UNIT 6 REVIEW AND URBAN LAND USE PATTERNS

URBANIZATION: Process by which the population of cities grows

! = the central and the surrounding built-up suburbs

Types of An increase in the number of people An increase in the percentage of people living in cities living in cities

Where it MDCs LDCs Happens Specific •MDCs " ¾ live in cities •1950 – seven of the 10 largest cities in Example •LDCs " ⅖ live in cities the world remained clustered in MDCs •Exception is Latin America •Today - 8 of the top 10 most populous cities are in LDCs

Why •Changes in economic structure •Migration from the countryside to urban •Industrial Revolution (19th century) areas for jobs •Growth of services (20th century) •High natural increase rates

•Work in factories and services located in cities •Need for fewer farmers pushes people out of rural areas

City Push & Pull Factors

Site Factors: availability of water, food, good Situation Factors: external elements that favor soils, a quality harbor, and characteristics that the growth of a city, such as distance to other make a location easy to defend from attack cities, or a central location.

John R. Borchert during the 1960s developed a view of the urbanization of the United States that is based on epochs of technology. As the components of technology wax and wane, the urban landscape undergoes dramatic changes.

• Stage 1: Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790–1830) " cities grew new ports and major waterways which are used for transportation. o The only means of international trade was sailing ships. Once goods were on land, they were hauled by wagon to their final destination.

• Stage 2: Iron Horse Epoch (1830–70) " characterized by the impact of steam engines, technology, and development of steamboats and regional railroads.

• Stage 3: Steel Rail Epoch (1870–1920) " dominated by the development of long-haul railroads and a national railroad network.

• Stage 4: Auto-Air-Amenity Epoch (1920–70) " with growth in the gasoline combustion engine.

• Stage 5: Satellite-Electronic-Jet Propulsion (1970–?) " also called the High Technology Epoch. This stage has continued to the present day as both transportation and technology improves

! Urban area = the central city and the surrounding built-up suburbs

! Micropolitan statistical area = an urbanized area of between 10,000 and 50,000 inhabitants, the county in which it is found, and adjacent counties tied to the city

! Metropolitan statistical area = An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000, The county within which the city is located, adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of residents working in the central city’s county.

! MEGALOPOLIS: An area that links together several metropolitan areas to form one huge urban area.

! MEGACITY: Urban settlement with a total population in excess of 10 million people

! METACITY: has more than 20 million people o Only 3 of the 11 metacities are in developed countries: Tokyo, Seoul, New York

Urban hierarchy: A hierarchy that puts cities in ranks from small first-order cities upward to fourth-order cities, which are large, world-class cities.

! The higher the order of the city, the greater the sphere of influence that city possesses on a global scale.

! WORLD CITIES: The most important cities as defined by Saskia Sassen, based on their economic, cultural, and political importance: New York City, London, and Tokyo. CENTRAL PLACE THEORY

According to the Central Place Theory, Christaller argues that urbanized areas are arranged in a regular pattern across the landscape.

Assumptions: - no geographic boundaries (flat land) - humans will always purchase goods from the closest place that offers the good - whenever demand for a certain good is high, it will be offered in close proximity to the population

Central Place Theory. This diagram represents an idealized urban hierarchy in which people travel to the closest local market for lower-order goods, but must go to a larger town or city for higher orders goods.

! Central place: market center for the exchange of goods and services by people attracted from the surrounding area

! Hinterland: the area surrounding a service from which consumers are attracted

! Range: maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service. The range is the radius of the circle drawn to delineate a service’s market area

! Threshold: minimum number of people needed to support the service. Every enterprise has a minimum number of customers required to generate enough sales to make a profit.

RANK SIZE RULE PRIMATE CITIES

In many MDCs, geographers observe that ranking settlements from largest to smallest (population) produces a regular pattern or hierarchy.

RANK SIZE RULE = the country’s nth-largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement.

PRIMATE CITY = The largest settlement has more than twice as many people as the second- ranking settlement. In this distribution, the country’s largest city is the primate city.

Why does this matter?

•A regular hierarchy – as in the United States – indicates that the society is sufficiently wealthy to justify the provision of goods and services to consumers throughout the country

•Quick access to services

•LDCS – primate-city rule

•There is not enough wealth in the society to pay for a full variety of services.

•Absence of middle size settlements constitutes a hardship for people who must travel long distances to reach an urban settlement with shops and services such as hospitals

Advantages of a Primate City Disadvantages of a Primate City

! Magnetic attraction for businesses, services ! Urban-rural inequalities and people (cumulative effect) ! Imbalance in development ! Can attract international trade and business ! Concentration of Power ! Centralize transportation and ! Has a parasitic effect, sucking wealth, communication natural and human resources into city. ! Enhanced flow of ideas and information ! Become centers for unemployment, crime, among larger populations pollution ! Ability to offer high-end goods due to increased threshold

Improving Rank-Size Distribution:

! Limit the growth of largest city ! (Permits to move there) ! Government can build new apartments, schools, shops, electricity, paved roads, sanitation ! Give people greater access to services " Periodic Markets

MODELS OF URBAN STRUCTURE

Sociologists, economists, and geographers have developed multiple models to help explain where different types of people tend to live in an urban area.

BID RENT CURVE: ! How the price and demand for real estate change as the distance from the central business district (CBD) increases. ! Different land users will compete with one another for land close to the city center ! Land users all compete for the most accessible land within the CBD. ! The amount they are willing to pay is called "bid rent". The result is a pattern of concentric rings of land use, creating the concentric zone model.

CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL

! A city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings

! Size and width vary, but basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order

SECTOR MODEL

! Hoyt ! City develops in a series of sectors, not rings ! Certain areas of the city are more attractive for various activities because of environmental factor or by chance ! As city grows, activities expand outward in a wedge, or sector, for the center ! Once a district is established, new additions are built on edge of the district and extend further out from the center

MULTIPLE NUCLEI MODEL ! Harris and Ullman ! A city is a complex structure that includes more than one center around which activities revolve ! Examples of nodes: port, neighborhood business center, university, airport, park ! Activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas others try to avoid them o University node may attract well- educated residents, bookstores o Airport node – hotels, warehouses o Heavy industry and high class housing will rarely exist in the same neighborhood

GALACTIC MODEL/PERIPHERY MODEL: ! Modification of multiple nuclei model by Harris ! Takes into account ! Nodes of business form on the periphery/outside ! Tied together through beltways, new transportation

Urban Structures outside North America

Latin America:

! Griffin/Ford Model ! Large plaza at the middle

! Boulevard for the cities elite ! Housing for wealthy and

powerful as spines from center

! No middle class, poor develop rings on the outside

! Squatter settlements

Sub-Saharan Africa:

! Least urbanized but most rapidly urbanizing

! Three CBDS: colonial, traditional, periodic market

Southeast Asian:

! contains some of the most populous and fastest growing cities in the world

! 1967 model, McKee

! Old colonial port zone surrounded by a commercial business district

! Western commercial zone

! Alien Commercial Zone(dominated by Chinese merchants)

! No formal central business district (CBD)

! Hybrid sectors & zones growing rapidly

! New Industrial parks on the outskirts of the city !

SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS:

Typical Location

• Edge of city • Elsewhere in the built area other than the edge (with explanation) • Vacant or undesirable land, such as steep hillsides, floodplains, dumps/landfills, cemeteries, close to industries Factors the contribute to the formation of squatter settlements

• Large-scale rural-to-urban migration • Poverty (with elaboration) • Lack of enough affordable housing (public/private) • Lack of, or failure to enforce, land use policy (government or private)

Consequences of rapid growth of squatter settlements Social Economic Political Environmental • Unhealthy living ! Increase in ! Political unrest ! Increased water conditions availability of cheap ! Strain on pollution • High mortality rates labor infrastructure – ! Lack of sanitation Increase in crime ! Unemployment water, electricity, ! Soil erosion on education, sewage – hillsides resulting in ! Decreased air increased burden on quality taxpayers ! Deforestation ! Pollution

Differences between cities in Europe and North America

North America Europe Geographic Larger, more sprawling More compact size

Height and Distinctive, high profile buildings of Flat profile, rarely rising above five design of modern or post-modern design stories. Reflects historic rather than buildings in modern styles CBD

Public space Automobile-oriented, more people live More pedestrian oriented and tend to in suburban neighborhoods where the preserve park area, plaza, historic sites mall ahs taken the place of traditional and other public spaces spaces

Patterns of Middle class more likely to occupy the Middle class workers are likely to be economic class suburbs, inner cities are more likely to found in historic areas near the city be occupied by low income workers center

Ethnic Dynamic, more likely in inner city Less distinct ethnic neighborhoods neighborhoods more likely to be found in suburban margins

Segregation in the City

! REDLINING: drawing lines on a map to identify areas in which they refuse to loan money o As a result of redlining, families who try to fix up houses in the area have difficulty borrowing money. o Can also include denial of other services such as health care, supermarkets o Although redlining is illegal, enforcement of laws against it is frequently difficult. o Redlining has contributed to the long term decline of low-income, inner city neighborhoods and the continuation of ethnic minority enclaves

! BLOCKBUSTING: the practice of persuading owners to sell property cheaply because of the fear of people of another race or class moving into the neighborhood, and thus profiting by reselling at a higher price. o Largely between 1900 and 1970 during the Great Migration of African Americans

! WHITE FLIGHT: White flight or white exodus is the sudden or gradual large-scale migration of white people from areas becoming more racially or ethnoculturally diverse o 1950s and 1960s o large-scale migration from racially mixed urban regions to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions.

Urban Renewal and Gentrification

! URBAN RENEWAL: a program of land redevelopment often used to address in cities. o Cities identify blighted inner-city neighborhoods, acquire the properties from private owners, relocate the residents and businesses, clear the site, and build new roads and facilities. The land is then turned over to private developers or to public agencies, such as the board of education or the parks department, to construct new buildings or services.

! Gentrification is a process of changing the character of a neighborhood through the influx of more affluent residents and businesses.

Positives of Gentrification Negatives of Gentrification

•Increasing property values or as properties are •Displacement due to rising property values and renovated they rise in value. rents; impacting less affluent, elderly, or marginalized groups. •Stimulating new businesses and/or investment. New businesses are attracted to the area due to •Changing cultural landscape as modern or increased incomes of new residents and/or contemporary buildings take the place of increased tourism. traditional or historic architecture.

•New employment either in construction (short •Increased social tension due to changes in term) or in the new businesses that open (longer neighborhood characteristics, diversity, and term). opportunities.

•Changing cultural landscape as a result of •Displacement may lead to increased restoration efforts, aesthetic improvement of homelessness. older or decaying structures, neighborhood rehabilitation, or historical preservation of •Changing businesses as small, locally-owned structures or neighborhoods. businesses are replaced with national or global chains, franchises or companies with •Improvement in business services and prohibitively expensive goods and services. consumer, resident, or visitor amenities (e.g. young, diverse, “cool city” factor). •Shift in dwelling use from residential to commercial, or change in the type of available •Improvement in public infrastructure, e.g., housing units, going from multifamily new sidewalks, repaved roads, community structures to single-family structures; or single- centers, parks, upgrading of utilities. family structures to condominiums.

What can be done to offset the negative effects of gentrification?

! Affordable housing programs o Rent control o Public housing developments o Require developers to add affordable housing units

! Historical preservation laws o Enforce historical preservation laws to maintain character o City government can purchase rights of buildings

! Urban planning or zoning o Ensure planning involves participation of entire community o Development of services or retailing for lower-income residents

Growth of the Suburbs, Suburban Sprawl: progressive spread of development over the landscape

Attractiveness of Suburbs Problems with Suburbs •Single-family home •Inefficient (leapfrogging) •Private land •High cost •Space to park cars •Wastes land •Home ownership •Reduces ability to get to the country •Space for play for children •Dairy products and fresh produce •Protection from crime rates •Segregation •No heavy traffic •Dependence on transportation

URBAN GROWTH:

EDGE CITIES: Large commercial centers that offer entertainment and shopping in the suburbs. ! outside a traditional downtown or central business district, in what had previously been a suburban residential or rural area ! Such cities may approach 100,000 in population.

BOOMBURG: one of the countless cookie-cutter suburban communities that sprung up like mushrooms during the housing booms of recent decades. ! rapidly growing, sprawling city of 100,000 or more on the edge of a major metropolitan area.

EXURB: rings of wealthier rural communities that grew just outside of the suburbs and were hotbeds for continued urban growth and development

GREENFIELD: a piece of land as a potential industrial site, not previously developed or polluted

BROWNFIELD: any previously developed land that is not currently in use, whether contaminated or not. The term is also used to describe land previously used for industrial or commercial purposes with known or suspected pollution including soil contamination due to hazardous waste GREENBELT/GREENWAY: an area of open land around a city where building is restricted. ! Protect natural or semi-natural environments ! Improve air quality within urban areas ! Ensure that urban dwellers have access to countryside ! Protect the unique character of rural communities that might otherwise be absorbed by expanding suburbs.

Sustainable cities: urban sustainability, or eco-city is a city designed with consideration for social, economic, environmental impact, and resilient habitat for existing populations, without compromising the ability of future generations to experience the same

NEW URBANISM: SMART GROWTH:

•planning and development approach based on •urban planning and transportation theory that walkable blocks and streets, housing and concentrates growth in compact walkable urban shopping in close proximity, and accessible centers to avoid sprawl public spaces

Mixed use vs. traditional zoning practices

! Mixed use zoning permits multiple land-uses in the same space or building ! Traditional zoning practices separate zones based upon land-use type or economic function (residential, commercial, industrial)

GOALS OF NEW URBANISM/SMART GROWTH • Reduce the amount of area of suburban or • Increase walkability or pedestrian-friendly areas • Increase bikeable areas • Increase transit-oriented development, more energy efficient transport, more public transportation • Expand the variety of housing types in the same area • Increase diversity: ages, income levels, cultures, ethnicities • Construct green buildings or energy efficient structures • Enable healthier lifestyles: outdoor activities, eliminate food deserts • Produce architecture and design to reflect local history or culture • Construct denser or more compact built space; support dense population • Develop more open public space • Decrease commuting time or live close to work • Promote sustainability: minimal environmental impact, eco-friendly technology, less use of fuels

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Benefits of New Urbanism:

• Ease of accessibility to services, recreation, jobs • Less travel time or cost, increase personal time and discretionary income • Increased social interaction, increased sense of community, improved sense of neighborhood • Decrease energy or fuel use, decreased carbon footprint, decreased air pollution • Reduced traffic, increased pedestrian safety • Increased retail sales or higher business profitability • Increased real estate values • Revitalization of urban landscapes, redevelopment of brownfield or grayfield areas • Preservation or conservation of land: parks, greenbelts, farmland preservation • Curbing suburban or urban sprawl

Criticisms of New Urbanism: • High housing costs still price out lower income residents • Increased popularity may draw away residents or revenue from surrounding areas • Many residents will not relinquish their cars • Cost of new mixed-use or converted buildings can be expensive • Similar designs may produce placelessness or loss of character