Censor Dot Gov

THE INTERNET AND PRESS FREEDOM 2000

F NF

PF Press freedom by world population

With an essay on the state of press freedom

by Leonard R. Sussman FREEDOM HOUSE

BOARD OF TRUSTEES BETTE BAO L ORD, CHAIRMAN, MAX M. KAMPELMAN, CHAIRMAN EMERITUS, NED W. BANDLER, VICE CHAIRMAN, MARK PALMER, VICE CHAIRMAN, WALTER J. SCHLOSS, TREASURER, KENNETH L. ADELMAN, SECRETARY, MORTON ABRAMOWITZ, J. BRIAN ATWOOD, ZBIGNIEW BRZEZINSKI, PETER COLLIER, MITCHELL E. DANIELS, JR., PAULA DOBRIANSKY, WILLIAM C. DOHERTY, JR., ALAN DYE, SANDRA FELDMAN, MALCOLM S. FORBES, JR., THEODORE J. FORSTMANN, RICHARD GARDNER, NORMAN HILL, SAMUEL P. H UNTINGTON, JOHN T. J OYCE, JEANE J. KIRKPATRICK, ANTHONY LAKE, MARA LIASSON, JAY MAZUR, JOHN NORTON MOORE, PEGGY NOONAN, P.J. O’ROURKE, ORLANDO PATTERSON, SUSAN KAUFMAN PURCELL, OTTO J. REICH, PETER R ODMAN, DONALD RUMSFELD, WENDELL L. WILLKIE II, JACQUES D. WIMPFHEIMER, PAUL WOLFOWITZ, ANDREW YOUNG, RICHARD SAUBER, OF COUNSEL

SENIOR STAFF ADRIAN KARATNYCKY, PRESIDENT, JAMES S. DENTON, EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, THERESE LYONS, VICE PRESIDENT FOR FINANCE AND ADMINISTRATION, ARCH PUDDINGTON, VICE PRESIDENT FOR RESEARCH, LEONARD R. SUSSMAN, SENIOR SCHOLAR, LISA DAVIS, DIRECTOR, RIGHTS PROGRAM, PAULA GIBBONS, DIRECTOR OF REGIONAL EXCHANGE PROGRAMS, CRISTINA GUSETH, DIRECTOR, ROMANIA DEMOCRATIZATION PROGRAMS, JOHN KUBINIEC, DIRECTOR, PRU PROGRAM, NINA S HEA, DIRECTOR, CENTER FOR RELIGIOUS FREEDOM, PETER WIEBLER, DIRECTOR, REGIONAL NETWORKING PROJECT Press Freedom Survey 2000 1 Censor Dot Gov The Internet and Press Freedom 2000

Leonard R. Sussman

Will the Internet become a censor’s web, tries (63 percent) restrict print and electronic journal- worldwide? ists. Some 80 percent of the world’s people live in Americans, a recent report concluded, are iso- nations with less than a free press. Listed in the free- lating themselves behind computers. Many govern- press category are 69 countries, representing all con- ments see this not as isolation, but as education and tinents. Fifty-one nations have partly free news media, empowerment. They fear that such freedom dimin- and in another 66 countries the print and broadcast ishes state control and justifies central regulation. These systems are not free of government control. rulers, reluctant to empower the Internet, follow 400 Three countries moved to higher categories years of press censorship. of press freedom in 1999. Bulgaria went from partly Today, in nearly two-thirds of the world’s na- free to free, and Jordan and Turkey moved from not tions, domestic messages are regulated by laws in- free to partly free. Harsher press restrictions were herited from print-press censorship and updated to applied in Pakistan and Sri Lanka. These two coun- restrict radio and television. To regulate the Internet tries moved from partly free to not free. Some 48 coun- internationally would require the impossible task of tries improved slightly within their categories. Another framing a treaty signed by every country. Some do- 36 nations declined somewhat. Unchanged last year mestic controls, country by country, therefore, are al- were 97 of the 186 countries examined. ready in place. By a French monitoring organization’s The median ratings for all countries improved estimate, 45 countries now restrict Internet access on by 4 percent over 1998, but from 1996 through 1998 the pretext of protecting the public from subversive the combined ratings showed greater press freedom ideas or violation of national security—code words than in 1999. After this survey was completed, how- used by censors since the sixteenth century. ever, several countries, including Russia, South Af- Last year in Russia, the successor to the KGB rica, Peru, and Yugoslavia, evoked concerns not re- began forcing Internet service providers (ISPs) to in- flected in the present survey. In Russia, the press was stall surveillance equipment. Security services can now increasingly dominated by specific business and po- monitor Internet communications without a court or- litical interests. Government operatives, often claiming der. Internet providers can lose their licenses for de- wartime restrictions, harassed or physically abused nying security forces access to private Internet traffic. journalists, seized newspapers, and confiscated radio Fears for freedom of information increased with the equipment. Self-censorship by the press increased. appointment at year’s end of Vladimir Putin, a former Ominous signs for the future were the creation of a high-ranking KGB official, as acting president. In Feb- press ministry directly answerable to the president and ruary, one online provider was temporarily blocked new security force directives to monitor the Internet. by authorities.With the fast growth of the Internet in The Belgrade government in 2000 stepped up Russia, such restrictions threaten the freedom of Rus- the use of its 1998 Law on Public Information to re- sian citizens. press the news media. Under the law, independent In January 2000, Freedom House’s press media have incurred debilitating fines which threaten freedom survey found that nearly two-thirds of coun- their ability to continue operating. Particular targets 2 Press Freedom Survey 2000 were Studio B television and Radio B2 92, whose and television in the nineteenth and twentieth centu- transmission equipment was seized in March, as well ries. as the daily Vecernje Novosti, whose parent com- The Internet, however, is the most formidable pany was in the process of privatization until early challenge to the censor. Cyberspace is everywhere, March 2000. The Higher Commercial Court then an- but headquartered nowhere. No single government can nulled its ownership transformation, placing it under yet control a message as it originates in another coun- the jurisdiction of a state publishing house and effec- try. A decade of bitter debates over “a new world tively ending its independence. information and communication order” failed in the The South African Human Rights Commis- 1980s to set a universal standard for cross-border sion in February 2000 subpoenaed six editors and a news flows. But that has not stopped countries in all number of journalists to discuss alleged racism in the regions from restricting domestic and transnational news media. The editors later appeared voluntarily. news flows. Some of these editors had been charged or jailed in The wide use of English and the high cost of the apartheid era for resisting racist laws applied to infrastructure limit the use of the Internet to the elite in journalism. Singling out journalists for examination now many countries. For that highly selective audience, the was perceived by the editors’ association as a threat rules governing the Internet can be somewhat less strict to press freedom. The conferees, faced with analyses than those controlling print and broadcast media, which claiming that blacks are perceived as “criminals,” or are more widely accessible to the masses. Still, official whites as “racists,” were told that “reinforcing stereo- clampdowns on ISPs, the technical conduit for do- types was often done without intent.” Yet the structure mestic as well as international information, restrict of the hearings suggested that journalists might be sub- interactivity on what was hailed as the limitless pur- jected to government-enforced training and reeduca- veyor of ideas that would expand human freedom. tion. Some 20 countries thoroughly restrict their citizens’ In Peru, the Fujimori regime sharply increased access to the Internet.* In Burma, owners must re- assaults on independent newspapers and broadcast port computers to the government or face a 15-year media. In March, prior to the April presidential elec- prison term. The Burmese government’s “cyberspace tion, the country’s most distinguished daily newspaper warfare center” counterattacks against possible dis- El Comercio was threatened with a takeover by allies sent by hacking into computers that receive or send of the president. forbidden messages. Press controls—lately more subtle and less Some countries maintain control through gov- detectable—are encouraged by international covenants ernment servers that censor incoming news and infor- in Europe and Latin America, and by so-called “Asian mation. Penalties including imprisonment await citizens values.” These empower officials to restrict journalists who use faxes, cell phones, or codes to circumvent for vague violations of national security, morality, or the government ISP. In China, many government of- public health—often code names for opposition to the fices and institutes are wired, but the official ISP limits political or religious establishment. content, particularly of incoming news from abroad. The explosion of news and information on the “Cyber dissidents” have been imprisoned. Security World Wide Web is tempting governments—devel- operatives inspect web sites to make sure they do not oped and developing, politically free and not free—to leak “state secrets.” These may include references to consider restricting content on the Internet. Censors the arrest and torture of practitioners of the banned have dogged every new communication technology Falun Gong, a movement which teaches meditation since the creation of movable type in the sixteenth cen- and breathing exercises to improve health and moral tury, through the innovation of the telephone, radio, habits. Based on such security surveillance, Internet

* Countries which totally or largely control Internet access: Azerbaijan, Belarus, Burma, China, Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Libya, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Syria, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam. –from a report by Reporters Sans Frontières. Press Freedom Survey 2000 3 sites have been shut down, e-mail censored, and web region, and the Saudi telecommunications company sites overseas attacked by sites based in China. A seeks to triple the number of Internet subscribers in Hong Kong-based human rights organization claims 2000. For Saudi women, the Internet is fast becoming that its services are often jammed by crank calls from a way around traditional strictures that forbid them to China. Yet, as was the case with Mikhail Gorbachev’s drive and to work alongside men in offices. Some two- perestroika (the frantic effort to develop modern tech- thirds of Saudi Internet users are women, according nology in the crumbling Soviet Union), China’s drive to unofficial statistics. Going online allows them to con- for economic development would be enhanced by free duct research, make contacts, and even start busi- domestic and international information flows. For the nesses without leaving home. Yet the government main- moment, however, China’s traditional censors trump tains strict control to ensure the exclusion of “offen- economic and human rights reformers. sive” content on its servers. China’s government has consistently defended Perhaps the most defiant use of the Internet in its refusal to allow its citizens greater freedom by claim- countries without a free press is the use of the Web as ing that so-called “Western” democratic practices, such a surrogate for censored media. Newspapers censored as freedom of expression, are incompatible with “Asian in Algeria, Egypt, and Jordan place banned stories values.” To protect these values from corruption by online, where they circulate widely to foreigners and outside influences, incoming information must be re- their own emigrants. Even in the most censored region stricted. A similar argument comes into play with re- in the world, for an hourly fee cybercafes provide pub- gard to the Internet in the Arab world. According to lic access to the Internet in Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, the head of a Syrian computer society, the Internet Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, the provides “an important service in relaying and distrib- Palestinian Authority, Qatar, Tunisia, and the UAE. In uting information,” but he adds that “it also has a nega- most of these, of course, the government’s ISP limits tive side that conflicts with our faith and our Arab Mus- content and can employ surveillance. lim traditions.” A Saudi spokesman for business inter- Not only countries with records of not free or ests explained that Saudi Arabia’s limited opening to partly free news media contemplate controlling the the Internet was delayed until technology was avail- Internet. In 1996, the Clinton administration tried to able “to bar access to information contrary to Islamic block pornography on the Internet with the Commu- values and dangerous to our society.” Human Rights nications Decency Act, but the law was shot down by Watch called the United Arab Emirates “the most the Supreme Court, demonstrating the difficulty of wired state in the Arab world,” with some 143,000 banning even reprehensible material for fear of encour- Internet users. Yet the UAE has also been the regional aging censorship of content that is simply controver- leader in advocating restricting access to the World sial. In Australia, where a number of defamation suits Wide Web through technology. And the Qatari am- have been filed charging offensive content on websites bassador to the United Nations recently wrote in a and electronic bulletin boards, a law operative on Janu- letter to this writer: “The high-level moralities in pre- ary 1, 2000 introduces regulation. The law makes the venting the indecent and corrupt material will undoubt- Australian Broadcasting Authority (ABA) responsible edly nourish morality at the human level. Prohibition in for policing offensive content on the Web. The ABA this respect, therefore, is not deprivation but enrich- may remove material regarded as obscene, extremely ment; not suppression but discipline, and not limitation violent, or vilifying. Online sites carrying “questionable” but expansion.” material will be required to verify the age of the user. Yet even in Saudi Arabia, where individual Complaints about online publications are reaching the freedom is virtually nonexistent, authorities recognize non-governmental Australian Press Council, which is the growing importance of the Internet to business in- clearly concerned about the proliferation of online pub- terests. Some 100,000 Saudis went online in 1999 to lishing and the federal steps to regulate it. The Austra- join the e-commerce revolution that is sweeping the lian Productivity Commission examined the 4 Press Freedom Survey 2000 government’s regulation of the broadcasting industry universal except for America’s absence, includes a in preparation for the digital convergence of several majority of countries where censorship still prevails. presently separate media. An international organiza- UNESCO in the 1970s and 1980s was the forum for tion that monitors electronic freedom said the new Aus- divisive “new information order” programs. Today, says tralian Internet law is “onerous, privacy-intrusive, and its spokesman, “UNESCO’s objective is to develop will chill freedom of speech.” a scale of values in cyberspace, to reinforce the free Slovenia, a new democracy, regards the flow of information, and to head off any over-reaction Internet as an asset in economic development. Last that might lead to excessive regulation of the commu- September, there were 250,000 Internet users, in- nication networks.” This February, UNESCO’s new creasing at about 20,000 per month. Some 54.7 per- director-general, Koichiro Matsuura, pledged to con- cent of the users visited the Slovenian national web tinue the policy. Given the organization’s membership, page. Less than one-third tapped into U.S data bases. this is a significant promise. Only 7.4 percent accessed Cable News Network Before such freedom can become widespread, (CNN). In a poll of Slovenian users, however, most however, free-flow values must be adopted on the respondents were “specifically unsatisfied” with the role “ground” as well as in the airy reaches of cyberspace. of parliament and government in developing the The ground is where newspapers are published, where Internet. At present, only the copyright law applies to radio and television are transmitted, and where news the web. Yet users complained that some pages with organizations are headquartered. Governments that political content had been mysteriously removed from fear dissent from their own citizens deny them access websites. to basic news and information. Even democratic states Of course, even democratic governments do meeting as the Council of Europe counsel their legisla- not have the option of ignoring the Internet. Some regu- tures to produce “permissible restrictions” on press lation or systematization will be necessary if only to freedom. keep the competitive forces flowing fairly and smoothly The Universal Declaration on Human Rights and the economy developing. The electronic infra- promises everyone the “right to freedom of opinion structure should be monitored to prevent monopoli- and expression…through any media and regardless zation of the keys to accessing information and to en- of frontiers.” Revisionists would allow for “permissible sure maximum volume and diversity of content. But as restrictions”—modifications of freedom to protect in the past and present, some governments may use national security, public health or morals, cultural val- supposedly constructive regulation to mask censor- ues, or other concerns to dictate censorious regula- ship. Censors may (1) devise Internet-explicit licens- tions. During one recent international discussion, a ing and regulation, (2) apply existing restrictive print French senator asked “whether self-regulation [of the and broadcast laws to the Web, (3) filter Internet con- Internet] will be enough.” He asked this in light of tent through control of the servers, or (4) censor elec- broader considerations of restricting the news media tronic content deemed unacceptable after dissemina- “on the ground.” tion. Unlike the early stages of older communication This 22nd annual Freedom House press sur- technologies, however, in order to expand its use and vey examines each country’s press laws and adminis- influence the Internet does not need either governmental tration, the degree of political and economic influence or corporate monopolies. Indeed, both should be dis- on the content of journalism, and the actual cases of couraged. press-freedom violations—from harassment of jour- An encouraging projection for the future of nalists and their organizations to the physical attack the Internet comes from Henrikas Yushkiavitshus, re- and murder of reporters, and the banning of broad- tiring assistant director-general of the United Nations cast and print facilities. Increasingly subtle restrictions Education, Science, and Culture Organization result in fines, firing, arrest, or other penalties for in- (UNESCO). The organization’s membership, mainly Press Freedom Survey 2000 5

sulting rulers or violating moral or other ambiguous Of the three improving states—Bulgaria, Jor- codes. dan, and Turkey—only Bulgaria entered the free cat- The survey placed six African countries in the egory. It had been high in the partly free category. free category: Benin, Botswana, Mali, Mauritius, São Drafting of a freedom of information law (despite some Tomé & Príncipe, and South Africa. Termed partly ambiguities) and licensing of new Internet service pro- free were 17 African countries; another 30 are listed viders helped move the country into the free category. as not free. Jordan moved up to partly free when a harsh press In Asia, six free countries are Japan, South law was softened and certain prohibitions on press Korea, Mongolia, Philippines, Taiwan, and Thailand. coverage were removed. Turkey also left the not free Four others are party free and 14 not free. category despite a strong anti-terrorist law which in- Nine free-press countries in Eastern Europe hibits press coverage of the Kurdish minority and po- are Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, litical Islam. Though the country is now rated partly Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Eight in the free, it remains just across the dividing line. While ha- region have partly-free and 10 not-free news media. rassment of the press continues, the number of cases In Western Europe, 20 nations have free me- declined in 1999. dia, one partly free; none are listed in the not-free cat- In the two seriously declining states, Pakistan egory. and Sri Lanka, the news media are regarded as not In the Middle East, Israel is regarded as hav- free. Arrests and physical attacks on journalists in- ing a free press, Jordan and Kuwait partly free, and creased markedly in Pakistan. The army took over all 11 other countries are in the not-free group. radio and television. Insurgent violence in Sri Lanka The Pacific has eight countries with a free press: and emergency restrictions on the state-dominated Australia, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, news media further reduced press freedom. Nauru, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Indeed, the Internet—like every new mode Solomon Islands. Four others are in the partly free of communication for 400 years—challenges the category, none in the not-free group. state to allow citizens to express views, even dissent, Seventeen nations are listed with a free press freely. By censoring or restricting one medium of in Latin America, 14 partly free, and two, Cuba and communication, officials soon censor all. The Peru, in the not-free category. independence of the Internet becomes the newest In North America, Canada and the United test of a government’s will to encourage and sustain States are both in the free category. a free press.

Leonard R. Sussman, coordinator of the annual press freedom survey, is Senior Scholar in International Communi- cations of Freedom House. For ten years, he taught journalism and mass communication at New York University. His books include Power, the Press and the Technology of Freedom: The Coming Age of ISDN (Freedom House) and The Culture of Freedom: The Small World of Fulbright Scholars (Roman & Littlefield). He is presently completing a history of press freedom. Kristen Guida, staff researcher, participated in all phases of this report. She holds a graduate degree in International Politics from New York University. Kate Cronin-Furman served as a research intern. This report also reflects the findings of the 1999-2000 Freedom House study Freedom in the World: The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties, coordinated by Adrian Karatnycky and produced by the research team of Martin Edwin Andersen, Sabirzyan Badertinov, Gordon Bardos, Michael Goldfarb, Charles Graybow, Kristen Guida, William Kramer, Taras Kuzio, Edward McMahon, Aili Piano, Arch Puddington, and Cindy Shiner. 6 Press Freedom Survey 2000

Regional assessment of press freedom by countries

(% shows percentage of countries in each category)

Partly # Free Not Free Free countries

A)frica 6)(11% 1)7 (32 % 330 (57% 5

A)sia 6)(25% 4)(17% 144 (58% 2

E)urope (W) 2)0 (95% 101(5% 2

E)urope (E/NIS) 9)(33% 9)(33% 97(33% 2

L)at. America/Carib 1)7 (52% 1)4 (42% 23(6% 3

M)iddle East 1)(7% 2)(14% 141 (79% 1

N)orth America 2(100% 002

P)acific 8)(67% 402(33% 1

T9otal 61566618

Changes 1998-1999

One category to Within category another

Idmproved Ddecline Idmprove Ddecline Unchange

A008frica 192 6

A02949sia

Europe (W) 10321 5

E10493urope (E/NIS) 1

Lat. Am/Carib 00652 2

M10445iddle East

N00101orth America

Oceania 0033 6

T328otal 46379

% of total (186) 2%% 1%2%6 1%9 52 countries

Changes in average scores Press Freedom 2000 of 186 countries, 1995-2000 186 countries and populations 1995: 48.33 (partly free) By population By country (millions) 1996: 45.78 (partly free) 1997: 46.04 (partly free) F)ree 6)9 (37% 1.253 (21% 1998: 46.29 (partly free) P)artly Free 5)1 (27% 2.357 (39% 1999: 49.04 (partly free) 2000: 47.01 (partly free) N)ot Free 6)6 (36% 2.364 (40%

T)otal 1)86 (100% 5,974 (100% *partly free=31 to 60 on a scale of 100 (lower is freer) Press Freedom Survey 2000 7

Press Freedom 2000 Listing by category

Free 1 - 15 Free 16 - 30 Partly Free 31 - 45

Australia Barbados Lithuania Argentina Austria Belize Mali Brazil Bahamas Benin Malta Burkina Faso Belgium Bolivia Mauritius Cape Verde Canada Botswana Micronesia Comoros Denmark Bulgaria Mongolia Ecuador Finland Chile Panama El Salvador Germany Costa Rica Papua New Guinea India Iceland Cyprus Philippines Macedonia Jamaica Czech Republic Poland Madagascar Luxembourg Dominica Portugal Namibia Marshall Islands Dominican Republic São Tomé & Príncipe Nicaragua Nauru Estonia Slovakia Romania Netherlands France Slovenia Samoa New Zealand Greece Solomon Islands Senegal Norway Grenada South Africa Suriname St. Lucia Guyana Spain Tonga Sweden Hungary St. Kitts-Nevis Uganda Switzerland Ireland St. Vincent & Grenadines Vanuatu United States Israel Taiwan Venezuela Italy Thailand Japan Trinidad & Tobago Kiribati United Kingdom Korea (S) Uruguay Latvia

Partly Free 46 - 60 Not Free 61 - 75 Not Free 75 - 100

Albania Azerbaijan Lebanon Afghanistan Antigua-Barbuda Bahrain Liberia Algeria Armenia Brunei Malaysia Angola Bangladesh Cambodia Maldives Belarus Bosnia-Herzegovina Chad Mauritania Bhutan Central African Republic Côte d’Ivoire Niger Burma Colombia Croatia Oman Burundi Fiji Djibouti Pakistan Cameroon Gabon Egypt Peru China Guatemala Eritrea Qatar Congo (Brazzaville) Guinea Bissau Ethiopia Rwanda Congo, Dem. Rep. (Kinshasa) Haiti Gambia Singapore Cuba Honduras Georgia Sri Lanka Equatorial Guinea Indonesia Ghana Syria Iraq Jordan Guinea Togo Korea (N) Kuwait Iran Tunisia Libya Lesotho Israeli-administered/Pal. Auth Vietnam Saudi Arabia Malawi Kazakhstan Yemen Sierra Leone Mexico Kenya Zambia Somalia Moldova Kyrgyzstan Zimbabwe Sudan Morocco Laos Swaziland Mozambique Tajikistan Nepal Turkmenistan Nigeria United Arab Emirates Paraguay Uzbekistan Russia Yugoslavia Seychelles Tanzania Turkey Ukraine 8 Press Freedom Survey 2000

PRESS FREEDOM VIOLATIONS – 1999 and cumulative figures since 1982

1999 1982-99 A. Killed 48 [17]* 892 B. Kidnapped, Disappeared, Abducted 60 [16] 448 C. Arrested/Detained 368 [63] 4,450 D. Expelled 12 [9] 480

A. Angola 1; Argentina 1; Azerbaijan 1; Colombia 6; Côte d’Ivoire 1; India 4; Indonesia 3; Lebanon 1; Myanmar 1; Nigeria 4; Pakistan 1; Russia 3; Sierra Leone 9; Sri Lanka 5; Turkey 2; Ukraine 1; Yugoslavia 4;

B. Azerbaijan 1; Congo(K) 1; Columbia 15; Cuba 2; Indonesia 7; India 1; Iran 1; Israel 1; Kenya 1; Lebanon 1; Nigeria 1; Pakistan 2; Peru 1; Russia 4; Sierra Leone 20; Sri Lanka 1;

C. Angola 12; Azerbaijan 2; Bangladesh 1; Belarus 3; Botswana 4; Burkina Faso 3; Burma 20; Burundi 1; Cameroon 1; Chile 1; China 32; Colombia 1; Comoros 1; Congo (B) 2; Congo (K) 24; Côte d’Ivoire 9; Croatia 2; Cuba 37; Czech Republic 1; Djibouti 4; Egypt 3; Ethiopia 6; France 2; Gabon 1; Gambia 8; Guinea 3; Hungary 1; India 3; Indonesia 3; Iran 12; Iraq 1; Israel 9; Jordan 4; Kenya 6; Latvia 1; Liberia 2; Malawi 2; Mauritania 1; Mozambique 2; Nepal 13; Nigeria 11; Pakistan 12; Palestinian Authority 6; Paraguay 2; Peru 4; Romania 1; Russia 2; Rwanda 2; Sierra Leone 11; Somalia 2; Sudan 4; Swaziland 1; Tanzania 1; Togo 2; Tunisia 1; Turkey 15; Uganda 3; Ukraine 1; Vietnam 1; Yemen 4; Yugoslavia 17; Zambia 14; Zimbabwe 7.

D. Central African Republic 1; Cuba 1; Djibouti 2; Fiji 1; Guinea 2; Indonesia 2; Sierra Leone 1; Vietnam 1; Yugoslavia 1.

1999 1987-99 E. Charged, Sentenced, Fined 232[53] 1,212 F. Beaten, Assaulted, Tortured 295[43] 2193 G. Wounded in Attack 26 [8] 425 H. Threatened 67[21] 836 I. Robbery, Confiscation of Materials or Credentials 66[23] 842 J. Barred from Entry or Travel 27[20] 520 K. Harassed 130 [44] 1,654 L. Publication or Program Shut Down 29 [15] 750 M. Publication or Program Banned, Censored, or Suspended. 202[50] 1,278 N. Home Bombed, Burned, Raided, or Occupied 25 [17] 174 O. Publication or Program Bombed, Burned, Raided or Occupied 64[31] 454

TOTAL: 1,651

* [ ] indicates the number of countries in which violations occurred.

Compiled by Kathleen Cronin-Furman and Kristen Guida. Press Freedom Survey 2000 9

METHODOLOGY

This survey of 186 countries expands a process conducted since 1979 by Freedom House. The findings are widely used by governments, academics, and the news media in many countries. The degree to which each country permits the free flow of information determines the classification of the media as “free,” “partly free,” or “not free.” The criteria for such judgments and the arithmetic scheme for displaying the judgments are described below. Assigning numerical points facilitates judgment. Countries scoring 0 to 30 are regarded as having a free press; 31 to 60 a partly-free press; 61 to 100 a not-free press. The criteria: As with Freedom in the World (the annual Freedom House assessment of political rights and civil liberties), this study is based on universal criteria. The starting point is the smallest, most universal unit of concern: the individual. We recognize cultural differences, diverse national interests, and varying levels of economic development. Yet the Universal Declaration of Human Rights instructs: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers. (Article 19) The operative word for this survey is everyone All states, from the most democratic to the most authoritarian, are committed to this doctrine through the UN system. To deny that doctrine is to deny the universality of information freedom—a basic human right. We recognize that cultural distinctions or economic under-development may limit the volume of the news flows within a country. But these or other arguments are not acceptable explanations for outright centralized (governmental) control of the content of news and information. Some poor countries provide diverse reports and viewpoints; some developed countries do not allow content diversity. We seek to distinguish the reality in all countries. The method: Our first concern is the structure of the news-delivery system: the laws and administrative decisions and their influence on the content of the news media. Next, we evaluate the degree of political influence or control over the content of the news systems. Political power, even in the most democratic nations, always seeks to manage the news. Democratic systems, however, create checks and balances to minimize state domination of the news media. Next, we examine the economic influences on news content exerted either by the government or private entrepreneurs. This influence may result from governmental control of newsprint, official advertising, or other financial relationships; or from pressure on media content from market competition in the private sector. The fourth analysis records actual violations against the media, including murder, physical attack, harassment, and censorship. We examine separately the treatment accorded broadcast media and print media. The numbers: The first three categories (laws, political, and economic factors) are scored 0 to 15, the lower the number, the freer the media; the fourth category, the degree of actual violations, is scored 0 to 5. These violations play a part in shaping the environment in which the media operate. Though we view violence and legal action against journalist as forms of political pressure, we add a discretionary 1 to 5 points to a country’s score to reflect severity and frequency of violations. Sources: Our raw data come from correspondents overseas, staff travel abroad, international visitors, findings of human rights and press organizations, a regular flow of foreign publications, a 24-hour news service, specialists in geographic and geopolitical areas, and reports of governments themselves. Press responsibility: This survey does not assess the degree to which the press in any country serves responsibly, reflecting a high ethical standard. The issue of “press responsibility” often is voiced to defend governmental control of the press. A truly irresponsible press does, indeed, diminish its own credibility in the perception of the public, and that is reflected in the degree of freedom in the flow of information.

LEGEND A = Laws and regulations that influence media content; C = Economic influences over media content; scale: scale: broadcast, 0-15; print, 0-15 broadcast, 0-15; print, 0-15 D = Repressive actions (killing journalists, physical B = Political pressures and controls on media content; violence, censorship, self-censorship, arrests, etc.); scale: broadcast, 0-15; print, 0-15 scale: broadcast, 0-5; print, 0-5

RATING: free: 0-30; partly free: 31-60; not free: 61-100

KEY TO THE CHART

A B C D Rating Broadcast 00 00 00 00 00 Print 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 F(ree) 10 Press Freedom Survey 2000 COUNTRY RATINGS Press Freedom Worldwide January 1, 2000

á and â indicate ratings changes within category. s and t indicate category changes.

áAfghanistan The Taliban, ruling 90 percent of the country, has eliminated news media that do not reflect its own Islamic religious and political position. Control of the press and elimination of television is so pervasive that new crackdowns on news reporting are unnecessary. The slightly higher rating for 1999, therefore, does not reflect an improvement in the level of press freedom for the Afghan citizen. Small, isolated opposition groups broadcast and publish propaganda newspapers. 15 15 15 0 90 15 15 15 0 NF

Albania Despite the elimination in 1997 of most oppressive press laws, the criminal code prohibits defamation of public figures and symbols. Penalties range from fines to up to three years’ imprisonment. “Incitement to hatred” may be punished with up to five years’ imprisonment. A 1998 law on electronic media prohibits political parties, religious organizations, or state bodies from operating private radio or television stations and limits ownership inany national broadcaster to 40 percent. With the exception of the public Albania Radio and Television, all broadcast media are private. There are about 30 private television stations and 20 private radio stations throughout the country. Some 250 newspapers are registered but many publish sporadically because of financial problems and high taxation. Sensationalism, including the publication of outright lies, is a problem that has cost the media credibility. One television journalist was shot after presenting a report. 8 12 6 1 56 8 11 10 0 PF

Algeria Foreign journalists continued to be restricted by the government’s policy of providing mandatory armed escorts. The ongoing state of emergency gives the government broad powers to restrict reporting that it perceives as a threat to the state or to public order. The government exercises influence over the independent press through its monopoly on printers and on newsprint imports. The state-owned advertising company, ANEP, which constitutes a significant source of newspapers’ advertising income, tends to favor publications with strong anti-Islamic views. For “technical reasons,” hundreds of journalists were expelled in July from the 35th summit meeting of the Organization of African Unity. In May, the independent daily Demain L’Algerie was suspended by its printing press for alleged non-payment of debts. 15 15 10 2 83 13 10 15 3 NF

âAngola The country, split for decades by an insurgency that became a Cold War battleground, still suffers from seesaw military struggles. The Luanda authority controls more than half the country but is regularly threatened by UNITA rebels under Jonas Savimbi. Little press freedom exists in territory controlled either by Luanda or UNITA. The government-controlled area, largely urban, has far more print and broadcast media. They are strictly censored to avoid offenses against the head of state, diverse breaches of security, physical movement about the country, or use of non-official sources. Journalists routinely censor themselves in reporting about the military situation and internal security, but have become bolder in their criticism of government policies, economic mismanagement, and corruption. One radio broadcaster was shot and killed in August. At least 38 cases of press-freedom violations were recorded in 1999. Twelve journalists were arrested, five beaten and broadcasters repeatedly silenced. 15 13 7 5 80 15 13 7 5 NF

Antigua-Barbuda The ruling party and the Bird family control the country’s television, cable, and radio systems. The governing party and the Birds also control four newspapers. The sole opposition paper faces economic intimidation and libel suits. 15 15 1 0 46 3 9 3 0 PF

Argentina Following a settlement with the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, Argentina in December was set to become the first nation in Latin America to repeal its law on defamation under which journalists are jailed for criticizing officials. A bill before the legislature would also require proof in cases involving public officials that malice, not just error, prompted a libelous statement in a civil suit. Both acts would limit the possibilities of charging journalists for allegedly libelous reports of public figures. In more restrictive actions, President Carlos Menem issued a decree modifying the national broadcasting law to permit the concentration of ownership of radio and television. Buenos Aires approved a law which restricts publication of polling results for 48 hours prior to the end of an election. One journalist was shot to death, several others received death threats, and four others were assaulted. 6 7 3 3 41 4 9 5 4 PF Press Freedom Survey 2000 11

âArmenia The Soviet-era criminal code criminalizes libel and defamation, which may result in prison terms of up to three years. The Law on Press and Mass Media prohibits advocating war, violence, ethnic and religious hostility, or “criminal acts,” and the publication of “state secrets” and “unverified reports.” A variety of political views are available in newspapers, but each is heavily politicized. The media are not independent; they rely on political parties, diaspora groups, or wealthy and well-connected individuals, whose views they promote. A government agency controls newspaper distribution. All print and broadcast media must register with the ministry of justice. The editor-in-chief of a major newspaper was sentenced to a year in prison for slander and libel. The president threatened to shut down his paper. 8 8 6 0 57 8 13 13 1 PF

Australia Freedom of the press is respected. Numerous independent broadcast outlets compete with state-run television. Concentra- tion of ownership of major newspapers, cross-ownership of media, and foreign ownership reflect substantial economic power. The government regulates foreign buyouts of news media. The self-monitoring Australian Press Council acts on complaints against the media and challenges to its freedom. The Council rejected efforts to establish a world press council with power to write and police a press code. 1 1 1 0 10 1 1 5 0 F

Austria Legal restrictions on the broadcast or publication of information detrimental to morality or national security are rarely invoked. Broadcasting law protects national and local radio and television from political interference, though these media are largely state-owned. Journalists are sometimes threatened by neo-Nazis. 3 2 0 0 12 3 2 2 0 F

áAzerbaijan The draft of a restrictive Law on Mass Media was modified after public objections. However, if implemented, the law would place further restrictions on media. It would require all existing media to register with the ministry of justice, empower an executive-branch agency to distribute and revoke broadcast licenses, enable officials to file suits against journalists for reports they find offensive, and grant government agencies broad powers to choose which journalists would have access official events. The number of violent attacks on journalists was fewer in 1999 (50) than in 1998 (108), but the assailants, mainly police and officials, continued to go unpunished. A television journalist was stabbed to death in his office in August, and numerous journalists were beaten. One television station was shut down and fined in October. For the first time, an Azeri journalist was freed from prison as a result of protests from international media groups. 11 10 5 5 70 7 14 15 3 NF

Bahamas Strict libel laws restrain freedom of expression but the government has not employed these laws against independent newspapers. Private ownership of three broadcasters is now permitted. Three daily and several weekly newspapers, all privately owned, express a variety of views, including criticism of the government and its policies. 1 2 1 0 7 1 1 1 0 F

âBahrain Though a new emir assumed power, freedom of the press remained sharply curtailed. Radio and television are owned by the government and carry only official propaganda. Privately-owned newspapers do not criticize the regime. A German Press Agency correspondent was expelled for allegedly discrediting the royal family. The reporter had described clashes between protesters and armed security guards. 15 15 7 0 75 13 14 10 1 NF

âBangladesh Constitutional guarantees of press freedom are subject to “reasonable restrictions” in the interest of security, foreign relations, public order, decency, or morality. Defamation and incitement to violence are prohibited. Broadcast media are state-owned and heavily favor the government. The print media are diverse and outspoken, though they face severe pressure. Violence directed at journalists and their institutions escalated in 1999. Insurgent activists and the police attacked the press as the government heightened its defense against the politics of strikes and demonstrations. In the melees, some 40 reporters and 50 press photographers were assaulted and injured. Ten sustained bullet wounds, three were arrested and others charged. Seven newspaper offices were attacked, and death threats were received by at least eleven journalists. 13 11 6 3 60 5 10 7 5 PF

Barbados Though the government owns the single television outlet it presents varied viewpoints. Two of the country’s six radio stations are also owned by the government. Two independent daily newspapers freely publish opposition views. The government 12 Press Freedom Survey 2000 comes under harsh criticism in both broadcast and print media. 1 6 3 0 16 1 2 3 0 F

Belarus Libel and defamation laws carry penalties of up to four years’ imprisonment or two years in a labor camp for insulting President Lukashenka. National broadcast media are state monopolies, though local radio and television stations exist. About 30 of the country’s publications—1,000 by official count—are independent of the government, and they suffered severe harassment throughout 1999. An independent television program was banned. Six independent newspapers were threatened with sedition trials. Nine papers were banned before publication. Police raided the offices of several newspapers. Three journalists were arrested, and several detained. Editors and reporters censor themselves to avoid harassment. 13 14 5 5 80 13 14 11 5 NF

Belgium Freedom of the press is guaranteed, with prohibitions on libel, slander, and advocacy of discrimination, hate, or violence. These restrictions are not abused to limit freedom of the press. Independent public boards govern state radio and television to ensure linguistic balance. Private radio and television are licensed by the government. 1 2 0 1 9 1 2 2 0 F

Belize The constitution guarantees freedom of the press but provides exceptions in the interest of public security, public order, morality, or public health. Major political parties subsidize three of the six privately owned newspapers. The government exerts influence over two independent radio stations through financial subsidies. Other private radio and television stations broadcast freely. The press is free to criticize the government and does, expressing a variety of political views. Similarly diverse viewpoints are heard on radio call-in programs. 4 4 5 0 25 2 5 5 0 F

Benin The government respects constitutional guarantees of press freedom. Laws forbidding sedition and “incitement” are rarely enforced. A government body monitors media operations and requires broadcasters to submit a weekly program list. Publishers are directed to provide copies of all publications, though the media generally ignore this requirement. A dozen private newspapers criticize the government freely, though their effect is limited to urban centers and the majority of Beninese are illiterate. In January, the government imposed a one-month suspension on a television program deemed to incite “hate, violence, and regionalism.” 9 5 4 1 30 3 3 5 0 F

áBhutan In this traditional monarchy which rejects “Western democracy” as a threat to the national culture, freedom of expression and the press are tightly controlled by the authorities. Kuensel, the only regular publication, is state-owned and carries mainly government views. The state-controlled broadcasting service, the main source of news for Bhutan’s largely illiterate population, does not provide opposing views. Private broadcasting and satellite dishes are illegal. In January, the British Broadcasting Company reported that the former head of Bhutan’s Nepali service had sought asylum in the Netherlands claiming ethnic-based persecution. A limited television service available only in Thimpu began in June. 15 15 10 0 76 14 14 8 0 NF

âBolivia A press law dating from 1925 and the penal code punish defamation or slander of officials with up to three years’ imprison- ment. The press, radio, and television are mainly privately owned. Physical attacks on journalists have become rare, but there were several incidents of harassment in 1999. One journalist received a death threat, several journalists and photographers were assaulted by police while covering a protest march, and one radio station and a newspaper were bugged by unknown persons. 4 3 2 1 22 4 3 2 3 F

Bosnia-Herzegovina Under the Dayton Accords, peacekeeping forces have authority to monitor and penalize the news media. Although peacekeepers use the power sparingly, this is one of several pressures under which journalists operate. Criminal libel laws are used to restrict independent newspapers, and a draft law on indemnity related to libel and insult, introduced in December, would increase fines against journalists convicted of these offenses. In April, the Independent Media Commission (IMC) published a code of conduct for journalists that was widely criticized for vague provisions that would facilitate restrictions on free reporting. Several media outlets were penalized under the code. About a quarter of newspapers are privatized, and some state-run papers are partly privatized. Independent media lack financial resources and depend on international donors for their existence. Television and radio, the main sources of news, are closely aligned to the ruling parties. One radio station was bombed and a television crew was attacked by demonstrators. Police seized several editions of a Serbian newspaper. One journalist was severely injured by a bomb attack on his car, Press Freedom Survey 2000 13 and another was beaten and threatened by a mayor. 9 10 8 1 56 9 7 10 2 PF

áBotswana The government moved to institutionalize the generally free news media in 1999, ending its 33-year monopoly on broadcasting by granting the first license to an independent radio station. A second independent license was pending. The news ombudsman called on the government to pass a Freedom of Information Act. Amidst these positive changes, two NBC journalists were arrested and their videotapes confiscated, and politicians launched a libel suit against the proprietor and editor of the major newspaper. Two Namibian journalists were detained at a refugee camp after covering a state visit. 5 5 2 1 28 5 4 5 1 F

áBrazil The 1967 press law penalizes libel with a prison term, but judges rarely impose such a harsh sentence. The government licenses broadcast media, which are mostly privately owned, and politicians frequently obtain licenses. In December 1999, the chamber of deputies approved a comprehensive “gag” law that would impose stiff penalties on journalists, police, prosecutors, and judges who make public any information regarding on-going criminal investigations or prosecutions. Though there are many newspapers, the concentration of ownership of both print and broadcast media tends to reduce the diversity of information available to the public. In recent years TV Globo’s near monopoly on the broadcast media has been challenged by its rival, Sistema Brasiliero de Televisao (STB). One newspaper journalist was the target of an assassination attempt in August. 4 5 6 0 33 4 8 5 1 PF

Brunei There is no access to diverse information or a free flow of news in this hereditary sultanate. The sole privately-owned newspaper practices self-censorship on political and religious issues, though it recently instituted a letters-to-the-editor page in which citizens have criticized the government. The only domestic broadcast media are owned and operated by the state. 14 15 5 0 74 14 15 11 0 NF sBulgaria Libel is punishable under the criminal code with imprisonment and large fines, but these measures have been used rarely in recent years. A well-intentioned draft law on access to public information was criticized by press freedom groups as being vague and open to broad interpretation. Media mogul Rupert Murdoch’s Balkan News Corporation outbid six offers for the license to operate Bulgaria’s first private national television station, Efir2. The government also published a list of telecommunications services to be licensed, including Internet service providers (ISPs). A radio reporter was investigated by the government for “attacking the honor and dignity” of the country, and another journalist was assaulted after exposing corruption in privatization. 6 5 4 1 30 5 3 5 1 F

âBurkina Faso The Ministry of Communication and Culture supervises the administration of all media, while the Superior Council of Information further regulates broadcast media. The Information Code prohibits libel and defamation. Self-censorship is common. Despite the operation of a dozen private radio stations, a private television channel, and numerous independent newspapers and magazines, all functioning with little governmental interference, official harassment marred the record this year. One newspaper editorial writer was detained indefinitely by state security for a critical editorial. The editor of L’Opinion was fined for libel in October, and two newspaper journalists were arrested in December for publishing articles and photographs that offended authorities. 10 6 3 0 40 5 6 7 3 PF

Burma (Myanmar) The State Peace and Development Council exercises absolute control over domestic print and broadcast media. News from abroad is censored by the military. Opposition views are not tolerated. In an event that horrified journalists worldwide, twenty-seven employees of a state-owned newspaper were interrogated after the publication of an article critical of a military officer in September. Two employees were tortured to death, and seven others imprisoned. 15 15 15 5 100 15 15 15 5 NF

Burundi The government owns the two major radio stations and the only newspaper that publishes regularly. Independent media appear sporadically and practice significant self-censorship. In a statement that captured the government’s attitude toward the media, the minister of defense told his subordinates to regard journalists who enter a rural insurgent region as enemies, equal to rebels and to be treated as targets. Foreign and domestic journalists were prevented from covering continuing clashes between Burundi’s armed forces and Hutu rebels. The head of the press agency from the embattled area was arrested in June and prevented from publishing reports. 15 15 8 0 83 15 15 10 5 NF 14 Press Freedom Survey 2000

áCambodia The 1995 press law placed vague restrictions on the publication of information related to national security and stability. The press is highly dependent on support from political parties, and therefore suffers a lack of editorial independence. Two coura- geous, relatively independent English-language newspapers cannot raise the level of all news media in the country to “free” or even “partly free” status, but they help set the pattern for a freer media system. The Cambodia Daily and the Phnom Penh Post published against economic uncertainty and political violence. Other newspapers are routinely harassed, while journalists are threatened and attacked. Hun Sen and his allies control the ten radio stations and six television channels. 12 13 4 0 61 8 10 10 4 NF

Cameroon The penal code punishes defamation, “abuse,” contempt, and dissemination of false information with prison terms and heavy fines. The government frequently uses these provisions to silence critics. Most private newspapers publish only sporadically, and those that publish regularly are generally unavailable outside larger cities because of high costs and distribution problems. Broadcast media are the major source of news, and virtually a government monopoly. The government has not implemented regulations allowing for major private radio and television licenses. Private rural radio stations face strict limits on content. Two journalists were imprisoned this year in defamation cases involving their newspapers. Copies of another paper were confiscated. Police visited a reporter’s home after a radio interview. 14 10 7 5 77 11 13 12 5 NF

áCanada Laws against hate speech and pornography are not used to restrict freedom of the press. Canadian media are free to provide their audiences with a complete range of views and opinions. However, journalists are not immune to harassment from non- government sources. A Vancouver Sun reporter who covers the Indo-Canadian community received death threats in March, and two journalists were injured when a letter bomb exploded at A-Channel television in Edmonton in June. 1 2 1 1 14 2 2 4 1 F

áCape Verde Most widely read newspapers, as well as the major radio and television stations, are state-controlled. Self-censorship is widely practiced for fear of demotion or dismissal, or of punishment under broadly interpreted criminal libel laws. However, sharp attacks on the government in the national assembly are broadcast live on radio. 5 5 5 0 32 5 7 5 0 PF

Central African Republic The UN-sponsored radio station provides nonpartisan civic and voter education programs and rebroad- casts of international news. Other radio stations are dominated by the state and provide little opposition coverage. More than a dozen private newspapers are outspoken in their criticism of government policies and alleged corruption, but they publish irregularly and have little impact because of high illiteracy and inability to afford them. One journalist with the French Liberation was twice barred from entering the country in 1999. 12 12 5 0 60 9 10 11 1 PF

áChad Criminal libel is punishable by prison sentences and heavy fines. Private newspapers that sharply criticize the government and its policies freely circulate in the capital, but have little impact among the rural, poor, and largely illiterate population. Radio is the primary medium of mass communication, but state control of broadcast media allows few dissenting views. Private commercial radio does not exist because of prohibitively high licensing fees. One private radio station is owned by the Catholic church. The only television station is state-owned and its coverage favors the government. The minister of communication threatened to penalize one newspaper for publishing an interview with a rebel leader, but no action was taken. 14 14 8 0 72 10 10 15 1 NF

Chile A 1958 internal security law penalizes sedition and defamation of military personnel. A 1996 privacy law prohibits infringe- ment on the private and public lives of individuals and their families. Neither of these laws is widely used to restrain the press. The national television system is state-owned but self-financing and editorially independent. Radio station ownership is both public and private. Scores of publications offer all points of view. In January, the home and office of a newspaper journalist were raided and she was detained by police in an attempt to intimidate her into disclosing the source of an article about the alleged misconduct of a shipping magnate. 4 5 3 0 27 5 5 4 1 F

áChina Citizens may not publish or broadcast criticism of senior officials or opinions that challenge Communist Party rule. There are many legal and non-legal guidelines that require journalists to avoid covering sensitive topics, including the state security law, which Press Freedom Survey 2000 15 prohibits reporting on state secrets. The market-driven press is increasingly allowed to report on government inefficiency and official corruption. The government monitors the Internet for challenges to the party and top officials, yet news and views from abroad increasingly seep through. Three newspapers were banned or closed, twenty Hong Kong journalists were detained, a local television journalist was arrested for covering a farmer protest, access to CNN was cut for eight days and foreign media were censored around the anniversary of the Tiananmen Square massacre. A television crew covering a demonstration for Tibet in Hong Kong was harassed. At year-end, nine journalists were in prison, and the government decided to close 200 of the country’s 2,000 newspapers, particularly those not under government control. It was not clear whether the papers were actually closed. 15 14 7 2 80 15 14 8 5 NF

áColombia Professional licensing requirements for journalists were abolished in 1998. The media are generally free of legal restric- tions, though the penal code and anticorruption law prohibit the publication of certain information related to criminal investigations. Increasing concentration of media ownership may narrow the scope of views available to the public. The Colombian press remains vibrant and aggressive but cannot avoid the influence of frequent attacks by narcotraffickers, guerrillas, or paramilitary groups. The murder of six journalists in 1999, death threats against others, the kidnapping of 15 journalists, and the bombing of a major newspaper office underscore the violent atmosphere in which the news media continue to function. More than 125 Colombian journalists have been killed in the past decade. 10 14 5 3 59 8 9 5 5 PF

âComoros There are no specific legal provisions for freedom of the press, but several independent newspapers publish in the capital, alongside the semiofficial weekly, and sharply criticize the government. Self-censorship is reportedly common. Radio is largely state controlled, but allows some independence in content. About 20 regional radio stations and five local private television stations operate without overt government interference, and amateur radio licenses are issued freely. Since a group of journalists opposed to the independence movement began broadcasting on Radio Ushababi in June, they have suffered persistent harassment by authorities, security forces, and separatist militiamen. They were forced to suspend broadcasts on August 9 because of security threats. A journalist with L’Archipel was arrested in October and barred from leaving the country because of a controversial article. 10 7 5 1 40 3 7 6 1 PF

âCongo (Brazzaville) A 1995 law penalizes defamation of senior officials, requires journalists to “show loyalty to the govern- ment,” and permits seizure of private printers during emergencies. The 1996 press law instituted jail terms of up to five years and fines of up to $10,000 for libel, slander, and inciting ethnic violence. Self-censorship pervades not only the war-torn areas of the country, which have suffered particularly. Government monopolizes electronic media, except for a radio station operated by allies of Sasso- Nguesso. In February, a journalist with Africa No. 1 Radio lost his accreditation, and three journalists were dismissed under pressure from the government. Two broadcast journalists were arrested on their way to a pro-independence enclave in May. 15 15 5 5 77 15 15 7 0 NF

Congo, Democratic Republic (Kinshasa) A 1996 press law codified restrictions against libel and requires journalists to reveal sources “when required by law.” All publishers must submit copies of publications with the information ministry for approval. More than 30 cases of serious press freedom violations occurred in 1999. Two dozen journalists were arrested in separate cases for publish- ing controversial articles or opinions, and some received long prison terms. The studio of one television channel was burned. A radio transmitter was seized, broadcasts of foreign programs were banned by the information ministry, one broadcaster was ordered not to present political debates, and copies of a satirical publication were seized. 15 15 5 5 90 15 15 15 5 NF

Costa Rica Laws prohibiting libel and defamation are not widely used to restrict journalists. A 1996 law ensures the right of reply for individuals criticized in media reports. Radio and television are both public and commercial. Some 20 private television stations and 70 private radio stations provide a forum for news and public debate. At least nine major newspapers serve a highly literate nation. 2 2 4 0 16 3 2 3 0 F

Côte d’Ivoire A 1991 law prohibits insulting the state, members of the government, and foreign officials, as well as “undermining the reputation” of the country. Criminal libel is punishable with up to two years in prison. State-run print and broadcast media carry only pro-government views. Several private radio stations and a cable television station operate, but only state-run broadcasting reaches a national audience. Self-censorship is common among nominally independent newspapers. Five popular journalists were detained or fined for defamation. In at least nine incidents in 1999, newspaper journalists were arrested for criticizing the police or public officials. In September, the owner of the opposition Le Liberal was shot to death by unknown assailants. 15 13 5 0 74 13 13 10 5 NF 16 Press Freedom Survey 2000

Croatia Under the criminal code, anyone convicted of insulting government or judicial officials may be sentenced to up to three years in prison. The code also prohibits the publication of classified information deemed “vital to state interests,” though this term is vaguely defined. The government and allies of the ruling HDZ party monopolize the printing and distriubtion of newspapers, and use this power to restrict independent publications. The government also has a controlling interest in two of four daily newspapers, several weeklies, and the country’s only news agency. The HDZ controls the electronic media through its allocation of radio and television concessions. State radio and television is the only national network and the main source of news for some 90 percent of the population. Independent broadcasters are legally prohibited from broadcasting nationally. Throughout 1999, journalists received death threats, were interrogated by police, and were indicted for publishing reports considered offensive to the government. 12 10 2 0 63 12 12 11 4 NF

Cuba Laws against antigovernment propaganda and insulting officials carry penalties of up to three years in prison. The constitution prohibits private ownership of electronic media. A handful of independent journalists faces severe repression, including jail terms, kidnappings, and assaults. Foreign journalists are routinely denied visas, and foreign news agencies must hire local journalists only through government offices. Thirty-six journalists were arrested in separate cases throughout 1999, either to prevent their reporting or because of their reporting. Most were arrested for covering street demonstrations or for planning to cover them. Two were abducted. Several foreign journalists were detained or expelled. 15 15 14 0 94 15 15 15 5 NF

Cyprus A vibrant independent press frequently criticizes authorities. Several private television and radio stations, established with the end of the government monopoly on broadcast media in 1997, compete effectively with government-controlled stations. Turkish Cypriot authorities have a monopoly on the broadcast media in their area, but both sides can receive one another’s programs. Print media, however, are not exchanged. 2 5 2 0 16 2 2 3 0 F

Czech Republic Communist-era laws against defamation remain in effect, but are not widely used. A press law drafted by the Parliament in mid-1999 would ban free discussion of many vaguely defined topics, including the Czech constitution, threats of violence, hate speech, and alleged pornography. The government would have the right to take over columns in the independent press in the interest of “urgent public interest.” The law would also require publications to register their political “tendency,” create a right of reply, grant courts the right to suspend publications for a year, and institute fines for violations of these provisions. The draft law went to committee for modification and at year’s end its release had not yet been reported. Newspapers, magazines, and journals of every political stripe are owned by a variety of Czech and foreign investors, and publish without interference. Two of the three television stations are private, as are dozens of radio stations. Broadcast media are editorially independent. A television journalist was prosecuted in December for allegedly falsely accusing local law enforcement officials of corruption. 3 4 1 1 20 3 4 4 0 F

Denmark The news media reflect a wide variety of political opinions, frequently critical of the government. Radio and television are financed by the state, but state-owned media have independent editorial boards. Independent radio stations are tightly regulated and have occasionally been prohibited from broadcasting. 1 1 4 0 9 1 1 1 0 F

âDjibouti Independent newspapers circulate freely, with government pressure influencing their content. The government closely controls all electronic media. During the year, six journalists were imprisoned for their writing, and two French television journalists were detained and expelled after their materials were seized. 15 11 9 1 63 7 9 7 4 NF

Dominica The press is free, varied, and critical. Television and radio, both public and private, provide a variety of viewpoints. Two private newspapers and political party journals operate without government interference. The Catholic Church runs an independent radio station. 1 4 2 0 16 1 4 4 0 F

Dominican Republic Newspapers are independent and diverse, but subject to government pressure through denial of advertising revenues and taxes on imported newsprint. Dozens of radio stations and at least six commercial television channels transmit. Early in the year, police wounded three journalists when they fired on political protesters. Six broadcast journalists were wounded by police Press Freedom Survey 2000 17 shooting at a crowd in another demonstration. 4 6 6 0 30 2 4 8 0 F

âEcuador Though the country has been virtually ungovernable for most of the year, resulting in a military coup, the news media have not been particularly targeted. There were several cases of harassment of journalists before the coup and, afterward, the expected reduction in official sources of information. Financial uncertainty hit the news media as all businesses. 7 9 3 1 44 9 9 5 1 PF

Egypt The press law, the publications law, the penal code, and libel laws all restrict press freedom. Criticism of the president, the government, and foreign heads of state may result in heavy fines or imprisonment. The government owns stock in the three major daily newspapers, and the president appoints their editors in chief. These papers provide some criticism of the government. The govern- ment also monopolizes the printing and distribution of newspapers. Opposition parties publish newspapers with government subsidies. The information ministry owns and operates all broadcast media. At least 12 journalists were charged in 1999 with such offenses as libeling government officials and spreading “false information harmful to public interests.” In August, three journalists with the opposition newspaper Al-Shaab were fined and sentenced to two years in prison for libeling the deputy prime minister. In June, the managing editor of Al-Arabi was sacked under pressure from the prime minister for opposing government policies. The organizer of an unauthorized journalists’ union was arrested, fined and sentenced to three and a half years in prison. 8 14 9 0 69 11 12 10 5 NF

áEl Salvador A new criminal code provision allowing judges to close court proceedings if public exposure could prejudice a case was criticized by press freedom proponents. The private media include five daily newspapers and twelve television stations. There are also several VHF stations and about 20 cable channels across the country. Some 150 radio stations broadcast on AM and FM bands. Left- wing journalists are occasional targets of intimidation. Investigative journalism, despite limited access to some sources, has begun to examine controversial issues. Self-censorship, common during the civil war, persists. Election campaigns feature televised debates among the candidates. 4 7 7 0 40 9 7 6 0 PF

Equatorial Guinea Nearly all news media are state-run and tightly controlled. Government-run broadcast media do not allow access to opposition parties. A few small publications appear irregularly but exercise considerable self-censorship. All journalists must be licensed. Criticism of the president is prohibited. 15 10 8 0 78 15 15 15 0 NF

Eritrea The government controls all broadcast media and forbids the expression of dissenting views. Pressure on the small indepen- dent print media further limits diversity of news and information. 15 15 4 0 68 15 15 4 0 NF

Estonia The government respects constitutional guarantees of press freedom. Despite competition from two independent television channels, the national state-owned public-service channel enjoys the highest ratings. Local television and radio are privately owned. Russian language programs are available over both private and public systems. All major newspapers are privately owned and receive no subsidies from the state, though some private media face economic difficulties. Printing and distribution facilities are privately owned. 2 3 2 0 20 3 3 7 0 F

áEthiopia Harassment and imprisonment of newspaper journalists continued, though at a slightly lower rate than the previous year. Seven print journalists were detained or arrested for criticizing the regime. Several were imprisoned and “detained indefinitely.” In 1998, 16 journalists received long prison terms and 27 fled the country. 10 8 10 0 62 10 15 4 5 NF

áFiji Though the news media are among the most diverse in the Pacific area, they have come under increasing criticism from the prime minister who is also information minister. The government may restrict the media in the name of preventing racial antagonism. In addition to three English-language dailies, weeklies in three languages, and news, business and entertainment magazines, there are independent commercial, community and religious radio stations, and government-owned radio and television channels. A private television channel provides objective reporting. But government pressures generate self-censorship. One television channel was asked 18 Press Freedom Survey 2000 by government to “explain” its political interviews. A New Zealand television journalist was refused entry. Several journalists were manhandled by police. Two newspapers were called before the legislature for “insulting” reports. A work permit for a foreign-national journalist was refused. Journalists were banned from reporting legislative proceedings. The editor-in-chief of one newspaper was given 28 days to leave the country. 10 7 7 2 58 11 10 7 4 PF

Finland Newspapers are privately owned and reflect a broad spectrum of views. The state broadcasting system controls most radio and television programming, but private broadcasting is available. One television journalist was denied access to parliament. 1 4 3 1 15 1 2 3 0 F

áFrance French media are free, though radio and television are subject to political influence. The government’s financial support of journalism and the registration of journalists have raised concerns about media independence. Publication of opinion poll results is prohibited in the week preceding any election. Five journalists were attacked by police at two demonstrations. Another journalist was arrested and his offices searched for refusing to reveal sources of his reporting. 1 6 3 1 24 1 4 6 2 F

âGabon The government dominates the broadcast media. Only a few private broadcasters have been licensed, and their viability is questionable. The government owns a daily newspaper. Opposition parties publish a dozen newspapers, but radio is the most influential medium. The national communications council banned political programs on one private radio station and suspended four private television and radio outlets. One newspaper was suspended indefinitely and a journalist from another paper given a two-month prison term for defamation. 10 15 6 4 55 7 7 4 2 PF

The Gambia Broadcast media are owned and operated by the government and broadcast only tightly controlled news. Independent print journalists are repeatedly harassed and arrested by the government. In 1999, the entire staff of The Independent was detained in July and the publication of the paper suspended. Four of its editors were arrested and charged with criminal libel in December. 15 15 1 0 70 15 15 4 5 NF

áGeorgia The press law prohibits publishing “false information” or “malevolently using freedom of the press.” The “dignity and honor” of the president must be respected. A new administrative code enacted in June provides for freedom of public access to government meetings and documents. In September, Radio Free Europe reported that Georgia was revising its legal code to shift the burden of proof in libel cases from journalists to plaintiffs. There are eight independent television stations in Tblisi, and up to 30 regional stations. A degree of financial dependence on local government officials compromises the independence of many of these stations. Some 200 independent newspapers reflect different viewpoints and frequently criticize government officials and policies. There is self-censorship, particularly in state-run media, but there were fewer cases of violations against journalists in 1999 than in 1998. 6 10 8 0 47 6 7 10 0 PF

Germany Print and broadcast media are free and independent, their coverage spanning the full spectrum of political views. Neo-Nazi propaganda is illegal. The government has attempted to block Internet access to pornographic, violent, or other “dangerous” material. 3 2 1 0 13 3 2 2 0 F

Ghana The government by law circumvents constitutional guarantees of media freedom. Government pressure and financial strictures hamper the otherwise vibrant independent press. The state uses criminal libel laws to make reporting “false” information a felony. Ten- year prison sentences await those defaming or slandering the Ghanaian state. In separate cases this year, a major newspaper was fined for libeling the transport minister and two editors were fined for contempt of court. 7 11 6 0 61 13 10 9 5 NF

Greece Though the courts frequently convict journalists of libel for insulting officials, the press is generally free of government control. Many journalists were charged and sentenced this year for defamation. Self-censorship was common, particularly during the NATO air strikes in Yugoslavia. One radio station was raided and closed by the police. 5 5 1 1 30 5 5 3 5 F Press Freedom Survey 2000 19

Grenada Freedom of the press is guaranteed in law and in practice. Four weekly newspapers are independent and freely criticize the regime. Television is both public and private. The main radio station is part of a statuary body of the government but not directly controlled by the administration. 2 4 5 0 20 2 1 6 0 F

áGuatemala The press and most of the broadcast media are privately owned, with several independent newspapers and dozens of radio stations, most of which are commercial. Independent media freely criticize government policies and publish materials from human rights organizations and other groups critical of the government. The state controls the two national television channels, but opposition parties can purchase broadcast time. More than a dozen journalists have been forced into exile in recent years, and many are reportedly intimidated because of their reporting. Although two men were convicted and sentenced to 30 years in prison for the 1997 murder of a newspaper editor, journalists remain at risk. Late in December, a correspondent for a business news agency was murdered. Another newspaper journalist received death threats, and a third was attacked by assailants who removed documents. The unknown source of a mysterious program on a radio station regularly attacked journalists. 8 10 6 3 54 6 9 7 5 PF

Guinea Journalists face a wide variety of penalties for sedition, slander, defamation, insults against the president, or disturbance of the peace. The state controls all broadcasting and the only daily newspaper. More than a dozen independent newspapers publish either weekly or sporadically and are vocally critical of the government. High printing costs also severely restrict publishing. The offices of L’Independent Plus were closed by police in December, and the paper’s editor in chief detained and expelled in December. In April, another of the paper’s editors was arrested in connection with articles alleging official corruption. 15 15 6 0 71 15 9 7 4 NF

áGuinea Bissau State media practice self censorship and seldom criticize government policies. Several private and community radio stations provide more balanced coverage. Two rebroadcast French and Portuguese programs with more balanced coverage than government stations. Economic pressure on newspapers is high due to the cost of printing at the state-run printing house. 5 14 10 0 56 5 10 12 0 PF

Guyana Fifteen privately owned television channels and several independent newspapers freely criticize the government. The state owns and operates the only two radio stations and one television channel. 2 7 2 0 22 2 4 5 0 F

Haiti Two daily French-language newspapers frequently criticize the government, but with a 20 percent literacy rate, the Hatian population receives most of its news from broadcast media. Uncensored satellite television is available, but reaches a limited number of people because of financial constraints. Over 200 independent radio stations exist throughout the country and provide the full spectrum of political views. However, self-censorship is pervasive as journalists try to avoid offending financial sponsors or influential politicians. Official harassment often takes the form of physical assaults by mobs. Four journalists were beaten by police at an anti- crime rally in May. A radio director was arrested and charged with defamation and incitement to riot in April. 10 13 8 5 58 7 7 8 0 PF

Honduras Laws that punish defamation and require journalists to reveal sources in certain cases restrict press freedom. Most broadcast media are independently operated. Five radio stations run by two commercial companies are the leading source of news. Television is entirely privately owned. Six national daily newspapers reflect varying points of view. Journalists censor themselves to avoid offending the political or economic interests of media owners. Journalists are known to accept bribes from authorities who wish to influence coverage. 5 12 4 0 48 6 12 9 0 PF

âHungary There are three national public television channels and some 26 commercial television stations. About 30 radio stations operate throughout the country, although no national radio stations are privately owned. Private television channels are regulated by a comprehensive media law. The number of physical and legal attacks on journalists increased notably in 1999. Four journalists were assaulted. The staff of one television news program was removed over a story on corruption in the ruling party. The agriculture minister seized a video tape on another channel. Police raided the offices of one newspaper and a grenade attack struck another. 3 6 2 1 30 2 6 5 5 F 20 Press Freedom Survey 2000

Iceland The government fully respects the constitution’s guarantee of press freedom. A wide range of publications includes indepen- dent and party-affiliated newspapers. An autonomous board oversees the state broadcasting service which operates a number of transmitting and relay stations. There is both public and private television. 1 1 3 0 12 1 1 5 0 F

âIndia The government dominates news and information transmitted by radio and television. Doordarshan television is the world’s largest terrestrial network, serving 80 percent of the nearly one billion population. All-India Radio operates nearly all radio stations. Both systems favor government positions. Certain information, such as fighting over Kashmir, is either not reported or is given biased coverage. An estimated 35 million people watch satellite TV. Video and audio cassettes (mostly pirated) are popular. The cable television audience is growing steadily. There is a robust print press in many languages though journalists are sometimes attacked when covering controversial stories. In 1999, in separate incidents one journalist was stabbed to death, another tortured and murdered, a third strangled, and a fourth abducted and murdered. Two television journalists were assaulted by police, three others arrested, and another targeted by grenade. The information minister blocked the website of a Pakistani newspaper and banned the transmission of Pakistani television by Indian cable operators. 2 12 3 5 42 2 5 8 5 PF

áIndonesia, After the 1998 revolution, President B. J. Habibie quickly relaxed official controls over the news media and Abdurrahman Wahid, who became president in October, continued the positive trend. Political and social dislocations generated violence, much directed at the mass media in 1999. Yet there was far greater freedom for the press despite political uncertainty. A press law enacted in September prohibits censorship, but requires journalists to respect “religious and moral norms of the public.” A press board was created to uphold a code of journalist ethics. Despite its shortcomings, the new law is widely seen as an improvement over previous provisions. The department of information, responsible for government censorship and propaganda, was abolished in October. Security forces restricted coverage of East Timor, and domestic media generally adhered to the government line during the transition. Afterward, however, they provided extensive coverage of the Indonesian Commission Investigating Abuses in East Timor. Reporting on corruption, political protests, the parliamentary election campaign, and the presidential selection process was free, varied, and comprehensive, but restricted somewhat by official harassment. In East Timor, four journalists were killed on assignment, two television journalists were attacked by demonstrators, several foreign journalists were wounded, the only independent newspaper office was destroyed, two British journalists were detained by police, an American journalist was arrested and questioned, and the car of two Western journalists was ambushed by militia. Foreign journalists were formally barred from entering the region. Outside East Timor, journalists suffered physical assaults, threats, and other forms of intimidation. [Note: On October 20, East Timor voted separation from Indonesia and went under UN protection. We do not yet treat East Timor as a sovereign country.] 10 5 3 3 49 9 5 9 5 PF

áIran A press law passed in July compels journalists to reveal sources, bars opposition journalists and editors from practicing journalism, limits government subsidies to reformist publications, and institutionalizes the right of revolutionary courts to try complaints against the media. However, newspapers have been an integral part of the slow reform of Iranian politics that has occurred since the 1997 election of President Mohammad Khatami. Since then, Iran has seen the emergence of numerous publications whose satire, advocacy of independent civil society, and investigative reporting on government wrongdoing have attracted a wide audience. But conservatives accuse the independent press of plotting against Islam and the revolution, and the conservative-dominated judiciary has banned most influential reformist papers. The papers frequently reopen under different titles but are not legally protected, and tolerance is arbitrary. Broadcast media remain tightly controlled by conservatives. However, a ban on satellite dishes is not strictly enforced, and many viewers look to foreign television for entertainment and news. The government blocks Internet sites considered offensive, while service providers practice self-censorship. At least 12 journalists were arrested in 1999 for such offenses as slander and “insulting Islam.” Some were sentenced to jail. A journalist from an Azerbaijani paper was abducted by customs officials in May. Several papers were either banned or suspended. 10 15 8 0 68 12 10 8 5 NF

Iraq A media law prohibits the broadcast or publication of information considered detrimental to the president, the Revolutionary Command Council, or the Baath Party. Other laws prohibit insulting the president or high government officials, and violators may incur the death penalty. Non-Baath newspapers were permitted to publish in 1998 for the first time in 30 years. The government allowed restricted access to satellite broadcasting beginning in October 1999, and throughout the year made little effort to block the signal of Prague-based Radio Free Iraq. The editor of a newspaper owned by the son of Saddam was arrested and feared tortured for refusing to edit a second paper and for attempting to leave the country. One newspaper was shut down for carrying “incorrect news.” 15 14 15 5 98 15 14 15 5 NF Press Freedom Survey 2000 21

âIreland Print and broadcast media are free, with prohibitions on libel and on information deemed likely to undermine state authority or to promote violence. Broadcasters are no longer banned from mentioning paramilitary organizations or parties related to them. Concentrated ownership, especially of regional and local newspapers, is a concern as a possible restriction on press freedom. The Censorship and Publications Board banned the magazine “In Dublin” for six months in 1999 for obscenity. The board was criticized as an anomaly in a generally free society. 3 3 2 0 21 3 3 6 1 F

Israel The degree of press freedom is expanding, though restrictions remain on matters affecting military affairs and the rights of Arab journalists to report and travel. Newspaper and magazine articles on security matters are subject to military censorship. Editors may appeal a censorship decision to a three-member tribunal that includes two civilians. Newspapers are privately owned and frequently criticize the government. Arab-language papers are more frequently censored than Hebrew-language publications. In 1999, a ministerial committee ordered the closure of the Palestine News Agency. Throughout the year, Palestinian journalists suffered attacks by Israeli officials. A television journalist was shot by Israeli troops in South Lebanon. Two others were beaten and detained while covering a demonstration in East Jerusalem. Ten other journalists, Jews as well as Palestinians, were beaten in another police action. Six Palestin- ian journalists were arrested in Hebron and their credentials confiscated. Two reporters, including a Palestinian journalist from the New York Times, were denied permission to work in Israel. The offices of a radio station were stormed by the police and its equipment confiscated. 3 2 2 2 30 8 6 2 5 F

âIsrael-administered (occupied) territories and Palestinian Authority The Palestine National Authority is slow in relaxing controls that imply that news media are part of the PNA structure and answerable to it. While censorship is unpredictable, intimida- tion and harassment of journalists leads to pervasive self-censorship. Despite the PNA’s commitment under the 1997 Wye agreement to ensure the free flow of information, authorities made it illegal to incite violence, a restriction which can be arbitrarily interpreted. In 1999, security forces suspended one television station for jamming another’s transmission. Another television outlet was suspended for a report on Muslim-Christian tensions. One television journalist was arrested after a broadcast which featured criticism of Yassir Arafat. Security forces arrested three journalists over an article about alleged torture by police. A freelance print journalist was detained twice for articles he published. Two journalists were detained and later charged on suspicion of spreading false information. 12 12 0 5 65 12 12 8 4 NF

áItaly Some 80 daily newspapers are generally free of government control. The most prominent papers are owned by large busi- nesses and industrial firms, which may influence content. There are restrictions on obscenity and defamation. Political parties are represented on the commission that controls the broadcast media. The boards of the three main state-owned television channels are appointed by the parliament and tend to represent the political parties. However, television carries a broad range of news and commentary. 1 8 6 0 27 1 5 6 0 F

Jamaica Free and independent newspapers frequently criticize the establishment. Broadcast channels are largely public and open to diverse news and comment. Foreign broadcasts are unregulated and available by satellite. During election campaigns journalists are occasionally intimidated. 1 2 0 0 11 1 4 3 0 F

Japan Freedom of the news media is generally respected in practice, though press clubs associated with government ministries and the police tie journalists to officials. Five mainstream dailies and several television channels belong to the clubs. The tabloid press, excluded from the clubs, break most scandals. There are two separate radio and television systems. NHK is a public entity running three nationwide radio networks. Two nationwide television networks are financed by subscription fees. Some 6,900 private radio and television channels are financed by advertising revenue. 1 6 0 0 19 1 6 5 0 F sJordan Easing of a harsh press law slightly improved the climate for journalists in 1999. Removed were prohibitions on criticism of the royal family, armed forces, and leaders of Arab, Islamic, and friendly countries. The press is still subject to harsh penalties for violations of objectivity and “reasonability.” The new king, Abdullah, cancelled prior censorship of foreign publications. Radio, television, and the Jordanian news agency are state-owned and operated. In 1999, four journalists were arrested and one given a 14-day prison term for defamation. The press association temporarily expelled three journalists in October for visiting Israel. 12 10 6 0 57 12 9 4 4 PF 22 Press Freedom Survey 2000

Kazakhstan While the press is permitted to criticize some government policies, corruption, and the ineffectiveness of the parliament, journalists may not criticize the president and his family. The government has closed or harassed much of the independent media, particularly those with opposing views. Fear of harassment has generated self-censorship. The president’s daughter controls one of two national television networks. By decree, half of all broadcasting must be in the Kazakh language, though this is only sporadically enforced. In 1999, authorities shut down one newspaper and seized its bank accounts. The rebroadcasting of Russia’s NTV by Kazakh private stations was suspended. 10 13 8 2 68 13 10 1 1 NF

Kenya Newspapers are vibrant but not fully trusted, partly because of official intimidation and repression of journalists, and partly because of the sensationalist nature of popular papers. The private television network is owned by the ruling party. State television censors news about Kenya from the BBC World Service. State radio is the primary news source in rural areas, and glowing reports of the president are carried regularly on its news programs. This year, The high court restricted one newspaper from reporting about a finance minister’s alleged involvement in murder, and restrained another paper from publishing an allegedly defamatory article about the chief justice. One print journalist was abducted and beaten. Six journalists were arrested on separate occasions for their reporting. Three print journalists were attacked by security forces. 10 15 5 1 70 12 15 7 5 NF

Kiribati The government owns the radio station and the one newspaper, a weekly, and provides diverse information. There is no domestic television. Church newsletters are an important source of information. 4 5 0 0 17 4 4 0 0 F

Korea (N) There is complete government control over every aspect of domestic mass media, and information entering the country is strictly controlled. Few foreign journalists are permitted to visit. A citizen may be sent to a “corrective labor” camp or executed for repeating views critical of the regime or Kim Jong Il. 15 15 15 5 100 15 15 15 5 NF

áKorea (S) More subtle forms of persuasion by officials and self-censorship by journalists follow the liberalization of politics since the reformist president Kim Dae Jung came to power in 1997. Despite receiving state support, broadcast media exhibit a high degree of editorial independence. The mainly private newspapers frequently self-censor although they no longer face daily directions from the information ministry. Instead, officials now use persuasion to prevent critical and unflattering reports of the government. 2 7 0 0 27 4 9 5 0 F

âKuwait Criticism of the government in the press is slowly increasing with some clear restrictions still in force. The press law prohibits direct criticism of the emir and of relations with other states, information deemed offensive to religion, and incitement to violence, hatred, or dissent. Newspapers, which are privately owned, frequently criticize officials and their policies. Self-censorship is rife though official prepublication censorship was abolished in 1992. In 1999, a journalist who traveled to Israel was charged with treason, and a newspaper and its editor were suspended for a month for an “indecent” article. Reception of Al Jazeera satellite television from Qatar was temporarily banned for insulting the emir of Kuwait. Another journalist received a one-month prison term for “defaming Islam.” 9 11 0 1 48 9 11 4 3 PF

áKyrgyzstan All news media must register with the ministry of justice. Broadcast media must submit program schedules and receive permission to use frequencies. The criminal code’s sanction against libel is used to prosecute journalists for criticizing government officials. Of 14 private television and 11 radio stations only two radio stations broadcast legally. Numerous independent newspapers appear regularly, and several private radio and television stations operate throughout the country. Security agents raided one newspa- per seeking “negative information” about the minister for national security. Police raided another newspaper to arrest the editor on charges of tax evasion, but he had gone into hiding. The newspaper had publicized opposition members in advance of the forthcoming presidential election. 12 11 0 0 61 12 13 11 2 NF

Laos Despite constitutional provisions for freedom of expression, all radio and television are controlled by the government and reflect government policy. The government owns all newspapers and reacts harshly to expressions of political dissent. The penal code forbids slandering the state, distorting state or party policies, and spreading false rumors that lead to violence. Fear of violating the code, even Press Freedom Survey 2000 23 in the state-run media, limits the diversity of content. 13 10 10 0 66 13 10 10 0 NF

âLatvia A new criminal law allows for penalties of up to three years’ imprisonment for libel and incitement of racial hatred. Though the state has two television networks, one private television channel has twice as many viewers as the state-owned system. There are nine major privately-owned stations and many independent radio outlets broadcasting in both Latvian and Russian. More than 200 newspapers publish a wide range of political viewpoints. Rumors and accusations without adequate factual support abound in some media. One newspaper journalist was arrested and charged with libel. 2 5 4 0 24 2 4 6 1 F

áLebanon Laws prohibit insulting the head of state or foreign leaders. A publications court is empowered to try such offenses, but no such cases were brought in 1999. The 1991 security agreement between Syria and Lebanon effectively prohibits the publication of information deemed harmful to the national security of either state. However, criticism of state officials and policies occurs daily in dozens of newspapers and hundreds of periodicals. Since 1996, the government has licensed five television stations, three of which are owned by government figures. Six radio stations have also been licensed to carry news, while another 20 may carry only entertainment. The appropriation of frequencies is a slow and highly politicized process. Print media are independent of the government, but tend to reflect the views of the local or foreign interests that own them. In February, a journalist with Tele-Liban was abducted, reportedly by security services. An Israeli journalist was killed in February by a roadside bomb in Israeli-occupied south Lebanon. 12 12 7 1 61 9 10 9 1 NF

áLesotho All six independent newspapers have resumed publishing after being looted and destroyed in 1998. Journalists continue to suffer occasional harassment. The government has a monopoly on broadcasting and owns the news agency, all of which express official views. The print press carries opposition viewpoints. South African radio and television are received in Lesotho. Journalists were refused admission to a court martial case in which soldiers were being tried for mutiny. 12 10 7 0 56 10 7 8 2 PF

áLiberia State television and one private channel operate infrequently. President Charles Taylor owns the only countrywide FM radio station. The Roman Catholic Church also operates a radio station which covers sensitive issues. Newspaper journalists have received death threats and are under constant surveillance. Yet the independent media have somehow survived nearly eight years of war, attacks, and harassment. Self-censorship is still rife. One print journalist was arrested in 1999 for writing about corruption. 12 10 10 0 67 12 12 10 1 NF

áLibya The state owns and controls all media and thus controls reporting of domestic and international issues. Foreign programming is censored. However, foreign journalists in Libya during the September 1999 revolutionary anniversary celebrations reported that they traveled freely throughout the country, and though they were encouraged to follow an official program, they encountered no interfer- ence from security officials. There were no reported incidents of attacks on journalists in 1999. 15 15 15 0 90 15 15 15 0 NF

âLithuania Though constitutionally guaranteed, press freedom may be limited to protect “health, honor, dignity, private life, and morals” or the constitution. The state operates a news agency as well as the national radio and television stations, which have 30 percent and 25 percent of the broadcasting market respectively. A wide variety of privately owned newspapers and several indepen- dent television stations are editorially diverse. Parliament amended the law on media to remove the compensation ceiling for libel and slander. Journalists fear this might attract frivolous lawsuits and jeopardize press freedom, particularly investigative reporting. 2 1 4 0 20 3 6 4 0 F

Luxembourg Freedom of the press is guaranteed by law and protected by the government. Print media are privately owned and reflect diverse viewpoints. Television and radio are dominated by the state-chartered commercial channel RTL, but there is a wide range of privately-owned radio and television stations as well as broadcasts from neighboring countries. 1 2 2 0 10 1 2 2 0 F

Macedonia The constitution prohibits censorship and guarantees press freedom and access to information. Most major media are state-controlled or subsidized, though half of both print and broadcast media are privately owned. State television is the most influential, and reaches all parts of the country. Private television is growing rapidly and is regarded increasingly as a credible source. 24 Press Freedom Survey 2000

Political parties fund their own newspapers. 10 9 5 0 42 4 9 5 0 PF

Madagascar The government encourages diversified news reporting even as it controls many mass media outlets. There are private television channels, though the most widely received television station is state-run. It presents a wide range of views. The state-owned radio system sells commercial time. Officials seldom criticize the five private radio stations which carry talk shows. The active free press is sometimes highly critical of officials. One journalist was prevented from appearing on television as representative of the journalists’ association. 4 7 2 1 32 4 10 4 0 PF

âMalawi The government uses libel laws to harass journalists. Malawi launched its first television network in April. The broadcast media remain under government control and influence. The few independent radio stations are owned by friends of the government. Some development-oriented community radio stations have been authorized. In 1999 two journalists were arrested for reporting on an anti-government demonstration. Four journalists were dismissed after it was reported they were members of the opposition. One news photographer was arrested for photographing other journalists being arrested. 14 8 4 0 52 7 8 6 5 PF

âMalaysia The 1987 Printing Presses and Publications Act prohibits the publication of “malicious” news, permits the government to ban or restrict allegedly “subversive” publications, requires newspapers to renew their publication licenses annually, and prohibits publications from challenging such actions in court. Under such pressure, journalists practice self-censorship. Most of the press is owned by those close to the ruling party. The political opposition receives little coverage in broadcast or print media. Before the 1999 election campaign, the information minister barred the opposition’s access to state TV. The International Herald Tribune was banned for being “unsympathetic toward our nation,” and an appeals court imprisoned a correspondent of Far Eastern Economic Review for contempt. 10 14 5 5 70 11 15 7 3 NF

áMaldives The state-run radio service and a small state television channel are the only broadcast media. They carry some criticism of the government’s performance but no opposition to basic policies. Foreign broadcasts are available. The mainly private press carries some criticism of the government, but not of Islam. The government can shut sown newspapers and penalize journalists for allegedly unfounded criticism. As a consequence, journalists self-censor. 15 13 0 0 65 15 14 8 0 NF

áMali Laws that provide harsh penalties for slander of public officials are rarely invoked. The broadcast and print media are among the freest in Africa. Some 40 independent newspapers and 50 private radio and television stations, as well as state-run print and broadcast media provide diverse viewpoints. Some 60 independent radio stations throughout the country, including community outlets, broadcast in a regional languages. 10 3 0 0 26 9 2 2 0 F

Malta An independent broadcasting authority supervises radio and television. Public and private broadcasting, cable, and international transmissions are freely available. Two English-language weeklies and at least ten daily and weekly Maltese newspapers are published freely. 6 0 0 0 17 9 2 0 0 F

Marshall Islands Press freedom is respected by the government, though journalists sometimes censor themselves on sensitive political issues. A privately-owned weekly newspaper publishes in both English and the Marshallese language. The government’s monthly gazette provides official news and avoids political coverage. Two radio stations, one state-run, provide diverse views. A cable television channel shows mostly American programming and occasionally covers local events. 2 2 0 0 8 0 2 2 0 F

áMauritania Under the press law, publishers must submit copies of publications to the justice and interior ministries before distribution. Material that insults Islam or is perceived to threaten national security may be blocked. Of hundreds of private journals and newspapers registered with the interior ministry, only about 20 publish regularly. Broadcast media are state-owned. Their coverage strongly favors the government, and opposition access to radio broadcasting is limited. At least eight issues of different journals were Press Freedom Survey 2000 25 seized by authorities during the year. In April, the French and Arab editions of Le Calame were banned for three months. A BBC journalist’s credentials were revoked, and Sidi Mohammed Ould Younes, the editor in chief of Rajoul Al-Chari was arrested in August for criticizing the justice system. 12 13 2 1 67 10 10 14 5 NF

áMauritius Strict libel laws are rarely invoked by the government against journalists. Broadcast media are state-owned and generally reflect government policies, although a 1997 law opened the broadcasting field to private parties except in local news programming. International broadcasting is widely available. The media climate is diversified by four dailies and eight weeklies which offer balanced coverage in several languages. They are often critical of both the government and the opposition parties. 5 2 0 0 17 6 4 0 0 F

áMexico Reporting was somewhat less dangerous for journalists in 1999 than in 1998. Only one journalist was reported to have received a death threat, and no journalists were killed. Violent attacks on journalists continued, however, for reporters investigating police issues, narcotics trafficking, and public corruption. Though the news media are mostly privately owned, they depend on the government for advertising revenue and are considered among the least independent and most openly corrupt in the hemisphere. Several daily newspapers and weeklies are notable exceptions. The ruling party dominates television, the country’s most influential medium. 6 12 3 0 50 4 12 12 1 PF

áMicronesia An independent weekly newspaper covers politically diverse issues. The federal government publishes a biweekly information bulletin. State governments also produce their own newsletters. Four state governments have their own radio stations. One private radio station broadcasts religious programs. Satellite television is seen in Pohnpei. 1 8 5 0 24 1 7 2 0 F

âMoldova The constitution, the penal code, and press laws prohibit defamation and insulting the state. There is no freedom of information legislation. Political parties publish their own newspapers, which often criticize the government. Foreign publications are available, but many are prohibitively expensive. Most electronic media are controlled by the state and provide limited access to critics. One private radio station broadcasts religious programs. Offices of one paper were attacked by veterans of the war in Afghanistan. On another occasion, a live grenade was found in the office of the same paper after it published an article critical of the government. One independent journalist was beaten after reporting on corruption. 12 8 7 0 58 13 7 9 2 PF

áMongolia The country is moving clearly but slowly in the direction of diverse private print and broadcast news services. Under a law enacted in January 1999, state television and radio would become a public broadcasting service directed by an independent governing board. The process is slowly replacing state-owned media coverage which sometimes favors the government. There are more than a hundred private newspapers and magazines, but poor financing allows most to publish only sporadically. Each party has at least one paper. The largest independent paper was formally a government organ. There are two private television stations with limited outreach. Foreign satellite and cable broadcasts are accessible. 6 6 0 0 29 5 3 8 1 F

áMorocco Laws, political pressure, and tradition restrict press freedom. Publications may be confiscated or censored for libel, national security violations, or vaguely defined “offensive reporting.” Prohibited are criticism of the monarchy, Islam, or Morocco’s claim to Western Sahara. Self-censorship is frequently practiced to avoid penalties. However, the Moroccan press enjoys more freedom to report on political and social matters than is possible in most other countries in the region. Hundreds of publications represent diverse views. The government controls most broadcast media, and others self-censor. Satellite dishes and the Internet are not restricted. One paper was banned for its coverage of the death of King Hassan II. 11 6 0 0 49 11 10 10 1 PF

Mozambique The draft constitution includes provisions for equal access to broadcasting for political parties, trade unions, and professional associations. The criminal defamation law and the 1991 press law may be used to restrict reporting, but the press law has not been tested in court. All major news systems, print and broadcast, are either owned or influenced by the government, though they exhibit some editorial independence. The private print media are slowly growing, though those published in the capital have little influence on the largely illiterate rural population and face serious financial constraints. A major government-owned printing press was privatized in June 1999. Article 19 found that election reporting by public media was less biased during the 1999 presidential election 26 Press Freedom Survey 2000 than during the 1994 election, but noted continuing bias in favor of the ruling Frelimo party. About a dozen licensed private radio and television stations exercise self-censorship. In 1999, one reporter was twice arrested and held without charge for reporting on police brutality. Reporters from another paper were threatened and beaten while covering a demonstration. Another journalist was attacked by a parliamentary official. 8 10 5 0 48 7 10 5 3 PF

áNamibia The government and ruling party, which made repeated attempts to restrict reporting in 1998, did less last year to harass or crack down on the news media. The level of press freedom did not return, however, to the free category in which Namibia’s press appeared in 1997. In 1999, attacks by senior officials on the independent press and direct actions against journalists continued to raise fears that press freedom would be further restricted. One bill would require journalists to reveal sources of information. The minister of defense reportedly withheld information on the involvement of Namibian troops in the fighting in Congo. Armed attackers raided one broadcasting station and one language service cased to broadcast. Yet private radio stations and critical independent newspapers generally operate without official interference. The electronic media are mostly controlled by the state, though the state-run broadcast system presents views critical of the government. 3 10 0 1 34 3 12 3 2 PF

Nauru Radio Australia and the BBC are carried on the state-run Radio Nauru. The government also operates the local television system and publishes an information bulletin. There is no independent news publication. 1 1 1 0 6 1 1 1 0 F

Nepal The state owns and runs the only radio and television system. While it does not adequately cover opposition views, hundreds of private newspapers and magazines reflect views ranging from Maoist to monarchy. These papers vigorously attack government policies. The government owns the main Nepali-language newspaper. The press law restricts reporting on some subjects such as the monarchy, national security, and other sensitive policies. Journalists must be licensed. Last year, eleven journalists were arrested for “links with Maoists,” “creating unrest,” or “insulting the state.” Two other journalists were arrested and thousands of copies of a newspaper seized. 12 10 0 0 59 14 10 8 5 PF

Netherlands Private political and religious associations direct radio and television under government regulation. Diverse news and views are broadcast. Broadcast networks are noncommercial but accept advertising for radio and television. Sensitive information on the monarchy is restricted by a traditional consensus. Free speech is guaranteed, though incitement to racism and exploitation of crime are prohibited. 3 2 1 0 14 3 2 3 0 F

New Zealand As with the vigorous private print press, the broadcast media express diverse views. Independent broadcasters share time with state-owned radio and television. Press freedom is somewhat hampered by the privacy act. It protects privacy but does not guarantee access to information. 2 1 0 0 8 2 2 1 0 F

Nicaragua Before leaving office, the Sandinistas turned over three of the five current television stations to partisans. They also privatized the national radio system by placing it in the hands of their partisans. The stations carry news reflecting their political viewpoint. Print media are more varied, reflecting hard- and soft-line Sandinistas and pro- and anti-government positions. Critics see a hindrance to press freedom in the law requiring journalists to have a degree in journalism or five years of professional experience. Late in 1999, a Sandinista radio station controlled by a party dissident was forcibly shut down by riot police under a judicial order. 6 6 5 1 40 8 6 8 0 PF

áNiger After the coup in April 1999, a credible election and a new constitution brought hope of favorable change to long-embattled journalists. The military still control most broadcasting and the government still publishes one daily newspaper. More than a dozen private papers, some strongly partisan, also still publish. Only one violation of press freedom was reported after the coup. Though the political climate is less combative, other significant improvements have not yet appeared. 9 14 5 0 62 10 14 9 1 NF Press Freedom Survey 2000 27

áNigeria In 1999, after years of dictatorship, the government relaxed many of its predecessors’ draconian press laws . The Com- monwealth returned Nigeria to the fold and urged greater press freedom. But volatility remained in the news media’s relationship to government. The press, one of the oldest and most vibrant in Africa, continued to reflect that tradition. Four journalists were killed: a union leader, two covering ethnic clashes, and a photojournalist by an unknown assailant. Police twice raided newspapers, made arrests and seized papers. Three reporters received separate death threats, as did the staff of one newspaper. At least 11 journalists were arrested in a variety of cases and on diverse charges. Two reporters were suspended for their reports on a parliamentary election. The correspondents of two newspapers lost their accreditation on order of the minister of defense. Police assaulted one reporter, who was then abducted and later released. Students took over one radio station and forced it off the air. One newspaper was sued by the army chief of staff for a published article. Another paper was ordered to retract an article on the corruption of judges. One cable station was shut down by the government. Nineteen broadcasting stations were barred from transmitting for failure to pay fees. 8 5 8 3 53 8 6 10 5 PF

Norway The content of state radio and television is not controlled by the government. To support constitutionally guaranteed press freedom and political pluralism, the government subsidizes many newspapers. Most papers are privately owned and openly partisan. The country has one of the highest rates of Internet users per capita in the world. 1 0 0 0 5 3 0 1 0 F

áOman The high-tech challenge to traditional censorship is beginning to impact this tightly controlled country. All domestic and imported publications must pass censors, though journalists avoid harassment by censoring themselves. Radio and television are state- controlled and provide only official views. Criticism of the sultan is prohibited, though criticism of government officials and policies is tolerated. Satellite dishes are widely available, providing access to foreign broadcasts including the popular Qatar-based television channel Al-Jazeera, which airs lively political debate and uncensored interviews with regional opposition activists. Uncensored Internet access is also available. 15 13 0 0 71 15 13 15 0 NF tPakistan The military seized power in October, promising to reform the corrupt civil government, but a return to civilian rule was not given a timetable. Indeed, the army has ruled the country for 25 of its 52 years. In 1999, arrests and physical attacks on journalists increased markedly. In addition, constitutional, colonial, and post-colonial laws empower the government to curb press freedom. The penal code authorizes sanctions for seditious or anti-state coverage. The army took over all state-run radio and television. In 1999, 40 cases of press-freedom violations were recorded, including the torture and death if one reporter by law enforcement officials. Police beat six journalists in separate incidents, and attacked many journalists who attemptied to cover a trial. Five journalists received death threats, at least one by a government minister. One journalist was kidnapped by police, held incommunicado before his release, repeatedly harassed thereafter, and refused permission to leave the country. Another reporter was shot after threats of “consequences” for his reporting. Two photographers were beaten by police while covering protests. 6 15 0 5 64 9 15 9 5 NF

Panama Independent news and comment appear on scores of radio and television stations. Daily newspapers and weekly publica- tions are no less free and lively, if not always dependable. Restrictive press laws are still on the books, penalizing “crimes against honor. The law also permits officials to jail without trial anyone who defames the government. However, these laws are not actively enforced. 7 2 4 0 30 8 2 7 0 F

Papua New Guinea Foreign-owned news media rather than government are the greater threat to content diversity in PAP. Both daily newspapers are foreign owned, as is the only television channel. There are three government-owned radio stations and one private locally-owned radio outlet. The private press, including weeklies and monthlies, vigorously reports on corruption and other sensitive matters. The state-run radio news is generally balanced. 5 7 2 0 28 5 7 2 0 F

âParaguay There are public and private radio and television stations. State-run broadcast media reflect pluralistic views. All radio except for the government’s is commercial. Many independent newspapers publish but journalists, particularly those covering corruption, are intimidated or attacked. This year, at least seven journalists were assaulted covering a political demonstration. Five broadcasters were intercepted and a newspaper fire-bombed during a demonstration. Two journalists were arrested and harassed. A radio station was jammed during reports of a demonstration. 7 8 4 3 51 7 13 6 3 PF 28 Press Freedom Survey 2000

âPeru Seven years after President Fujimori suspended the constitution and dissolved Congress he continued to assault the few influential independent voices remaining in the country. Attacks on journalists fit this pattern. Radio and television are both private and government-owned, but state media are strongly pro-government. They do not take advertising by dissenters. Physical and mental harassment of journalists, beatings, and threats of violence and death are common. Some 73 separate cases of violations of press freedom were recorded in 1999. Several journalists were imprisoned for reporting “false news.” Others were jailed for defamation. Radio programs were suspended and closed down for “insults.” Offices of a major newspaper were flooded with more than 150 insulting faxes and phone calls. A former TV-channel owner who was deprived of his station and forced to flee the country two years earlier was further harassed in 1999. Peru sought his and his family’s arrest abroad through Interpol. 12 10 5 5 67 13 12 5 5 NF

Philippines Physical assaults on journalists, common in recent years, sharply abated in 1999. The private press remained vigorous though often prone to exaggerated political coverage. The president threatened to sue one publisher and received a limited apology. Journalists accused the president of trying to intimidate them. Several movie producers were reported to have been asked by the president, a former film star, to withdraw advertising from a newspaper that had been critical of the government, in return for tax breaks. The president’s popularity, however, dropped drastically in public opinion polls. 5 7 3 0 30 5 5 3 2 F

áPoland The sheer volume of print and broadcast outlets allow for freedom and diversity of information. However, laws against insulting or deriding the nation and its political system are still in force. More than 85 percent of the media have been privatized. More than 300 newspapers, 119 commercial radio stations (six national stations, five of which are state-owned), and ten commercial television stations operate. Well-financed foreign broadcasters enable private media to compete with state systems. Major newspapers also have foreign investors, but they are restricted to 33 percent of the ownership. The national news service has also been privatized. 4 3 2 0 19 4 4 2 0 F

Portugal State-owned television dominates the field, but two independent television channels operate. There is little government interference with content on any of the stations. Newspapers, owned by political parties as well as commercial publishers, are free and competitive. Many private and state-run radio stations provide diverse news and comment. 5 2 2 0 17 4 2 2 0 F

Qatar In keeping with the slow move toward democratizing the country’s political system, the media have been freed of government interference. The ministry of information was abolished in 1997, thus ending strict controls on the production and distribution of news. However, social and political pressures in this traditional society remain, and self-censorship continues. State-run television, radio, and newspapers almost invariably avoid taboo subjects such as Islam and the royal family, but in June took the unprecedented step of criticizing state funding of the royal family. The satellite television channel Al-Jazeera operates freely. Owned and operated by a member of the ruling family, the all-news channel presents interviews with dissidents and exiles throughout the region, lively debates that include opposition views, commentary on human rights issues, and even discussions of the role of religion in Arab culture. 7 13 10 0 62 8 14 10 0 NF

Romania The constitution and the penal code prohibit defamation, libel, “offense to authority,” and “false information” that affects national security. Journalists convicted of these offenses may incur jail terms. Hundreds of daily and weekly newspapers provide a wide range of views, and there are 72 private television stations, several of which broadcast nationwide, and 162 private radio stations. Newspapers tend to reflect the political views of their owners, while public media are influenced politically by regulatory agencies controlled by the parliamentary majority. In 1999, six journalists were convicted of libel or slander, one reporter was arrested for exposing corruption, two were attacked while investigating a construction site, and another was robbed of his manuscript and thrown from a moving train. One television producer was suspended after political pressure, and a print journalist was barred from an international meeting because of his reporting on Romanian diplomats. 6 7 7 1 44 4 7 8 4 PF

âRussia Newspaper ownership largely determines what Russians read. In Moscow and environs, some 15 dailies and dozens of weeklies are owned by large business operatives with diverse political connections. They control the editorial content for self- promotion and political influence. Under both financial and severe political pressure, autonomy of the news media eroded during the year. The government owns two leading news agencies. In most places, Russians receive information only from unopposed government sources. To gather some balanced information, one may read the media of several different oligarchs. The financial dependence on the state of most news media for printing and distribution, and the concentration of ownership increased during 1999. Outside Moscow Press Freedom Survey 2000 29 and environs, 2,500 regional and rural newspapers are 98 percent owned by local or provincial governments. None are viable as independent economic entities. In the absence of a robust market economy, the meager advertising revenue makes editorial indepen- dence impossible—even if owners, government or corporate, willed press freedom. In television, ORT is 51 percent owned by the state. Its competitor, NTV, is largely financed by the mammoth Gazprom gas company. In their competition, both systems reflect the respective ownership and political orientation, and experience increased political pressure. Small private radio stations increased in number. In July, President Yeltsin abolished the State Press Committee and replaced it with a new ministry responsible directly to the president. This increased the government’s control over the news media. To defend its military campaign against Chechnya, the government at mid-year began attacking press freedom. A newly created minister for press, broadcast, and news media stressed the need “to protect the state from the press.” He implied that a free press threatened the security of the nation. The government used the word “aggressors” against both Chechens and the Russian news media. The purpose clearly was to intimidate the press at a time when the public seemed uneasy with the new power of the media. Harassment of the regional press also increased markedly. Three journal- ists were killed during the fighting in Chechnya. Four others disappeared or were abducted in the area. Year-long in Moscow, govern- ment operatives harassed or physically abused journalists. One journalist was beaten by an official while photographing. Police beat another reporter taking photos for a story on the justice system. Two reporters got prison terms for their writing. television was warned not to carry interviews with Islamist leaders. Office of a Moscow daily were raided. Foreign journalists were barred from entering Chechnya. A journalist was beaten and detained by the militia. Copies of three papers were seized or their circulation restricted. Police searched a radio station and confiscated equipment. In St. Petersburg, television and radio licenses were suspended by the new press minister. 6 10 8 5 60 6 10 10 5 PF

Rwanda The news media still feel the effects of the 1994 genocide, during which more than 50 journalists were murdered while their colleagues broadcast incitement to kill. All media are censored by the government. The broadcast media are state-run. The few independent newspapers self-censor for fear of reprisals. Several journalists have been imprisoned for participating in or abetting genocide. One journalist was arrested in September for inciting ethnic hatred. Another was arrested for refusing to reveal his source. He had accused a defense ministry official of taking bribes. 14 15 6 0 72 11 15 10 1 NF

St. Kitts-Nevis Opposition parties have difficulty securing access to television and radio, which are state-run. Two religious radio stations and another private station offer additional programs. Weekly or fortnightly newspapers published by each of the major parties criticize the government. International media are available. 7 3 0 0 18 5 1 2 0 F

St. Lucia Two television stations are privately owned. There are five privately owned newspapers, two private radio stations, and one partially government-funded radio station. The public has access to a wide spectrum of views largely independent of the govern- ment. 3 3 0 0 13 3 2 2 0 F

St. Vincent & the Grenadines The only television channel is privately owned and independent. Radio is state-owned and call-in programs are prohibited. During election campaigns, equal access to radio is mandated, though the ruling party exercises an advantage over programming. Two privately-owned weeklies are independent. There are several small party papers. 3 5 0 0 16 3 3 2 0 F

âSamoa State-owned television and radio restrict opposition access to air time. Two private radio stations and satellite television are available in parts of the capital. The major independent newspaper was repeatedly sued by government officials and business leaders for covering the growing corruption and abuse of public office. The paper’s printing plant was burned down and the editor assaulted by relatives of a government minister. The paper’s advertising was withdrawn and the prime minister threatened to cancel the paper’s license to publish. 3 6 5 0 34 4 6 5 5 PF

áSão Tomé & Príncipe The government owns the only radio and television stations, though private broadcasters have been invited to operate. One state-run and three private newspapers are published. A law enforced in practice prohibits “abuse of press freedom.” The opposition has free air time on the state media, and newsletters criticizing the government circulate freely. 7 4 0 0 27 7 4 5 0 F 30 Press Freedom Survey 2000

âSaudi Arabia Press freedom is severely restricted by prohibitions on criticism of the government, Islam, and the ruling family. The state owns all domestic broadcast media, and closely monitors privately-owned but publicly subsidized print media. The information minister must approve and may remove all editors-in-chief. The entry of foreign journalists into the kingdom is tightly restricted, and foreign media are heavily censored. Private ownership of satellite dishes has been outlawed since 1994. This year, Internet access was made available, with filters to block access to information deemed offensive to Islam or state security. 15 15 15 0 90 15 15 15 0 NF

Senegal The constitution guarantees freedom of the news media. The government does not practice censorship, but self-censorship is inspired by laws which prohibit carrying news which discredits the state, incites to disorder, or disseminates “false news.” Indepen- dent media, nevertheless, frequently criticize the government. There are three independent television channels and many independent radio stations. Publications must be registered as a formality. Foreign media circulate freely. 8 4 0 0 33 6 6 9 0 PF

Seychelles The government and the ruling party control three daily newspapers. Independent papers criticize the government, though they are restrained by threats of libel suits. Several were brought this year against an opposition weekly. Legal prohibitions include damage to the reputation, rights, and freedoms of private persons and in defense of public safety, order, morality, or health. In the last election, the state-run broadcasting system adequately covered opposition as well as government candidates. 10 10 3 0 50 10 10 6 1 PF

âSierra Leone The only radio broadcasts are government-controlled. Numerous independent newspapers of varying quality are published in Freetown. A bill before parliament would empower a media council to suspend or revoke publication licenses and impose prohibitive fines. The press was a particular target during the rebel assault on Freetown in January. At least eight journalists were shot to death, one killed along with his wife, children, and a nephew. Another was abducted and killed, her home burned. Another was said to have died of tuberculosis in government custody. Several journalists were captured by rebels and their homes burned. Two newspa- per offices and a radio station were burned to the ground. Numerous reporters were abducted and feared dead. After the fighting ended, the government and security forces harassed journalists. At least a dozen journalists were arrested, some beaten, after charges of “alarmist publication,” or describing the fighting in the north. 15 15 5 5 85 15 15 10 5 NF

Singapore A government affiliate operates all four free television stations and 10 of some 20 radio stations. Of the independent radios, only the BBC is free of government control. Foreign broadcasts are available. Yet the government in the past has restricted distribution of Time, Far Eastern Economic Review, the Economist and other publications. The home ministry can scan some 200,000 computers, presumably to track hackers. Movies, television, video, music, and the Internet are subject to censorship. 13 8 7 0 66 13 10 15 0 NF

Slovakia Positive developments continued in 1999. A draft law introduced in August would end uncertainty about media regulation. The penal code still provides penalties for defamation of the president, but is rarely enforced. This year, the president sued one journalist on this charge. All major newspapers are privately owned, as are 20 radio stations. National state-run television is received on two channels, as are two private television stations which also broadcast by cable and satellite. 7 3 4 0 30 8 3 4 1 F

Slovenia News reports and commentary are diverse. Major daily newspapers are privately owned and supported by advertising. The state broadcast system has three radio and two television stations. Private owners operate four television stations and nine major commercial radio stations. The limits of freedom stem not from the government but from self-censorship. Journalists debated the influence of the private sector over news content. 4 6 3 0 27 2 4 8 0 F

âSolomon Islands Normally, three private newspapers and a private FM radio station provide diverse information, though the state-owned radio service is the most important source of information. It too offers diverse reporting. In June, however, when ethnic disturbances erupted, the government imposed a state of emergency and only slowly lifted restrictions on the news media. 3 6 0 0 18 2 4 3 0 F Press Freedom Survey 2000 31

Somalia In a country where amputations and executions are readily imposed, several small newspapers and newsletters are pub- lished, but the few independent journalists are under constant threat. Foreign reporters visit at great risk. There are no rights to free expression of any kind. Radio stations are operated by various factions. The United Nations sponsors “peace programming.” 15 15 13 0 88 15 15 13 2 NF

áSouth Africa With the democratization of the country’s politics through two successful multi-racial elections, the latest in 1999, the print and broadcast news media have undergone similar revolutionary changes. Major newspapers have raised black reporters and editors to leading roles and the South African Broadcasting Corp. (SABC) has placed black managers in lead positions. SABC, the country’s primary source of information, is viewed on three television channels and is heard on more than a dozen radio stations. SABC is far more independent than during apartheid, but it is prone to self-censorship. Most of the eleven major daily newspapers are owned by media conglomerates, several with foreign owners, and have predominantly white readership. Black editors are rising to top positions of several of these papers. There is little challenge to foreign ownership of some print media. President Nelson Mandela had accused the newspapers of being “counter-revolutionary” and “undermining” the government’s development program. When it was pointed out that black editors of black newspapers took similar positions, Mandela exonerated them but appealed to the press to be less critical of the government. The exchange revealed the high level of press freedom in the country, and the present decision to allow market forces to operate on political issues. After receiving threatening phone calls, Reuters suspended its television operation in October. 6 7 1 0 25 2 5 3 1 F

áSpain Press freedom is guaranteed. The state-owned television channel has been accused of pro-government bias, but three independent television channels also operate. Diversity in the print press is displayed by four national dailies which regularly cover corruption and other issues from different viewpoints. A bomb exploded in the apartment building of one journalist. 5 5 0 0 18 1 2 4 1 F tSri Lanka Violence by Tamil insurgents and continued emergency restrictions on journalists limited their access to war zones. Censorship was re-imposed in November on local reporting. The government controls the largest newspaper chain. Television and radio are largely state-owned. Coverage favors the ruling party. Though she promised to provide press freedom, President Kumaratunga this year filed criminal charges against several editors. Three journalists were murdered by unknown assailants, and two others were killed in a suicide bombing at a rally. Private broadcast media were instructed not to cover a presidential election campaign on the threat of losing their licenses. Two newspapers offices were hit by grenades and at least 12 journalists attacked by police at a demonstration. 9 15 5 5 70 9 15 7 5 NF Sudan A new press law permits the press council to impose penalties on journalists for “professional errors.” Censorship and self- censorship are pervasive, yet the government repeatedly suspended newspapers and arrested journalists for harming national security. One newspaper was suspended at least seven times in 1999. Broadcast media are controlled by the government. They present only the views of the ruling party. Though ownership of satellite dishes is restricted, some use them to access foreign media. 15 15 7 0 85 15 15 13 5 NF Suriname Competing with the state-run radio and television service are several commercial radio stations. State broadcasts generally provide pluralistic views. Print journalists self-censor so as not to offend former military strongman Desi Bourterse. 6 4 4 0 31 4 7 6 0 PF

âSwaziland State-run television and radio are controlled by the government, though broadcasts from South Africa are received. Self- censorship is routinely practiced by print journalists to avoid crackdowns by the constitutional commission, which can prosecute those who “belittle” or “insult” the commission, the royal family, or other political entities or issues. The only independent newspaper was repeatedly harassed in 1999. One of its reporters was beaten by police while photographing a march. An editor was suspended, arrested, and charged for an unflattering article about the king’s new wife. He was released on bail. 15 15 0 0 77 15 14 13 5 NF

âSweden Commercial television channels and radio stations are independent, though the government provides weekly radio and television programs in several immigrant languages. The government licenses but does not control the content of broadcasts. Newspa- pers are independent. The government provides subsidies regardless of political affiliation. One freelance journalist who covers extreme right-wing movements was injured by a car bomb. 2 1 2 0 11 2 1 2 1 F 32 Press Freedom Survey 2000

Switzerland The postal administration employs license fees and advertising to fund the broadcast media. Full editorial autonomy is permitted broadcasters. Foreign broadcasts are readily available. Many private radio and television stations also operate. Privately- owned daily, weekly, and monthly publications are available in each of the most common languages. All are free of government control. 2 1 1 0 8 2 1 1 0 F

áSyria All media are owned and operated by the government and the Ba’ath party, which sharply restricts press freedom. Coincid- ing with President Hafez Assad’s limited participation in the Middle East peace process, the media increasingly reported on regional issues and peace discussions. The media, including television, have also carried criticism of official corruption and government inefficiency. Some government offices, universities, hospitals, and businesses have been connected to the Internet, but through government-controlled servers. At least 10 journalists were in prison at year’s end. Domestic distribution of a London-based daily was banned for publishing articles critical of the regime. 15 15 7 0 73 15 13 7 1 NF

áTaiwan With the abolition of the 68-year-old publications law this year the country became the freest media environment in Asia. The law had given the government the right to censor and seize printed material that violated security or public morality. All of the nearly 340 newspapers are privately owned and reflect a wide diversity of views. There are still laws prohibiting advocacy of independence from China or of communism. These are not generally enforced. Four major television networks are owned or closely associated with the government, opposition parties, or the military. Some programs are openly critical of the ruling party. With the rapid increase in the number of cable stations, regulations passed in 1999 restrict the concentration of ownership of cable systems. 4 5 4 0 21 1 3 4 0 F

Tajikistan Despite formal guarantees of freedom, the government strictly curtails the press. The only remaining opposition newspaper closed amid threats and harassment from the authorities. In the face of unprosecuted violence against journalists, pre- publication censorship, and arbitrary denial to print at government facilities, self-censorship by journalists is widespread. Few newspapers publish regularly due to financial as well as political restrictions. Most radio and television are owned and operated by the state. They serve as mouthpieces for the government. The few independent television stations experience administrative and legal harassment from the authorities. 15 15 15 0 94 15 15 15 4 NF

áTanzania Private television and radio stations are limited to urban areas, less than a quarter of the country. The stated purpose is to protect national interests and prevent monopolization. The private print media are published mainly in urban areas. In Zanzibar, the government controls the broadcast media. A freelance journalist in Zanzibar was banned for “inventing stories.” The mainland government banned a journalist for writing about official salaries and detained another for investigating political activities. 11 8 2 0 49 10 8 6 4 PF

Thailand The government or military control all five national television networks. The army owns most radio stations. Broadcasters, however, generally provide diverse viewpoints. The constitution prohibits censoring, banning, or otherwise restricting news media except by legislation during a crisis. The press criticizes government policies and publicizes corruption and human rights abuses. Journalists, however, face occasional intimidation and exercise self-censorship regarding the military, monarchy, judiciary, and other sensitive issues. Still on the books are 60-year-old prohibitions against journalism that disturbs the peace, public safety, or public morals. In 1999, there were two recorded cases of intimidation of newspaper journalists. 7 6 2 0 30 5 3 5 2 F

âTogo Broadcast media generally reinforce government policies. Private radio and television stations provide little independent local coverage. Some privately-owned newspapers publish in the capital but journalists are subjected to harassment and threats of criminal charges. Serving to advance uncertainty and foster self-censorship by journalists, the council of ministers in December 1999 empow- ered judges to imprison press law violators, though a code adopted the year before had abolished prison sentences for journalists. This year, police beat journalists in the office of one newspaper, seized another paper at newsstands, and arrested two journalists in separate cases. Editors of another paper went into hiding after receiving threats from the government. 15 14 0 0 74 15 15 10 5 NF

áTonga On the state-owned radio and television systems political coverage favors official viewpoints. The government radio carries commercial programs in four languages. Some opposition views are carried in the government’s weekly newspaper. There are also Press Freedom Survey 2000 33 several private newspapers and an outspoken newsletter of the Catholic Church. 8 8 0 0 36 6 7 7 0 PF

Trinidad & Tobago Prime Minister Basdeo Panday continued his opposition to the vigorous, pluralistic, privately-owned newspa- pers. He refused to join other hemispheric leaders in signing a declaration on press freedom until the organizers address “lies, half- truths, and innuendoes” in the news media. The diversified broadcast media are both public and private. 6 6 2 0 28 4 4 6 0 F

Tunisia The government tightly controls radio and television and restricts rebroadcasting of foreign programming. Official guidelines shape coverage, and pre-publication submission requirements allow the government to seize any publication. The press code prohibits broadly defined subversion and defamation under threat of fines and confiscation. Intimidation is rife. Taoufik Ben Brick, a journalist with the SYFIA news agency, faced numerous incidents of harassment in 1999, including assault and arrest. All foreign publications are censored. Self-censorship makes private and official publications indistinguishable in their coverage of government policies. 15 15 0 0 74 15 15 9 5 NF sTurkey The criminal code prohibits insulting state officials and incitement to racial or ethnic hatred. The antiterror law prohibits separatist propaganda. The military, Kurds, and political Islam are sensitive subjects that frequently earn journalists criminal penalties. On other subjects, broadcast and print media operate freely, providing diverse coverage and regularly criticizing government officials and policies. Foreign periodicals are widely available. In addition to the state-owned Turkish Radio and Television Corporation, there are 230 local, 15 regional, and 20 national private television stations, and 1,044 local, 108 regional, and 36 national radio stations. Other stations broadcast without licenses. Satellite broadcasting is increasingly available. In September, the government passed a law suspending for three years all prison sentences imposed on writers and broadcasters. About a dozen journalists were released as a result. Journalists reported a decrease in self-censorship in 1999, and coverage of sensitive topics such as the Kurdish question improved slightly. Two journalists were killed in 1999; Ahmet Taner Kislali of Cumhuriyet died in a bomb attack on his car in October, and Suleyman Yeter died from torture in police custody in March. Coverage of the trial of PKK leader Abdullah Ocalan was sharply restricted by authorities, and journalists suffered frequent harassment while attempting to cover stories in the southeast. Dozens of cases of reporting bans, arrest, assaults, and media suspensions were reported throughout the year. Eighteen journalists remained in prison at year’s end, compared with 25 in 1998. 11 11 3 0 58 11 9 8 5 PF

âTurkmenistan Print and broadcast media are fully controlled by the government. Dissent from official views and criticism of the president are prohibited. Except for the Russian press, access to foreign news is sharply restricted. Foreign journalists have difficulty entering the country or moving about if they are permitted entry. Libel is seldom an issue because the news media are even more stringently controlled than during the Soviet era. 15 15 13 0 86 15 15 13 0 NF

Uganda More than two dozen daily and weekly newspapers are independent and often highly critical of the government. In the rural areas, the largest newspapers and broadcasting facilities are government-owned. Their coverage generally reflects a pro-government bias. Local political developments are covered by several private radio stations and two private television stations. The government arrested two journalists in separate cases this year on the basis of laws limiting press freedom. 10 7 0 0 40 8 10 3 2 PF

âUkraine Civil and criminal law both contain provisions to punish libel and “insults to honor and dignity” of individuals, including government officials. Under the laws, there is no limit on the amount of financial damages that may be awarded to a plaintiff in a libel suit. These provisions have been used frequently to restrict freedom of the press. Independent print and broadcast media suffered systematic harassment by authorities prior to October 1999 presidential elections. The private daily Kievskie Viedomosty closed temporarily in February, unable to pay “unreasonably high compensation” in lawsuits against it. In March, authorities in Dnipropetrovsk seized the transmitters of TV 11. In October, local state-owned printers refused to print at least eight newspapers that endorsed Kuchma’s political rivals for the presidency. The independent STB TV endured repeated inspections by at least nine government agencies, including several random tax audits. In August, the station’s bank accounts were frozen. Broadcasts of parliamen- tary sessions were halted in May as Kuchma began his reelection campaign. In July, the government’s frequency inspection agency ordered the state-run Crimean Radio and Television to halt transmissions by four independent television stations. Several journalists were threatened, harassed, or assaulted, and one, Igor Bondar, director of AMT TV, was assassinated in May. 10 10 5 5 60 8 9 8 5 PF 34 Press Freedom Survey 2000

United Arab Emirates A 1988 law requires that all publications be licensed with the ministry of education and delineates acceptable subjects of reporting. Journalists censor themselves on sensitive subjects such as the ruling family, Islam, and national security. The information minister, a son of Sheikh Zayed, was quoted in November as telling the media to “criticize freely,” though there is no evidence that journalists complied. The print media are largely privately owned but receive government subsidies. Foreign publications are censored before distribution. Broadcast media are government-owned and present only government views. Satellite dishes are widely owned and provide foreign broadcasting without censorship. 15 15 6 0 76 15 15 10 0 NF

United Kingdom The government’s long-awaited Freedom of Information bill met with harsh criticism from members of the press and press freedom advocates. Although the bill would give people the legal right to access information held about them by public bodies, it also carries a long list of exemptions. The bill places a blanket ban on data about the intelligence services and police. An exemption on information that would undermine an investigation or prosecution is not subject to a time limit, but is permanent and broad enough to apply to allegations of mismanagement or misconduct, safety at work, and causes of accidents. Commercial information would be exempted if disclosure would “be likely to prejudice the commercial interests of any person.” Thus, evidence of wrongdoing collected by customs or tax authorities could be withheld. Officials would only have to show that disclosure would “prejudice” (instead of “substantially harm”) various interests in order to withhold information. Existing law may override provisions of the law, and ministers will be allowed to introduce additional exemptions at will. Legislation is expected in 2000. In January, Home Secretary Jack Straw obtained a gag order to stop the Sunday Telegraph from printing details of a leaked report of an inquiry into the police handling of the Stephen Lawrence case, in which a black teenager was allegedly stabbed to death by a gang of white racists. In March, the Independent Television Commission suspended the license of Med TV, a Kurdish broadcaster, for breaching codes prohibiting incitement to crime or disorder. In May, authorities shut down a web site containing the names of more than 100 secret intelligence operatives, posted by a former MI6 agent. 4 3 1 0 20 3 3 6 0 F

United States Domestic radio and television broadcasting is a commercial function under the loose supervision of the Federal Communications Commission. Public broadcasting is partly funded by the government, but increasingly supported by private grants. The government assumes no editorial control over public broadcasting, and the FCC has loosened content requirements for the licensing of private radio and television. The deregulatory telecommunications act of 1996 continued to encourage mergers and buyouts by telecom giants, creating still larger communications conglomerates. Newspapers faced increasingly stiff competition from electronic news sources, which are gaining larger shares of audiences and advertising. Network television news suffered reduced viewership as cable and other electronic media gained. Both print and broadcast media suffered a loss of credibility due to saturation coverage of the presidential sex scandal and other sensational topics. Two journalists with the Atlanta Journal Constitution were ordered imprisoned on contempt charges by a Fulton County State Court judge for refusing to reveal sources. The journalists are being sued for libel by Richard Jewell, a former suspect in the bombing at the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. 1 2 3 0 13 1 2 3 1 F

áUruguay With over a hundred private daily and weekly newspapers (including eight dailies and six major weeklies in the capital alone) and some 110 radio and 20 television stations throughout the country, Uruguay’s citizens have free access to the full range of political views. Constitutional provisions for free expression include exceptions for inciting violence or insulting the nation, and a 1989 law provides for three months to two years’ imprisonment for “false news that causes a grave disturbance to the public peace or a grave prejudice to economic interests of the state” and for insulting the state. These laws are occasionally used to limit freedom of the press, but no legal action was taken against journalists in 1999. 7 6 2 0 29 5 5 4 0 F

âUzbekistan Criticism of authorities, particularly President Karimov, is not tolerated. A mass media law that came into effect in 1998 holds journalists responsible for the accuracy of their reporting and potentially subjects them to criminal prosecution if govern- ment officials disagree with news reports. It also permits closure of media outlets without court judgements, prohibits incitement of ethnic or religious conflict, and prohibits the registration of organizations whose purposes include “subverting the constitutional order.” Censorship is widely practiced despite being officially banned. Newspapers may not be printed without the approval of the Committee for the Control of State Secrets, and there are no independent printers. According to the U.S. State Department, there are between 30 and 40 private local television stations and about four private radio stations. They are permitted some leeway in criticizing local officials, but practice self-censorship. In January, authorities effectively suspended incoming BBC programs by moving them to inaccessible frequencies. 15 15 10 2 83 15 14 10 2 NF Press Freedom Survey 2000 35

âVanuatu The government controls the broadcast media, which consist of one AM and one FM radio station and a television station that services only the capital. The primary newspaper, the government-run Vanuatu Weekly, faces competition from the independent, twice-weekly Vanuatu Trading Post. The Trading Post and other media outlets were subjected to intimidation during 1999 by Deputy Prime Minister Willy Jimmy and his associates. In April, Trading Post publisher Marc Neil-Jones was assaulted by a former business associate of Jimmy, and the paper’s staff reported subsequent threats and verbal attacks by Jimmy’s supporters. Staff from the Vanuatu Broadcasting and Television Corporation and the non-government Nasara weekly also reported threats and intimidation. These incidents are apparently linked to reporting on a number of political scandals involving Jimmy. 9 9 5 1 44 8 6 5 1 PF

âVenezuela In October, the national constituent assembly approved constitutional Article 59, which establishes the right to “timely, truthful, impartial, and uncensored information.” Press freedom groups expressed concern that the qualifying terms describing information to which the public has a right could allow for control based on subjective criteria. In November, after Radio Guadalupana aired an opinion critical of President Chavez, intelligence officers visited the station to warn workers that its broadcasts would be monitored. In December, an explosive device was found in a building housing offices of the Associated Press, Agence France Presse, and the daily El Universal. Several days earlier, another suspicious package was discovered at the offices of the El Impulso daily. 3 3 1 1 34 9 9 7 1 PF

âVietnam Under amendments to the press law adopted by the national assembly in May, anyone harmed by a news report is entitled to compensation, regardless of whether the report was true. As an example, the minister of culture cited press reports about the stockpiling of a bumper rice crop earlier in the year, which drove prices down. In this case, the new law would hold journalists liable for damage to rice growers. Journalists say that the law will restrict coverage of alleged corruption. In March, dissident writer Nguyen Thanh Giang was arrested for possession of anti-socialist propaganda. Nguyen has been harassed frequently by authorities because of his articles on corruption within the Communist party, which appear on the Internet and in newspapers published by exiled Vietnamese. In July, a leading dissident was refused permission to publish a newspaper. In December, a reporter with Radio France Internationale was ordered out of the country. 15 15 0 0 75 15 15 10 5 NF

Yemen The Press Law prohibits insulting the state, the cabinet, or the parliament, and the publication of “false information” or information that threatens public order or public interest. It also requires that newspapers reapply annually for licenses and show continuing evidence of about $5,000 in operating capital. The ministry of information controls all broadcast media and most printing presses, and subsidizes some newspapers. Although some criticism of government officials and policies is tolerated, journalists frequently censor themselves to avoid harassment and prosecution. Six independent and opposition newspapers were prosecuted for political coverage between February and July alone. In August, two Al-Ayyam journalists were convicted of harming national unity and sentenced to suspended prison terms for an article that criticized the structure of local government. The opposition weekly Al-Shoura was closed in September. Al-Haq was suspended for a month in October and its editor fined for an article alleging official corruption. At least eight journalists were beaten in 1999 by assailants with alleged links to authorities. 14 14 0 1 68 13 13 9 4 NF

Yugoslavia Freedom of the press has been under attack in Yugoslavia since the adoption of a new Law on Public Information in October 1998, which introduced the supposition of guilt of any media charged with ill-defined “misdemeanors;” bans the rebroadcast of foreign transmissions in Serbian and minority languages; requires prior permission of any person whose voice, name, or image is used in a report; introduces exorbitant fines against media convicted of misdemeanors; and disallows adequate opportunity for media to defend themselves against charges. If a media outlet fails to pay a fine levied against it, the fine may be replaced with a jail sentence of up to 60 days. Since the law passed, more than 30 separate charges against media outlets have been filed, leading to fines totaling nearly two million dollars. At least three independent newspapers and ten radio and television stations have been forced to close. The independent media were further curtailed by the Kosovo conflict, which the Milosevic government used as an excuse to continue the crackdown. Most foreign media were expelled from Kosovo in March, leaving few independent observers to the conflict. On the day before the NATO bombing campaign began, the independent Belgrade B-92 radio station was seized and shut down by government forces. About a month later, it reopened under pro-Milosevic management. The original B-92 staff returned to the airwaves three months later as B2 92. On April 11, Slavko Curuvija, the publisher of the opposition Dnevni Telegraf, was gunned down outside his Belgrade apartment after a series of threats and incidents of harassment by authorities. Several prominent independent journalists were the victims of assassination attempts. Owners of printing companies have been fined and prosecuted as well. In Kosovo, the Albanian journalists Baton Haxhiu and Veton Surroi were implicitly threatened with death in a KLA publication after decrying Albanian attacks against the Serb population. 13 14 8 5 81 13 12 11 5 NF 36 Press Freedom Survey 2000

Zambia Criminal libel, sedition, and state security laws are used by authorities to harass and prosecute journalists, while officials openly encourage journalists to practice self-censorship. In February, one minister called for tougher punishment of libel and defama- tion offenses, and in May, another reminded journalists of their “duty to project an image of good will in Africa.” State-owned media afford scant coverage to opposition politics. The independent daily The Post has been on the receiving end of much official persecu- tion. Police laid siege to the newspaper’s offices in March, arresting several journalists and preventing the paper from publishing. The crackdown followed a Post lead story questioning the ability of Zambia to withstand an incursion from neighboring Angola. In all, twelve journalists from the daily were charged with espionage and committed to the high court for trial beginning November 25. The trial continued at year’s end. Other violations included the beating of one journalist by ruling party members after an article alleging corruption. The now-defunct Sun lost a libel suit to a politician in May, and a government printer refused to print the Zamcom Digest because of “sensitive” material. 7 13 1 0 62 12 14 10 5 NF

âZimbabwe President Robert Mugabe stepped up verbal attacks against the independent media for being “unpatriotic,” and through- out 1999 officials issued a series of statements promising increased restrictions on journalists. Among the proposals: restriction of foreign media ownership, strengthening of criminal libel laws, a code of conduct for journalists, and legislation to control Internet pornography. A draft constitution unveiled in December provided for the establishment of a media commission with powers to take disciplinary action against journalists who violate “any law or code of conduct applicable to them.” The current constitution and other laws contain a long list of restrictions on free expression, including prohibitions on criminal defamation. Broadcasting legislation that would have broken the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation (ZBC) monopoly on broadcasting was postponed in July. International human rights groups condemned the illegal arrest and severe torture of journalists Ray Choto and Mark Chavunduka from The Standard. The journalists were charged under the 1960 Law and Order Maintenance Act for publishing reports “likely to cause alarm, fear, or despondency.” The case against them is pending. At least five other journalists were arrested in 1999, several were beaten, and others received death threats for reports on politically sensitive issues. 12 10 3 0 67 11 15 11 5 NF Other Freedom House publications on press freedom issues

Press Freedom Worldwide 1994: Good News and Bad

Press Freedom Worldwide 1995: The Press: Pressed and Oppressed

Press Freedom 1996: The Journalist as Pariah

Press Freedom 1997: Law Epidemic

Press Freedom 1998: Global Warning: Press Controls Fuel the Asian Debacle

Press Freedom 1999: News of the Century

Annual January-February numbers of Freedom at Issue (1977-1989)

Annual January-February numbers of Freedom Review (1990-1998)

Essays in annual Freedom House yearbooks, Freedom in the World, 1980-1999

Books

Big Story: How the American Press and Television Reported and Interpreted the Crisis of Tet 1968 in Vietnam and Washington, by Peter Braestrup, 1977, 1978, 1983, 1994

Mass News Media and the Third World Challenge, by Leonard R. Sussman, 1977

To License a Journalist? A Landmark Decision in the Schmidt Case: The Opinion of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 1986

Glossary for International Communication: Warning of a Bloodless Dialect, by Leonard R. Sussman 1986

Power, the Press and the Technology of Freedom: The Coming Age of ISDN, by Leonard R. Sussman 1990

The poster-size Map of Press Freedom 2000, in color, 20” x 28 1/2”, is available on request from the Freedom House offices in New York and Washington, DC. The map in color is also accessible on the Internet with the full text of this study and other related material. See www/freedomhouse.org. What is Freedom House?

For nearly 60 years, Freedom House has been a vital force for freedom world- wide.

Eleanor Roosevelt, wife of the Democratic president, and Wendell L.Willkie, Roosevelt’s Republican presidential opponent, were among the founders of Free- dom House. The organization has vigorously and continuously opposed authoritarianism by fighting for policies and conducting programs to defend, se- cure, and expand the borders of freedom.

In 1941, when Western democracies—and the very concept of democracy— were under siege, Freedom House became a lively participant in the historic struggles of the twentieth century.

Indeed, the conflicts in which Freedom House has been engaged tell much of that century’s history. The organization has fought on the side of freedom in struggles that can be evoked by simple words and phrases: the Marshall Plan, the Truman Doctrine, NATO, Hungarian Freedom Fighters, the Berlin Wall, the Prague Spring, apartheid in South Africa, the March on Washington, Vietnam, the boat people, Solidarity, Afghanistan, CSCE, Central America, the “No” vote in Chile, Tiananmen Square, the collapse of communism, and the democratic tran- sition taking place in the former Communist bloc.

Today, Freedom House continues to serve as freedom’s advocate through an array of U.S. and foreign-based research, education, and training initiatives that promote human rights, democratic governance, free market economics, rule of law, free news media, and American leadership in international affairs.

Freedom House is led by a Board of Trustees composed of prominent Democrats and Republicans, business and labor leaders, foreign policy experts, former se- nior government officials, and journalists—a diverse group sharing the belief that American global leadership is indispensable in the cause of freedom.

In 1997, Freedom House and National Forum Foundation merged. For thirteen years, NFF had been at the forefront of America’s effort to support the democratic transition in the former Communist countries of Europe and the former Soviet Union. Freedom House now operates NFF’s highly effective portfolio of democra- tization programs.

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