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Journal of Contemporary Research in

Volume 7 Number 1 Fall 2020 Article 2

Fall 10-1-2020

From Epistemological to Educational Pluralism

Matthew B. Etherington Trinity Western

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Recommended Citation Etherington, Matthew B. (2020) "From Epistemological Pragmatism to Educational Pluralism," Journal of Contemporary Research in Education: Vol. 7 : No. 1 , Article 2. Available at: https://egrove.olemiss.edu/jcre/vol7/iss1/2

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From Epistemological Pragmatism to Journal of Contemporary Research in Education Educational Pluralism 7(1) 1-19

Matthew B. Etherington Trinity Western University (Canada)

Abstract Much of K-12 and today reflects ’s pragmatic vision of education. Pragmatism as an has utility such as the ability to solve real concrete problems; however Dewey’s vision lacks comprehensiveness because it privileges scientific over other types of knowledge. Consequently, Dewey’s epistemological pragmatism cannot accommodate all types of knowledge learners and their traditions. For to be inclusive of all learners today they must move away from Dewey’s epistemological pragmatism and adopt educational pluralism.

Introduction technological knowledge. As a result other valid ways of knowing such as inter- Across the twentieth century, generational, traditional, i.e. non-scientific epistemological pragmatism in the Deweyan knowledge that learners bring with them to tradition has been applied to deal with many the classroom is overlooked. educational and social problems. John Intergenerational knowledge is used Dewey had a pragmatic vision for American interchangeably in this paper with the terms education to reconstruct gradually ‘inter-generational knowledge’, ‘traditional gaining international support in the twenty- ways of knowing’ and is defined as that first century. In many nations, including knowledge communicated and exchanged China and Turkey, the hope was that with elders, clerics, grandparents, uncles, education would bring about cultural aunties, and friends whose ages span reconstruction (Pappas & Garrison, 2005). different generation. There is obvious merit with epistemological pragmatism such as its “transformation of This knowledge is at one’s cultural, theory to practice and teaching students to racial, spiritual, sacred or religious core, and be flexible and adaptive to ever changing sometimes but not always is solidified at an conditions” (Khasawneh, et.al, 2014, p. 49). early age, determines how one interacts with In addition, the emphasis on experiential the world and is of both fundamental and learning has the potential to create service life-long significance. Traditional learning projects in schools between knowledge is important because not only is students and community has great it another valid way of knowing but it turns importance (see Loewen, 1996). on the relationship of generations and the duties of elders and family (Bauerlein, At the same time epistemological 2009). In other words, it is family pragmatism privileges scientific knowledge flourishing. as an absolute (Bowers, 1987). Scientific knowledge is any knowledge acquired via The inclusion of other ways of the scientific method. This also includes knowing is not a new concept in the

Etherington ______educational landscape. The importance of behaviour— and in the exchange of ideas including the knowledge and understanding always takes account of scientific and other of parents as active participants on school non-scientific traditions as legitimate ways councils has been to enhance the of knowing. accountability of the education system to the authority of parents. For example in Canada, Pragmatism the Ontario Education Act (2010), Regulation 612 promotes and outlines the Pragmatism is an epistemological strategies and initiates that school boards enterprise, rooted in , constantly should initiate to communicate effectively changing, and relative to what works with and engage regularly with parents in (Knight, 2006). Unfortunately as a regards to the education of their children. standalone it is grounded in a They adopt the view that for education to be restrictive epistemology and does not family flourishing, schools, programs and account for other which are embedded curricular should be informed by multiple in traditions and passed on via the knowledge types. intergenerational knowledge of elders, family, religious communities, and cultural The recommendation is that Dewey’s groups. This is important because Western epistemological pragmatism be re-organized educational institutions reside in cultural and as educational pluralism. A pluralistic religious pluralistic and many education is more authentic to reflect the students have been raised in homes and diverse Western that schools communities that represent these realities exist in compared to the current model of (Berner, 2012). education that reproduces Dewey’s pre 1916 conceptual framework of epistemological Dewey advocated a pragmatic pragmatism (see Fallace, 2010). The education based upon rational thinking, conceptual framework of educational and science and “this came to have pluralism refuses to privilege one increasing appeal for reform-minded epistemology over another, offers parents a educators” (Valk, 2007, p. 275). His variety of choices that reflect their beliefs pragmatic perspective of education has been and their children’s pedagogical needs, realized not only in North America but also reduces the risk of majority domination or internationally. Dewey’s pragmatic vision what Mill (1859, p. 9) called “the tyranny of has asserted itself as a reliable and absolute the majority” and fosters democratic way of knowing, scientifically informed, accountability, and finally educational and is supposedly value-free. A scientific pluralism makes everyone aware of the way of knowing is touted as the most variety of viewpoints (see Berner, 2012). reliable to assist learners on the way to educated and Therefore, educational pluralism successful twenty first century citizens. acknowledges and integrates the This absolutizing of pragmatism leads intergenerational knowledge perspectives of students to doubt other traditions and arrive students, families, cultural and spiritual at different beliefs by empowering them to viewpoints; recognizes and includes other think for themselves (Anderson, 2014). ways of knowing (see Table 1.0 for six While there is nothing inherently examples of other ways of knowing) and problematic with assisting students to think how these inform particular customs and for themselves, this is largely an

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Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 7(1) ______individualistic progressive future oriented which Dewey championed (see Comley, approach which ignores the collective 2009). Nevertheless, it is Dewey’s prevalent values, histories and nature of groups that scientific epistemology, what the author have time-honored intergenerational describes as ‘epistemological pragmatism’ understandings, traditions and values passed rather than the pedagogical application that down to their members and communities is thriving in education today. (Bowers, 1987). Epistemological Pragmatism Crossing However, Stone (2011, n.p.) Borders disagrees that Dewey’s pragmatism is prevalent in education today. Stone writes: Dewey’s epistemological “there is little presence of pragmatism—and pragmatism has become popular in many of Dewey—in America’s schools today countries looking to grow their economies as because the traditional is wedded the scientific method informs educational to an undertaking of standards and policy and reforms. Epistemological accountability which currently trumps most pragmatism—adopted by an increasing efforts for pragmatist inquiry” (Stone, 2011, number of countries and driven by the n.p). Stone advances her argument noting scientific method is anti-tradition. This has that “international couched in a challenged learners who have essentialist rhetoric of neo-liberal globalization has led beliefs as the corner stone of their identity to a twenty-year in which (Papas & Garrison, 2005). This is because one course of study fits all students and such other ways of knowing are grounded in central ideas as present interests and traditions and are drawn from essentialist are considered superfluous” beliefs which turns on the trust that (Stone, 2011, n.p). Similarly Pappas & members of a given group possess core Garrison (2005) agree that pragmatism in characteristics that are both foundational to education has been stifled due to the their identity and largely unalterable (see standardizing neo-liberal agenda. Berner Shils, 1981). (2012) also admits that even though today’s educators have been trained in Dewey’s Epistemological pragmatism has pragmatic , school boards and crossed borders into nations wanting to require teachers to teach a develop a new national and more prescribed curriculum and to grow their economy. It has been adopted participate in high-stakes academic enthusiastically by nations to mark a radical assessments. break from traditions while building a scientifically modern nation (Pappas and It is unquestionably true that Garrison, 2005). For example, Finland’s standards and accountability driven by high- downward slide on the international stakes testing has diminished some of rankings in educational achievement has Dewey’s pragmatist experienced based triggered reformers to move towards vision of learning. Although this in itself adopting a pragmatic philosophy of could be disputed due to ongoing reforms in education. Finnish reformers propose to education which has seen an increase and remove current traditional school subjects emphasis on inquiry and problem-based and make school learning more experiential learning, and inquiry learning is rich in and reflective of ‘real life’. Finnish empirical scientific method grounded testing educators footnote Dewey’s educational

3 Etherington ______vision for these future changes and they pragmatically educated chiefly for the expect pragmatism as a dominant benefit of the economy. philosophy guiding both curriculum content The scientific language common within and to assist with the fiscal needs educational policy and teacher ‘speak’ of the country (see Nelson, 2015). furthers the intrusion of epistemological pragmatism (Bowers, 2011). Students come Another example where the to know what is true, real and of value in a Deweyan pragmatic synthesis has been “systemic and consistent manner and via the adopted as a strategy for economic recovery ‘education system’, through ‘learning are found within the Hispanic world. For efficiency’, and by ‘’, example, the adoption of Dewey’s scientific leading to ‘learning progress’, and methodology and pragmatic knowledge is satisfactory ‘educational outcomes’ (see hoped to lead Spain to modernization and NCLB, 2007, p.3). This kind of discourse nation building (see Pappas & Garrison, brings with it scientific/technological 2005). The impact that pragmatism had on patterns of thinking that privilege progress the Hispanic culture, Europe and North to the detriment of tradition. For example, America is having a modernization effect in the normalization of abrupt change (always the force of scientific knowledge as the expressed in positive terms) in education as standard to inform the ideal of progress the inevitable consequence of progress (see (Pappas & Garrison, 2005). One important Jerald, 2009). This is recognized in the aspect to Dewey’s pragmatic vision for values adopted by the Olympic motto: education was to exploit a scientific ‘faster, higher, and stronger’. The motto epistemology as an absolute to promotes progress as a positive value to (Marsden, 1997). To be educated one must adopt within an environment of competition, place their trust in scientific knowledge and performance, comparison and perfection. its methodology. In 2007 the US Only the strong succeed in such an ’s ‘No Left Behind Act’ environment. Yet the motto ignores the was an appropriate case in point of a nation value and of survival of the weak. As adopting and increasing its scientific- a result human are not shown the technological procedures to deliver high other side of human. As Wang (2011, stakes testing. The NCLB Act instructs p. 1) states: “the Olympic motto is just a schools to “implement reform strategies barbed rose, which not only brings beauty to informed by scientifically-based human beings, but will also hurt the fingers research…scientifically-based research of those who pick her flowers…”. The utilizes measurements that provide reliable, weak, Wang (2011) suggests, have no other valid data…” (NCLB, 2007, p.3). choice but to accept or resist this ‘law of the jungle’. Consequently, it is not difficult to understand why K-12 and higher The Olympic motto parallels educational institutions are closely managed pragmatic discourse in education. The by scientific standards and accountability as emphasis on student performance and a valid, reliable and governing way of improved techniques and practices to elicit knowing. John Dewey’s epistemological effective outcomes. The attention to pragmatism is compatible with the technical and scientific innovation and the scientifically literate learner today; relationship that education has with a strong and competitive economy and industry. The

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Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 7(1) ______adoption of cutting edge scientific is increasingly multicultural and with that techniques for greater student and teacher comes different traditions and performance, together with evidence based systems. Roald (2011, p.149) outlines the pedagogy, quality, reliability, value, service, problem: and the cost and availability of educational Whereas most nation-states today products as a means for learners to become consist of more than one cultural ‘faster, higher, stronger. Such discourse community and can thus be said to stimulates patterns of thinking which are be ‘multicultural ’, very few dominated by images of performance, societies are ‘multiculturalist comparison and perfection as an societies’, in the meaning of unquestioned good. Consequently, traditions cherishing and encouraging more that value a different and than one cultural approach… the are informed by ways of knowing that are ideal of ‘multiculturalism’ is built not guided by science as an unquestioned partly on the Enlightenment ideal of absolute are regarded as an “intellectual rights and not collective disturbance, irrelevant, backward and rights… a notion which since the obsolete” (Shils, 1981, p. 8). 1970s has been a strong underlying force in countries particularly in Epistemological pragmatism adopts northern Europe, in the US, Canada the similar thought patterns and expectations and Australia. of the industrial of the 19th century. This is important to note because When education privileges this period in history thoroughly destroyed individual rights over and above groups who the family and the old manner of doing adhere to collective rights which are often things (McLamb, 2011). The commitment to intergenerational and respects family efficiency, the economy and the scientific wisdom, education tends to rely exclusively method are all integral to Dewey’s on scientific or rationalistic forms as a tool pragmatic vision of education. for modernization and expects all its students to do the same without question— Education, Traditions and Pluralism therefore it is bound to conflict with society and other traditions that reflect collective Although educators and curriculum rights (Pappas & Garrison, 2005). Although policy document the importance and educational reforms in Western societies appreciation of pluralism, much of the highlight the importance of reflecting argument has been about people of diversity pluralism and promoting diversity and only but has ignored a deep epistemological equality as individual rights (Roald, 2011), approach. One example is the University of the political philosopher Michigan Intergroup Relations Program (1958) commented back in the late 1950s (IGR), which merely fits in the presence of that society demands more often than not diverse others and the equality among its that its members “act as though they were peers, but no deep perspectival approach to members of one enormous family which has understanding the traditions of diverse only one opinion and one interest” (p. 39). others (see Gurin, Nagda & Lopez, 2004). Dewey believed that “school is society” with Similarly, Lawyer Sheldon Chumir a substantive interaction between the two who led a campaign in the 1980s against (Weijia & Kaiyuan, 2007). Western society alternatives in public schools, argued that

5 Etherington ______the public schools were “designed to mix life. While teachers tell students that children of different ethnic and religious school prepares them for life, the few groups and eliminate those differences” similarities they do see between the (Bateman, 1988, p. 8). The goal of two worlds are rarely put into education is uniformity not an appreciation practice in the school world. She also of . sees teachers lacking experience and reflection on what the 'real ' is. A Dewey pragmatic culture of If this were not damaging enough to learning is not sensitive to other cultural the image of teachers Meier outlines ways of knowing. To illustrate, Morgan the regular public beating their (2006) notes that Japanese culture does not vocation takes (Loewen, 1996, p. favor the Western ideals of opportunism and 16). individuality but instead conformity and tradition. Dewey’s anti-traditional views do The idea and practice of a pragmatic not draw seriously upon the knowledge, vision of scientifically informed education is or value perspectives reflected by important, however, as is the case with any diverse learners of ethic, cultural, religious model, it has limits. Thiessen (1993) argues difference who have ways of knowing that that although growth and self-realization of are not necessarily scientific or pragmatic. the individual is the aim of education, it is Here pragmatic is used in the philosophical rooted in a Western cultural model that sense based on the principle that the supports only individualistic thought “usefulness, workability and practicality of patterns (see also Roald, 2011). Although ideas, policies, and proposals are the criteria autonomy, , and self- of their merit” (Thayer, 2013, n.p). It actualization are important in a liberal stresses the priority of action over doctrine, education, some cultures and traditions see of experience over fixed principles (see these as relatively unimportant (Shils, 1981). Although Western society is far more Moreover, although the unimpeded and culturally, religiously, ethnically diverse unconstrained development of the mind is than it is uniform, the adoption of Dewey’s important, this is idealistic because it commitment to scientifically informed assumes absolute freedom which is not pragmatism does not accommodate the reality (Thiessen, 1993). The development diversity of knowledge, reality or values that of the mind, including Dewey’s ethnocentric traditions and cultures reflect and appreciate. views on culture and race (Fallace, 2010) This is one reason why Deweyan always occurs within the context of a pragmatism as an epistemology has come particular tradition and culture (Bowers, into direct conflict with other traditional 2011). authorities in society (Pappas & Garrison, 2005). We also should ask ourselves if education should have as its goal the Deborah Meier (1993) acknowledges liberalization of the learner from his or her the mismatch between school and real life. past. To liberalize a person to move beyond She suggests the following for their traditions as a way of knowing i.e. non- consideration: scientific traditions, that is to characterize There are too many teachers as the past and traditions as “limitations” from masters of a game which has very which they need to be liberated. Why view little resemblance to the game of real traditional ways of knowing in such a

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Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 7(1) ______pejorative way? Instead of being a with otherwise we think of ourselves as limitation, it may be the case that non- infallible. scientific traditional ways of knowing are The necessity of educational “healthy and actually broadens one’s pluralism is implied by Berner (2012). She horizons” (Thiessen, 1993, p. 232). notes that because Western democracies are so culturally and religiously diverse, Finally, education does not occur in educational institutions should reflect this a vacuum, but inside other ‘institutions’ and diversity and mirror a wide variety of traditions such as schools, family and epistemological beliefs and commitments. society (Murphy, 1973, p. 5). A common They would necessarily embrace religious, one-size-fits-all education is disrespectful to secular, philosophical, and pedagogical minority groups (Callan, 1996). This charge varieties. By doing so educational was raised by Dei (1995) who argued that institutions would affirm both the dignity of the lack of an inclusive worldview diverse knowledge commitments and curriculum in Black/African-Canadian high society’s interest in the nurture of the next schools was a serious flaw in the educational generation (Berner, 2012). system. Dei recommended a more reasonable liberal approach to knowledge The teacher could model this and pedagogic practices. commitment as a critical thinker, especially because the teacher is after all a person Educational Pluralism as a themselves with a history and tradition (see Comprehensive Education Mill, 1859). Educators and students think about, make judgments and experience Educators can build upon Dewey’s curricula not in an impartial neutral way but pragmatic epistemology but it must do so by through different epistemological broadening the vision to educational frameworks, or perspectives. This is what it pluralism. If education is to be a respecter of means to be human—to have a point of individual persons and also the collective view, to know and be embedded in one’s rights of different groups, a comprehensive history and future, to be aware of other framework is needed for drawing on other epistemological beliefs and why they are ways of knowing in company with but in living options today, and to be so informed addition to the scientific method. As the as to understand the ways these influence philosopher Mary Warnock (1975) argued, social and cognitive development. A people hold to particular perspectives of respectful and informed education reality and rather than conceal this from appreciates what a person comes to believe students they are entitled to engage with the and accept as true is indeed a “complicated framework that a teacher and other people amalgam of what they bring to their adopt for understanding different types of education and what their education brings knowledge and realities. Morgan (2006) upon them” (Wolterstorff, 2002, p. 111). suggests that there is “considerable value in adopting the standpoint of another stranger A comprehensive model of because we can see our own limitations in a educational pluralism exposes students to refreshingly new perspective” (p.125). John informed, critical about the Stuart Mill (1859) said that we must hear the types of knowledge that guide the best arguments from those we most disagree perspectives and decisions of others. As Lee, Yen & Aikenhead (2012, p.2) suggest, “a

7 Etherington ______science teacher who appreciates a student’s goodness through perspective will likely anticipate that some (Nord, n.d, p.8). ideas found in a science curriculum may If educational pluralism is realized appear plausible to the student, while others then teachers and students must become co- may not”. Questions and controversies are learners. Nord suggests that students will ideally encouraged in dialog within a “liberally educate teachers because teachers pluralistic education as students are exposed are learners too” (Nord, 2010, p.114). to and ask questions about the different interpretations they have concerning the Educational pluralism signifies what disciplines. Alasdair MacIntyre believed an education should signify—“a place of constrained An anticipated objection to disagreement, of imposed participation in educational pluralism is the possibility that conflict in which a central responsibility learners may in fact interpret the data so would be to initiate students into conflict” differently that conversations between (Nord, 2011, p. 111). In other words learners become incommensurable and educational pluralism represents the messy meaningless (Lees, 2011). However, here and realistic nature of learning in a presents an opportunity for the educator to (see Mill, 1859). Diekema, utilize the skills necessary to demonstrate to (2000) argues that “without such tension and learners how people arrive at their dialogue, education will not progress but conclusions using varied knowledge types regress, because when such tensions cease to i.e. historical, mathematical, aesthetic, exist the educational community is either spiritual, indigenous and acknowledge that dying or in a chaotic state” (p. 40). some perspectives may challenge others. What is important here is not agreement but Finally, the goal of educational instead understanding (Stojanov, 2011). As pluralism is to draw on the cultural richness Nord (n.d, par. 8) highlights: and creativity inherent in multiple perspectives. As Viri (2003) writes, “this is Not all cultures and intellectual a key to our collective advancement as traditions and academic disciplines human beings for a harmonious world are compatible with each other; there future. Educators must invest are tensions and conflicts, as well as wholeheartedly in our diversity and multiple continuities and complementarities, perspectives—celebrating and nurturing among them. It is not enough, if our them—not trying to reduce what we teach goal is critical thinking, simply to and learn into a dull social and intellectual introduce students to various monotone” (Viri, 2003, p. 62). cultures, disciplines, intellectual traditions, in turn, like items on an The Benefits of Educational Pluralism academic cafeteria-line. A good will initiate What is described as educational students into an on-going pluralism gives meaning to varied realities conversation about how to sort out that encourage and groups to live the contending views. This is the their lives in harmony with their deepest Socratic nature of a liberal beliefs about what gives meaning and education: we seek truth and purpose to life (see Galston, 2002; Thiessen, 1993). Since Dewey also believed that a

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Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 7(1) ______worthwhile education is concerned for the most to offer about the real world are not individuals and community through the in the schools, but out in the community”. stimulation of the child’s powers to act as a The recommendation to embrace a member of a unity, the learner would model of educational pluralism is reinforced conceive of herself from the standpoint of by the educationalist and philosopher John the welfare of the group to which she Portelli (1996). He writes that an inclusive belongs (Dewey, 1897). education benefits educators to portray humility. If educators desire their students to However as conscious beings, be critical thinkers, they must recognize that educational pluralism understands that one can never be expected to divorce oneself persons are not socially or culturally bound from one’s point of view but rather draw on by the ideals of others but have the capacity and learn from the perspectives of other to express their beliefs and for others to traditions and intergenerational knowledge understand and take their views seriously, that others value to make sense of the world. although not necessarily as factual The living traditions that learners bring to (Stojanov, 2011, p. 166). This would take the classroom are meaningful to them, and account of other ways of knowing in these must attract the respect and inclusion conjunction with the scientific by drawing often championed by educators and on intergenerational knowledge to answer curriculum developers. Educational non-scientific, i.e., moral questions, and also pluralism includes other knowledge types, scientific questions (see DeNicola, 2011). values and realities by including traditional and contemporary perspectives to enhance Educational pluralism emulates the curriculum, and the student’s ability and contemporary pluralistic reality and understanding to incorporate her knowledge diversity of Western society and privileges to understand other people and their claims no one way of knowing. It is a respecter of which are different to their own. all persons, and an initiator of people into a community of critical ‘inside’ perspectives Difference Celebrated that reflects no one ideal of life. Educational pluralism is vital for teachers and ultimately A comprehensive and hospitable their students to practice if they are to education must also solve real-world graduate as knowledgeable, empathetic, problems and leave the impression that inclusive, tolerant, alert and educated educational theory and practice are persons. important for resolving some of the ills that continue to distort an understanding of Educational pluralism is a respecter diversity and tolerance. Educational of persons as it commits to a perspectival pluralism will not overlook these deep approach to knowledge, reality and value. It questions that divide us because it promotes draws on understandings from a broad and equity and the understanding of diversity comprehensive application of knowledge (see Callan, 1996, p. 286). types and living traditions from people who live and breathe their traditions. This Consequently, Sheldon Chumir was involves school students, parents and most mistaken when he supposed that public importantly local community involved in the schools were designed to mix children of education of children as learners. As different ethnic and religious groups and Loewen (1996, p. 30) notes “…those with eliminate those differences. Although

9 Etherington ______members often forgo their differences at stated values is of utmost importance school and focus only on what they have in because “we all tend to view and evaluate common, to concentrate only on what the disciplines [others] through our own persons have or should have in common is prejudices and insecurities” (see Peters, to strip people of their identity as persons 1977, p. 175). with different traditions and histories. This sets up a false dichotomy, for education can This conversation was active in the be a respecter of both unity and individual 1970s when the British philosopher of difference. Pearcey (2004) notes that the education R.S Peters argued for a broader modernistic Western practice of education educational conversation that included suffers from a fragmentation that creates listening to other voices regarding these false dichotomies, which then affects educational problems. As Peters clarifies: “I every aspect of life, particularly . am convinced that curriculum projects Educational pluralism celebrates different would benefit if people representing ways of knowing as it orientates learners to different perspectives on education problems the living stories of how people make sense were involved constructively in devising of the world. This gives space for learners to them…” (Peters, 1977, p.174). Although he participate in those different stories (Taylor, endorsed a common education it was an 1989). Moreover, the stories themselves can education that promoted reasonableness. be interpreted differently because nobody is The practice of ‘reasonableness’ in ever the same as anyone else (Arendt, 1958). education is best expressed by Callan (1996, A celebration of difference includes p. 279): different knowledge types. An education The exercise of reasonableness that acknowledges different ways of presupposes a deliberate setting in knowing requires an eclectic model of which [learners as] citizens with education which can cohabitate fruitfully conflicting values and interests can with Dewey’s pragmatic scientific vision. join together to create a morally grounded consensus on how to live According to Dewey learners should together. be autonomous and problem-solving who are committed to exploration and evaluation. This sets the stage for an integrative In fact he understood the importance of position to widen the current K-12 and discerning from what lies behind a person’s higher education curriculum to carry stated views and he noted that educators forward a broad education which would have failed to do this well. The hope for a embrace a person’s traditions seriously as a Dewey vision of education is for a more learner and most importantly as a person. active co-operation between representatives The curriculum would take difference of different . A similar seriously by serving to represent and position is taken by Volf (2014, par.25) integrate the epistemological perspectives when he argues that “people from diverse that persons have of each core discipline. perspectives cannot engage each other in a This mirrors the pluralistic reality of meaningful way because they have never contemporary Western society to which mastered the of conversation about education must reflect. alternative accounts of what makes life worth living and what values should guide An educated person must understand it”. Discerning what lies behind a person’s the influence that traditions have upon

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Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 7(1) ______economic, political and social structures , writing, science and mathematical (Narayan, 2013). Because we disagree so knowledge and skills, there is now space for deeply about the merits of various ways of the living traditions and perspectives of making sense of the world and our lives, it is learners, families and communities. even more important that learners be Flexibility, choice, consultation with introduced to a variety of pluralistic parents, community and leaders with the alternatives if they are to be knowledgeable goal of personalized learning are valued as so as to think critically (Nord, 2010). To twenty first century educational initiatives. offer students only one way of viewing the The plan would acknowledge a broad world and one version of knowledge borders epistemology which draws on the traditional on indoctrination through uniformity. institutions of school, community and Uniformity breeds indoctrination of the family. Learners, families and community worst kind, because it is implicit and members are expected to a more active unacknowledged (Berner, 2012). Uniformity role in designing educational curricular. If is uncritical and minimizes the autonomy of this broader view of knowledge does learners, both of which are pre-requisites for eventuate, this would be a significant an educated person (Peters, 1977). ‘ontological turn’ in education. The proposed plan lends itself well to Redesigning Educational Curriculum to educational pluralism that respects the Reflect Educational Pluralism learner, family and community and provides a comprehensive, generous and broad To create and maintain a civilized education. democratic society, all people are active participants in educational matters (see Mill, Educational pluralism provides 1859). The challenge is how to maintain the students with a wider and richer learning national societal identity as part of people’s experience as they are exposed to a greater traditional identities which has been formed understanding of knowledge types, how this by their families, communities and culture informs people’s decisions and goals in life, (see Khasawneh et.al, 2014). How can i.e. reality. Educational pluralism retains its schools maximize the involvement of other compulsory ideal of learning the basics, and ways of knowing and include this is important because a voluntary system intergenerational knowledge so that would hinder and disregard those people programs and curricular are meaningful, who, because of a disadvantaged home educationally robust and make an impact? background, do not have the parental How can educators reach an understanding support, encouragement or indeed the that intergenerational programs are the next inclination (Peters, 1977). Educational logical step in education reform? pluralism is sensitive to a different ways of School curriculum requires wide-ranging knowing, values and realities and reflects reform for a new paradigm of the vision of an educated person as comprehensive learning. What is “characterizing the all-round development of recommended is the presence of educational a person morally, intellectually and pluralism that embraces contributions from spiritually” (Hirst & Peters, 1970, p. 24). students, teachers, families, caregivers, and community which then direct curriculum in Educational pluralism enables meaningful ways. Although the general learners to understand how traditions rest on broad liberal education is retained, that is, a network of interlocking assumptions about

11 Etherington ______knowledge, value and reality. Learners developing a much narrower, begin to “get a clearer understanding of the impoverished, understandings of pluralistic i.e. knowledge, value and reality”. metaphysical assumptions, to which we all seem so uncritically committed without The fundamental mission is to make challenge” (Hirst & Peters, 1970, p. 11). education truly inclusive and to help every Finally, educational pluralism has the learner develop an awareness of the richness potential to humanize learning by attaching of learning from other perspectives besides itself to a larger social, traditional and one’s own. historical significance. Reforms must begin with school- The Pragmatics of Educational Pluralism person-community apprenticeships with others outside of the school. An By means of educational pluralism apprenticeship model would reflect learners are introduced to a particular topic experiential learning and would involve a from other ways of knowing and from representative person i.e. teacher, coach, within a particular perspective. For example, tutor, mentor or master, someone who is post-, constructivism, deeply invested in the future of their “craft”, advocacy/participatory, pragmatism who would educate the young person in pluralistic, Indigenous, and religious are all matters important to the family or traditions that can be integrated as ways of community and properly learned in the knowing (see Creswell, 2009, p. 7 and Table environment of the representative. The aim 1.0). The teacher aims to encourage students would be to increase the intellectual and to reflect critically and humbly from the personal development of the young person. different perspectives to which they are Loewen (1996, p. 13) suggests that “adults exposed. This type of inclusive education with mastery in various crafts, talents and initiates learners into a knowledgeable habits of mind can revitalize these aspects if understanding of human civilizations. It we can recruit a significant number of them understands that the child is not a solitary into our schools”. Because this process is a individual in the world, with everything else long and active one invested in deep as mere context. Rather, to be a human understanding and demonstrable learning, to being is to be part of the company of other do this properly it is safe to say that schools people in community. The school is a will need to tolerate the “unpredictable pace project of, by and for that community. As of learning, the variance of teaching Nord (2010) states: methods and variety of learning” that will result (see Loewen, 1996, p. 11). A liberal education has, then, four dimensions—breadth, depth, inside An apprenticeship model of learning understanding, and historical can assist young people to understand perspective—all connected by way perspectives, skills and knowledge that is of an ongoing critical conversation. often outside of their own thinking about Each of these dimensions of a liberal learning and tradition. An apprenticeship education gets at a dimension of model lends itself well to Senge’s vision of reality, conveying to students what he describes as a ‘systems thinking something of its richness; illiberally approach’ (see Senge, 2009). Senge educated students are in danger of maintains that people learn together

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Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 7(1) ______interacting with one another and not in include: post-positivism, constructivism, isolation within abstract systems. This is advocacy/participatory, and pragmatism. especially important today since we live together in an increasing smaller world. In Table 1.0 these four plural Knowledge is always embodied in a person perspectives are expanded to include and so ‘systems thinking’ suggests Senge Indigenous and religious perspective. A (2009) allows one to see a holistic systemic religious perspective can mean the view of education and learning. This traditional world religions—Judaism, requires educators and learners to triangulate Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism with different people, from different points and . Concerning the Indigenous of view, who are seeing different aspects of perspective it is important to note that there a topic to come together and collectively is no one Indigenous perspective but rather start to see something that individually none perspectives; however the spiritual nature of of them see is often the outcome. learning and holistic view of education is Although the apprenticeship model and universal. The same is true concerning a ‘systems thinking approach’ positively religious perspective/s which is influenced echoes Dewey’s vision for experiential by denomination, culture and history. learning, the apprenticeship model described here is a departure from the scientifically The two additional perspectives are informed pragmatic views of Dewey as an considered live options in contemporary absolute way of knowing and learning. This democratic society. For example, Brewer is because there must be a concern for (2007) notes that religion is not a private understanding the different values experience but is of public importance with underlying the different modes of awareness an increasing resurgence within society. such as the values reflected in the moral, Battiste (2013) argues that education has interpersonal, religious, mathematical, begun to recognize a revitalized knowledge scientific, and historical. There must be a system which incorporates both Indigenous concern for the values that underlie types of knowledge and Eurocentric thinking. knowledge because the educator should “have a respect for truth and for persons” Table 1.0 Six Perspectives (Peters, 1977, p.29, 155).

Postpositivism Constructivism Six Alternate Plural Perspectives

Determination Understanding When students are initiated into Multiple participant meanings school curriculum they must first recognize Empirical Social and historical what the alternate perspectives are for the observation construction propositions that are assumed as factual and within the curriculum. Creswell (2009, p. 6) measurement notes that thinking through the Theory generation verification assumptions that are presupposed in the disciplines and also the presuppositions that one brings to their study is simply good Advocacy/ Pragmatism methodology. Creswell lists four particular Participatory plural perspectives for consideration. These Political Consequences of actions could be used to begin a conversation. These Empowerment Problem-centered Issue-oriented

13 Etherington ______

Collaborative Pluralistic Change- Real-world practice oriented If education is to reflect democracy oriented as John Dewey believed it must, a comprehensive education that draws on Religious Indigenous other ways of knowing in deep and Spiritual or Spiritual or supernatural meaningful ways must be realized. supernatural Education and curricular must be open to Holistic Holistic understanding, not necessarily committed to Truth Tradition-historical agreement, but informed about alternative seeking/servant ways of making sense of knowledge, the oriented Tradition- Community oriented/collective world and the values that people have about historical- responsibility/intergenerational life and why (Nord, 2010). It must hear from redemptive individuals and groups of people who really believe and live their beliefs. This requires Using the conceptual model of an education that is sufficiently educational pluralism learners are cognizant comprehensive to initiate all learners as of the foundations and presuppositions stakeholders in their education into a embedded in the traditions and understand tolerant and comprehensive model of how different traditions interpret knowledge, system. shape reality and construct value. Educational pluralism assists learners to The Western educational system can consider realities from alternative play a significant role in developing and perspectives, from the view of the Other. establishing a type of learning institution Such an education “de-centres, it points equipped to produce the sort of society away from the narrow-mindedness of one which honours and cherishes the best of truth, to a direction of broader orientations” humankind. Educators and curricular must (Roebben, 2009, p. 15). adopt a broad and generous epistemology that includes different types of knowledge For example, curriculum might systems, realities and values. Policy makers examine the question: ‘what is education must therefore adopt a diversity of realities when considered from an Indigenous or and epistemologies in schools, which are post-positivistic perspective?’ Dewey currently absent, and declare their understood that education should reflect commitment to educational pluralism (see what society wants, consequently this vision Berner, 2012; Banks & Banks, 2002). reflects the diversity of contemporary society which includes many ways of Educational pluralism gives learners knowing. A comprehensive education using and educators a new way of seeing, a new the six worldview perspectives would better vision for a modern way of educating. reflect the pluralistic realities of today’s Unless the learner has gained some all-round classroom and consequently be a family understanding of other ways of knowing flourishing as a respecter of all persons in besides the scientific, Dewey’s pragmatic . education by itself is reflective of elitism and uniformity. Here upholds the importance of criticizing taken-for-granted views of education that pretend to be

Conclusion

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Journal of Contemporary Research in Education 7(1) ______ideologically neutral but serve only the traditions of learners and the different ways privileged (Katz, 2010). of knowing and helps students understand the types of knowledge embedded within One indication of an educated person particular traditions and how these is that as a result of their education they see assumptions even influence politics and the world differently. When learning is social structures. implemented by way of educational pluralism, students can make broad and deep The additional benefit that learning connections that challenge their educational pluralism would have on the worldview traditions and long held learner is to cultivate tolerance with a assumptions about what is worth knowing. greater capacity for achieving the goal of Van Manen (1991, p.48) argues that teachers helping others to understand what is must be sensitive to the “backgrounds, the different. Phillips (2014) suggests that life-histories and the particular qualities and children who are saturated in a true circumstances of the children for whom they pluralistic education can be oriented to love have responsibility”. Unfortunately, the good, the true, and the beautiful on a “educators are often less interested in what pre-cognitive and affective level. learners need than in what they are able to Educational pluralism can help us be more endure” Van Manen (1991, p.54). than what they help us do and so learners are not regimented, alienated or stifled of their Students must be exposed to the initiative (Peters, 1973). inherent taken-for-granted assumptions embedded within the different disciplines by In conclusion, and in relation to the application of educational pluralism. preparing teachers to teach in variable This is not difficult to do because each contexts, if education is a communal discipline already has its own distinct enterprise and has as its goal to “ensure a metaphysical and epistemological view of healthy diversity of perspectives needed for what is worth knowing. However, the a morally healthy and continually renewing difference is that educational pluralism society while still allowing opportunities to requires learners to remove themselves from converge on a common sense of unity and established and privileged thought patterns purpose” (Viri, 2003, p. 62) the most and compare competing truth claims with effective and sensitive means to achieve this their own and then decide for themselves would be by way of educational pluralism. which ones or one corresponds best to reality (see Mill, 1859). References

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