 18 the supply of legitimate falcons may help issue. Moscow, russia. reduce the demand for illegally traded birds, bIrD lIFE IntErnAtIonAl . 2011. species fact - particularly in the Arabian states. sheet: Falco cherrug. [online.] Available at http:// www. birdlife.org/datazone/species fact sheet.php?id=3619 cADE , t. J., AnD W. b urnhAM . 2003. return of the Peregrine: A north American saga of tenacity and teamwork. the Peregrine Fund, boise, Idaho, usA. DIxon , A. 2009. saker Falcon breeding popula - tion estimates. Part 2: Asia. Falco 33:4–10.

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EllIs , D. h. 2010. the Institute for raptor nEWton , I. 1994. the role of nest sites in lim - studies expeditions in Mongolia, 1994– iting the numbers of hole-nesting birds: A 2000. Erforschung biologische ressourcen review. biological conservation 70:265– der Mongolischen volkrepublik 276. (halle/saale) 11:189–212. PlAtt , J. b. 1983. Pakistan hawk bazaars and EllIs , D. h., M. h. E llIs , AnD P. t sEnGEG . Arab falconers. hawk chalk 22(3):38–42. 1997. remarkable saker Falcon ( Falco PotAPov , E., D. s uMyA , o. s hAGDArsurEn , s. cherrug ) breeding records for Mongolia. GoMbobAAtAr , I. K AryAKIn , AnD n. F ox . Journal of raptor research 31(3):234–240. 2003. saker farming in wild habitats: FlInt , v. E. 1995. recent threats to large fal - Progress to date. Falco 22: 5–7. cons Falco sp. in russia and neighbouring rIDDlE , K. E. AnD J. D. r EMPlE . 1994. use of countries. Acta ornithologica 30(1):23–24. the saker and other large falcons in Middle GoMbobAAtAr , s., c. u uGAnbAyAr , D. East falconry. Pages 415–420 in b-u. Mey - suMIyA , E. P otAPov , AnD n. F ox . 2006. burg and r. D. chancellor (Eds.). raptor Diet studies of breeding and wintering conservation today. WWGbP/the Pica saker Falcons Falco cherrug in central Press, uK. Mongolia. Populationsökologie Greifvogel WInGArD J. r., AnD P. Z AhlEr . 2006. silent und Eulenarten 5:203–214. steppe: the Illegal Wildlife trade crisis in hAFIDZI , M. n., AnD n. M ohD . 2003. the use Mongolia. Mongolia Discussion Papers, of the barn owl, Tyto alba , to suppress rat East Asia and Pacific Environment and damage in rice fields in Malaysia. Pages social Development Department. World 274–276 in G.r. singleton, l.A. hinds, bank, Washington Dc, usA. c.J. Krebs, and D.M. spratt (Eds.). rats, WyAtt , t. 2009. Exploring the organization of Mice and People: rodent biology and russian Far East’s illegal wildlife trade: Management. AcIAr Monograph no. 96, two case studies of the illegal fur and ille - canberra, Australia. gal falcon trades. Global crime 10:144– KEnWArD , r. E., s. s. W Alls , K. h. h oDDEr , 154. M. P AhKAlA , s. n. F rEEMAn , AnD v. r. yI-M InG , l., G. Z EnxIAnG , l. x InhAI , W. sIMPson . 2000. the prevalence of non- sunG , AnD J. n IEMElA . 2000. Illegal breeders in raptor populations; evidence wildlife trade in the himalayan region of from rings, radio tags and transect surveys. china. biodiversity and conservation oikos 91:271–279. 9:901–918. MEyroM , K., y. M otro , y. l EshEM , s. A vIEl , ZAhlEr , P., b. l hAGvAsurEn , r. P. r EADInG , I. I ZhAKI , F. A rGylE , AnD M. c hArtEr . J. r. W InGArD , s. A MGAlAnbAAtAr , s. 2009. nest-box use by the barn owl Tyto GoMbobAAtAr , n. b Arton , AnD y. o non . alba in a biological pest control program in 2004. Illegal and unsustainable wildlife the beit she'an valley, Israel. Ardea hunting and trade in Mongolia. Mongolian 97(4):463–467. Journal of biological sciences 2 (2):23–31. MIllsAP , b. A., AnD G. t. A llEn . 2006. Effects ZhAnG , Z., W. Z honG , AnD n. F An . 2003. of falconry harvest on wild raptor popula - rodent problems and management in the tions in the united states: theoretical con - grasslands of china. Pages 316–319 in G. siderations and management recommen- r. singleton, l. A. hinds, c. J. Krebs, and dations. Wildlife society bulletin 34(5): D. M. spratt (Eds.). rats, Mice and People: 1392–1400. rodent biology and Management. AcIAr nEWton , I. 1979. Population of rap - Monograph no. 96, canberra, Australia. tors. t. & A. D. Poyser, berkhamsted, uK.

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