A Look at Wildland Fire in North America in the 21St Century (Formatted for Southern Rockies Fire Science Network Publication)

FIRE THEN AND NOW: A Look at Wildland Fire in North America in the 21st Century (Formatted for Southern Rockies Fire Science Network Publication) Bryn D. Marahab and J. Derek Scastaa a Department of Ecosystem Science and Management, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82072 b Rangeland Management Specialist, USDA Forest Service Fire Then and Now: A Look at Wildland Fire in North America in the 21st Century SRFSN Publication 2019-1 July 2019 Abstract Wildland fire is a global phenomenon that influences ecosystems, cultures, and livelihoods. Humans are only one driver of fire behavior and occurrence, as fires function across dynamic fuel and weather scenarios, yet the human controls of fire are strong and can function through positive or negative feedbacks and direct or indirect forces. For example, humans can influence fire positively and indirectly via fire suppression policies that lead to fuel accumulation and an escalation in future fire behavior, or negatively and directly through fuel manipulation that reduces fuel accumulation and de-escalates fire behavior. Broad anthropogenic changes such as urbanization, development in rural areas, and climatic changes also influence fire. Fire management shapes the ecology of many systems. Human history has largely influenced fire use, and has subsequently induced changes in ecology and human livelihood. Federal expenditure for fire suppression is increasing dramatically and in 2018 exceeded 3 billion USD. Concomitantly, the number of acres burned annually in North America has increased from the years 1985-2018, illustrating our changing relationship with and management of fire. History of Fire in North America Wildland fire is a dynamic disturbance that sparks of fire are also evident in Africa (Trollope 1973) and considerable interest, especially in North America, Australia (Bowman et al. 2009). As Europeans settled and for good reason. When fires occur in unplanned across North America, the number of human-caused and uncontrolled scenarios, they can exhibit large, fires declined, in part due to the fear of fire destroying extreme, dangerous, and destructive characteristics life and property (Pyne 1982; Ryan et al. 2013). (Figure 1) that greatly influence public perceptions Destructive fires in the 1800s and early 1900s, and and the decisions of resource managers and the loss of life, property, and timber production, led to incident command personnel. Fire is still a greatly even more strongly held negative connotations about misunderstood phenomenon, yet it plays an important wildland fire (Dombeck et al. 2004). For example, the ecological role in ecosystems throughout North Great Hinckley fire of 1984 consumed 200,000 acres America and the world. Fire is a dynamic disturbance and 418 lives (Williams et al. 2013) and the Great ecologically, economically, and socially. It is difficult Fire of 1910 was the single greatest fire in US history, to separate the interaction between humans and fires consuming 3 million acres across Idaho, Montana, because historically, Native Americans used fire for and Washington, and taking 87 lives (Pyne 2001). multiple reasons including hunting, warfare, and pest control (Gruell 1985). Similar indigenous uses Figure 1. The Beaver Creek fire of 2016 in Colorado and Wyoming on the Medicine Bow and Routt National Forests. Wildfire in the crown of this high-elevation, mixed conifer forest in the southern Rocky Mountains. Photo Credit to Tyler Campbell. 1 History of Fire in North America In spite of and because of these large conflagrations, In the 1970s, official views on fire suppression a debate about the use and management role of fire versus fire management began to shift, beginning continued to take place primarily in the southeast with the National Park Service. In the mid-1970s, and western US during the early twentieth century M. Rupert Cutler, assistant US Secretary of (Donovan and Brown 2007). Several land managers Agriculture announced his intentions to shift and scientists argued for the necessity of regular USFS policy from fire suppression to fire management fire in order to reduce fuel loads, to optimize forest (Sampson 1999). However, in the face of the 1988 stand structure, and to reduce the probability of Yellowstone fires, and the associated media coverage large, destructive fires. George Hoxie (1910) was and public perception surrounding the events, fire one particularly vocal advocate for this viewpoint, management rather than fire suppression was not describing fires “as necessary as are crematories strongly supported as an emerging policy or fire and cemeteries to our cities and towns.” However, management strategy (Sampson 1999). In 1994, the this viewpoint was not shared by the majority of National Commission on Wildfire Disasters released professional foresters at the time, who relied on a report citing increasing fuel loads as the root of the European forestry practices and viewed fires as large wildfire damages experienced across the United destructive of trees that ultimately reduced timber States (National Commission on Wildland Disasters production (Donovan and Brown 2007). Interestingly, 1994). Later that year, 14 firefighters lost their lives Aldo Leopold (1920) was one such forester and in Colorado fighting the Storm King fire (Butler et al. conservationist that promoted the removal of fires, 1998). Consequently, the USFS shifted its fire fighting particularly in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa policies to an idea of “Life First” which is an initiative Lawson & C. Lawson) systems. to more strategically fight fires and place high value on the lives of the fire fighting workforce (Figure 2). In 1904, the United States Forest Service (USFS) was established, and the aversion to fire use in forest In addition, minimum-impact suppression tactics management was solidified by the 1910 fire season. (MIST) are utilized in wilderness, proposed In 1910, 4.9 million acres of National Forests were wilderness, and areas with similar management consumed by wildfire, and 78 fire fighters lost their objectives by the USFS and Bureau of Land lives (Donovan and Brown 2007). Fire was castigated Management (BLM) to reduce the negative ecological as a destructive force that must be contained and consequences of suppression activities that can lead eliminated, leading to the adoption of the 1935 “all to issues such as increased soil erosion risk or reduced fires out by 10AM policy” (Pyne 1982). By 1940, the water quality (Backer et al. 2004). The National Park USFS developed the most effective wildfire fighting Service (NPS) also implements MIST tactics (USFS capability in the world (Dombeck et al. 2004). The 2001) to reduce suppression activity impacts and the mascot Smokey Bear helped to champion wildfire necessity for additional restoration (Mohr and Curtiss suppression during this time and established a legacy 1998). However, wildland fires continue to pose a that for more than 60 years aided in teaching the dilemma for the United States and policy makers public to prevent wildfires. The 10AM policy guided due to threats to public safety, massive fire fighting Forest Service suppression efforts until the mid-1970s, expenditures, commodity damages, compromised and was an effective tool to suppress the majority of ecosystems, air quality, and restoration costs wildfires (Donovan and Brown 2007). (Busenberg 2004; GAO 1999a, 1999b; USFS 2000). Federal fire fighting has become a difficult balance between protecting values at risk and restoring fire for resource management (Figure 2). 2 History of Fire in North America Furthermore, the past century of active fire 2002). These factors of human health and safety, suppression in the United States has led to vast, federal expenditure, and ecosystem integrity collide large-scale ecological changes through increased to present a complex, multifaceted conundrum for fuel loading, vegetation community shifts, and federal land managers and policy makers alike. altered fire regimes (Arno and Allison-Bunnell Figure 2. Wildland fire management now balances integrated concepts of fire fighter safety, minimizing ecological damage, restoring fire for resource management, and managing costs. Photo Credit to Tyler Campbell. 3 A Century of Active Fire Suppression Federal fire policy has shifted from a fire suppression position to a strategic fire use and management stance over the past 100 years. Even though this shift may be optimal for both protecting life/property and managing ecosystems, the past century of active fire suppression in the United States has an enduring legacy that includes vast, large-scale ecological changes through increased fuel loading, vegetation community shifts, and altered fire regimes (Arno and Allison-Bunnell 2002). In the western United States, fire suppression has led to hazardous fuel accumulation including greater canopy fuel loads, more ladder fuels, and greater risk of surface-to-crown fire transitions, all of which increase the potential for catastrophic wildfires (van Wagtendonk 1996). Active fire suppression has resulted in a suite of changes that influence a large variety of fire parameters. Mean Fire Return Intervals now and in the future. Fire regimes in the United States are variable as demonstrated by the federal Mean Fire Return Intervals (MFRIs) are a method to LANDFIRE project which has stratified the US into quantify one aspect of fire regimes. MFRIs suggest 5 Fire Regime Groups (Figure 3). These 5 Fire on average, how frequent fires are present, or were Regime

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