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The Impact of Working Memory on Response Order Effects And University of Nebraska - Lincoln DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln Survey Research and Methodology program Survey Research And Methodology Program (SRAM) - Dissertations & Theses 8-2017 The mpI act of Working Memory on Response Order Effects and Question Order Effects in Telephone and Web Surveys Beth Cochran University of Nebraska-Lincoln, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/sramdiss Part of the Cognitive Psychology Commons, and the Other Sociology Commons Cochran, Beth, "The mpI act of Working Memory on Response Order Effects and Question Order Effects in Telephone and Web Surveys" (2017). Survey Research and Methodology program (SRAM) - Dissertations & Theses. 11. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/sramdiss/11 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Survey Research And Methodology Program at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Survey Research and Methodology program (SRAM) - Dissertations & Theses by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. THE IMPACT OF WORKING MEMORY ON RESPONSE ORDER EFFECTS AND QUESTION ORDER EFFECTS IN TELEPHONE AND WEB SURVEYS by Beth Cochran A DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of The Graduate College at the University of Nebraska In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Major: Survey Research and Methodology Under the Supervision of Professor Robert F. Belli Lincoln, Nebraska August, 2017 THE IMPACT OF WORKING MEMORY ON RESPONSE ORDER EFFECTS AND QUESTION ORDER EFFECTS IN TELEPHONE AND WEB SURVEYS Beth Cochran, Ph.D. University of Nebraska, 2017 Advisor: Robert F. Belli It has been theorized that working memory plays a role in survey methodology contributing to response order and question order effects; however, there is little empirical evidence linking working memory and survey context effects. This dissertation examines whether respondents’ working memory influences response order and question order effects through incorporating working memory measures into the survey questionnaire. The subjects were randomly assigned to complete the survey via telephone or web, and respondents completed a series of working memory measures and attitudinal questions. It was hypothesized that as working memory capacity improved there would be a decrease in the likelihood of respondents of all ages selecting the options associated with response order effects. Results support the hypothesis for younger adults who became less susceptible to response order effects as working memory improves, however, for older adults the results adversely indicate that improvement in working memory leads to respondents being more likely to select the early responses in web and late responses in telephone. The results are present for questions with a short list of two responses and for questions with a longer list of six responses. Where question order effects are concerned, it was hypothesized that respondents with higher working memory would be more likely to be influenced by the preceding question than those with low working memory. In general the results provide only modest support that working memory has a significant impact on question order effects. In only one of three pairs of questions analyzed did working memory have a significant effect indicating that respondents with higher working memory are more likely to exhibit contrast effects than respondents with lower working memory. As another objective, this dissertation included a subset of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) cognitive measures into the survey to assess whether they adequately reflect respondents’ working memory. Comparing the working memory and HRS measures, the results show significant differences between the measures indicating they reflect different underlying cognitive constructs. These findings indicate that the cognitive section of the HRS, and similar studies, may benefit from including measures designed specifically for working memory. To Mom, Grandma, Granny, Papaw, & Aunt Ted. The unconditional love you provided gives me the strength and courage to keep pursuing my dreams. I love you and miss you, always. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are so many incredible people to acknowledge and thank for their roles in helping me to be successful during my time at UNL. To my advisor, Bob Belli, thank you for your support and guidance, especially during the process of applying for an NSF grant and writing my dissertation. I appreciate all of your help and work to get me across the finish line. Jolene Smyth & Kristen Olson, the years I had being your graduate assistant and student provided me with a tremendous learning opportunity. Thank you for all the time you invested in mentoring me. To Erin Blankenship, thank you for your encouragement and support, and for being a member of my graduate committee. Thank you to my committee members, James Bovaird & David Warner, your feedback and support helped me to successfully complete my dissertation. I would also like to acknowledge the late Allan McCutcheon for his assistance and the role he played in providing me with the initial funding opportunity to continue my academic career in the SRAM program. Thank you to Lindsey Witt-Swanson and Ricky Hull at BOSR for your assistance with the survey design and data collection. I was fortunate to find a great home at SRAM, and I am so thankful for the wonderful women who it keep the program running. Thank you Barb Rolfes and Renae Reis for helping me to stay on track and more importantly for all the wonderful conversations. Life as a graduate student can feel isolating at times, and I am very grateful for the fellow graduate students I met who helped make the process a little easier, many of vi whom became great friends along the way. Thank you to Jinyoung Lee, Jerry Timbrook, Julie Garai, Rebecca Powell, Amanda Ganshert, Ana Lucia Cordova Cazar, Nuttirudee Charoenruk, Pam Anderson Fellers, Mathew Stange, Mazen Sawar, Raeda Anderson, Abby Heithoff, Austin Countryman, Jeff Espineli, and Allison Burke. I am also very lucky to have met some extraordinary ladies during my time in Lincoln who became such great friends and whose friendship provided a much needed relief from grad school. In particular, Larka Vesper, Caitlin Deal, Amanda Quinn, and Christina Buresh – when I think about my time in Nebraska I think about what a blessing it was to get to know you. My time with you is among my favorite memories of Lincoln. To all my friends in Oklahoma who supported me from afar, thank you for your continued friendship, love, and encouragement, it means more than you will ever know. A special thank you to John & Stacy Hendrickson, Megan Labbe, Lupita Valenzuela, Michelle Dyck, and Brandi Smith. To my immediate and extended family, I would not be successful without your love, support, reassurance, and prayers. It has been a long road, and I am blessed to have had you pushing me forward and cheering at every step along the way. Dad, Carin, Jill, and John, thank you for everything, I love you. Most importantly I give thanks to my Savior, Jesus Christ, without whom none of my accomplishments would have been possible. This journey began with a calling and all I did was say yes, to go on this journey wherever it takes me. Hebrews 11:8. vii GRANT INFORMATION This work was supported by a National Science Foundation - Methodology, Measurement, and Statistics grant [SES – 1631994]. Any opinions, finding, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................v Grant Information .......................................................................................................... vii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... viii List of Figures .....................................................................................................................x List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction and Research Objectives .....................................................................1 1.2 Psychological Research on Working Memory ........................................................2 1.2.1 Defining Working Memory ............................................................................2 1.2.2 Working Memory Measures ...........................................................................5 1.2.3 Working Memory, Fluid Intelligence, and Language Comprehension ..........8 1.2.4 Working Memory and Aging Effects ...........................................................11 1.3 An Overview of Effects in Survey Responding .....................................................15 1.3.1 Question Order Effects .................................................................................15 1.3.2 Response Order Effects .................................................................................16 1.3.3 Survey Mode Effects.....................................................................................17
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