f f f s y a e o , f as s e o of o o of t ial b he rk, er w ual ing ath t the the the d se and ci t also t a ple at io us p gal le as and re we po eli e o Y rk in g po n ne which . ne sce it y nt e v e ust j udg j sp in b n c o n, r de an x i q une rs, lle (Se d n (o much d cial nsus, nse ct wo al ti inning se e v achie s e wav inhard Re re we d wne high would f w ne -scrip s c what ity tio ant l itica un so ; as co w Ne st nre o s cte a ity g e t rba rre f n re ol nfli t 5 to rm d ict u the w n whe ew b f wa io us bil u spa o l Pl P al , y nd a , ife ru ra ori , rs o r fo l u co s , t e a onst gr tha an 97 m ne nfl ton s . y n q cia il t st so nd w 1 C e a occu the l id en innov l ou d o a a rn the co nge insta ce a l s of tio int Re lig W the hi d ). time it ine nce nity tha Bos cons tu a a th , ntz de l ge on l re s , 1 midst iab en f e d a r n ne rn rt with v w stra 8 ti se n o . A ip a rke re o rge o T nd i ical in o cre ul 9 u tiv ndon, . e mode 0) . e ne a e we . h s s e ocia d a 1 e , nge lit umu nce rica gr 9 e nce s l a we d. ca ma e rioting ins o P s lo rse t , at Lo nv l l u d e rov t ce s ng n, o da commu s ing a co po ru cre ra 19 a be p S s, ro du c me at pr om t wa co mo ng sibl to up itizen nd , w r e nde l s nd s p a A rie l c e div pl int ic sio d d a d, a a l l 40 l oks, the s co re e , y nd taki this bl cia f 8 po which cilit Nico g xte k he a ia ns sca ht nt chool cto the nd n t , o 1 e Bo s of fa g lsk a l rme at e o pu crisis ic opu fa cohe l wou d l st s ” nn cru tio de r , too onse s Lockridge Unit ft pe c p ” in t r he fo ove r d b by y r de ibra s f nd s ; f rou ll t v e o sp rt a ra ifie o itu rwise se Le 1 nre Ma o the day b sma s ie he ding nce pu e The a This N t d u wa s re fu ha rm s ur n l il rl d ctice rsa cu to w d t e t o 98 0 a . d ce u o a the mmon e f t e e inst once mpl rl ife f ; b rna 1 in e rce fo ing o l o s ci ev a te de te ra . ke e i Ne in pra e 83 se u timing co l al act tiv a t o v o niv ot arose h wo ta , 1 g o s ta ta dy v nd o u f s s c s, ity iming e on, ra v H th es a a no a g l and, t “ a ods o tion The cre s re ctice 197 7 ls C f o and s for , y a tiona he cont pons s he re pe - lf w o a b rce crisis in t ca l ts , s, t a l t d. king ma , s. I a c ing s e Ne d ns pra p nce se n fo er t N o wa “forma r ne le n ( ng might du urho nce y he nary cretio dis sly rg As l p s, it z d e io l t a a re e ha o e l ia nisms ic. rant u ni int l ring p te fo nt me ). rt rshi ro ut ga ge d r he oc em e ai rw nsib hb s o lic p ta n v d ke ub ding e v le g itics itica o tit 64 Du S This nditio r d o fficial ade ndix, e io v re re mane ub ol ol iv rce e f ha uffrag o bargaining ig ne mo ro e which t O (H p immig rank c co s wide ins re we ba cha me p which o fe de p le mo p t whe B p 19 n a imp v e s p re p rity he , f t y a - f ar of of o a e ry its gh be a ple l the nd, y ke was as and first p l se a itical a n ofn te e v e many social l much shown a during d rapidl ho tion of popul the e d ce may throu practice in pol d. e olv inv ption re he ye , Rece nt ly why fa – re v has tra social politicians in for ipatio xamine It corrtion up he an s s e dominance t pla e which . y it e hav AL n Whil a probably ISIS CR nationa xist. e tic more rce pe , r se re igins I tt e rd ucte . e s citie le the y d re ai a m urb n nce s ion, p public. o tur an s r II, . e or , w ne d : T or t issu r ct e roj 2), e d fine de own a nst e ut n re IC T co as ’ e r fro v and oca p owe udg en 9 to l j n s A he it IC as w ol c is cur p i y co aut achu I L n wn v it xpl e t ssions conce ir l e ancho tion a W ining ot the come the d , ning gai ss e (19 a ion of nd a or d t obs b Re th a rican d , ining o be ion. PO the be kno ffor l rg whe incre t horit L NF 5 0 0 2 his a t a v to Ma l ie to and non. y e icte t plea n t n 19 ly ion t to y aining o ngl or me ba y O rg a v t t d d e ood s t innov , au E rsia l A e Y rg he sit orl W is OF C s its lit e a ing t rica ba a e W inno lty c ton, n ctice a rio e he ru wa no r w ly confl r ba cu e . y a l t po nome d h E wa inno e p ra a e t pl rov d me time ical ar - lf s pe y gui i It ga re ul l p l ft roach Ne he a e Bos e e ros rpris A its Pl a a w s lit in s bar p le don ity a p e of a Pl qu ine t ocie e ne su wo he ical r ithe g e s cont ENC l po the of 6). the um of e e nse e ng rts app the as same nal ts. ebruary January/F l oge V ll or G f of nd thor D y e re d l the singl w ris a 99 of o te int actice a s mic be that alo time hl AKING M 1 au cou a E r te roo as 7 5 ntre a e the lican nt. ishme pr EN w cia m l t, maintain pe r natio to af is n k, E- icit y t hig it l ich be nte in the o ibute ce e ing a a a s itimacy cono ho th R to so entry fr pub ht d ining urpo Issue e n nie stabl h

wh -cr re Y IT t and rica g y in ot h xpl e such nal p e E re g le rinte a thre ar e s ro ut, gain ndsca distr instance rga y s s ns , Mar (Nov b tha s a la to 0s or duce nt’ OR its and historica ba INDEP n kin e l atio xplore thoug houg bar ny Ame H T ch the llingl le ally e a and Curiae n

r the ide se ning ning mac by My ea Pl e l po , h d e rian in d ine ssio e su pro a e icit 183 a ru acle k - ST lt H T c in usio re n enda the r al a pl s litica o T In pe e mpe n le sta . se ntu e lf isis g ef bst f r rde ne g e f v , lite ov ha o g se the histo co we t e wa that o le o cr o diff su po wo e b ro ca d impl de o U A us Amic

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Article 2 A r

1991). Irish immigrants began to coalesce as a major force for the city. Pointing to the “spirit of violence t presence too. Amidst these pressures, conflict, unrest and abroad”, Eliot argued that the residents must be protected. i violence, rather than harmony, was the order of the day. Whether disorder and crime actually were rising or were c Because self-rule was still new and local political simply perceived now as more threatening, it is clear that l capacity for responding to conflict was limited, there arose violence was pervasive. e a sense of crisis and of threat to both the social order and During the , a remarkable spate of and routs to the elite power embedded in it. It was desire, in this occurred. Two events, in particular, brought public distress context, to protect order and to reconsolidate the city to a fever pitch – the burning of an Ursuline Convent in elite’s partisan control that elicitied new state responses. Charlestown in a flare-up of anti-Irish sentiment in 1834 Spurred on by the election of Andrew Jackson to the and the famed Broad Street of 1837. After the “Mount Presidency, strikes by the Workingmen’s movement swept Benedict Outrage”, as the convent fire was known, public the American northeast between 1833 and 1836. Their agitation soared. It was seen as “a riot with social, even crusade was for a 10-hour working day – a goal that, by political implications”. (Lane, 1971, p 30). By then, city 1836, had essentially been achieved (Sellers, 1991, p 338). officials, who were very aware of similar happenings in Yet, their discourse endured. Labour leaders charged that England and on the Continent, were acutely sensitive to “capital divided society into two classes, the producing the political potential of such events. (Lane, 1971, p 30). many and the exploiting few, by expropriating the fruits of In 1836 and 1837 an economic downturn, followed by labour” (Sellers, 1991, p. 338). Working men challenged financial panic, further fanned fears about the fragility of growing inequality that let a privileged few flourish at the the new order. Unease created by daily contact among expense of many. Resentment simmered. By the 1830s, persons of diverse ranks in the city amplified fears as the public concern was widespread about the future of lives of the poor impinged ever more on the consciousness republican self-rule. Workers began to use the language of of the affluent (Lane, 1971). republicanism in new ways that now viewed the holistic As labour unrest, ethnic conflict and crime mounted, interests of the society through a new modestly socialist shockwaves were buffered less than they had traditionally lens (Forbath, 1991). Social disorder, riots and strikes been by the erosion of shared religious values and cultural riveted elected officials. To defuse resentment and reassert commonalities (Wiebe, 1966). Thus, during the 1830s, control, they turned for help to the ideology of a “rule of when social conflict grew, amidst weakened cultural law.” consensus, it produced an acute sense of crisis in the new By this point, conflict had gripped the public order. Response to this crisis was shaped by its timing imagination. Ethnic diversity and contention soared as did which caused state action to be devised in the context of images of the Irish as one major source of the turmoil two other key happenings (Poulantzas, 1975). Extension of Adding to these ethnic tensions was a palpable public fear the vote meant that any initiative must take a form that of crime – especially violence. Recently, Eric Monkkonnen would sustain the popular consent crucial to self-rule. (1996) has presented data for City showing that There was also emerging a new conscious campaign to the 1820s experienced not just heightened fear, but a very promote social policy and the “people’s welfare” through real increase in actual homicide – a trend that peaked law (Horwitz, 1977). The fact that crisis emerged during nationally during the 1850s (Gurr, 1981). Addressing the this “formative era” of American law created a special Boston City Council on September 18, 1837, Mayor Eliot window of opportunity for cultural change. decried the threat posed by “the incendiary, burglar and the lawlessly violent” which was “increasing at a ratio faster THE LEGAL ESTABLISHMENT AND THE than that of the population” (cited in Lane, 1971, p 34). LEGACY OF POST-REVOLUTIONARY Data on arrests in Boston are available only for 1831 and FEDERALISM 1850 so that, questions of the relation of arrests to Almost without exception, the bar, after offences actually committed aside, detailed analysis of the War of Independence, consisted of, first, Federalists arrests over this period is not possible. However, data on and, later, Whigs (Warren, 1931, pp 174, 178). During the commitments of those convicted to the Boston Jail show a “formative era”, lawyers achieved new influence after they 45 per cent increase in just four years between 1830–34 – recovered from an immediate post-Revolutionary period the only early 19th century years for which those records of disrepute. This political collegiality in the sympathies of appear to exist – as compared to only a 25 per cent the bar was reinforced by a long tradition of fraternity, increase in the population of the City of Boston for the practical exchange of ideas and fellow feeling, on the one entire decade 1830–40 (Council of the Massachusetts hand, and, first, Federalist, and, then, Whig control of the Temperance Society, 1834, p 81 and Handlin, 1979, Commonwealth’s judicial appointments, on the other, to p239). ensure that the courts were presided over by judges in step Probably the clearest sign of public fear is that the Mayor with the policies of these successive elite-dominated requested and obtained funds to establish a paid police parties. 3

Amicus Curiae Issue 57 January/February 2005 , , f f f s - a a a y ” o o p p it ly le as o o o t t ht a “ or b he he he he ng . re e iv e iv his f ute t t t the t the is t us h was and to e niz fact urn, T n n rm s ing h cti at t g me re f HE op e r lowe if s mig in d, faile ant me hat o st p a 1971). fo and ht s fo be T t fle n e iv ” ustice j in s dure ce d nacte e 1977, e 1993, came e rlawye ’ the suc life n he icism d, nge n due tio e er ilo om, houg g m ing solv re r s , Sup t nt. e d d d nde t to b nge e nd , re co re p ri g c st e rnse at v l l , z cal ls f cr ly te d r nce a tio cre to , ntat se re , ne rs re e only e tio te ul a eF d era l s pro ns s, he , rity o t cha crit ory v v in w so t xte he r o e cu co fo tiv re t to fore l t l a dis de se v v e dis et ining co sta l ws a S y e was wo t (La p re chal AND s ha a ly a d ot l ion ia ing nt a tima ct tho re d l in s ha a s. b s ns mo t l r ta e nta orwit and , r ns t t le re nde u ” a h dy t rity , a nt fa mo s ul fe de nt cl nte l te ght tha ac a at u ite ld a t the ne se p to w io d ri c a f a u tte (H , s e t a the a l e co “s me fo a re l o is nt l se er e ha t pu on dicia st tho ide wha rsiste l of more nt me lm ing (Jo so l middl , y t es d cte pre w roo a , s uing nt die w mmon int ma u j nd wou Jo r ru ring a tiv en au nt po pe re que l x, me le d a cing s re lis re dgwick, dec d a g wa CHISE rty ns he d e co ed nt y its wa E po l P t w” iste arg t ta d al it g ou n a nact in ce ra the xpe w b s a Se in f dicia du me ha to u with e as rwhe l r l ). e dition gisl se in d e . e rifying ate g e r ab s me b l re l u j de AN re 0 l e v ne a La e d ge me t ol r n mov ve the e le rope bo re itica ns as by inta 3 ba heir o tra re p with ec t cl a T e o p ct e e e t rs nde e F nd mmo cond n l ra- ol diat r n form in t t in tory owe mo p R F do a d u he produ d ffra nce the e bl p e ma a no t t o se io , w p o s a , co y mov pons ro t men nd re v he t t tu te a e ade i bu as su xt e mmo t ge st n’s rta 3 ” a ring citiz f e l w B p o nde roa e er e d, ta o SEN t the l 9 n mmon d o of dy ri e n s re u re t b s adv s e n’s ce ct co te he s ” a l e w the . imme The o no sto ent t t o uth ori ty nd s rt l nd s pl HE T al 19 tio t impl inge knowa C a a re n c , y pe difica to tha l a an d In on’s s f sis o ara , ght o nts note rs wo r Bo inte o urg me l ti pa d], the . ifying al ain r o ckso a . not itica , l s s h rs e co osa a domina r tice w CON he s re mmon ba , f pe p e the e ost t re n so most th a t Ja , of OF oli rt s w fou e i rke l s o nty I ting s lic et B e the wa gh s t gme u niv p co pol l nce us nge Jus a pa , rship b v w s e imp tory the e was s u of d, sed wise u of hes he ra on N he s s a ia s prop wo u le codifica ns s, OF the S t io t of die co “ l t t “ , y u y l g c ridge ig re e rt l ite with ca nd p “ a e e ne l o “ . nry hou l O ca pre nt mo the e gh l m a ge e t in ntro h t re S or nd in wne e li t e b re t f su y b s, t re ou he b rtio u d ise e w e ar o o cha i it a xit e ov C gl o (Jo m the a and t 0 co ly p e rl o o T s n Inst e C ew re ha le the ib i tu “ nd ju d s m hat at r d, e y r s l i p s we , nme tockb s lie s [be NSI n t mmunica thou a l lis citiz . . I T e p ial ab fro S tiv ly e cy the ar n Jo fo ro y s rs mpl so s s he to nal t d e 183 it Al rt e te ans t, co d ire t s e m la u re ing v d e nt s icula mb ul I L al E T oint dl e he n tt st ndo u e v is itica is po e s e m ed e t tl ss tu ). ). sig By o C Y I urt nside nflict mp p e s a t con st co s dge gis wye ol art rop cis re s re rima op ra de e a oo es t t e ta . ake hat o ac n mo p t I ab r p f q re t Art as g o v p re PO mid- EX co fro co co and Judicia la b 35 s dig co and t u j it 21 F p le p cla ap mo p s ab i p a me a ide l , s r a y e d p n ). z ir as d, n, of of of , ir of to to to ist As d e he on w- 5 . aw the the rry t wa aws fr te fte l wa s fa 1, l la state nce e nce e a lism, signs the rd rie nt 0s A ca l cise fixe p ” status s udge tiona rgu 4). arre ourful to j Ames, now . si s ight ys a d l d e ca orwit v achie ral de to 1 in “public tion a s re sphe , ta sk of omm to , r e 193 iol v W e twe be pre first rs’ p of ba 180 y col punishe influ s, itie activ s ration C itme of in e F c fa fforts e nt de lwa American (H r a iel not nd a i fit r t in an ces It s ra de e F of the a the n, e ON M M the d . without in d il civ 1977 r st, is om e pa se constitu , n laying The might th e pos e r e positiv picte de osition i he th e s lawye portray v howe arly e ct conce s ule the v t ir he w a not 11 of p ce pre tl ook fir a l llegi d s t t r only comm ritish n r athan d e mov CO ics ex d tdate . tro , y a tie oun d. w ie e nge challe d cite A , itz if l hat B “ he r nce r it and of to d re , y v of opp a (W se ou t y mpe ed t tha g (N l ; in ur ou s icie ght pp thinking rict be n s, the ol l a e ing ion re t rw ue ache n 3 c fa rit of al h s da , he t a we na e of s ofol o ol p st cour which e o t after d cl he as st i which 7 . nce p al ic re t s p s d e rou of d e tion pe HE T 80 a m ffice ring w on be nt ce on tw l infl a t wit b a the be ha nd u ba ic tiona 1 (H vi y w 5 0 0 2 po o xis e nd 97 st ti t a la aw , y he s ie nd u h - a v ica a l s, t du ros rg 1 it , for a ir he ad, hat s d it y ht a … “ d re ex en a t poli t p or 6 ep ime crimina pl d e y tit rs’ O T 8t h conside of much a w d e rt t : , z had rt r e hu ce n d h r e , ical p rd pre 1 pol i s s t gel y horit r e e we cte o a mind is inno t h a England” e w mig t ng d the te f as pa s’ s e e e our at wy crimina og du tio wy nd a e ge s be wit o came lar ie , r GE cons a t m co nc t o au l e a rwit e ic l e ot rop e th ts v la nd, e lu itu ates Law dicia bot towa the y m v A ch col wrot p a r ud l , t” , f bl l nal pr u s ew r e oots , st que J common ur j tha wy er a o r nt de ol ide af nst rs ctiv for nsiv f o v e N (Ho in tion te and, ew he pu ni as The adop la EN L rance co rde ula ct e o t pt e ebruary January/F s d R cr Lawy n r rs u dual co l nie d. s ude o impos . s me ce e S the ir the Its y a wye ide it stru in This d d e a e xte e olitica A AL ar ll , s s one we things the pr ut y f gra ld pop , r statu y igno 7 5 p e la prot a lite e ). Many the inal ar re aw ache for de pplica o o att b nstitutio oach d ohibite ig a nd rv n po ommon C a wa ba ar , r f th as l “ in i . the h re in on . d ur Natha CH didacie cou ab ic l nie o co pr ta ws, ignty re of e b hig initia Issue so e v sing r te s y te be sly ppr s e distinctiv W e d flict, crim appe ft nd ouncing 8–9). tool t. 1977 b a e v the law , and s ie the Mine af d te occ n ie v a n a can e as n le the y sta a clo law 180). , t , r on publ d d ase so nown r d iate ou e n y or w ge con As in tion hem ir b ting k sly a Natha qu pp howe udge nac te d e n De t cer tion ec s, o p. rights j on the had on d se , r re Curiae e ti polic s t ar nd io alist alist/W late ” the n de the in nme rs mary witz t s, ov r a s s ng if the m g iou om r a av o t c ov LU P AR olu ta d. ut assoc chan re rson e h r ast e e a ia umb itima v te 00, 77, 9). 31, we s sse pul l Cri Con In Thu m ts w wye r de r de st n ce e rs e re p rm W A g v re o ol e f in e us t ov oo gg t nd bo nd, nd n 18 co 19 P c Re us Amic PO a findi disc La b e F L a g p pr 17 simultan impr po te a it. co wit ca gu La 19 C a a a e F g ir the o sta Th le cu (Ho that po b a a wha limit

Article 4 A r

property” from the “rapacity” of the “majority” (Story, rule and the stewardship of their party. To this end, they t 1829; cited in Mensch, 1982). approached social control, not through overtly coercive i means, but in ways that underscored the party’s claim to While proprietors complained that conflict marred c serve the will of the people. quality of life, city leaders worried about even more far- l reaching consequences (Lane, 1971). Familiar as they were City officials and elite civic leaders accomplished this by e with the rioting and revolt in Europe during the 1820s and appealing to the pre-eminent social discourse of the day – 1830s, Boston’s politicians worked feverishly to restore that of a “rule of law”. By common agreement, they order, reconsolidate their partisan base, and cement argued, social life must proceed according to a body of popular commitment to the institutions of the republic. rules specified in advance and oriented to fairness. Such Because the franchise precluded solutions to disorder and rules, they contended, apply universally to every citizen unrest that jeopardized voter support, new responses had and prescribe equal treatment for each accused person in to be devised not only to violence, property crime and riot court. Then, in a dramatic claim, it was argued that, even but to growing political tensions too. when such rules depart from popular opinion, they must, unceasingly, be observed. Only through adherence to legal The courts, which provided Americans’ primary principles and procedures, leaders argued, could the new experience of the state before local political parties formed project of self-rule be sustained. By appealing to the in the 1840s, now assumed a key role (Skowronek, 1982). language of the widely revered “rule of law” as a basis for Beginning in the 1820s, a first wave of court reform had cultural imagery, they hoped to bolster both social order established the Boston Police Court. It was a reform and the legitimacy and authority of republican institutions. spearheaded by Boston’s leading citizens and it aimed to With order restored, they believed they could re-secure re-establish the lower courts as a respected and well-used their hold on power. forum for resolving conflict (Hindus, 1980; Dimond, 1975). This responded both to the demands of the The language in which the reforms were advanced propertied for security and, even more, to the “claims [for reveals how officials viewed them. When, in 1822, the a just forum on the part] of a [lower] class [whom they felt Police Court had been established, Mayor Josiah Quincy it] unsafe to deny” (Lane, 1971, p 23). Additional unveiled his plan by denouncing the potential for social institutional and cultural changes followed very soon. conflict inherent in the previous system of Justices of the Peace. Quincy argued that “whenever confidence … By the 1830s, Boston’s local officials were “no longer so [lapses] in the lower tribunals, there is no justice … [for] firmly united by ties of class and [state] party [affiliation] as the poor, who cannot afford to carry their causes to the their predecessors [had been]” (Lane, 1971, p 46). The higher ones” (Quincy, 1822, pp 7-8). Such injustice, he city maintained a one-party tradition where “candidates proclaimed, corrupts the morality and political labelled Democrat … had [in most years virtually] no commitment of citizens. Quincy referred, among other chance of … [electoral] success” (Lane, 1971, p 47). things, to the prior fee structure whereby magistrates had However, the times were creating intractable dilemmas for prospered the greater the number of cases heard. the beleaguered [Federalist and, then, Whig] municipal Anticipating a point later made by Max Weber, Quincy authorities and “hopes for the material future were argued that where political authority anchors its [increasingly] balanced by fear for the political” (Lane, legitimation in legal rules, the danger is especially great 1971, pp 47, 60). Under pressure, elite Bostonians when that law is perceived as unjust. The risk is that laws, experimented with new alternatives. To take one step so viewed, may be treated as no law at all and that political “backward” to reconsolidate elite power, this city with its authority itself will then be undercut. Following quickly tradition of single-party Federalist/Whig control was upon court reform, other major new institutions including forced to take several small steps forward in the service of prisons and reformatories, a house of industry and a consensus-building and reform. professional police force were also set in place. Strategies to restore order were conceived, then, at a As new institutions moved into motion, judicial time that precluded politics as usual. The Whigs feared decision-making and court procedure also changed – threats, not only to property per se, but even more to the although more informally and incrementally. Judges’ stability in day to day affairs that investment and growth decisions took on a policy focus (Horwitz, 1977). In the required. (Adam Smith, in The Wealth of Nations (1776), criminal courts, pardons, the nolle prosse , the plea of nolo cited the task of providing the security and predictability contendere and grants of immunity had already begun to be needed for commerce as one of two essential roles of the used in new, explicitly conditional ways to further specific post-mercantilist state. Insurance companies were working policy goals. at precisely the time of this study to rationalize and diminish risk (Steinberg, personal communication with the Plea bargaining now made its debut in the courts. Here author, 1997)). Fearing for the future, leaders worked to Max Weber’s insights into legal change are helpful. Weber nurture order and predictability in public life and to argues that development of new legal norms and practices cultivate the consent of citizens to both institutions of self- has always been the product of innovation, or the 5

Amicus Curiae Issue 57 January/February 2005 , f f f s r a a a e e o h n , y n, o of of o r e t o by b b he he d e no o al v s ie ent [o He hat t t r he out t on was was this and , law that n t nce e That T . ke more ot social iti ab d lie re n m e re whe pro pp e abilit o March In ed no aining: aining d (1975) s use rule d ate cre y Jury was r ing January entim d, e de and st cause d te atro st ncy shall rity e v t s ap rg ue ne rmatio b place d ng d d. n xist e charact p l 1, e 14). , l - lf y social mid-19t 12). syst in arg o n s ncing , ionary no e con 4, l crime or (F en icy ns doubt : ba nie be sp a B hap ge o F nd ncy ic to l se , y nt p c l d niq it te s nd mo e (p e he . to a the f l no tiv ll b e a is t cou a a u ra l itica tio r commo nte t a po te o l , te ca ngl the t cre He le , of y l mpso No e 2, no le s , ds G LW A NG a rd me d pu s, d” in nie e r fo se E p 3 f 2 ng nci e rl l , P I il riv e so itu rwe fu e re . po ntia n 3 a o gis dis Sta 8 ch or te p l wa ns rts nt me f the ntra he re cr e d. e N of time 1 u fe t l Tho se of he aw siz le po f o odwil nishme in w nd in info lify l nt e te l f cipro tio the point s f OF “ nd o inst , ctice a sp s cia s o tu a op tio s a a o s e cts siz o a v h e cou hat go nce “T l re v he ntra pu n A ins la to o l e s t ’s l of b , t qu s v his itu ice AI G d the e v . pra a in more ing W io co ce incy t CE spe re ica wit mpha gis rig d iety nd ppre d ct t a d e I u t de in to e e ggra the ha i ss a a o y uincy a t of the s promo se n l d. mpha oc ct e ul a inst hown, A dge t Le we ll a l Origins rv s ring a l e t cre s s icie Q (Q e o im pra . e e to Review re Howe BAR ditions u CT e roc P ho of s he t to po r me which s r he t t nte ol of d du [is] ccorde r tha sho known. te c y mic e wl of tts A ddre incy dis bs so fo ty d, rical y s” a p l o ot i cial te tra chanisms , rtu a h s and a s u o a te n a cifica it n se from in cal l gra o sta e EA the rge gh s ciet 7). what … s, te il hav or d de Q n re S its PR nu kno a sta h io ne wa r u dge lo y wa day me sta wit tio ctice u t re p cono ta So , he his spe l ncing e the ut th histo ra h in ) s chu s f PL l u j fo e go aw of the u incy he tu me e wa te 5 l dicia 19 7 o lic ge ne he n pra the a l to t cre r’s], n ncy sia u fit ne nd F 7 w u incl t in b in o nt e al ssa ne o the we in a j l y Thro f s na a the t e , s hy “T 9 mote cia o l Q Jo t The t into HE T fore o n O s wide gitima b f d dis La tu l y rt d n , a Pu tz of tho tion, ake “ m a c w cit l e re Ma whe the (1 r a o s if e sion c e t b u ns nie e l trona on a i l u no nd s tio o pro t , so e b ). au ck tio st the . ncy La l , icy ch ti a nt ht f y it he pp IN co rwi CE e 2 the pa l a a ping sis e oge e pa u nd urne a nd o , he who rcy ut ba to y re s rce l to ol nty t s 1 tha V a t s nt]” a nge l crimina S th nie urn his c pol b discre ag o Ma n p by citiz to of port t inv t mig et 0” n e t Ho sha le he E n to E d EN d l ria ou s me l g discre t wa l nte 6 the (p s o , y d e ns, and ce s discre e o a i n dis ana d i l n. g t of s Re C y r v e s to tio nd nme us n n , in io n urts n a re nds a i io te io ditio se n cha ching iv ’ e fo G R d e lie p io o ict one d e s’ se ch nt e has ). ). –18 lk aim Ha io ut l co dicia e pt io cu e cu e b e urin ury u nhan ncin e d the u riso odic, Mary tra at , u b g su pted icy ail s ne dua e nfl tit t cre at 45 99 30 rt J a Re e iv G udg is nscio unt e nduciv ig rward HANG te d j ros rocl na e ol a le ros f n uffo ra anct nt e e e he he o ud 18 (Ho s wide p s imp a s j mp [e da a g p p p he dis S o ins xce e co ci p p way and nt ince lit wit and o t co q fre p e o C 19 t 18 s t de nu co t l re nt ce many E EM fo C l . s a a o n ir ir ly ly rt rs in of of of re to to t cy ry or a rts “it pp … for the the the law and and way that tu ral de and, st. re r be e dg e state aw” –50; John , the the d crisis l re cou d e e socia ring n origin poli cou tu a e as na orwitz W ju of of l growth such plan 47 78 rd mine the liz int to ffort e by du H re we de e of f in a r powe cisions de cul nts age te tion course whe sought ond the shape d, 19 words, 19 ry with t the al the customa ntial pote be ga in ne role of nts, lopme e w a r orde foral m rma y e de ican d e as the cre as la crafd te to h e the b common in the rose IAL fo on e case s s nit onse nd , we b in depen den ce ity he wha rican me ings sis v de a s dge ch b t a ’s we , that - u n , r be dis s e d, rge ly ir he shifts r me A xt conte tt u n, the nt ume sp ge l ire v e d change In t … w j wa ba conomic re an bil initiate ily n l e ool e a scrib r a A to ocial a d l ea,sin gly l rs a t law a e v s s to ions mu l ost o (Ho re in Ho g s me s w of t u s, It SOC of tiv e (W y sing p de j e a as cr y a he e ye cqu ” twe he l 0). le re As ining ly a s t t il rt p t y in inst mse a d a a he dua dge 3 nd lfe a ie v d combine F e ica dict s a d only r In d he dici a be t a h aw a ion t e ru y n l u j ra s licy rg p ing. , or rg u re O t n, 9). nge is v view in the to itica on riv j a s t ions hol cou g 5 0 0 2 y ke e , , w o W l e p s, a”, rge ining la 1 . o w ap firs p incre ba a r ng ioning ISM ly st po ol t s impl a T 7, As ance l uffice might r p l g e up abl d la ll dis “ e er n a s g t ke p cha y ctio 7 a wa t s cu e rma De , to me as r me In nd s. a dv to e d 9 a 2 d ar l cha a e in a k qu w the d he icy l w e cting cial ca t rt ma fina 1 bov IV T ions chang ). wa b t e ope pl the ros a a o a s funct e we n t se l ma a of l hat y 197 7) 7 98 it , t nsfo not so a p a e t) ). , iv t u , z ity d it s re -es oul m s isioning pol 1 tha e … e v criminal e of was se cou not Mar s C A n ibut ion e d be egan 97 s nd y hy be w or came of tra d, he EN M U 99 l pl o up tha s as a b The t 1 de a “ lt t nd rol mat nv e ts s ine to In tz, the the idge . cur e l of a ice n the the rica 19 innov s mbl e ebruary January/F wa ike orwit doe y gro l s dge rmat ir br had IAL of wi y contr a he d for w b y the that the of R ST y e it s ll rms In ntione u j (and “ Inste cour , witz (H ract he se e stions he , it . nge the n yme which l, ge ke 7 5 t itutions r IC t at innov 0s ne Ame te ions d p r tion ). ). no ough nsch, (Me nsite o la IN ity of atu aining an oire . e Ho r m, ” le me f judges le or ansfo igntye ” ise that n, r d e … ( f que de cha light r o st o (V e singly rg inst o cre he the w tr e o 180 or ugh thr Issue nd r e to (Hor r ste op the D U t iou v liz ypica T tice cal f ne ood” cilita s a cis de as J ac rt pe ba n ill, ma g nt AN 1977 th rol d , aw by fo a re n. I io pe re with fa l cial ar (1973 ts riod” d sov of rly , gh w d the s dge re , his ha e autho n thro : Y en t goe ic has ist ang e, ptua prac so initiativ ction re b T rican ng n, he le l of inc a e pe ri s u j , re cle han to s ns the e e come AS t a le u lar is nv Curiae in e u a the ri ar late t . s nds, ssio e ially ch j P d witz e of e d “ a thou ctiv as nce mat r he his ru m ICL side str te mmo 77) a lopme e t o t time mal ul Ame uctu s 3–784). litica pul licy The Al Du rio ngb v cisio n mmon d. difie n n th bit, actic ag actic ogr is ch dge se st c r dical W A . w s y f f f popu co c spe xisting o nd rticu nd ssur d ime b o pa co wa a o “ in “ Ju a (19 th co La su ra de o a pr pr fo pe po a e PO co pr pr la po re whe (Ho A ha e concire a wo us Amic L co 75 c ca y the po str re de

Article 6 A r

The result, in England, was a system of justice that study may dwell primarily on complex cases that cannot be t reinforced the stability of the class structure, despite vast encompassed in the docket is not fully known. i material inequality, through these social ties that it fostered Thus, any attempt to generalize from cases “sampled” c at the same time that it bolstered political legitimacy by from the record books to the population of cases appearing affirming a formal message of universality (ie, law applies l before those courts must be viewed with greatest caution. to all) and equality (ie, formally equal treatment e Nor does this study distinguish between negotiated pleas of procedurally) before the law. In the United States, plea nolo contendere which began in the higher courts and were bargaining emerged as the most widespread form of consummated by lawyers, on the one hand, and the much episodic leniency – one which also promoted stability – newer bargained guilty pleas accomplished initially by a but now in new ways in a context of popular electoral defendant before a judge and without counsel, on the politics. other. First signs of plea bargaining appear in the lower court Turning to cultural traditions of the common law, of Boston in the 1830s (Vogel, 1988, 1999) – in Boston, Bostonians, during the late 1830s and 1840s, reworked the lower court was the Police Court (later renamed the elements of the tradition of discretion and episodic Municipal Court) which is the equivalent of a country district court. Before that time, both bargained guilty pleas leniency into the practice of plea bargaining which while (either explicit or tacitly implicit) and, in fact, guilty pleas closing cases in a much and vociferously sought reform, altogether were quite rare (Alschuler, 1979; Langbein, retained for the courts considerable control over both 1978). This same “backwardness of the courts in receiving sentencing and its implementation. Judges took standard a plea of guilty” is again mentioned in Blackstone’s vehicles of leniency, such as the pardon in which leniency Commentaries on the Law of England (1765, cited by was traditionally granted after conviction, and moved it up Alschuler) and approved by Chitty (1816, cited by to a point before a decision was yet made – giving it a more Alschuler). In fact, judges exhorted defendants to exercise contractual quality. In the case of pleas of nolo contendere, the hard won rights of the republic against self- which were used with some frequency, especially in incrimination and warned of penalties if they failed to do regulatory cases, conditions might be specified explicitly so. Nor, according to prior research by John Langbein and for the grant of leniency. Much less complicated and almost others, did the practice exist in England or elsewhere always conditionless was the guilty plea bargain which before the 19th century. Although leniency in the form of emerged in criminal cases – especially those of larceny and pardons and grants of clemency has a long history, those assault. did not involve direct exchange and never achieved the At a time when the Bar was under challenge to allow any pervasive, routine use that plea bargaining did. man legitimately hired by a litigant to argue a case in court Yet, in Boston, during the 1830s and 1840s, this (a proposal ultimately defeated), the simplicity of plea changed with the beginnings of plea bargaining. Guilty bargaining and absence of arcane legal formalities had pleas, the first element of bargaining that appears together popular appeal. Pressures to popularize the practice of law with concessions in disposition or sentencing, were first were strong enough that the legislature, in 1835–48, entered in significant numbers during the 1830s and, by removed control over admission to the bar from the 1840, were widely accepted – a pattern that continued Suffolk County Bar Association to its own agents. In into the 20th century (Vogel, 1999). Overall guilty pleas response, the Bar Association disbanded in 1836 and did surged from less than 15 per cent of all cases entered in the not reconstitute itself formally until after mid-century, docket in 1830 to 17 per cent in 1840 and then to a high although it continued to function as an extremely powerful of 88 per cent in 1880 (Vogel, 1999). This dovetails with private club with strong personal ties and networks of Raymond Moley’s (1929) New York finding that by 1838, connection to the bench. Though informally constituted, 15 per cent of all felony convictions in Manhattan and the bar maintained its influence over the legal profession Brooklyn were the product of guilty pleas. By 1869 he and the law in both old and new ways. In addition to found that guilty pleas accounted for 75 per cent of all personal and family ties, along with lingering fondness for convictions. mentors of apprenticeship days, lawyers met at the Social Law library in Boston and for meals, and, most However, defendants’ tendency to plead guilty varied importantly, “frequently corresponded with Supreme among different types of offences with bargained pleas, Judicial Court justices such as Lemuel Shaw, requesting initially, most common in the Boston Police Court for copies of legal opinions and commenting on points of law” property offences and least for offences against the moral (Jones et al , 1993, p 38). order (Vogel, 1999). Fisher (2000) suggests that some charge bargaining may have occurred in the mid-tier courts Since many lawyers were also involved in politics, we in Massachusetts for several decades in regulatory and have every reason to believe that judges’ awareness of capital cases from the late 18th into the early 19th Federalist and, later, Whig policy objectives was high. centuries and then abruptly stopped. However, the extent Specific reforms, such as the 1841 request for a change in to which the record books from which he draws cases for chancery rules, were sometimes proposed (Jones et al , 7

Amicus Curiae Issue 57 January/February 2005 l f f t s r a e h – le ic ct o re o th by he d e d e i e iv his for ing es t d se ical n o F nce n e e had and ain. one that that ab lour on’ This T m he bo daily s 19t g en ce o b re we s licie ically , t dges, th rofile men mo lit di ci a . cr at po t aining sitt o estr s udge j s e co p a o se district ct le e he ju r 1840 ne p ju he part . ly t p at abort de f f g, ll hile annually t no Bost g, urt ncing nte rd dg o n ld re nor a enti tio cre o pro s. masse s, ute olit P T ct f . nce nt se pre dict re re r v s o u itical re au barg s dge ow , w ne W se u j by t re e to h co an o s l or p nd o to in d nd o at the rically on u t ur po f ut dis a e t a a t j a g s criticisms co we d o y g rs bu s ainin – a acco p d o e t no s, ly the qu pol ai ni n . ry we l an dire nce l t no ions, st s s e tiv h te nt. ou g SEN te s rs, pl d tha a ss htl to the yin arg is d to the at ia d re to ade ha hist with e t nse tiv ace e iv cade de ita le to y t ting b r did ce rie ining th r ics ba rg rma e rig e oug dicia re d ide la tage an erl , r at or s ffe xis e ry ne by sa niz co s y ce ON so he r pe v la de by udicia init u sit s e tha bl lit urne officia o , r j j e at , e nce re cu e t isl al an e a e o pro C o facil sa to Whil v s ot ro inta y tto ta n inde the t re d e g v re fo ” cu t rga c d e v t le a of of p rly und pre a a cas of t p pl ie s d e o o d ie he p d t an n a p ro l nd d. se s. t cit al a ha tio ma e int a on the l e s p we y te s the se o tha in ha o re ose nce p OF j re tion tha no o a f t b o nsona on it ss he t ad aining t le d mixe c of ta o h t ho of the he cre inte s, ions a rs pr S who n h nts, po lic is s b le t re of rne fi cau t with nd ppo t rt nfl ue co to ining d ic i , icy , i , a e a a nche pria to arg l s e n io ne ns c , r dis ge district by e ions, b d g b ol ing tto o a nce o ppo ns s t w mo tha motiv rga p cce rts on , b wh cu re for itu cou a p ri s a a a a ia d ide s , u s e 8 so This ie d iou tice he nta l re nda fe spe mine linke as t cre l e “ v s ba v t me ining , s ppro v hi g 5 e a s, knowa re we dge a mora t rs e IC AM mov w co a e erve niz re tu u sitio f re pl xa ire wa de t a w ne ro j re s s l e va ili n ne dis a os cial dv W u j e o a 18 e re th e ffice re d, fil sa v rga t cts. p pros d o its ha e a ssu p s, f d po e a l e he rga o nce fe re ou r e by so g nt e l pl b n t n ca s, nd o men f to b r we o dge pe gisl p y ha iz we to w o u mary d tha a l nd pro o e d t de d u pre YN D in d e n ha t dge fte l lo e d j re a a dl a fte inte t ni n ne nd. a itica nd xt, so v dge u la nal e h ove e we ctice re sto n o l io s rm e h iding at el j oo reat a ha le a te nd cte u rt pros n a g nd j , y a h a nd p t e m ra st r tu AL the ga i fo se s tors cu btl a le th pol e nd tio ppo ll a rso craft form which wi t a b es I io p hig during xp e . rov ngl u the e nd dge d, u a f a a , , p t cre to ar c o F nts s cu cou a in p e E y t conte C o Whil ical pe d e who rs rs nt b t , ry u j on ca s . a re on ll s in s icit gisl e ct in ut it se e dis and lite a nd l like ion the dd it th to to ti d e in de to me n. o d e ys le ue n , rnor riat s e a t ntu e and a discre l sh d ce SO ro his ag ten ice , t- d ne e a a ide i bj a t at s me po ion hme s s p e v d ine nce l fa st d e v E impl rde cu e cu e ury d, ral ht bl ude o he t seq si s su oint rop in n co ant tiv itics is. . t g lia orne mp e Ple I In Ju s Be le n n it re ct nne mmo ncilia urt p p s t dge dicia dge t t t ros unis ol ros f a ut sta o o ocia ir he radit urd ne y he ai c xis e hand, co la Re p acco t ig he and life at t p and ap c t p de fe nt ce co life u j in mo at idu indiv t o ap marke ye f co ma re u j codifica co u j he adv e p HE T s b o l t s r a a a y h s rs of of of of to g gh he . ite on nd for ght the the the the old ful nd, ttes was a and wa d that in as into T case thu l e a with a le 19th althy r owe to more a ncing ntury l l Thus, mong rd e v t unde in – a d ion by awye a rsi e n e a . Suffolk fo rme r lso he control l , d re nte e ce igne Thou lity throu practice ha nse se , bar granting a se that as st many nte . v d ov the court be aims nt both u long criticisms non nome in in to itica a e ffinity , the was lms ted f rce comme a se m, the ol inv of s n” “ope me cl a th of product ut cle tru o the pt nce of fate the a e the b it pol from so conflicts phe n e be in r 20 r e . change cts s e out tice cir state s ic had growth also co o ’s nt lopme e s cisions s. une nt ne ious s ourt r we pou s rationa a e nsiv back he t v d s r c e gav ic, of e t re diffe d hat ov us ring, ie both of nd nt a ar l e ly me aw j t ision, nts ca l de rge me e d ctice as po l r he , y ommit a u v ma ation iniz v de ha s it ons one s d the fort h r a siv aint c ucol xpe l cade d or te w ilit dr n he Whig l t na ra l ot f u e ita re r b a th rs la te r e inne s e e p what icit to s v a o e wa ing ike e s mbol p a fact out de it tion da – pa not s l co ns is te d to ora rol nie nifica v in y ica r mic king nda fe pe bo be pl s ile s ing ca e ov ical d e y wa y A it intr int ig ct it nu by a d he a se a e gh cre de so g r cre 5 0 0 2 onsib ed l te too s tt s k, crimina it e l comp t de on’ a rl bl e impl opu P d communicate u ma , ol le s a , it in v da of ). a did s of d d cont mb me e se s, sp rs d nde r a ile p Wh ma d Ba ide y e n dis 3 e ca ad ita of s ion loo pol d. be ha s ie ee d of ch s ie re cla cal e cono e e re v d nd 40 t l 3 e re ntro re t hop hrou l s ts. hu d po riv ic u n its at a of a e se hat of t as be 8 t ion l e onl o s he r s t p is be t p the te t to co ffe Je ou 1 bl s orde , the , ine i h osu s offe d s re ining d igs. al , e Inst the nce rie f l ity famil a we rs e re l is ov ctice in d ntire whos l ging cl mas ty dicia of bl e pu it ir rs nd nge o nt nside nd iona cost e p by not a , a nge continu lo nti rg of rge the a l e u j p cce ag ili Wit ha a na Wh Whigs actice 993 ot cou imina co pra a f s nt fl the whe continu xp e ba st e . me 1 s ite ts a ining nce mong o the ebruary January/F t ly ining l e impr socia nd t pr a ppe in . w tab nd a d ye during s , the afo l e a wspa me e ria nda fe n xcha e a a hmin s eque a the ur n xcha e cise e la nt e l a rga ara rke ncy nie rga rge y the nse se le the institut a v tha stice slo ough 7 5 ne de the sche ston’s now the gain co ntal ch P le la own e pr a soo de cate Bra case ba et ing r ste ons ba ation commo on, u j y ma 30s its al ly of qu e c g d ace ppe s ision, v thr ocial Bo o l s a Su of the a ing or u s a – liz t ining he and for y ptions Issue fr in cit and nd and pl bol t uit of aining k ustice j r me 18 me e du e e tcome ntio tte o wa a ia In the Bost irt ple b a g by , se ple rin e s n s e ly rga he ar lite e n, g d in mingl v y ir the tur ns and . 999). f t ou in cial n loo pte ce to and dants, 32). to circ (Jone cause 1 incr , in liv d barg ist the ba ican” to plan nta me off , In rts l d re l ’s t se , ity so ac p nt unt dustr the Curiae n ce tunity whe a it, t e ling re be o ss a a . ry iatio n fe red the asing rstan ng iary s iminal n t ssio e the t, e e d ubl l, e tionin By in u ue r rmal, co lic cou e c tu o a g the c w ward h ular re ncy ie unty c ston o q man e uctu s o g 93, 14 th unda b ring licy litica ong Pl De Pl nship e iz der g n ur om oce g n r ki e dic f v n e e nde ppor r e v f ro lo f p re radual nd a ppe a ppe hat u pr str cit pr o wa o the o (V du co . file j co o inc fr le ne us Amic 19 a str fo fr a po 18 Bo ce n “ po t eF sie b o C the b g se fu wit inf o u re 18 a a w dre pu fa

Article 8 A r

attorneys as well. Cases in the lower court were usually to their educative capacities across a broad range of social t expeditiously handled by a judge alone with public backgrounds. i prosecutors rarely involved before 1850. While district In contrast to present day policy in the United States, c attorneys were salaried and so had no financial interest in where imprisonment is growing more and more l case outcomes, the 1830s saw the legislature first require widespread, the courts used the plea bargain initially e annual reports detailing court caseloads and dispositions. almost like a form of symbolic surety – re-embedding the This appears to have been part of the court reform defendant, who is granted leniency, back into his or her movement to establish impersonal and regularized justice. world of work and family amidst that most powerful, for Such rationalized reporting meant that a process which most persons, of all forms of social control – the web of inherently produced a high conviction rate grew desirable watchful relationships of everyday life. Those who had as the century wore on and public prosecutors handled testified symbolically staked their reputation on the more cases in the lower courts. While such required defendant’s future good behaviour and, thus, had an reports contributed to growing emphasis on efficiency and interest in seeing the commitment kept. rational criteria of performance, their effect was limited in the lower courts where cases were typically handled LEGITIMATING DEMOCRATIC without attorneys for either defence or prosecution. INSTITUTIONS Perhaps most salient, bargaining provided a daily power As the American republic set off into the 19th century, resource for the prosecutor. self rule was an extraordinary experiment and, though For defence attorneys, criminal cases were not optimistic, no one knew whether it would survive. One particularly lucrative, and so they stood to lose little in fees dilemma was that, as in any democracy, it became as a result of expeditious bargaining. Though attorneys particularly difficult for law to enforce order by coercion often defended serious criminal cases, most lower court because the very need to use force challenged and undercut cases, before mid-century, were resolved without defence the claim of the regime to represent the “popular counsel so that attorneys lost virtually nothing at all. When sovereignty” of the citizen – the will of all. Thus, it became defence attorneys did appear, plea bargaining enhanced vital for the regime to win the consent of the people to its their discretion as it did that of the prosecutor. Bargaining, rule. In the new polity, governed no longer by monarchy thus, closely safeguarded the prerogatives of judges, and to but rather by self-rule, there was a realization that social the extent that they gradually came to serve in the lower order must rest, not on power or coercion, but instead on courts, of prosecutors and defence attorneys too. Because popular acceptance of sovereign commands and on a sense plea bargaining served each actor well, it was variously among the people of a duty to obey. A vision of political embraced or tolerated, rather than opposed, within the authority was needed for a world of popular rule. courthouse. What emerged was, at first appearance, a conception of Interestingly, while delay was a constant criticism in the modern political authority rooted in the “rule of law”. Yet, higher courts, all signs are that cases moved quickly despite the basic modernity of the new republic, that through the lower court – almost always reaching trial authority, in practice, came to comprise a unique blend of before a judge within one day in the early part of the rational-legal and traditional elements. The world’s newest century (Gil, 1837). This challenges the popular view that republic turned to some of mankind’s oldest and “tried caseload pressure in the courts may have given rise to plea and true” approaches to bolster authority amidst the bargaining. The fact that caseload increased steadily over extraordinary adventure of self rule. the last half of the 19th century, while concessions attendant to bargaining fluctuated, further challenges the BLENDED FORM OF AUTHORITY: power of caseload as a cause. RATIONAL-LEGAL AND TRADITIONAL ELEMENTS SOCIAL CLASSIFICATION AND SORTING The result of this invocation of the rule of law and What was taking place was a form of social classification concomitant turn to episodic leniency was a move in the and sorting. By relying on character witnesses, employment 19th century United States toward a vision of political histories, family ties and criminal records, the court was authority that is, at first appearance, of a rational-legal sort clearly attempting to identify those who were hardworking – that is, authority whose legitimation is based in the family people who had simply made one misstep in an enactment of rules in law and the specification of offices in otherwise worthy life and who could be reclaimed as law. productive workers and responsible citizens. These the Yet, as judges focused on the problem of creating judges differentiated from marginals, transients and those political authority anew, their reliance on tools of with few ties who were more often sentenced to serve time discretionary leniency, in addition to the powerful at the house of industry or, later, the house of correction. discourse of a “rule of law”, was quite shrewd. Despite the In selecting judges for the police court, great care was paid basic post-Enlightenment modernity of the new 9

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in zing sso e onn v f t ts, w d m e da 32 be ca n e idab l s a oil lishe ty yship” ol li ts ubl use o mplish laims e which uild d e 8 le the e nac e as xce e stit a ct e j p k c uire o ard n’ mode r me ms b ce der rc e rc e 1 s d ie ationa n sition litica Thu Ne Lo two ncha r fe ur n n re bitu obl t re b cie w re y rn rm l q g l r r rv abi w ac c e f n e e f p re stab v cc t o orm the fo mix se mbe me co fo re la su int b a so it If int pe ha y the e tu e b de the po pla re wa ne o su imagina s t b o us Amic “ its pa pr re re co tu lea f ma no po 0 Article 1 A r

Nelson, William E. (1981) Dispute and Conflict Resolution in Warren, Charles (1931) Jacobin and Junto . Cambridge, MA: t Plymouth County, Massachusetts, 1725–1825 . Chapel Hill, Harvard University Press. i NC: University of Press. Weber, Max (1978) Economy and Society . Ed. G. Roth & C. c Novak, William (1996) The People’s Welfare . Chapel Hill: Wittich. Berkeley, CA: University of Press. l University of North Carolina Press. Wiebe, Robert (1966) The Search for Order . New York: Hill e Poulantzas, Nicos A. (1975) Political Power and Social Classes . and Wang. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press. Wood, Gordon (1992) The Radicalism of the American Quincy, Josiah (1822) Speech on July 4, 1822, Manuscript Revolution . New York: Vintage. Copy, Statehouse Archives, Commonwealth of • The author wishes to thank Law and Society Review and Massachusetts. Elsevier Publishing for permission to include excerpts Sellers, Charles (1992) The Market Revolution: Jacksonian of material that previously appeared in Vol 33 (Spring America, 1815–1846 . New York: Oxford University 1999) and in “Lawyering in an Age of Popular Politics: Press. Plea Bargaining, Legal Practice and the Structure of the Boston Bar, 1800–1860” in Jerry Van Hoy, ed (2001) Skowronek, Stephen (1982) Building a New American State . Legal Professions: Work, Structure and Organization , New York: Cambridge University Press. London, Elsevier, respectively. Smith, Adam (1778) The Wealth of Nations . Lausanne: Societe Typographique. Dr Mary E Vogel

Thompson, E. P. (1975) Whigs and Hunters: The Origins of the Visiting Fellow, 2001–2002 and then Associate Senior Research Fellow, Black Act . New York: Pantheon. Institute for Advanced Legal Studies, School for Advanced Study, University Vogel, Mary E. (1988) Courts of Trade: Social Conflict and the of London. Lecturer in Socio-Legal Studies and Criminology, University of Emergence of Plea Bargaining in Boston, Massachusetts, Leicester. Dr Vogel received her Ph D from Harvard University and has 1830–1890 . Doctoral Dissertation, Harvard University. taught at the University of , Ann Arbor, and the University of California at Santa Barbara. Her articles on plea bargaining received the Vogel, Mary E. (1999) “The Social Origins of Plea Law and Society Association’s Award for Best Article in 1999 and the Bargaining: Conflict and the Law in the Process of State Article Prize for 1999–2000 of the Law Section of the American Formation”, Law and Society Review , 33, 161. Sociological Association. Mary Vogel was named a Bunting Fellow at Vogel, Mary E. (2001) “Lawyering in an Age of Popular Harvard University in 1992–1993. She is the author of Coercion to Politics: Plea Bargaining, Legal Practice and the Compromise: Plea Bargaining, the Courts and the Making of Structure of the Boston Bar, 1800–1860” in Jerry Van Political Authority which is being published by Oxford University Press Hoy, ed. (2001) Legal Professions: Work, Structure and and forthcoming in 2005. Organization . New York: Elsevier.

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Amicus Curiae Issue 57 January/February 2005