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121

Threats to the biodiversity of northeastem North American lakes: aquariums and

Paul H. Lord 1

ABSTRACT

Many nuisance aquatic (e.g., Eurasian water-milfoil, water chestnut, and Brazilian elodea) have been introduced to Northeastern North American (NE) waters by aquarium enthusiasts. The growing enthusiasm for water provides significant potential for new exotics escaping into our lakes. Federal and State (NYS) laws require proof of damage to the environment prior to initiating action to regulate potential introductions. Since garden ponds make more common use of temperate exotics than do aquariums, new exotics will be introduced into NE lakes unless preemptive action is taken.

BACKGROUND

Twentieth century changes in NE lakes have been largely associated with the introduction of non-native species. Lampreys, alewives (Warner, 1999), zebra mussels, Eurasian water-milfoil, and purple loosestrife have all had profound impacts on NE lacustrine environments (Sinnot and Paul, 1993; Harman et al., 1997; Claudi and Leach, 2000).

Macrophytes, large aquatic plants attached to the bottom, are important lacustrine community members. They are competitors with planktonic for dissolved nutrients. By removing nutrients (particularly phosphorous which is most often limiting in NE lakes) from the water, macrophytes limit algae growth and improve water clarity (Harman et aI., 2000). Macrophytes are restricted to relatively shallow water by pressure and light penetration (Hutchinson, 1975), but their growth in these shallow waters helps to trap nutrients as the nutrients enter a lake. Macrophyte shallow-water growth also helps to stabilize lake bottoms minimizing the mixing ofbottom sediments into the that can occur when boats or winds stir shallow waters. Additionally, these plants help to protect lake shorelines from erosion. Most importantly, macrophytes provide food, cover, and oxygen for a diverse littoral community. Their composition often regulates the numbers and kinds offish and waterfowl found in a body ofwater (Harman et al., 2000).

Healthy macrophyte communities are comprised of a variety of species. When viewed underwater, their canopied is normally apparent. Taller more filigreed plants tower over shorter, stockier plants. Each has a strategy for catching a portion

1 SUNY Oneonta biology graduate student. Contribution for Biol. 586, Conservation of Biodiversity. Present address: 100 Sunset Ridge, Cooperstown, N.Y. 13326; E-mail: [email protected]; telephone: (607) 547-5962. 122 of the sun's energy. In some healthy lakes the bottom is more patchy than canopied, i.e., there are locations without a significant mix ofplants, but the lake overall has a mixture ofplants extending throughout its littoral zone (Personal observation).

Increasingly, NE lakes are dominated by aggressive exotic species NEAPMS, 2000; FOLA, 2000). Exotic species are those species not native to an ecosystem. Aggressive exotics are those that have not only survived introduction into the ecosystem, but have attained a dominant position in the community changing that ecosystem significantly.

A common situation in lakes in the northeast United States is that Eurasian Water­ milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) [EWM] dominates a lake after introduction. Formerly mixed communities involving Potamogeton spp., Elodea, Vallisineria, Ceratophyllum and one or more ofthe macroalgae (Chara or Nitella) are replaced by nearly monoclonal stands of the mostly submerged EWM. EWM grows from hearty roots firmly established in the substrate. Over the winter months it stores significant energy in those roots and in a few shoots that persist under ice. The persistent shoots tower over most of the competition in the and facilitate its early physical dominance over most of the native species. EWM continues to grow towards the surface in early summer. Once it has reached the water's surface it grows along the surface in dense mats shading out all competitors beneath it (Anonymous, 1993; Johnson, undated; personal observation). EWM can reproduce sexually, but is most often spread to new areas by fragments (asexual reproduction) via animals, people, boats, and trailers (Hellquist, 2000b; Johnson, 2000).

One submerged plant that achieves early seasonal dominance over EWM is curly leaved pondweed (Potamogeton crispus). This is an exotic species from a genus widely distributed in the U.S. This plant can be a serious pest in southern New York as well as over much of the rest of the NE (Skogerboe, 2000; personal observation). It reproduces asexually with turions. Many ofthese turions bud as other plants die back in the autumn (Hellquist, 2000b; personal observation). The rest bud soon after ice out (personal observation). As a lake warms in spring and early summer these plants grow straight to the surface where they form dense mats which grow across the surface. In most areas of the NE, curly leaved pondweed dies back in the first or second week of July (when it is often replaced by EWM), but in some New York lakes bordering New Jersey, it persists in maintaining dense mats throughout the summer months (Anonymous, undated(a); Anonymous, 1997b; Hellquist, 2000b; Schmidt and Kannenburg, 1998; personal observation).

Perhaps the most detested exotic macrophyte found in NE is the water chestnut (Trapa natans). Water chestnut overwinters as a sizeable homed and barbed (edible) nutlet which lays on a lake bottom until spring. These nutlets are not the traditional water chestnut of Chinese cooking (Elocharis dulcis [Hellquist, 2000bD. They can persist for up to four years (Kishbaugh, 2000), possibly longer (Hellquist, 2000b). The nutlet produces a shoot which bears dissected underwater leaves which are not remarkably different from a number of native submerged macrophytes; however, as the plant 124

The threat is not only from outside our national borders. A number of species have been introduced from outside our region into our NE lakes. Fanwort, Cabomba caroliniana, moved up from Southeastern U.S. to the NE in 1932. Both common naiad, guadalupensis, and variable water-milfoil, Myriophyllum hetrophyllum, are now in the NE and far from their Southwestern U.S. origins (Hellquist, 2000a, 2000b).

At least one exotic believed to be tropical appears to be adapting to its U.S. environment by moving along the East Coast (Hellquist, 2000b; Anonymous, 1997b). Hydrilla, Hydrilla verticillata, is well established in where it is the target of expensive control measures (Bowes, 1982; Wilet, 1984; Barret, 1989; Anonymous 2000i). It has moved into portions of the NE even while it continues to be sold as an aquarium plant. Its capability to adapt to our winters should not be underestimated since it is found in Siberia (Hellquist, 2000b).

Perhaps the most recent threat to our NE waters is by mudmat, Glossostigma diandrum, which has been found in both Pennsylvania and New Jersey waters. This delicate looking is native to Australia, New Zealand, India, and East Africa (Anonymous, 1998b).

Not surprisingly, the problem is not one limited just to the NE, or to the U.S. (Rosenfeld and Mann, 1992). Almost every country developed enough to note ecological changes in their waters does note the impact of introduced aggressive macrophytes. As an example, Australia is dealing with a number of imported macrophytes and the problems associated with their introductions. Senegal tea plant, Gymnocoronis spilanthoides, was initially introduced into Australia from India as an aquarium plant in the 1970s. In several instances it has escaped and quickly taken over the water body into which it was introduced (Carter, 1994a). Alligator weed, Alternanthera philoxeroides, a native ofArgentina, was mistakenly cultivated by the Sri Lankan community in Australia because of its similarity to their native plant used as a leafy vegetable. It forms large persistent infestations in (Gunasekera and Rajapakse, 1998). Hydrocotyle, Hydrocotyle ranunculoides, is a native to South America that has caused problems in the U.S., Israel, and Australia. It has shading floating leaves which grow rapidly and therefore obstruct the flow of water (Carter, 1994b). Additionally, the Australians are dealing with a U.S. import: American grass, Echinolchloa microstachya, is invading Australian rice fields (Randall, 2000).

AGGRESSIVE EXOTIC MACROPHYTE CHARACTER

Generalizations can be made about the character of aggressive exotic macrophytes (AEMs). AEMs reproduce vigorously, both asexually and sexually. The asexual reproduction makes removal difficult and facilitates plant spread. Most AEM plants can reproduce by fragmentation, i.e., they will grow complete new plants from a bit of stem or leaf in the course of a growing season. Such fragments easily separate from the original plant and are readily disseminated by man (principally on boats and boat trailers) and by animals such as waterfowl flying from one waterbody to another (Sinnot and Paul, 1993; Hellquist, 2000b; personal observation). Sexual reproduction assists survival over the course of harsh NE winters. By turions, seeds, nutlets, or other 125

propagules, the aggressive exotic macrophytes overwinter with substantial food reserves ready to provide a head start on spring growth (Hellquist, 1993; personal observation).

AEMs have a variety of other characteristics that provide them an edge in NE lakes. They tend to be early light gatherers, i.e., they grow from their winter forms earlier than do the native macrophytes with which they compete. They typically form canopies that shade out their competitors. They are opportunistic and exploit the opportunities presented by disturbed areas.

Once introduced, AEMs have significant impacts on lakes. They shade out native plants and establish themselves in near or complete . Their appearance has implications throughout the because they are a foreign food to herbivores that have evolved with the native macrophytes. Of course, these impacts cascade through the food web. Similarly, the cover provided by these plants is "foreign" to those animals and epiphytic plants that have co-evolved with the naturally occuring macrophytes.

PERTINENT LAWS

Two parts of U.S. statute specifically address AEMs. The Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention & Control Act of 1990 encourages states to develop plans for management ofAEMs and identifies grant procedures for Federal funding of state planned and executed management activities (Sinnot and Paul, 1993). The Federal Noxious Weed Act (FNWA) (Chapter 61 of Title 7) assumes foreign plants are not noxious. It allows the Secretary of to identify noxious plants and to quarantine noxious plant sources. The quarantines can persist up to 90 days without public hearing. After a public hearing, the quarantine can be made permanent. This Federal statute specifically prohibits Federal actions on plant movements within a state. It does encourage states to evaluate and to act on intrastate noxious weed movements. Penalties for conviction of a violation ofthe FNWA are substantial. The conviction is a misdemeanor but the fine is $5,000 and imprisonment can be for as long as a year. Both fine and imprisonment can be awarded for a violation (Anonymous, undated (b); (c); 1998a: 1998c).

The Secretary of Agriculture has listed some AEMs as Federal noxious weeds. Those currently listed are described in Appendix A (anonymous, undated (d)). A review of Appendix A reveals that the plants listed are warm weather plants, i.e., plants likely to have been introduced via aquariums. These plants have caused major disruptions to aquatic ecosystems in Florida and Hawaii and the former now spends millions of dollars each year managing such infestations. Procedures for listing a plant with the Secretary of Agriculture are neither straightforward nor inexpensive. Florida is aggressive in working with the U.S. Agriculture Department to ensure the listing ofAEMs that might persist in their waters (Anonymous, 2000i). More temperate states have not yet adopted the same aggressiveness, presumably because other states have not yet dealt with the scope of problems encountered in Florida. 126

New York State (NYS) laws dealing with AEMs are principally found in Sections 3 and 5 of the Department of Environmental Conservation (NYDEC) statute (Anonymous, 2000g; 2000h). NYS responded to the 1990 Federal legislation with Chapter 456 of the Laws of 1991 which put controls on the importation ofnonindigenous plants and required that the NYSDEC develop a Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Comprehensive Management Plan (NYSDEX, 1999; Sinnot and Paul, 1993).

The NYS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Comprehensive Management Plan was generated for the NYSDEC by Sinnot & Paul (1993). It responds to the Federal Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention & Control Act of 1990 and to Chapter 456 of the NYS Laws of 1991. This plan is more of a policy statement than a management plan. It outlines four principle goals for management activities and provides some specifics for attaining those goals. Goal one is to "Reduce...future introductions". A specific recommendation for attaining that goal is that the NYS Legislature "pass a comprehensive aquaculture billt!. Goal two is to "Reduce...spread into uncolonized waters." Specific recommendations for this goal are that residents" ...do not release aquarium animals into open water" and that "When cleaning aquariums ...[they]. ..dump that water out on the ground". Goal three is to "Minimize harmful impacts from organisms already introduced" while under that goal the plan notes that "Nonindigenous aquatic species...[should] ...not automatically...[be] targeted for control". They should "first. ..[be] classified..." Goal four is to "Educate...[the] ...public on importance of preventing introductions, and how.. .impacts...can be reduced... t!

New Hampshire and Maine are recent NE leaders regarding AEMs. New Hampshire is looking to control AEMs with legislation, regulation, and citizen involvement. They now have a $2 surcharge on their yearly boat registration fee for the control of exotics. Funds generated by this surcharge are used to purchase buoys and to provide training for citizens patrolling their lakes. If an exotic is identified in a new aquatic area, that area is buoyed off and entry into it is prohibited except by State certified "weed pullers" (Smagula, 1999, 2000). Maine has recently created new laws listing AEMs, prohibiting the importation ofboats into the state without powerwashing and provides substantial penalties for the introduction of AEMs (Hellquist, 2000b).

Other states in the NE take an approach similar to that taken by NYS (Hellquist, 2000b).

WHY BE CONCERNED NOW?

Throughout this paper, reference has been made to aquarium releases. Aquarium macrophytes are typically tropical and are often extirpated when released in the NE. However, there is a growing hobby, creating and maintaining garden ponds, that will soon make a larger impact on NE lakes than have aquariums. Since garden macrophytes must be replanted each year or be capable to persisting through NE winters, new releases are likely to be temperate in origin. The potential is enormous. There are approximately 50 temperate viable species ofAustralian Myriophyllum (Hellquist, 2000a). Various water chestnut species are already being advertised for sale. A variety 127

of Siberian plants (e.g., Typha spp.) are currently being sold (Hellquist, 1993, 2000a, 2000b; Anonymous, 2000a, 2000b).

Sources for exotics with potential as AEMs are widespread. Appendix B provides a list of nine NYS suppliers advertised on one World Wide Web (www) site (Anonymous, 2000e). The appendix is annotated with the mileage of each store from Oneonta (Anonymous, 2000j). A www site for Soos Creek Garden® (www.w­ link.netJ~sooscrk) lists red & pink water lilies (Cabomba) that "will bloom year after year even in coldest areas" for $18.50 each. It also sells the yellow floating heart (Nymphoides peltata) for $6.50 each and Hydrocotyl verticil/ata (Pennywort) for $6.50 each. Water Garden® (www.watergarden.com) sells parrot feather milfoil (Myriophyllum aquatica) for $4.95, Typha minima for $4.95, and Siberian Pink Cup (Baldelia nanuncloides repens) for $5.95. Best Aquarium Plants® (www.bestfish.com) sells four different types of Vallisneria ("contortion", "corkscrew", "Italian" and "jungle") as well as fanwort (Camomba). Pondmart® (www.pondmart.com) sells both South American waterweed (Egeria densa) and fanwort (Cabomba caroliniana) for $2.00 each. Pond & Garden Magazine® (www.pondandgarden.com) has one oversized web page populated with links to many more pages advertising water garden supplies including macrophytes.

CONCLUSTION

Without changes in laws and human perspective regarding AEMs, the loss of biodiversity in NE lacustrine situations will accelerate.

REFERENCES

Anonymous (a). Undated. Submerged aquatic weeds and algae guide. Elf Atochem.

Anonymous (b). Undated. USDA APHIS Plant Protection and Quarantine Weed­ Related Legal Authorities. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ppg/weeds/nwauthor.html as viewed on 18 April 2000.

Anonymous. undated (c). Overview of the permitting process prepared by USDA­ APHIS-PPQ-SS. http://www.aphisweb.aphis.usda.gov/ppg/bats/process.html as viewed on 18 April 2000.

Anonymous. Undated (d). USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service plant protection and quarantine federal noxious weed list as of 06/07/99. http://aphisweb.aphis.usda.gov/ppg/bats/fuwsbycat-e.html as viewed on 18 April 2000. Anonymous. 1993. Score one for the indigenes: Native US weevils help eradicate imported aquatic weed pest. Discover. Vol 14 No. 11. P.20.

Anonymous. 1997a. Biocontrol insects feast on purple loosestrife. Cornell University. 128

Anonymous. 1997b. Common nuisance aquatic plants in New York State. NYSDEC Lake Services Section. Albany, NY.

Anonymous. 1998a. Federal noxious weed act. http://bluegoose.arw.r9.fws.gov/ FICMNEWFile/FederalNoxiousWeedAct.html as viewed 18 April, 2000.

Anonymous. 1998b. Mudmat. http:www.aphis.usda.gov/npb/mudmat.html as viewed on 18 April 2000. Last modified 01, 1998. USDA, APHIS, PPQ - Region Office. Wallingford, Ct.

Anonymous. 1998c. Federal Register: December 4, 1998 (Volume 63, Number233) Proposed Rules Page 67011-67014. http://www.ceris.purdue.edu/napis/pests /misc/fr98l204.txt.

Anonymous. 1999. Fighting invasive non-native plants in Ohio. Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Natural Areas & Preserves. Columbus, Ohio.

Anonymous. 2000(a). Barnacle Aquatics Inc. Catalog. Barnacle Aquatics Inc. West Dundee, Ill.

Anonymous. 2000(b). The Water Garden: plants - hardy shallow water. http://www. watergarden. comlshopl?&task=show&cat=Plants+%2d+Hardy+Shallow+water as viewed on 4 April 2000.

Anonymous. 2000(c). Soos Creek garden pricelist: and shallow water plants. http: //www.w-link.net/-sooscrk/pricelis.html as viewed on 4 April 2000.

Anonymous. 2000(d). PondMart product listing - float. http://www.pondmart.comlcgi­ bin/store/commerce.cgi?product=float as viewed on 4 April 2000.

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Anonymous. 2000(g). New York State Consolidated Laws: Environmental Conservation Title 3. http://assembly.state.ny.us/cgi-bin/claws?law=37&art=7 as viewed on 24 April 2000.

Anonymous. 2000(h). New York State Consolidated Laws: Environmental Conservation Title 5. http://assembly.state.ny.us/cgi-bin/claws?law=37&art=24 as viewed on 24 April 2000. 129

Anonymous. 2000(i). Center tor Aquatic and Invasive Plants University ofFlorida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences [and subordinate pages]. http://aquatl.ifas.ufl.edu/ as viewed on 24 April 2000.

Anonymous 2000j. Maps on us®; navigation made simple®...all across the United States [and subordinate pages]. http://www.mapsonus.com/index.cgi/refsrc=SB.home?LNK=3:25 as viewed on 18 April 2000.

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Bowes, G. 1982. Baseline Physiology of the potential problems plants, Limophila sessiliflora and Hygrophila polysperma. Submitted to : Larry E. NaIl, Florida Department ofNatural Resources, Bureau ofAquatic Plant Research and Control, Tallahassee, Florida.

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Carter. R. 1. 1994(b). Hydrocotyle Hydrocotyle ranunculoides another potential aquatic weed. Proclaimed plant notes. Animal and Plant Control Commission. South Australia.

Courtenay, W.R. Jr. 2000. Aquariums and water gardens as vectors of introduction. In Claudi, R. and J.H. Leach (eds.). Nonindigenous freshwater organisms: vectors, biology and impacts. Lewis Publishers. Boca Raton, Fl.

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Gunasekera, L. and H. Rajapakse. 1998. Alligator weed- a potential ecological disaster lurking in Australian In : proc. lOth EWRS Internat'l symp. on aquatic weeds, European Weed Research Society (Monteiro, A., T. Vasconcelos, and L. Catarino [Editors] 21-25 September, 1998. Libson pp. 261-263.

Harman, W. N., M. F. Albright, P. H. Lord and D. King. 2000. The nuisance aquatic macrophytes of Oswego county. Management plan facilitation: 1998-9 update on the distribution ofplants in 15 selected aquatic environments. SUNY Oneonta Bio Fld Sta, Cooperstown, NY.

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Hellquist, c.B. 1993. Distribution and establishment ofexotic and native plants that tend to become a nuisance in natural waters of north eastern North America. Water Garden Journal. Vol. IX; No.1.

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Appendix A: Federal Noxious Aquatic/Wetland Exotic Weeds

1. pinnata - Mosquito fern, water velvet. 2. Caulerpa taxifolia - Mediterranean clone ofcaulerpa. 3. Eichhornia azurea - Anchored water hyacinth. 4. Hydrilla verticillata - Hydrilla. 5. Hygrophila polysperma - Hygro, Miramar weed. 6. Ipomoea aquactica - Water spinach. 7. Lagarosiphon major - African elodea, oxygen weed. 8. Limnophila sessiliflora - Ambulia. 9. Melaleuca quinquenervia - Melaleuca. 10. Monochoria hastata - Monochoria. 11. Monochoria vaginalis. 12. Ottellia alismoides - Duck-lettuce. 13. Salvinia herzogii - Giant salvinia. 14. Salvinia molesta - Giant salvinia. 15. Solanum tampicense - Wetland nightshade. 16. Sparganium erectum - Exotic bur-reed. 17. Sagittaria sagittifolia. 18. Salvinia auriculata - Giant salvinia. 19. Salvinia biloba - Giant salvinia. 20. Salvinia herzogii - Giant salvinia. 21. Salvinia molesta - Giant salvinia. 22. Solanum tampicense - Wetland nightshade. 23. Sparganium erectum - Exotic bur-reed. 133

Appendix B: NY Exotic Plant Suppliers listed by town and annotated with mileage from Oneonta, New York

1. Alden: Ulbrich's Tree FarmlMow More Supplies, 11500 Broadway

• 220 miles

2. Amherst: Arbordale Nurseries, 480 Dodge Rd

• 230 miles

3. Dix Hills: Suburban Water Gardens, 211 Burrs Lane

• 251 miles

4. East Aurora: Masterson's Gardeb Center, 725 Olean Rd

• 231 miles

5. Middle Island: Reliable Garden and Fence, 315 Middle Country Rd

• 275 miles

6. Newburgh: The Home and Garden Ctr, 226 Et 17K

• 156 miles

7. North Tonawanda: Ponds Unlimited, 386 RoncroffDr

• 235 miles

8. Spencer: Totalily Water Gardens, 591 Candor Rd

• 122 miles

9. Westbury: Hicks Nursery, 100 Jericho Tpke

• 240 miles