Science & Technology Studies 3/2015

Architecture as a Science: Boundary Work and the Demarcation of Design Knowledge from Research

Monika Kurath

Recent STS literature has described a trend of academisation in higher education and universities in which administrative bodies and formalised practices like evaluations have gained increased inf uence. This article discusses the impact of such trends on the discipline of architecture, focusing on the strains and boundaries that architectural faculties face in their research and teaching practice. Specif cally, the development of design knowledge from individual and multiple theoretical and methodological approaches, the tight connection with tacit knowledge forms, as well as the use of non-formalised tenure and peer-review indicate on-going processes of boundary work (Gieryn, 1983), where external disciplines evaluate architectural knowledge production and demarcate it from their own research approaches. Due to the increased meaning of evaluations, such boundary work plays an increasing role in framing the form and content of design research. In this respect, architectural research becomes a matter of negotiation that not only involves architecture, but also traditional research disciplines as well as the added restrictions of interdisciplinary and administrative bodies.

Keywords: design research, boundary work, economisation of universities, higher education, epistemic culture

Boundary Work, Academisation T e above-mentioned quotation illustrates and Epistemic Cultures an example of boundary work (Gieryn, 1983), where an external evaluation Architectural design research depends committee has been involved in framing on intuition, ideas, ideology and architectural design knowledge as research. individual personalities who create The boundaries are drawn in several new things that imprint the built respects and are concerned with the environment. Additionally, it engages content of the design practice by referring to arts and the humanities. Architectural the basis of architectural work as intuition, design combines pure and applied tacit knowledge and individuality. Further research at almost every step. (Excerpt boundaries are drawn on a formal level, from an evaluation report of a Swiss by identifying the disciplinary rooting architecture department, 10 January of architecture in both the arts and the 2013)

Science & Technology Studies 2015, Vol. 28(3) 81-10081 Science & Technology Studies 3/2015 humanities and by a twofold location of its formalised study program structures and research in ‘pure’ and in ‘applied’ research. standard administrative practices like Gieryn (1983) uses the term boundary auditing and evaluation of research and work for describing the practice of teaching (Schultheis et al., 2008), it has also demarcating science from other knowledge framed academic attitudes according to the production activities. He shows that notion of a ‘higher education governance’ scientists have an interest in distinguishing (Ferlie et al., 2008: 326). their f eld specif c knowledge production T ese related trends of economisation, forms from external ones for achieving harmonisation and managerialisation of professional goals like the acquisition of universities, higher education and research intellectual authority, career opportunities —here termed as academisation—has and the protection of the ‘autonomy’ of had considerable impacts on academic scientif c research from external inf uence knowledge production. For example (Gieryn, 1983). In showing that these it has created a greater flexibility in boundaries are f exible, drawn and redrawn appropriating funds and in more ef cient according to the respective scientific allocation of resources, but simultaneously interests, (Gieryn, 1999) shows that the it has also generated greater dif culties in boundaries are not only socially and persevering long-term lines of research, culturally constructed, but also science itself. as well as privileging mainstream research Using Gieryn’s (1983) concept, (Schimank, 2008). Facilitated by the Bologna the boundary work emerging in the Reform, the academisation of education transformation of architecture into a and research and its standardisation research discipline in the Swiss higher is transforming knowledge production education system is analysed. T is paper and education into globally marketable identif es the reason for this boundary work products. Subsequently as a result, the in trends described in recent STS literature inf uence of interdisciplinary administrative towards the economisation of universities bodies like university management, science and an externally imposed process of policy organisations, research commissions establishing new science policy steering and councils has increased (Fuchs & Reuter, and management structures (Weingart, 2003; Masschelein & Simons, 2012; Muche, 2001; Schimank, 2008). The literature 2005). describes these strategies as subsumed This externally imposed quest for under notions such as ‘new public academisation is further characterised management of universities’ (Schimank by an increased research orientation in 2005), ‘new governance of science’ (e.g. applied disciplines and the trend to frame Braun & Merrien, 1999; Felt & Fochler, research in measurable terms, such as the 2010), ‘managerial revolution’ (Maasen & amount of third-party funding and peer- Weingart, 2006: 20) and a harmonisation of reviewed publications (Felt & Fochler, higher education systems. 2010). While scholarly regimentation and One of the drivers of this larger process economisation of educational institutions is the European Bologna Reform, which has has been described as particularly af ecting led to a vast top-down-enacted reformation knowledge production in the humanities of higher education and organisational and cultural studies (Bollenbeck & Wende, structures of universities in a majority of 2007), this trend has had a significant European countries (Maesse, 2010). The impact on knowledge production in reform has not only contributed to more applied, skill-intense and artistic disciplines

82 Monika Kurath without identif able and distinct research cultures are specific ways of knowledge traditions such as architecture and the production or ‘amalgams of arrangements arts, whose applied and practice-based and mechanisms’, which in each specific knowledge production processes are hardly f eld def ne the content of knowledge and compatible with the audit-oriented criteria how it is produced. of traditional research disciplines (Ammon Based on the above-mentioned assump– & Froschauer, 2013; Lesage & Busch, 2007). tion that the boundary work emerging in T is article analyses the impact of such the transformation of architecture into academisation trends on the discipline of a research discipline is framed by the architecture. It particularly focuses on the epistemic culture of architecture, this strains and boundaries that architectural analysis implies a twofold approach: faculties face in their research and teaching practice, where external disciplines are 1. An analysis of the epistemic increasingly becoming involved due to culture of architecture the growing influence of administrative 2. An investigation of the bodies and formalised practices such as boundary work concerning evaluations, which have gained within architectural research these academisation trends. T e analysis is guided by the assumption that architecture The epistemic culture of architecture as an applied discipline is particularly has been analysed within a review of the concerned by such boundary work, and available architectural, cultural studies that these strains and demarcations frame and STS literature focusing on the specif c and are framed by the specif c character of character of architectural knowledge architectural knowledge production—or production. T is analysis has used Knorr the epistemic culture (Knorr Cetina, 1991) of Cetina’s (1999) analytical framework to architecture. identify the empirical, the ontological Based on ethnomethodological analyses and the social dimension of the epistemic of knowledge production in hard science culture of architecture. disciplines such as molecular biology and The boundary work in demarcating high-energy physics in the context of STS- architectural knowledge production driven laboratory studies (Latour & Woolgar, from science has been analysed with an 1979; Traweek, 1988; Knorr Cetina, 1981), empirical study. T is study has investigated Knorr Cetina (1999) uses the term epistemic the implications of the European Bologna culture for the specific ways, contexts, Reform on knowledge production in arrangements and self-understandings architecture with a particular focus on the in which knowledge is produced in teaching of design and design research in certain disciplines and academic fields. architecture.1 T e data was collected at a Knorr Cetina (1999) def ned her concept Swiss architecture department. Methods of epistemic cultures as consisting of consisted of qualitative interviews with an empirical (methodologies, theories faculty members, administrative staf and and conceptualisations), an ontological students, as well as participant observation (instruments, materials, processes and at faculty meetings and within design objects) and a social dimension (human studios.2 interactions of context, environment and The next section presents an analysis researchers in their specialised milieu with of selected architectural, cultural studies fellow workers). In her concept, epistemic and STS literature describing architectural

83 Science & Technology Studies 3/2015 knowledge production. This analysis is the late 1990s in the context of increased carried out along the framework of epistemic f nancial tightening at universities, the shift culture (Knorr Cetina, 1991). Its focus is on to ‘new public management’ of universities the empirical, the ontological and the social (Schimank, 2005) and the harmonisation dimension of the architectural knowledge of European higher education systems in production practice. T e architectural and the context of the Bologna Reform, the cultural studies literature tends rather to f eld of architecture has followed another focus on questions regarding methods trend towards academisation, marked by an and theories rather than the working expanded research orientation (e.g. Ammon process itself, which includes the process & Froschauer, 2013). of developing design ideas, the use of Even though education in architecture material objects or methodologies. T ese has had a longstanding research component aspects have mainly been the focus of the because of its institutional establishment STS-based ethnographies. Furthermore, the at universities, its traditional orientation cultural studies contributions take a greater was more that of a professional education interest in architectural design (Mareis than that of a science (Kostof, 1977). et al., 2010; Gethmann & Hauser, 2009; Due to the establishment of architecture Ammon & Froschauer, 2013). T e aim of at universities in a polytechnic context, the following section is to identify how the a trend that occurred in most cases in specif c character of the epistemic culture Germany, Switzerland, but also in other of architecture has been described and will national contexts, the applied aspects of form the basis for the analysis presented a professional education have been at in section 3 that addresses the fracturing the forefront at those sites (Brain, 1991). borders emerging around architectural Research in architecture has primarily been design research. undertaken by neighbouring disciplines such as art history, sociology, social and The Epistemic Culture of Architecture human geography, material sciences and engineering statics, rather than by In the context of professionalisation the discipline itself (Heintz et al., 2004). processes in the 19th century, architecture The field’s lack of its own disciplinary was established as an academic discipline research was mainly a phenomenon at and transformed from an informal craft technical universities in central Europe. into a formal applied-science profession T is gap is known in architecture and the (Kostof, 1977). In the German-speaking discourses on research by design can be world, architecture mainly became part seen as an attempt to f ll it (Geiser, 2008). of the engineering sciences at technical In the Anglophone community, where universities. Other institutional settings more beaux arts-oriented approaches for training in architecture were art located architecture in dedicated schools schools and universities and schools of or art schools, an academic branch of architecture (Kostof, 1977). In its various architecture has been more established pedagogical contexts, architecture went (Brain, 1991; Kostof, 1977). This lack of through periodic waves of scientisation disciplinary research in architecture itself such as during the design methods has significantly changed since the late movement in the 1950s to 1970s and the 1990s, when applied disciplines underwent digitisation of design in the 1990s (Scott academisation and research activities were Brown, 1999; Weckherlin, 2013). Since

84 Monika Kurath ramped up in those f elds (e.g. Ammon & into a context of non-architectural elements Froschauer, 2013). are observed as being used for inspiration, In the following section, Knorr Cetina’s as were façades and arranged post-card framework of epistemic cultures is applied visualisations (Potthast, 1998; Houdart, to STS and cultural studies analyses of 2008). In these terms, studio work and its architecture. Sections will draw on the three inscriptions such as sketches, drawings and specif c empirical, ontological and social prototypes, rather than specific theories, factors that frame the epistemic culture in methodologies and concepts are framed as this f eld. the most important part of the architectural reference system (Henderson, 1999). T e Empirical Dimension: Individual reason for the admission of a multiplicity References Instead of Codif ed T eories of ideas in architecture is identified in The empirical dimension of architecture architectural education, which is described can be framed by an absence of codif ed as consisting of capacity-building in a theories and methods. Rather than to number of basic categories, such as art, specif ed theories, architects typically refer architectural history and theory, social to context devoid individual heuristics of sciences and environmental issues (Cuf , the local and global built environment (e.g. 1991: 63). Also, the main emphasis in the Hauser, 2013). Such heuristics include: education of architects is on the practical the ‘form follows function’ tenet; historic education in the studio (Heintz et al., 2004), references to stylistic periods (Baroque, rather than on scholastic instruction. In Byzantine, Post-modern, etc.); geographic architectural literature, this situational and or cultural areas (East Asia, Middle East, context-related orientation is brought in South Asia, Mediterranean, Scandinavian relation to the specif c architectural method, etc.); and varying building types (e.g. which is described as being mainly based religious, institutional, single and multi- on the example (Eberle & Simmendinger, family residential, high rise, etc.), as 2007). well as contemporary heroic f gures (e.g. Scholars of cultural studies, sociology Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Frank Gehry, and philosophy of science have drawn Zaha Hadid and Rem Koolhaas), who are distinctions between scientific and described as playing the role that theories architectural knowledge production, mostly and research concepts do for traditional based on the contrast of the two ideals of research disciplines (Yaneva, 2005, 2009; reproducibility versus singularity. T at is, Henderson, 1999; Potthast, 1998). Hence, while artistic and architectural ideals have reference buildings and famous architects been characterised by concepts that include are used as sources of inspiration and are individuality, subjectivity and genius-loci, cited comparably to codified theories in scientif c ideals have been framed mainly academic writing of traditional research by terms like objectivity, reproducibility disciplines (Heintz et al., 2004). and the ‘search for truth’ in a philosophy Furthermore the individual, local, and of science perspective (Heintz et al., 2004; user contexts are described as playing Ammon, 2013; Weckherlin, 2013). signif cant roles in the design process. Aerial, T is analysis of the empirical dimension area, and neighbourhood photographs, of architecture highlights the perception street views, façade elevations, urban that there is a lack of a community- models, perspective renderings and the wide, shared pool of codif ed references. placement of the individual design solutions To sum up, in architecture, knowledge

85 Science & Technology Studies 3/2015 production is described as being oriented practices, materials and genuine knowledge toward multidisciplinarity, individual forms (e.g. Henderson, 1999; Houdart & situations and contexts. The epistemic Chihiro, 2009; Hauser, 2013; Yaneva, 2005; culture of architecture is further described Potthast, 1998). T ey have emphasised: as following ideals like individuality, singularity and non-reproducibility and as handcraft such as drawing both being based on a variety of insights from by hand and computer-aided, dif erent f elds, such as the arts, art history, colouring, gluing, layering, the social sciences and physics. While copying, pasting, constructing; STS driven ethnographies mainly frame text in the form of keywords, this individual approach as an absence empirical references such of theoretical and methodological rigour, as natural or historical architectural literature identifies this documentation, forms and approach as the architectural method. attributes from art history; Ontological Dimension: Artistically tools such as paper, pen, Framed Knowledge Production Practices pencil, ruler, goniometer, Most of the studies reviewed for this research computer, paint, models; have in relation to artistic disciplines modelling materials such described the ontological dimension of as wood, cardboard, clay, architectural knowledge production as rich glass, Styrofoam, plastic; in devices, instruments and materiality. transitions in the form of In this conception, the design practice is translations, combinations and framed as a nonlinear, volatile process circular references between of circulation, reformulation, back-and- dif erent working stages forth translation and re-adaptation. T ese and dimensions such as 2D studies have also described such work as drawings and 3D models; consisting of handcraft, writing, material work, transition passages and intuitive and not least tacit aspects factors of manipulating social spheres. in the form of non-realised They have further depicted architectural designs, rejected ideas, work as being framed by ideals such drawings, models, coatings, as individuality, singularity, a specific transformations, reproductions, architectural gaze and a talent- and genius- interwoven processes. oriented paradigm. Visual representations, as well as tools and objects such as pencil, Furthermore, the usage of drafting paper and computers that are used to create conventions such as line types, symbols, sketches, drawings, plans and models have letters and notes to make designs been characterised as being the core or the compatible with others, has been observed ‘heart’ of design work (Henderson, 1999), as in several ethnographies (Potthast, 1998; the ‘manifestations of knowledge’ (Houdart, Henderson, 1999; Houdart & Chihiro, 2009). 2008) and as ‘epistemic objects’ (Ewenstein T e design practice is further described as & Whyte, 2009; Murphy, 2005; Ammon, repetitive processing, as re-adaptations, 2010). as digitisation, as copying, as cutting and Further studies have tried to elaborate the pasting 2D and 3D designs, as back-and- specif c character of design by focusing on forth translations and as circulating ideas,

86 Monika Kurath as routine gestures, and as reiterative Hence, the ontological basis of the adjustments and skilful operations epistemic culture of architecture has been (Potthast, 1998; Yaneva, 2005). In particular, described as a particular orientation toward simultaneous thinking, imagining, drawing, skills, handcraft and artistic practices; and creation of artefacts and knowledge toward tacit knowledge forms; and toward is described as specific for architectural flexible, intuition-based and non-linear design (Houdart, 2008; Ammon, 2010). working processes. Furthermore, this Further studies have pointed to the section points to a lack of vocabulary in importance of visual aspects of the design STS literature for describing the ontological process, such as concepts of an ‘inner dimension of architectural knowledge eye’, a ‘sensitive gaze’ and the framing production and instead has related to of architecture as a ‘science of the eyes’ scientif c laboratories practices, like ‘testing’, (Heintz et al., 2004; Henderson, 1999; ‘probing’, ‘scaling’ etc. In contrast, cultural Daston & Galison, 1992). Pictures and studies analyses have put a stronger focus on visualisations are framed as being core identifying individual traits in architectural communication strategies in design knowledge production regarding a specif c processes. In particular, the specif c ways gaze, translations, circulating knowledge of knowing, seeing and acting have been and simultaneous thinking. described as playing an important role, as well as the strong focus on intrinsic concepts Social Dimension: Enculturation such as ‘creativity’, ‘productivity’, ‘three- Rites and Practice-Based Academic dimensional comprehension’, ‘drawing Reproduction talent’ and ‘individual style’ (Potthast, 1998; The analysed literature stresses the Luhmann et al., 1990; Stevens, 1990; Krasny importance of specif c social and contextual & Hausegger, 2008; Cuf , 1991: 121). aspects in the epistemic culture of Several studies have drawn analogies architecture (Heintz et al., 2004; Potthast, between aesthetic and scientif c practices. 1998; Yaneva, 2005, 2009; Murphy, 2005). Based on the description of design as an The social dimension in architectural experimental process of observing, testing, knowledge production is framed as an scaling and circulating plans, renderings integral aspect of disciplinary culture, in and models those studies have identif ed which qualification and collectivisation a relation between design studio practices take place in unlimited working hours and and practices in scientific laboratories in an absolute dedication to the profession. (Yaneva, 2005, 2009). Furthermore, parallels Formalised rites of collectivisation in have been drawn between the collective the education and working practices of and iterative character of the design architects such as a highly intense, festive process on the one hand and scientif c and and sociable working culture and a 24-hour technical practices on the other. Examples engagement have been described by several of these parallels are the heterogeneity of authors (Heintz et al., 2004; Cuf , 1991). In inscriptions and visualisations as well as this conception, the identity of architects the impossibility of ascribing the results is seen as being framed by social factors to a simple intuition (Yaneva, 2005, 2009). such as a high degree of commitment, In addition, architectural work has been a certain amount of isolation from non- described as being artistic, scientif c and group members, cohesion with the group, technical in parallel (Callon, 1996). personal sacrifices, and rituals marking passages at various stages (Heintz et al.,

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2004; Cuff, 1991). Furthermore, careers 2005, 2009; Murphy, 2005). Another specif c and tenure criteria have been described as social aspect of architectural knowledge being rather informal, as that is the tradition production is the charrette, the f nal push in the polytechnic model (Kostof, 1977), before a project deadline. The charrette in which architectural professionalisation is described as both a highly competitive took place in Switzerland and elsewhere. but also closely bonding situation, with a Here, academic promotion is based on 24-hour-a-day, mixed working and party professional excellence rather than on atmosphere, where students dedicate all academic qualif cation (Heintz et al., 2004). their time to their projects. In designing they T is means that design chairs are mostly compete with each other, but in parallel give appointed to practicing architects instead of advice and help others where needed (Cuf , academically tenured scholars. 1991). To date Cuff (1991) has provided the Also, the design practice in the studios most detailed description of the ‘social is framed as a highly discursive and dimension’ of architectural knowledge interactive process of permanent exchange production. In her analysis of the education among team members and with external of architects, she shows that schools of experts (Yaneva, 2009; Murphy, 2004). architecture play a crucial role in the Often team analyses of models and plans socialisation process of professionals by are observed as taking place in informal promoting specific physical and social settings combining meals and coffee settings that provide not only education breaks with discussion (Yaneva, 2009: 38). but also enculturation. In particular, most Collaborations between project partners, schools base their educational instruction such as architects, engineers and other on three highly socially framed rituals: the experts are also described as highly studio, the critique and the charrette (Cuf , interactive events using plans and models 1991). T e critique is framed as the main as a kind of trading zone (Galison, 1997), in form of interaction between teachers and which experts from dif erent f elds exchange students in the studio; the exercises are their knowledge (Yaneva, 2009: 158). established as hierarchically ritualised one- Within the social dimension, way discussions about design solutions architecture has been described as a given by the teacher and received by the highly cohesive social community that students (Cuf , 1991). Also in the analyses produces its knowledge in a mixture of close of studio work, the practice of review and collaboration and intense competition critique has been described as a core social with peers. The community educates its factor in design processes. Critique takes members through ritualised ‘passage place within the hierarchical structure of points’ such as charrettes and critique. the of ce, led by a senior architect who does T e latter is established as a combination not design himself but rather comments on between a conference talk situation and the drafts, and the junior architects who are ‘peer review’ (albeit neither anonymous designing (Potthast, 1998). nor formalised). Much of the training of At the same time, collaborations on the architects takes place outside of academia same hierarchical level at the universities are within professional elite circles. Once described as being ‘colloquial’, ‘diligent’ and established, a professional architect can ‘bustling’, in which everybody is in a state return to academia. of permanent interaction and attentiveness This literature review has shown that (Heintz et al., 2004; Potthast, 1998; Yaneva, particularly STS based literature that

88 Monika Kurath normally describes knowledge production built up in a discipline that lacks its own in the hard sciences has difficulty in inherent and genuine research tradition framing: 1) the individual, situational and — at least a tradition of research that is context oriented; and 2) the tacit technical understood as such by other disciplines. and aesthetic knowledge drawn from In particular, such boundaries have been the epistemic culture of architecture. In observed in threefold respects: They particular, STS approaches so far lack emerge within: 1) the architectural self- a terminology to describe situational understanding of its epistemic practice perspectives, tacit knowledge forms, as research; 2) the external perspective and skill based epistemic practices like on architectural knowledge production architectural design which dif ers from hard by traditional research disciplines; and science knowledge production forms. In 3) the institutional processes, established contrast architectural and cultural studies in context of the economisation and literature have put a stronger focus on the harmonisation of higher education and tacit forms of knowledge production and the research. ways architectural work could be theorised The analysed department, which is in terms of architectural methods and in located at a technical university, is one of what way design can be framed as research. the largest in Switzerland with more than T is combined analysis has enabled a larger 30 professors and almost 2000 students. picture on how design and architectural Traditionally, research and teaching knowledge production has been framed and were separated. While research is mainly already points to strains and boundaries in conducted in neighbouring disciplines such the academisation of architecture, which as art history, sociology and engineering will be discussed in the next section. and led by professors recruited by academic promotion, design is taught as practice- Strains and Boundaries in the based by faculty members who are Academisation of Architecture employed from the pool of professional elites. T is means that they mostly run their The analysis of the epistemic culture of own architectural of ces outside of their architecture above captures the picture of chair appointments at the university. In an applied, skill-intense and highly cohesive this system, the design studios are mainly social f eld that provides knowledge using taught by teaching assistants who are individual theoretical and methodological young professionals in the funding phase of approaches and which is rich in devices, establishing their own of ces and who use instruments, artistic approaches and tacit their jobs at the department as a safe source practices. Based on participant observation of income. T is clear distinction between and qualitative interviews conducted research and teaching has become blurred with professors, administrative staff and in the context of academisation processes students at an architecture department in inf uenced by the Bologna Reform within Switzerland, this section discusses strains the past 10 years. Design and construction and boundaries faced by architectural chairs have become involved in academic faculty members in their research and research. Here, research was established teaching practice due to the process of out of a practice-based epistemic culture academisation. As it will be argued here, without its own distinct research tradition such boundaries mainly concern the (Ammon & Froschauer, 2013). T is is also situation that research structures are being

89 Science & Technology Studies 3/2015 the case with the department analysed in A professor for building technologies is our research. of another opinion. This professor has The following sections discuss the been a former dean of the department as observed boundaries emerging within well and leads a mainly local architecture the architectural self-understanding of its office with 42 employees, in addition to epistemic practice as research (3.1); those holding his academic chair. In his view, emerging within an external perspective architectural work qualifies as research, on architectural knowledge production however as research that uses individual by traditional research disciplines (3.2); methodologies: and those appearing within institutional processes established to economise and For me the discussion is a bit idle. coordinate higher education and research Architects are def nitely doing research. (3.3). T ey have their own methodology. T e only problem is that they are not using T e Architectural Self-Understanding quantitative instruments. (Professor As this section will show, architects dif er 2, Swiss university architecture in their understanding of architectural department, 10 October 2013, translated epistemic practice as research. While some by the author) are convinced that even their work in the of ce qualif es as research, others question T is quotation further shows that the lack of the academic status of architecture as such. quantitative methods in architecture is seen Among the latter, a senior design professor at as a problem. As the literature review, it the department studied involves himself in also reveals the understanding of architects boundary work by demarcating architecture that their knowledge production is research from other traditional university’s and the framing of their own individual disciplines. T e professor, who is a former approaches as their specific research dean of the department, is well known for method. According to the interview partner, his architectural practice. He leads a f rm architectural research is practice-oriented with 150 employees and 10 of ces around and less interested in theory or methods. the globe. In his opinion, architecture is Subsequently, this professor sees the main misconceived as an academic field and reason for the lack of contributions in these the discussions over architectural research areas is that the core interest of practicing could have been avoided if architecture — architects who hold most of the design which in his view is a professional education chairs at Swiss universities is practice and and not an academic one — had not been not primarily theory: established at traditional universities, where it is measured in terms of a research To build and to work in practice is discipline: our core interest. In very rare cases publications from architects are Establishing architecture as an theoretical. What is the last relevant academic discipline at traditional theoretical book of a practitioner? universities emerged from a historic (Professor 2, Swiss university archi– misunderstanding. (Professor 1, Swiss tecture department, 10 October 2013, university architecture department, 17 translated by the author) April 2013, translated by the author)

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As another quote from the same interview T e struggles of the committee in classifying partner shows, the meaning and distinction architecture in terms of a discipline and of research and practice in architecture the dif culties in recognising architectural appears to be unclear, since practicing knowledge production as research produce architects who hold design chairs are often boundary work in the classification of convinced that the practice in their of ces architecture as having a multidisciplinary and its ref ection contribute to research in focus and a strong practice orientation. their f eld: The professor for building technologies, the second interview partner here, has also Our research differs from traditional mentioned the lack of empirical orientation research fields, which is evident from where architectural knowledge production our publications. It usually emerges has not been based on theoretical from our practice; it ref ects our of ce coherence and methodological rigour. In his activities. (Professor 2, Swiss university view it is based instead on a widely spread architecture department, 10 October idea in architecture of creating something 2013, translated by the author) irreproducible and unique:

As the literature review has shown, this Our University administration asks our is a widely shared notion in architecture. department to subsume our research Due to this unclear distinction of research activities under a more traditional and practice, architects themselves focus, as found in the research of art are involved in boundary work and historians, the social scientists and demarcate their own research from that the hard sciences. They all have clear of ‘traditional’ research f elds. T is is also rules and research in those fields is the case within an external evaluation of traditionally certif ed. We haven’t cared the architecture department analysed in so much about rules. What we are 2013 as commissioned by the head of the doing is not reproducible, normally it is university. T e assessment committee was unique. (Professor 2, Swiss university composed of national and international architecture department, 10 October faculty members in architecture, consisting 2013, translated by the author) of practitioners and academic architects. In its f nal report, the committee demarcated Furthermore, the validity of design the epistemic culture of architecture from problems as research questions has not science and technology and classif ed it as been clarified yet within the field, as multidisciplinary orientated, containing shown by a growing literature focusing aspects of science, technology, social on the potential contents and paradigms sciences and the arts. It further pointed to a of design research and research in design lack of empirical orientation: (Ewenstein & Whyte, 2007; Geiser, 2008; Goldschmidt, 1991; Gerber et al., 2010; Architecture is neither science nor Weckherlin, 2013), as well as on the specif c technology. It contains aspects of characteristics of design knowledge (Hauser science and aspects of technology. It et al., 2011; Hauser et al., 2013; Gethmann contains aspects of social sciences & Hauser, 2009; Ammon, 2013). As the but is less empirical. Some facets evaluation report shows, the committee of art are present. (Excerpt from an has demarcated design research from a evaluation report of a Swiss architecture scientif c research paradigm: department, 10 January 2013)

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As the definition of design research empirical basis of architectural knowledge is discussed, […] there is a threat that production. Here, a controversial a strong technical orientation will discussion of ‘theory’, ‘methods’, ‘the lead to the misappropriation of a empirical’ quality of architectural work scientific paradigm for evaluation of and specific architectural ‘research’, as research in design. (Excerpt from an well as associated concepts, has been evaluation report of a Swiss architecture brought to the fore (Krasny & Hausegger, department, 10 January 2013) 2008; Hauser et al., 2011; Lorenz, 2004; Schoper, 2010; Ammon & Froschauer, Therefore, the committee sees research 2013). By discussing the case of a PhD in design threatened by the application student, this section illustrates boundary of rigorous technical and science- work performed by external disciplines based evaluation criteria. If such criteria in granting architectural knowledge are applied, architectural knowledge production research status.3 production becomes formally identif able In the analysed department academic as research also by other disciplines. In staf increasingly pursues a doctorate and this conception, genuine approaches in applies for third-party funding.4 This is architecture such as design problems also the case with a research and teaching are not recognised as research by assistant, whose research has been external disciplines and the university analysed within the mentioned project. administration. T is external perspective on He is a trained architect, who worked in architectural knowledge production is the practice after university and has now been topic of the next section. working for several years at a construction chair. For two years he has been working T e External Perspective on on a practice based research project on a Architectural Knowledge Production design problem, relevant to contemporary As this section will show, the applied and questions in construction. This student’s practice-based knowledge production PhD project cannot be assigned to any one in architecture is hardly compatible of the classical research disciplines in the with audit criteria of traditional research f eld of architecture, like art history, statics disciplines. This has led to many or materials sciences. Nor can it be related challenges around the understanding to any other discipline in the natural or of architectural knowledge production engineering sciences. as research by neighbouring disciplines and granting architecture recognition In fall 2012 he tried to get his research as an academic field. A further topic for plan approved by the research boundary work in evaluations and audits commission of his department.5 The of architectural research by neighbouring commission, mainly composed of f elds is the unclear demarcation between faculty members from traditional research and practice in architecture. research disciplines in architecture, like As the analysis in section 2.1 and recent art history and architecture theory, twice cultural studies literature have shown, rejected the plan but then approved those strains in the recognition of a slightly adapted third version. The architectural knowledge production as commission based its original refusal research particularly have concerned on the argument that a historical the theoretical, methodological and perspective in the analysis is missing.

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The student also tried to get funding architectural research. Therefore, the with a national research foundation, boundaries for which this case illustrates where the plan has also been rejected. are questions like who decides which T e foundation’s research commission, projects can be funded, what research is composed of members from the social eligible as a PhD project and in general; sciences and the humanities, criticised who def nes what architectural research is missing hypotheses and references to and how it should look like. current research in cultural studies, Both the university’s internal research architectural theory and design theory, commission, as well as the external research although both external peer reviewers commission of the national research did not mention this absence. Besides foundation criticised the lack of specific criticising some minor methodological theoretical considerations. This shows details, one referee pointed out that that traditional research disciplines draw it was difficult to assess the academic a boundary between the conceptual basis record of the research group because no of the proposed research and that of an peer-reviewed publications were listed. established research discipline regarding (Case collected in the analysis of a Swiss its theoretical considerations. T e national architecture department, 12 November research foundation’s final decision was 2013) not based mainly on the external reviews – usually originating from within the Such cases are not unique to architecture. applicant’s community – but rather on the T ey can emerge everywhere where peers evaluation of the mainly interdisciplinary from other disciplines have to evaluate assessment commission. T is points to the external, inter- or transdisciplinary importance that external disciplines have research. However in architecture as it is in framing architectural research compared argued here, the demarcations not only to internal peers in emerging research concern the frictions borne out of conf icts disciplines. with neighbouring and external disciplines T e criticism of missing hypotheses and involved in the evaluation of research. references to current research in cultural Rather as the interview and the evaluation studies, architectural theory and design report excerpts above have shown, the theory points to another boundary that form and content of architectural research is drawn between architectural and ‘real’ is inherently questioned and demarcated research; namely again one of formalisation from scientif c approaches. Furthermore, and references. T is means that whether the eligibility of practicing architects to a proposed project is considered as conduct academic research is debated. fulf lling formal qualif cations of ‘research’, Conducting research projects and will be accepted as a dissertation in a pursuing dissertations are new practices university department, or will receive at design and construction chairs—at funding, depends on whether members least in the country that is home to the of assessment committees can assign the department analysed. Without its own design of the proposed project to criteria research tradition, hardly any architects that are used in established research are members of research commissions disciplines. Furthermore, this case also in universities and in research funding stands for the consequences that emerge agencies and science foundations. Nor by the absence of a validated peer-review are there peers who are familiar with process. Hence, external disciplines are not

93 Science & Technology Studies 3/2015 able to integrate architectural publications the cooperative forms of knowledge into their criteria of measuring the quality of production in architecture, combined with a publication. In this understanding, again the ritualised and informal handling of the success of a proposed project mainly critique during the education seem not to depends on the members of assessment be intended to build up standardised forms committees and whether they can assign of validation. The evaluation committee formalised scholarly quality criteria to the identified difficulties in the clarification publications of the applicants. of peer review criteria not only in design research, but also in all areas of research in Institutional Processes the department: T is section will illustrate the boundaries emerging within the institutional processes It is important for the department to established in context of the economisation come to a clear understanding as to and harmonisation of higher education what constitutes valid peer review for and research such as tenure procedures, design research (as well as other forms peer review and audit criteria. Concerning of research within the department, the process of tenure, architectural including historical, theoretical, research practices have been demarcated and technical). (Excerpt from an from scientif c ones with regard to a lack of evaluation report of a Swiss architecture standardised approaches. As mentioned in department, 10 January 2013) section 2.3, academic promotion is based on professional excellence rather than on In particular, by observing the lack academic qualif cation. As the evaluation of specific criteria for measuring the committee states in the quotation qualification of design as research, the below, the criteria for the eligibility of evaluation committee encourages the young academics for a chair are unclear, department analysed to develop specific and formalised criteria in the form of criteria for architectural peer review in dissertations and habilitations6 in tenure international cooperation with other processes of design chairs are absent: architecture departments:

The definition of design research is T e central product is design. To assess to be discussed, both for the sake of the quality, productivity and relevance current efforts within the department of this research the department and for the purpose of clarifying tenure is recommended to come up with processes and expectations for junior specific criteria for peer review in an faculty. (Evaluation report of a Swiss international league of architectural architecture department, 10 January university colleges. (Excerpt from an 2013) evaluation report of a Swiss architecture department, 10 January 2013) In addition to unclear tenure criteria, the evaluation committee also observed the T is quotation again ref ects the externally lack of a standardised and validated peer imposed quest for auditable, evaluable review process. Again, the committee and measurable research in the context of draws a boundary between a formalised academisation processes. As the evaluation understanding of a valid peer review committee is aware of the difficulties and an informal one. In particular, of assessing architectural knowledge

94 Monika Kurath production within this context, it suggests by which knowledge is produced in that architecture should develop its own architecture. To achieve this goal, it was criteria for the appraisal of its research: based on two STS concepts: The concept of ‘epistemic culture’ (Knorr Cetina, 1999) This potential problem suggests that and that of boundary work (Gieryn, 1983). discussions about design research The first concept has enabled a three- need to involve leadership from the dimensional analysis of the empirical, the institution outside the department ontological and the social dimensions of and even from other peer institutions. the specific ways knowledge is produced (Evaluation report of a Swiss in the f eld of architecture and the ways in architecture department, 10 January which this f eld understands its research, 2013) as well as itself as an academic discipline. This multidimensional approach has To overcome these boundaries that have emerged as helpful in analysing the been established by the lack of a discipline- multi-faceted aspects in which academic wide shared agreement on standards knowledge is produced. Additionally, this and criteria for the evaluation of design research into architectural knowledge research, the evaluation committee sees production in the context of academisation a need to make universities and other has also unearthed one of the weaknesses peer institutions familiar with the specif c in this concept. That is, namely the knowledge production and research exclusion of the institutional dimension practices in architecture. The excerpts (Cutclif e, 2001). As this study has shown, from the evaluation report have shown the institutional context and its specific that the specif c character of architectural embodiment have an important impact knowledge production leads to a lack of on the way knowledge is produced. In this understanding of architectural research respect, the boundary work concept was on the institutional level of the university helpful, as it has enabled the theorisation administration and therefore to a of the struggles faculty members face in the demarcation of architectural knowledge academisation of architectural knowledge production from academic research. To production by articulating the f eld’s self cope with this misunderstanding, the understanding from internal perspectives, evaluation committee sees a need for as well as how it is viewed from external international coordination in developing institutional processes. evaluation criteria for tenure processes Recent literature in STS has described and peer review criteria for architectural externally imposed trends to establish research also in an international new public management structures in cooperation. universities, as well as the economisation and harmonisation of higher education Research in Architecture as a Matter systems. T ese trends have led to a quest of Interdisciplinary Boundary Work for academisation in practice-oriented disciplines. This analysis contributes an T e aim of this analysis was to investigate empirical case that sheds light on the the restrictions and resulting conflicts consequences of such academisation that the introduction of academisation processes on the epistemic culture of processes generate within the multi- architecture, which might also be true for faceted contexts and arrangements other practice-based disciplines. As section

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1 has shown, the trend of academisation research status of knowledge produced in leads to an increased influence of this f eld and the eligibility to frame a design administrative bodies and formalised problem as a research question are subject practices such as auditing, evaluating, of boundary work and demarcations of measuring and standardising research architecture from science. T e demarcation and teaching structures in academic of architecture from science is further drawn disciplines. In section 2, architecture has along formal issues like research methods, been described as an applied, skill-intense theories, the separation of theory and and socially highly cohesive epistemic practice, as well as along the formalisation culture whose knowledge is rich in devices, of tenure and peer review criteria. Further instruments, artistic approaches and tacit boundaries emerge around the highly practices. T is has produced a gap between cohesive social environment that puts a a rich use of devices, instruments and strong focus on individual talent instead of artistic approaches in the design process standardised and validated approaches for and ‘theory’ that is mainly produced in tenure and peer-review processes. neighbouring disciplines such as art history T e increased inf uence of academisation and sociology. processes produces particular dif culties The empirical material discussed in for architecture, since due to its limited section 3, has pointed to three areas research tradition has little representation of boundary conflicts emerging in the in research commissions and councils. academisation of architecture: 1) the Those commissions, often composed architectural self-understanding of its of members of traditional research epistemic practice as research; 2) the disciplines with a restricted understanding external perspective on architectural of architectural knowledge production, knowledge production by traditional acquire a high signif cance in the framing research disciplines; and 3) within the of the form and the content of research in institutional processes established to architecture. T is is the case as they decide economise and harmonise higher education whether architectural research projects and research. In general, the quotations can be funded and whether a design or from the interviews and the evaluation a constructional problem is eligible as a report point to the assumption that most of research project. Hence, the meaning of the mentioned boundary work has emerged research in applied, skill-intense disciplines in the context of a disciplinary transition. such as architecture has become a matter Architecture as a discipline appears to of negotiation, involving not only the be in a transitional phase from a practice field itself, but also traditional research based education without its own inherent disciplines and interdisciplinary and and genuine research tradition to that of a administrative bodies such as research research discipline. In this transition phase, commissions and councils. scholars increasingly start to conduct As the excerpts from the evaluation research in an instable situation where report in section 3 have further shown, research structures are unclear and the such negotiations might result in applying disciplinary development is not yet f nalised rigorous technical and science-based (Stichweh, 1993; Böhme et al., 1974). evaluation criteria on architectural In core areas, such as design and knowledge production. As a consequence, construction research, approaches that are knowledge production in architecture understood as research by other disciplines becomes formally identif able as research are not yet established. In this context, the within traditional academic disciplines

96 Monika Kurath but in parallel might lose its specific Professionalization of Architecture in character such as its skill-orientation, its the United States. Sociological Forum tacit knowledge forms, and therefore its 6(2): 239–268. strong link with the design process and the Braun D & Merrien F-X (1999) Towards architectural practice. a New Model of Governance for Universities? A Comparative View. Acknowledgements London: Kingsley. Callon M (1996) Le travail de la conception I would like to thank the Swiss National en architecture. Situations Les Cahiers Science Foundation (SNF) and the ETH de la recherche architecturale 37(1er Zurich Department of Architecture for trimestre): 25–35. supporting this research; Ignaz Strebel; Cuff D (1991) Architecture: The Story of Krishna Bharathi and two anonymous Practice. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. reviewers for their helpful comments and Cutcliffe S (2001) Reviewed Work: their support. Epistemic Cultures: How the Sciences Make Knowledge by Karin Knorr Cetina. References Science, Technology, & Human Values 26(3): 390–393. Ammon S (2010) Transforming Daston L & Galison P (1992) T e Image of Tacit Knowledge: The Example of Objectivity. Representations 40(Autumn Architectural Drawings. In: Professur 1992): 81–128. T eorie und Geschichte der modernen Denzin N & Lincoln Y (2000) Handbook of Architektur (eds) Architecture in the Age Qualitative Research. London: Sage. of Empire/Die Architektur der neuen Eberle D & Simmendinger P (2007) Von Weltordnung. 11th International Bauhaus der Stadt zum Haus: Eine Entwurfslehre Colloquium. Weimar: Verlag der – From City to House A Design Theory. Bauhausuniversität Weimar, 598–609. Zürich: GTA Verlag. Ammon S (2013) Wie Architektur entsteht. Ewenstein B & Whyte JK (2007) Beyond Entwerfen als epistemische Praxis. Words: Aesthetic Knowledge and In: Ammon S & Froschauer EM (eds) Knowing. Organization Studies 28(5): Wissenschaft Entwerfen. München: 689–708. Wilhelm Fink, 337–362. Ewenstein B & Whyte JK. (2009) Knowledge Ammon S & Froschauer EM (2013) Practices in Design: T e Role of Visual Wissenschaft Entwerfen. München: Representations as ‘Epistemic Objects’. Wilhelm Fink. Organization Studies 30(1): 07–30. Böhme G, van den Daele W & Krohn W (1974) Felt U & Fochler M (2010) Riskante Die Finalisierung der Wissenschaft. Verwicklungen des Epistemischen, In: Diedrich W (ed) Theorien der Strukturellen und Biographischen: Wissenschaftsgeschichte. Beiträge zur Governance-Strukturen und deren diachronen Wissenschaftstheorie. mikropolitische Implikationen für das Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 276–311. akademische Leben. In: Biegelbauer Bollenbeck G & Wende W (2007) Der P (ed) Steuerung von Wissenschaft? Bologna-Prozess und die Veränderung Die Governance des österreichischen der Hochschullandschaft. Heidelberg: Innovationssystems. Innovationsmuster Synchron. in der österreichischen Brain D (1991) Practical Knowledge Wirtschaftsgeschichte. Innsbruck: and Occupational Control: The Studienverlag, 297–327.

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Weingart P (2001) Die Stunde der Wahrheit? research projects and dissertations Vom Verhältnis der Wissenschaft zu was analysed. The observations were Politik, Wirtschaft und Medien in recorded in research protocols, the der Wissensgesellschaft. Weilerswist: interviews were transcribed and these Velbrück Wissenschaft. documents were analysed, using the Yaneva A (2005) Scaling Up and Down: method of content analysis (Denzin & Extraction Trials in Architectural Lincoln, 2000). Design. Social Studies of Science 35(6): 3 A short version of this case has been 867–894. discussed in Gisler & Kurath (2015). Yaneva A (2009) T e Making of a Building: 4 As an example, at the department A Pragmatist Approach to Architecture. analysed the number of architectural Bern: Peter Lang. dissertations (PhDs) in 2012 was more than twice as high as in 2000 (see: Notes http://e-collection.library.ethz.ch/list/ subject? parent_id=465586/, accessed 1 T is project is part of a larger research 16.01.2013). project that analyses the impact of 5 All PhD students of the department the European Bologna Reform on the need to get approval of their projects by education of aesthetic practices in the commission before they start their Swiss architecture, design and f ne arts second year of research. departments (Funded by SNF; grant 6 This references the German and number 143206). Swiss system, in which academics are 2 These data were collected at a Swiss required to write a second thesis – the architecture department between fall habilitation thesis – after their PhD to 2012 and spring 2014. Methods consisted become eligible as a professor. of continued participant observations at faculty meetings and long-time Monika Kurath participant observation in the bachelor’s ETH Zurich, Department of Architecture and some master’s design studios and of Centre for Research on Architecture, qualitative interviews. T ose interviews Society & the Built Environment were conducted with faculty members, Stefano-Franscini-Platz 5 department representatives for research CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland and teaching, and doctoral students. email: [email protected] Furthermore, the content of current

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