ISSN 0041-6436

Food and Agriculture An international journal Vol. 61 Organization of and of the United Nations industries 2010/1-2 234/235

Editor: A. Perlis Contents Editorial Advisory Board: T. Hofer, F. Kafeero, H. Ortiz Chour, Editorial 2 A. Perlis, E. Rametsteiner, S. Rose, J. Tissari, P. van Lierop, P. Vantomme, M.L. Wilkie O. Serrano Emeritus Advisers: J. Ball, I.J. Bourke, C. Palmberg-Lerche, XIII – in development: a vital balance 3 L. Russo D.K. Lee and J. Heino Regional Advisers: F. Bojang, C. Carneiro, P. Durst Sixty years of collaborative partnership between FAO and IUFRO: towards the next sixty 12 is published in English, French and Spanish. Payment is no longer required. Free R.S. Purnamasari subscriptions can be obtained by sending an Dynamics of small-scale in Indonesia: examining the e-mail to [email protected] effects of poverty and socio-economic development 14 Subscription requests from institutions (e.g. libraries, companies, organizations, universities) E. Durán, J.J. Figel and D.B. Bray rather than individuals are preferred to make the Uncertain coexistence: jaguars and communities in montane forests journal accessible to more readers. All issues of Unasylva are available online free of Mexico 21 of charge at www.fao.org/forestry/unasylva M. Jack and P. Hall Comments and queries are welcome: [email protected] Large-scale forests for bioenergy: land-use, economic and environmental implications 23 Reproduction and dissemination of material in this publication for educational or other S. Wu, Y. Hou and G. Yuan non-commercial purposes are authorized Valuation of forest goods and services and forest natural without any prior written permission from the capital of the Beijing municipality, China 28 copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in A.C.G. Melo and G. Durigan this publication for resale or other commercial Fire in the seasonal semideciduous forest: impact and purposes is prohibited without written permission of the Chief, Publishing Policy and Support at forest edges 37 $TCPEJ1HſEGQH-PQYNGFIG'ZEJCPIG J. Kamugisha-Ruhombe 4GUGCTEJCPF'ZVGPUKQP(#1 #TVKENGUGZRTGUUVJGXKGYUQHVJGKTCWVJQTU &KDOOHQJHVRIPRELOL]LQJIRUHVW¿QDQFHLQDKHDYLO\LQGHEWHGSRRU not necessarily those of FAO. country: case study of Uganda 43 Designations employed and presentation of OCVGTKCNFQPQVKORN[VJGGZRTGUUKQPQHCP[ ($WPLú+%*QúHQDQG6g]GHQ opinion on the part of FAO concerning the legal How can Turkey’s forest cooperatives contribute to reducing rural or development status of any country, territory, poverty? 51 city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. A. Ramadhani The FAO publications reviewed in Unasylva Promoting good forest governance for sustainable livelihood may be ordered from any of the FAO sales improvement: a Tanzanian example 54 agents listed on the inside back cover. FAO will process orders from countries where C. Ackerknecht there are no sales agents. Contact the Sales and Marketing Group, 1HſEGQH-PQYNGFIG Work in the forestry sector: some issues for a changing workforce 60 'ZEJCPIG4GUGCTEJCPF'ZVGPUKQP, FAO, Viale H. Savenije and K. van Dijk delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy. Tel.: (+39) 06 57051; World forestry at a crossroads: going it alone or joining with others? 66 (CZ   6GNGZ(#1+ FAO Forestry 71 E-mail: [email protected] World of Forestry 74 Books 78 Cover photos: XIII WFC EDITORIAL

$GKLKPIOWPKEKRCNKV[%JKPC6JGUVWF[CNUQGZCOKPGFVJG XIII World Forestry sectoral and spatial distribution of the forest benefits. The authors acknowledge that efforts to assign an economic value Congress to all forest benefits – and the methods for doing so – may be open to debate, but they are useful to raise awareness of the multifunctional roles of forest and can ultimately help contribute to forest conservation. he World Forestry Congress is the world’s largest Theme 4, “Caring for our forests”, is represented by a gathering focused on forests and forestry, and the study of the impact of fire in seasonal semideciduous forest Tthirteenth congress was the largest ever, with more fragments in São Paulo State, . A.C.G. Melo and G. than 7 000 attending. Held in Buenos Aires, Argentina from Durigan find that recovery at the forest edges is slower VQ1EVQDGTVJGEQPITGUUQHHGTGFUVKOWNCVKPI than in the interior, suggest why, and draw conclusions for RTGUGPVCVKQPUFKUEWUUKQPUOGGVKPIUCPFGZJKDKVUHQTHQTGUV fire management and prevention in forest fragments. watchers and workers of every kind. Under Theme 5, “Development opportunities”, J. Kamu- This issue of Unasylva summarizes the event and provides a gisha-Ruhombe GZCOKPGURNCPPKPIDWFIGVKPICPFHKUECN taste of the impressive variety of knowledge and information resource allocation for , illustrating the gap presented there. It begins with an overview by O. Serrano between the global discussion on forest finance and national describing the congress and summarizing a number of special realities in heavily indebted poor countries. He finds that events, as well as the strategic actions recommended by the budget ceilings established by Uganda in order to qualify for congress in its final declaration. debt relief are the main reason for the country’s low financial The bulk of the issue is developed from presented CNNQECVKQPUVQHQTGUVT[#UJQTVGTRKGEG D['#VOKĩ*$ in Buenos Aires. The content is organized around the seven )×PĩGPCPF5©\FGP GZCOKPGUHQTGUVEQQRGTCVKXGUKP6WTMG[ main thematic areas of the congress. We have selected mate- and the constraints that prevent them from contributing to rial with potential appeal for a broad audience, representing poverty reduction as well as intended. a wide geographic range and presenting topics not recently Theme 6, “Organizing forest development”, included a wide covered in Unasylva. range of macroeconomic, institutional and governance issues. Theme 1, “Forests and ” covered, among others, A. Ramadhani describes a project to promote good forest issues related to the state of the forest and deforestation, governance for sustainable livelihood improvement in four including many technical contributions on and forest-adjacent villages in the United Republic of Tanzania. CUUGUUOGPV9GRTGUGPVCUVWF[D[452WTPCOCUCTKGZCOKPKPI He summarizes the outcomes two years after the project, and the role of poverty and regional socio-economic development recommends measures for promoting good governance that in the dynamics of small-scale deforestation in Indonesia. The may also be applicable elsewhere. results show that regions with the highest percentage of poor For Theme 7, “People and forests in harmony”, we include people actually have less deforestation, probably because the introductory for the subtheme “Work in the forestry people with some means to invest in agricultural production sector”. C. Ackerknecht reviews topics such as labour unions, are more likely to deforest. Deforestation at first increases with occupational health and safety, training and changes in the wealth, but decreases after a certain wealth level is reached. workforce. The article is global in scope, but makes particular Also under Theme 1, a shorter piece (by E. Durán, J.J. Figel reference to . and D.B. Bray) reports the results of a study of the potential The issue concludes with a provocative essay in which H. for community conservation of jaguars in four communities Savenije and K. van Dijk surmise forest sector trends since KPVJG5KGTTC0QTVGQH1CZCEC/GZKEQ VJGRTGXKQWU9QTNF(QTGUVT[%QPITGUUKPDCUGFQPVJGKT 6JGOGő2TQFWEKPIHQTFGXGNQROGPVŒKPENWFGFCNNCURGEVU observations in Buenos Aires. Although an earlier version of of forest production. One of its subthemes, forests and energy, this article has already been circulated widely through the was also discussed in a special half-day forum. M. Jack and P. Internet, it is included here to stimulate readers to consider the Hall GZCOKPGVJGRQVGPVKCNQHFGXGNQRKPINCTIGUECNGHQTGUVU wider implications of the XIII World Forestry Congress for for bioenergy in New Zealand, and the implications for land- the future of forestry. We hope this whole issue of Unasylva use, the economy and the environment. will serve the same purpose. Under Theme 3, “Forests in the service of people”, an important subtheme was valuation of environmental services. S. Wu, Y. Hou and G. Yuan describe an attempt to estimate the complete market and non-market values of the forests of 3 XIII WFC

XIII World Forestry Congress – Forests in development: a vital balance O. Serrano

)DFWV¿JXUHVDQGKLJKOLJKWVIURP he first World Forestry Congress viduals and do not represent their WKHODUJHVWIRUHVWU\JDWKHULQJHYHU YCUJGNFKPVJGUGEQPFVGP countries or organizations – came from Tyears later, and congresses have all continents, with the greatest part, DGGPQTICPK\GFCRRTQZKOCVGN[GXGT[UKZ CUGZRGEVGFHTQO%GPVTCNCPF5QWVJ years since 1949, in partnership between America, and fully half from Argentina. FAO and a host country. The XIII World They included policy-makers (including Forestry Congress, held in Buenos Aires, a number of ministers responsible for #TIGPVKPCHTQOVQ1EVQDGT forestry), researchers, forest practition- was the largest forestry gathering ever. ers and representatives from industry, 1XGTGZRGTVUJCFVJGQRRQTVWPKV[ financial institutions and development to present and discuss their work, share agencies. All 14 members of the Col- VJGKTGZRGTKGPEGUCPFKPETGCUGVJGKTPGV- laborative Partnership on Forests (CPF) works across the continents. Participants were represented, as were many non- HTQOEQWPVTKGUICVJGTGFCVVJGGZJK- governmental organizations. The atten- bition grounds of the conference centre dance of students was remarkable: some .C 4WTCN VQ GZEJCPIG XKGYU CTQWPF TGRTGUGPVKPICDTQCFTCPIGQHWPK- the theme of the congress, “Forests in versities, many supported by associa- Olman Serrano5GPKQT(QTGUVT[1HſEGT(#1 development: a vital balance”. tions such as the International Forest Stu- was Associate Secretary General of the XIII Participants – who take part as indi- dents Association (IFSA) and the Latin World Forestry Congress.

Unasylva 234/235, Vol. 61, 2010 4 XIII WFC XIII WFC Leopoldo Montes, Secretary General of the XIII World FAO Director-General Jacques Diouf Forestry Congress, addressed the opening plenary, noting that welcomed participants to considering forests as an integral part of the congress on Sunday wider economic and social development evening, 18 October goals will help greatly in efforts to reduce poverty, hunger and malnutrition

American Forest Science Students Asso- Near East Forestry Day ciation (ALECIF). 19 October 2009 Nearly 600 participants came from #HTKECCPF#UKC/QTGVJCPpartici- Near East Forestry Day was organized in conjunction with the XIII World Forestry pants from developing countries were Congress, under the aegis of the FAO Near East Forestry Commission, to share with able to attend thanks to a sponsorship the international forestry community the key concerns of forestry in the Near East and programme coordinated by FAO and North African Region – including rangelands and biodiversity conservation, and ſPCPEKCNN[UWRRQTVGFD[VJGIQXGTPOGPVU protected areas, forest in arid and semi-arid zones and the role of Near East of Finland, Spain, the United Kingdom forestry in the international dialogue and the United States of America. This special event offered a unique opportunity for forestry experts, policy-makers and For the first time, countries from the representatives from government, the private sector and non-governmental organizations Near East were strongly represented at (NGOs) to exchange views and experience, explore business opportunities and interact the World Forestry Congress and organ- with high-level panellists from the region. It attracted representatives from Egypt, ized a special event to present their com- Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, the Sudan, the Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia OQPEQPEGTPU $QZ  and Yemen, among others. While the World Forestry Congress is The gathering raised awareness on the need to share lessons learned and to follow up a global technical forum, it attracted the UHVXOWVDFKLHYHGLQDGGUHVVLQJGHVHUWL¿FDWLRQGHJUDGDWLRQRIIRUHVWVDQGZRRGODQGVZDWHU interest of high-level policy-makers. Most scarcity and erosion. Participants underlined that further efforts should be developed of the world’s heads of forestry services to integrate appropriate forest policies and strategies in general land resources manage- were present. The host country organized ment. Much attention was focused on how to mobilize the necessary resources to reverse a ministerial event attended by ministers the declining trend of forest resources in the region. Participants also emphasized the responsible for , importance of collaboration between the private and public sectors and among govern- Chile, China, Costa Rica, New Zealand ments, NGOs and research institutions, as paramount for the promotion and valorization and the Republic of the Congo. of forest products and services in drylands. A concrete outcome was a set of recommendations and conclusions, developed by a core CONGRESS PROGRAMME team of forest experts attending the event, to be presented to the next session of the Near 6JGVGEJPKECNRTQITCOOGKPENWFGF East Forestry Commission, to be held in Tunis, Tunisia from 5 to 9 April 2010. presentations, selected from over 3 000 abstracts submitted, covering the seven OCKPVJGOCVKECTGCUCPFUWDVJGOGU

Unasylva 234/235, Vol. 61, 2010 5 XIII WFC

To celebrate the opening of the congress, Cristina Fernández cesses, instruments for forest plan- related interests, including indigenous de Kirchner, President of ning and development, institutional peoples, mountain ecosystems, biologi- Argentina, planted a tree at the Casa Rosada – the presidential settings, law compliance and good cal diversity and financing. More than headquarters – symbolizing the IQXGTPCPEGTGUGCTEJGZVGPUKQPCPF 1 500 posters were displayed, providing country’s commitment to the education, intersectoral policies and an additional opportunity for presenta- conservation and management of forest resources influences, contribution of the forest VKQPQHHKGNFGZRGTKGPEGU sector to national and local econo- • Forests and biodiversity – state of the mies, forest information; SPECIAL FEATURES forest and assessment techniques, de- • People and forests in harmony Fora on topical issues and forest fragmentation, – land tenure, indigenous peoples, Full-afternoon fora were dedicated to restoration and rehabilitation, bio- communities and institutions, parti- two subjects: forests and energy, and diversity, conservation management, cipatory management and processes, forests and climate change. These well- wildlife, forest genetic diversity; work in the forestry sector, gender attended sessions, held in the plenary • Producing for development – forest and forestry. hall, included high-level keynote pres- management, planted forests, agro- 5KZVGGP KPXKVGF MG[PQVG URGCMGTU entations followed by substantive panel forestry systems, maintaining and introduced the main thematic areas in discussions. increasing forests’ productive capa- plenary. The main outcome from the climate city, forests and energy, forest uti- (KXGRNGPCT[UGUUKQPUVGEJPKECNUGU- change forum was a message from the lization practices, non- forest sions and three special fora provided organizers of the World Forestry Con- products, outside forests and multiple opportunities for participants gress to the fifteenth Conference of the other wooded land; to share and increase their knowledge of Parties (COP 15) of the United Nations • Forests in the service of people forest and cross-sectoral issues. In addi- Framework Convention on Climate – forests and water, forests and cli- tion over 100 side events were organized %JCPIG 70(%%%  $QZR  mate change, tourism and recrea- by institutions with particular forest- Participants in the Forests and Energy tion, urban and peri-urban forests, mountain forests and livelihoods, Euclides Pereira, representing the valuation of environmental services indigenous peoples and benefit sharing; of the Brazilian • Caring for our forests – forest fire, Amazon, dismissed the notion of an , pests and diseases, “untouched” Amazon, other disturbances; for indigenous practices have always • Development opportunities – sus- involved intervention tainability and economic viability, in nature (including industry and forest development, the development of food crops that have small and medium-scale forest enter- contributed to feeding prises, forest products trade, forest the world); he drew attention rather to certification, forests and poverty indigenous peoples’ alleviation; long experience in conserving their lands, • Organizing forest development XIII WFC natural resources, – international dialogue and pro- water and biodiversity

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Forests and climate change: from Buenos Aires to Copenhagen

Linkages of forests and climate change were discussed in four technical sessions (mitigation, impacts and adaptation, policies and institutions, forest carbon and carbon markets), in 14 special events organized by partner organizations, and during a half-day forum entitled “Forestry and climate change: to Copenhagen and beyond”. 6JGTGUWNVUQHVJGXCTKQWUUGUUKQPUCTGTGƀGEVGFKPVJGHQNNQYKPIOGUUCIGHTQOVJGEQPITGUUCFQRVGFQP(TKFC[1EVQDGTVQ COP 15 of UNFCCC (Copenhagen, Denmark, December 2009):

The XIII World Forestry Congress (WFC) notes with concern the impacts of climate change on forests and strongly emphasizes the important role forests play in climate change mitigation and adaptation as well as the need for forest-dependent people and forest ecosystems to adapt to this challenge. Forests are more than carbon. They harbor two thirds of all land-based biodiversity, and generate critical ecosystem goods and services such as water, food, and income from over 5 000 commercial forest products. Forests sustain the cultural and spiritual identity of billions of people, foremost among them the indigenous peoples and local communities. The XIII WFC calls for urgent action and endorses the main messages of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests’ Strategic Framework for Forests and Climate Change, of its Expert Panel on Adaptation of Forests to Climate Change, and of The Forests Dialogue’s Statement on Forests and Climate Change, in particular the following: • Forests contribute positively to the global carbon balance. Maintaining high carbon stocks by reducing deforestation and and promoting the sustainable management of all types of forests, including the conservation of biodi- versity, and restoration, should be among the world’s highest priorities for the forestry sector. • Sustainable provides an effective framework for forest-based climate change mitigation and adaptation. • For forests to fully achieve their potential in addressing the challenges of climate change, forest governance should be improved, ſPCPEKPICPFECRCEKV[DWKNFKPIUJQWNFDGGPJCPEGFCPFRTQEGUUGUVQGORQYGTFKUGPHTCPEJKUGFRGQRNGKPENWFKPIKPFKIGPQWU peoples and other forest dependent communities, be strengthened. • Sustainably harvested forest products and wood fuels can reduce greenhouse gas emissions if they substitute neutral or low emission, renewable materials for high-emission materials. • Even if adaptation measures are fully implemented, climate change would in the long run exceed the adaptive capacity of many forests and therefore forest-based climate change mitigation and adaptation measures should proceed concurrently. • Intersectoral collaboration, strengthening forest governance, establishing positive economic incentives, and improving sustainable livelihoods of the poor are essential for reducing deforestation and forest degradation. • Accurate forest monitoring and assessment help inform decision-making and should be strengthened in a coordinated and transparent manner. Ŗ#EVKQPUQPENKOCVGEJCPIGOKVKICVKQPCPFCFCRVCVKQPKPHQTGUVT[YQWNFDGPGſVHTQOCOQTGCEVKXGGPICIGOGPVQHHQTGUVT[ professionals. The XIII WFC stresses the need to reduce poverty as a driver of deforestation and to safeguard the rights of indigenous peoples and forest-dependent communities, and recognizes the important roles that the private sector and civil society play in climate change adaptation and mitigation. The XIII WFC supports the inclusion of REDD-plus in the agreement on long-term cooperative action under UNFCCC, including enhanced incentives for conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries; and calls for further support for adaptation in the forest sector.

Forum debated the implications of bio- The Investment and Financing Forum restructuring, new financing instru- energy production for the forest sector. YCUCPQVJGTKPPQXCVKXGGXGPV $QZR  ments and non-traditional investment They shared their perspectives on the Representatives of financial and deve- opportunities. state of the art of wood-based energy lopment institutions, forest and invest- production technologies, the social and ment funds, private equity funds, forestry Business meetings – for business and environmental impacts of bioenergy enterprises, banks and government rep- others production and the opportunities that resentatives discussed strategies on how Parallel to the main programme, space bioenergy-related policies present for to overcome the current financial crisis was set aside to accommodate interac- UWUVCKPCDNGFGXGNQROGPV $QZQRRQUKVG  with new business models, industry tion among private-sector participants,

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including forest products producers, VTCFGTUſPCPEKCNKPUVKVWVKQPUCPFKPXGU- VQTU1P9GFPGUFC[1EVQDGTCHWNNFC[ Business Roundtable brought together  TGRTGUGPVCVKXGU HTQO GPVGTRTKUGU involved in forestry-related activities, from 31 countries. Over 1 000 face-to- face meetings were registered, totalling U$35 million in business pledges. Many forest-related groups and organi- \CVKQPUŌHQTGZCORNGVJG%QNNCDQTC- tive Partnership on Forests (CPF) and

XIII WFC the Board of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) More than 1 500 – held meetings in Buenos Aires prior to contributors the congress week, taking advantage of presented posters VJGRTGUGPEGQHGZRGTVUHTQOCTQWPFVJG world. FAO and the German Agency for

Congress participants express caution about bioenergy developments

The Forum on Forests and Energy attracted industry shows keen interest to develop A number of presenters described the about 2 500 participants and included both biochemical and thermochemical ambitious bioenergy policies already in presentations from nine speakers covering technologies to convert cellulose into place in North America and Europe and a wide range of technical and policy issues ELRHQHUJ\DQGWKHELRUH¿QHU\FRQFHSWLV noted that many developing countries are related to the subject. The discussion came expected to be an important technological also developing or implementing policies in back often to three major issues: platform. About US$3.8 billion is currently this area. In addition, several international • Many invested in research and development into partnerships are addressing technical and presenters noted that the replacement such second-generation technologies; they policy issues related to bioenergy and its of fossil fuels with will have sig- have now reached demonstration plant , for example the QL¿FDQWLPSDFWVRQODQGXVH.H\LVVXHV scale but are still some way from being formulation of principles, criteria and that have to be considered in this respect economically viable compared to existing indicators for bioenergy production. include the possible conversion of forests types of liquid . After the technical presentations, the to biofuel crops, increased competition • Wood is members of the audience voted on whether for agricultural crops between food and already by far the largest source of bio- they thought bioenergy development would fuel use, and the socio-economic implica- energy and it will remain so in the future. be good or bad for the forestry sector. The tions of large-scale changes in land use, Much of this is fuelwood and interesting result was that about 50 percent landownership and land tenure. The use used in developing countries, but more thought it would be bad and 40 percent of degraded land and existing modern uses of wood for heat and power thought it would be good (with about 10 wastes reduces the impact of bioenergy generation are rapidly becoming more percent undecided). Thus, it seems that developments on land use, but is not widespread. In general, wood has many many issues of concern must be examined entirely without problems. advantages for bioenergy production and resolved before the forestry commu- • Most biofuel compared with existing alternatives. nity can give its wholehearted support to development at present focuses on liquid However, the use of wood for bioenergy bioenergy development. biofuel production derived from agricul- will increase total wood demand, so tural crops, but the technology to produce the of production and liquid biofuels from wood is improving competition with other existing wood and production is expected to increase uses are important issues that should greatly in the future. The pulp and paper be considered.

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Conclusions from the Investment and Financing Forum 22 October 2009

3DUWLFLSDQWVH[SUHVVHGDFRQFHUQWKDWLQYHVWPHQWLQWURSLFDOIRUHVWU\LVZKROO\LQVXI¿FLHQWHYHQWKRXJKWKHUDWHRIUHWXUQRQLQYHVWPHQWV LQIRUHVWSODQWDWLRQVDQGVXVWDLQDEOHIRUHVWPDQDJHPHQWLVLQWKHUDQJHRIWRSHUFHQW/HVVWKDQ86ELOOLRQSHU\HDURIRI¿FLDO development assistance (ODA) is devoted to tropical forestry. The barriers to forest investment in developing economies include the perception of high risk in long-term investments (because of insecure land tenure, political instability, weak institutions and regulatory IUDPHZRUNVDQGKXPDQULJKWVLVVXHV DQGOLPLWHGFDSDFLW\WRDEVRUELQYHVWPHQWV EHFDXVHRIGH¿FLHQW¿QDQFLDOLQIUDVWUXFWXUHODFN of suitable partners and shortage of skills). To improve the investment conditions in tropical forest countries, it is necessary to bridge four gaps: • WKHLQYHVWPHQWJDS±WKURXJKORFDOSDUWQHUVKLSVUHGXFHGEXUHDXFUDF\DQGFDSDFLW\EXLOGLQJLQIRUHVWU\EXVLQHVVDQG¿QDQFLDOLQVWLWXWLRQV • the risk gap for investments – through an enhanced role of the multilateral development banks (long-term loans, insurance for SROLWLFDODQGODQGWHQXUHULVNVDQGIDFLOLWDWLRQRIWUDGH¿QDQFLQJ  • the knowledge gap – through enhanced investor relations, improved price transparency and promotion of country or sector invest- ment plans; • the market gap – through correction of market failures, establishment of fully functioning carbon markets and long-term carbon framework agreements, reduction of transaction costs, strengthening of price signals for sustainable products, capacity building of local banks and support for innovations. A mechanism for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) that includes conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest stocks (REDD-plus) could catalyse economic transformations and increase invest- ments in tropical countries. But deforestation goes far beyond the carbon issue, and the carbon market does not really function yet. Therefore, REDD-plus must be able to foster the establishment of sustainable private enterprises in order to be successful. To put the matter in human terms, some 1.8 billion people use forests and trees for part of their subsistence, some 500 million people directly depend on forest resources for their livelihoods, and some 50 million people live literally within forests. REDD-plus should help these people have a decent life.

Technical Cooperation (GTZ) organized Valter Ziantoni won ſTUVRTK\GKPVJG9QTNF an event on regional forest coopera- Forestry Congress tion. The National Forest Programme photo contest for Facility met with South American part- his image “Everyday Amazon” ners. The host country organized a spe- cial training course on forest genetics with global specialists a few days before the opening of the congress.

Reaching beyond the forest sector The World Forestry Congress was not only for to discuss traditional forest topics, but embraced other sub- jects having an impact on forests. For GZCORNGCPGXGPVNCUVKPICNOQUVVJTGG days and organized parallel to the main programme was the Second International Forum on Globally Important Agricul- tural Heritage Systems (GIAHS). Key- note speaker M.S. Swaminathan, winner

QHVJG9QTNF(QQF2TK\GECNNGF XIII WFC for an “ever-green” revolution based

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on dynamic conservation of agricultural heritage sites in an era of climate change. The Forum discussed agricultural sys- tems and landscapes created, shaped and maintained by generations of farmers and herders based on diverse natural resources and using locally adapted management practices. These well- balanced agro-ecological systems include practices in mar- IKPCNQTGZVTGOGGPXKTQPOGPVUYJGTG trees have an important role. A special address by Henri Djombo, Minister of Forest Economy, the Republic of the Congo, brought forestry into the GIAHS perspective.

Offsetting the carbon footprint of the congress The enormous participation in the World Forestry Congress entailed high con- sumption of energy and thousands of kilometres of travel by air, sea or , adding an enormous amount of carbon FKQZKFGVQVJGCVOQURJGTG6QQHHUGV these emissions and contribute to cli- mate change mitigation, the congress organizers arranged to purchase carbon credits from a biomass energy project in Brazil – creating the first “carbon neutral” World Forestry Congress.

CLOSING AND DECLARATION The XIII World Forestry Congress con- cluded with a final declaration, sum- marizing the most relevant issues and recommendations resulting from the numerous presentations and discussions throughout the week. The declaration QWVNKPGFPKPGHKPFKPIUCPFUVTCVGIKE CEVKQPU $QZR +VURTGCODNGPQVGU that: Forests are an invaluable asset for humanity providing livelihoods for bil- lions of people, helping achieve envi- ronmental sustainability, and serving

Some scenes from the exhibition

hall, including the XIII WFC inauguration by the congress organizers

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Strategic actions recommended by the XIII World Forestry Congress

Working with partners outside the forest Planted forests Fragile ecosystems, including arid zones, sector • Recognize the importance of planted small islands, wetlands and mountains • Initiate integrated cross-sectoral actions forests in meeting economic, social and • Promote protection and restoration of at global, regional, national and local environmental needs. fragile ecosystems to improve their resil- scales on key issues, including climate • Focus activities on degraded landscapes, ience and adaptation to changing climates change, bioenergy, water, biodiversity, especially restoration of degraded forest and human impacts and to maintain their food security and poverty alleviation to lands. vital environmental services, including reduce adverse impacts on forests. • Develop and implement technologies to food security and livelihoods for their • Implement mechanisms for cross- maintain and enhance the productivity of inhabitants. sectoral monitoring and reporting to planted forests and their contributions at Ŗ+PETGCUGGHHQTVUVQEQODCVFGUGTVKſECVKQP KPƀWGPEGRQNKEKGUCPFCEVKQPUTGNCVGF local and landscape levels. through forestry-related actions. to forestry. Forest bioenergy Forest industry +PƀWGPEKPIQRKPKQPUCPFRGTEGRVKQPUCDQWV • Develop energy forests within the context • Create an enabling environment of policy the value of forests of a sustainability framework to minimize and legal framework for the forest industry • Create innovative mechanisms that the risk of unintended consequences sector. incorporate local and indigenous across the forest, agriculture and energy • Expand research to develop new clean knowledge as a source of valid informa- sectors. technologies and forest products. tion to enrich global knowledge and • Implement good governance policies for the understanding of sustainable forest sustainable bioenergy development. Forest-related policies, good governance management. • Develop and improve technologies for and institutions • Strengthen interfaces between forest OQTGGHſEKGPVRTQFWEVKQPCPFFKXGTUGWUG • Improve governance at all levels of the knowledge and society; focusing in of biomass for energy including second forest sector, including building capacity particular on opinion leaders in local generation technologies. of forestry institutions to enforce laws and RQRWNCVKQPUCUCYC[VQKPƀWGPEGRQNKE[ regulations, and facilitate sustainable makers. Forests and climate change forest management by state and non-state • Develop new approaches to enhancing actors. Economic mechanisms to take full account using forests and • Provide better mechanisms to recognize of forests’ value to society new options for managing forests in the and value women’s roles in both informal • Foster the development of mechanisms face of climate changes and implement and formal domains. at local, regional, national and global them widely. • Improve worker skills and working condi- levels for realizing new economic values Ŗ2TQXKFGKPHQTOGFCPFUEKGPVKſECNN[RTQXGF tions needed for safe and productive work QHHQTGUVUVJCVETGCVGſPCPEKCNKPEGP- inputs to climate change negotiations. in the expanding forest sector. tives for landowners and communities to • Simplify AR CDM rules and implementa- • Promote land tenure reform providing manage for these values. tion of REDD-plus. secure rights to communities and local • Focus immediately on climate change • Advocate that local needs currently met stakeholders to use and manage forest TGNCVGFOGEJCPKUOUCUVJGſTUVRTKQT- HTQOHQTGUVUCTGTGURGEVGFCPFTGƀGEVGF resources. ity with particular attention to REDD in international climate change-oriented • Develop financing strategies within issues. mechanisms and policies. the framework of national forest pro- • Increase efforts to develop integrated • Expand research on adaptation to climate grammes using innovative instruments policies and strategies for effective man- change and its impacts on ecosystems, for investment and market development agement of forest and water resources. economies and societies. in forestry.

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as a source of social and spiritual A congress in values for peoples, communities and Buenos Aires would not have nations. Through their sustainable been complete management, forests can contribute to without tango alleviating poverty, safeguarding bio- diversity, providing the broad range of goods and services for present and future generations, in the context of a changing climate. The declaration affirms that sustain- able forest management, although not sufficient alone to address the multitude of challenges facing forests, contributes to achieving the vital balance between humanity and nature that is needed

for sustainable development, and that XIII WFC ongoing United Nations conventions and processes, such as the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of NCTIGGZJKDKVKQPCTGCVJGRQUVGTUGEVKQP Forestry and people who use or depend Forests, provide useful institutional the ample space for journalists and the on forest resources will, in one way or frameworks for action. EQOHQTVCDNGTGNCZCVKQPCTGC another, feel the positive impact of this The well-known Argentinian hospi- major event. Planning and holding a CONCLUSIONS tality, the high-quality cuisine and the World Forestry Congress is a long-term The whole congress week was rich in ample choice of cultural events made the investment, and the final declaration, VGEJPKECNKPHQTOCVKQPGZEJCPIGCPFNKXGN[ participants’ stay a very pleasant one, while not a legally binding document, discussions, everywhere from the plenary despite the tight technical programme will guide efforts towards the vital hall and the 14 other meeting rooms to the and the multitudes attending. balance of forests in development. X

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At the XIII World Forestry Congress in Buenos task after the war was to re-establish inter- Sixty years of Aires, Argentina in October 2009, the Inter- national contacts. collaborative national Union of Forest Research Organiza- FAO started working with international non- tions (IUFRO) and FAO celebrated the sixtieth governmental organizations shortly after its partnership anniversary of their collaboration, initiated creation in 1945. At the time, the idea of incor- with a first Memorandum of Understanding porating IUFRO into FAO was considered, to between FAO and in 1949. For 60 years, the two organizations make it possible to formulate research aims have provided mutual support in areas such as more clearly, avoid unnecessary duplication IUFRO: towards forestry education, forest extension, incorpo- of research projects and reduce costs. rating science in national forest programmes, Instead, however, the two organizations the next sixty support to national forest monitoring sys- worked out an agreement in 1949 whereby tems, and development and implementation IUFRO was given a special consultative sta- D.K. Lee and J. Heino of guidelines for planted forests, forest protec- tus with FAO; the IUFRO Secretariat was tion, forest genetic resources and forest fire established at FAO headquarters in Rome, management. In a recorded message sent but IUFRO remained independent. 7ZRPDMRUJOREDOIRUHVWU\ from Sweden, Börje Steenberg, FAO’s first In 1959, FAO asked to be released from RUJDQL]DWLRQVFHPHQWHGWKHLU Assistant Director-General for Forestry, now the obligation of providing the Secretariat, long-term partnership at the 97 years old, commended the IUFRO-FAO but IUFRO’s consultative status with FAO World Forestry Congress. collaboration for creating and maintaining an remained unchanged. In return, FAO was active interface between science and policy, made a member of the extended IUFRO Board that is, between research and practice. and maintains this status today. FAO and IUFRO share the common goal of promoting conservation and sustainable use of Research capacity development the world’s forests. IUFRO, established in 1892, In 1983, IUFRO and FAO established the provides access for its partners to a global “brain IUFRO Special Programme for Developing pool” of about 700 member organizations in 110 Countries (IUFRO-SPDC) to strengthen countries and more than 15 000 scientists. FAO, research related to forest resources in devel- HQWPFGFKPEQNNCDQTCVGUYKVJVJGUEKGPVKſE oping countries. Its first coordinator was Oscar community through direct relations with regional, Fugalli, who had just retired from leading national and subnational research institutions, FAO’s Forest Management Branch. Through many of which are IUFRO members. this programme, IUFRO provides assistance for the long-term development of the capacity History of cooperation of individual scientists and research institu- During the Second World War, the IUFRO tions in developing countries. From mid-1998 Secretariat was located in Sweden; its main to 2004, the IUFRO-SPDC Deputy Coordinator

IUFRO President Don Koo Lee (left) and then Assistant Director-General for Forestry of FAO Jan Heino sign an agreement for continued collaboration at the XIII World Forestry Congress, Buenos Aires, Argentina, October 2009

Don Koo Lee is President of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations

(IUFRO), Vienna, Austria. XIII WFCXX Jan Heino was Assistant Director-General, FAO (QTGUVT[&GRCTVOGPV4QOGHTQO,WPGVQ &GEGODGT

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for Africa shared office space with Forestry recorded not only the established and widely Risks of Transgenic Plantations (1999) and staff in FAO’s Regional Office for Africa in accepted definitions of some common terms, subsequent work on biotechnologies in Accra, Ghana. but also the use of the terms by some profes- forestry. IUFRO-SPDC offers training courses on sions, organizations and countries. FAO and In January 2008, FAO’s Assistant Director- working effectively at the interface of for- IUFRO are continuing to explore opportuni- General for Forestry chaired an independent est science and forest policy, and on link- ties for mutual strengthening of SilvaVoc and review initiated by the IUFRO Management ing science with practice in the context of FAOTERM, FAO’s terminology database. Committee to assess the potential for adap- international forest-related initiatives and In the early 2000s, FAO and IUFRO, together tation and thematic reorientation of IUFRO’s agreements and their implementation in the with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate strategic priorities. context of national forest programmes. Col- Change (IPCC) and the Center for Interna- FAO and IUFRO have organized joint techni- laborative activities of IUFRO-SPDC and FAO tional Forestry Research (CIFOR), began a cal conferences. A recent example was the have included: process to enhance common understanding international conference on Adaptation of xthe Global Forest Information Service of, and possibly to harmonize, forest-related Forests and Forest Management to Changing (GFIS) Africa project, developed from a definitions that are used internationally or Climate with Emphasis on Forest Health: A IUFRO-SPDC project and involving FAO are being developed by various international Review of Science, Policies and Practices, experts; processes and bodies, such as the environ- organized together with the Swedish Univer- xthe Forestry Research Network for Sub- mental conventions, the United Nations Forum sity of Agricultural Sciences in August 2008 Saharan Africa (FORNESSA), developed on Forests (UNFF), the International Tropical in Umeå, Sweden. The conference attracted jointly (from 2000 to 2004, the IUFRO- Timber Organization (ITTO) and FAO. Three more than 300 researchers, managers and SPDC Deputy Coordinator for Africa was expert meetings on harmonizing forest-related decision-makers from 50 countries. the FORNESSA Secretary); definitions for use by various stakeholders, xtraining workshops carried out through held at FAO headquarters in Rome in 2002 and Partnering into the future partnership of IUFRO-SPDC and FAO’s 2005, spearheaded the process. In addition, Future collaboration between IUFRO and FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific; IUFRO, FAO and CIFOR organized a side should emphasize training and networking xforest genetic resources workshops in Asia event on terminology and definitions at the activities, terminology issues, online learn- and the Pacific, Africa and Latin America second session of UNFF in March 2002. ing and other forms of forestry education, in the 1980s, with considerable follow-up engaging students and young researchers, action; Collaborative Partnership on Forests and related financing. Joint activities such xfinancial support provided by FAO to The Collaborative Partnership on Forests as publications, conferences, workshops and IUFRO-SPDC’s Scientist Assistance (CPF), a consortium of 14 forest-related orga- training must be continued. A mutual concern Programme (SAP). nizations and agencies, is led by FAO, and and one of the most important future tasks IUFRO is an active partner. IUFRO-led CPF will be to help institutions and countries build Terminology and definitions initiatives in which FAO participates include: their capacity for research and for educating The organizations have long collaborated xthe Global Forest Information Service young people. in multilingual terminology initiatives. For (GFIS), developed under CPF since With forestry today very much in the lime- example, in 1971, the Joint FAO/IUFRO Com- 2005. An upgraded version of the GFIS light, above all because of climate change mittee of Experts on Forestry Bibliography gateway was opened in January 2007, challenges and growing awareness of the and Terminology published the Terminology with interfaces now in English, Finnish, need to reduce deforestation, IUFRO and FAO of forest science, technology, practice, and French, German, Russian and Spanish. will have an increasingly important role to play products (Multilingual Forestry Terminology xthe Global Forest Expert Panels, in enhancing global forestry. Their partnership Series No. 1). launched in 2007 to provide objective will be an important element in international In the context of the Global Forest Resources CPFKPFGRGPFGPVUEKGPVKſECUUGUUOGPVU efforts to address these and other crucial Assessment 2000, IUFRO carried out a of key issues to support more informed issues affecting forests and forestry such as comparative study on terminology with FAO decision-making at the global level. The bioenergy, water shortage, biodiversity loss financial support (1996–1997) to improve ſTUV)('2TGRQTVAdaptation of forests and poverty. the comparability of national terminologies, and people to climate change, was re- concepts and classifications in forestry. leased in 2009. In 1998, FAO provided financial and tech- nical support for a multilingual Glossary on Other cooperative activities forest genetic resources, developed with FAO contributed to the elaboration of the IUFRO’s SilvaVoc Terminology Project, which IUFRO Position Statement on Benefits and

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Dynamics of small-scale deforestation in Indonesia: examining the effects of poverty and socio-economic development R.S. Purnamasari

FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY An empirical analysis suggests orest-dense areas are frequently while on the other hand, poverty alle- WKDWWKHUDWHRIGHIRUHVWDWLRQLV associated with high levels of viation and improvements in well-being actually lower in poorer regions; Fpoverty (Chomitz et al.  could also ease capital constraints and LWLQFUHDVHVDW¿UVWZLWKZHDOWK The areas are often remote from mar- facilitate more forest conversion. Better EXWVXEVHTXHQWO\GHFUHDVHVDIWHU kets and services and lack infrastructure. understanding is therefore needed of a certain wealth level is reached. Opportunity costs of labour are low. The the impact of regional development on population also often lacks the finance rural livelihoods and the well-being of necessary for investments to maintain people in forest areas and, in turn, the the quality of soil or increase yields on implications for the rate of small-scale VJGGZKUVKPIENGCTGFNCPF&GHQTGUVCVKQP deforestation. including clearing for agricultural activi- As in other developing countries, ties, is often the only option available deforestation in Indonesia is the result for the livelihoods of farmers living in QHEQORNGZUQEKQGEQPQOKERTQEGUUGU forested areas (Angelsen, 1999). Poverty is widely considered to be an Does this mean that poverty in the important underlying cause of forest frontier areas is the driving factor of conversion by small-scale farmers. This small-scale deforestation? Should article presents the findings of a study areas of greater prosperity, with bet- VJCVGZCOKPGFVJGEQPVTKDWVKQPQHFKH- ter infrastructure and market integra- ferent regional-level socio-economic VKQPDGGZRGEVGFVQDGCUUQEKCVGFYKVJ and physiogeographic factors (such as lower deforestation? Previous stud- altitude and slope of land) to the dynam- ies of poverty and deforestation have ics of small-scale deforestation in three given ambiguous results. On the one primary forest areas in Indonesia – JCPFTGIKQPCNFGXGNQROGPVKUGZRGEVGF Kalimantan, Sumatra and Sulawesi – to create new opportunities for local which together constitute about 60 per- people and improve their livelihoods, cent of Indonesia’s total .

Small-scale deforestation in East Kalimantan, Indonesia R.S. PURNAMASARI Ririn Salwa Purnamasari is an Economist in VJG9QTNF$CPMQHſEGKP,CMCTVC+PFQPGUKCCPF is a Research Partner of the Poverty Environment Network (PEN) of the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR).

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The analysis was conducted at the sion-making of farmers living on forest Individual farmers make land-use district level. A temporal and spatial frontiers. In particular, the nature of FGEKUKQPUVCMKPIKPVQCEEQWPVGZRGEVGF econometrics approach was used to property rights and changes in tradi- costs and revenues associated with each KPXGUVKICVGVJGGZVGPVVQYJKEJXCTKQWU tional community ownership systems alternative. The decision is also affected facets of poverty and regional develop- produce incentives to induce earlier land by farmers’ resource constraints. Thus, ment motivated people to clear forest conversion. Nevertheless, in Indonesia QVJGTVJKPIUDGKPIGSWCNQPGECPGZRGEV NCPFKPFKUVTKEVUQXGTCP[GCT property rights over forest land are not VJCVKHGZRGEVGFTGVWTPUHTQOCITKEWNVWTG RGTKQF Ō (QTVJGRWTRQUGQH well defined in practice, although most increase, then deforestation rates are the study, deforestation refers to small- forest land is formally controlled by the likely to increase. If forest conversion scale district-level deforestation, unless State. In most frontier areas, forests are is costly and/or there is a long gesta- otherwise indicated. generally regarded by communities as tion period for positive returns from an open access resource with free entry agriculture, then poorer, liquidity-con- CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK and no restrictions on land use. This strained farmers are less likely to shift to The theoretical framework employed means that, in general, an individual increased land-clearing activities. in this study is a dynamic optimization HCTOGT ECP GZGTEKUG EQPVTQN QXGT VJG Clearly, there is no simple theoretical model of irreversible land-use change land-use options for any selected patch GZRGEVCVKQPCUVQVJGKORCEVQHRQXGTV[ CUKP-GTT2HCHHCPF5CPEJG\   of forest land and decide whether to on land-use activities. The signs and CPF8CPEGCPF)GQIJGICP   The keep the land in its current forest state relative magnitudes of the different fac- framework models the decision of an or convert it to agricultural production. tors associated with poverty need to be individual land user about whether or Therefore, while the loss of property investigated empirically. not to convert a patch of land from rights to a parcel of forested land is its forested state to agricultural use in not directly measured and incorporated EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS response to changing economic condi- in the model, it can be considered and A population-averaged panel model was tions over space and time, given loca- included as one of the potential costs of used to estimate the annual deforestation tion-specific factors affecting returns allowing land to remain in its traditional rate (the dependent variable) as a function from the land. The assumption about forested state. of relative returns from forest conversion the irreversibility of land-use change to agriculture and factors affecting them, is broadly consistent with the reality POVERTY CONTEXT including poverty and development (the of tropical deforestation today, as most Some have argued that poor people clear GZRNCPCVQT[XCTKCDNGU  6CDNG 1H cleared land is not returned to its previous forests and cultivate new lands in order VQVCNFKUVTKEVUKPVJGUVWF[TGIKQP forested state (Kerr et al.8CPEG to maintain yields because they cannot YGTGGZENWFGFHTQOVJGCPCN[UKUDGECWUG CPF)GQIJGICP 6JGKORCEVQH finance the necessary investments to they lacked either forest area or the data GZRGEVGF TGVWTPU HTQO EQPXGTUKQP VQ RTGUGTXGUQKNSWCNKV[QHVJGGZKUVKPIEWN- needed for the estimations. agriculture is seen clearly in the case VKXCVGFNCPF

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Summary statistics of the variables No. of Standard Variable observations Mean deviation Minimum Maximum Annual deforestation rate (%)a 496 0.0475 0.1145 0.0001 1.6198 1985–1990 (%) 124 0.0181 0.0441 0.0001 0.4294 1990–1996 (%) 124 0.0062 0.0186 0.0002 0.1927 1996–2000 (%) 124 0.0237 0.0622 0.0003 0.6464 2000–2003 (%) 124 0.1420 0.1856 0.0001 1.6198 Wealth index 496 25.1494 2.9920 18.0000 39.0000

FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY 1986 124 24.1925 2.9690 19.2553 39.0000 1990 124 24.4692 3.0081 19.9143 37.0000 1996 124 25.8967 2.7450 21.1596 34.1667 2000 124 26.0393 2.8067 18.0000 34.6667 Return proxies Industrial crops suitable (% forests at risk) 496 23.2635 28.2052 0.0000 100.0000 Arable suitable (% forests at risk) 496 13.2830 20.0333 0.0000 100.0000 Distance to province capital (km) 496 127.0543 105.4845 0.0000 752.4142 River density (km/km2) 496 0.2887 0.1549 0.0356 0.6346 Proxies for regional developments Per capita regional GDP (million Rp) 496 1.4606 1.1043 0.4055 9.9305 Industrial workers – proportion of population (per 1 000 persons) 496 7.0948 12.4597 0.0000 141.2487 (Lagged) Population density (persons/km2) 372 258.3463 682.2017 2.0130 5760.0470 (Lagged) Annual HPH deforestation rate 372 0.0687 0.1802 0.0000 1.0000 (Lagged) Cumulative deforestation (% total forests period 1) 372 0.1355 0.2866 0.0000 3.2651 Neighbouring district variables (average) Per capita regional GDP (million Rp) 496 1.2874 0.7547 0.0000 5.8792 Industrial workers – proportion of population (per 1 000 persons) 496 6.2611 6.5602 0.0000 42.9607 a For this table the deforestation rates are presented in % (the actual values and their standard deviations are multiplied by 100).

1990 maps, and the Planning Department scale deforestation activity normally in the initial period of interest. The of the Ministry of Forestry for 1996/1997, only takes place in areas not designated deforestation rates were generated for CPFOCRUKPENWFKPIOCRUQH for HPH, and for this reason the HPH VJG RGTKQFU Ō Ō forests allocated for concession CTGCUCTGGZENWFGFHTQOVJGHQTGUVCTGCU Ō CPF Ō $GECWUG (referred to as hak pengusahaan hutan that can potentially be cleared by small- the time intervals are different across the =*2*? HTQOVQ#NVJQWIJVJG scale farmers. The new maps were then periods, annual deforestation rates were data are the best available, they vary in overlaid with the 1996 district boundary used for the estimation, assuming that terms of scale and precision and possibly maps to generate data sets on forest area this annual rate was the same in each year contain inconsistencies, and they should by district for each point in time. within the period. Annual deforestation be interpreted with caution (Chomitz et Small-scale deforestation is defined rates were calculated using the FAO al.(9+CPF)(9  here as a cleared patch in the range of formula for calculating the annual rate All series of the land cover maps were 0.05 to 10 ha. Dewi et al  CUUGTV of forest change, based on compound first regrouped into two broad catego- and are supported by some field observa- interest principles (FAO, 1995). ries – forests and non-forests – so they tions, that small patches of deforestation could be integrated across time. The are mostly associated with smallholders’ Explanatory variables forest and non-forest maps were then activities in agriculture. The small-scale To match with the dates of the depend- QXGTNC[GFYKVJ*2*OCRUVQGZENWFG deforested area for the district level is ent variable, the study used data dates the large-scale concession areas from obtained by aggregating all small-scale QHCPFHQTVJG the forest area considered to be poten- cleared patches in the whole district. GZRNCPCVQT[XCTKCDNGU tially clearable by small-scale farmers. The dependent variable, the annual Formally, most forests in Indonesia are deforestation rate (in percentage), is Poverty measure. The use of poverty as State owned, although in practice they defined as the area deforested between CPGZRNCPCVQT[HCEVQTKPCFGHQTGUVCVKQP are open access. Nevertheless, small- periods divided by the total forest area model can lead to an endogeneity prob-

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lem, resulting from the possibility of The first measure of district deve- as a result of shared constraints and reverse causality: poverty is normally lopment is per capita non-oil regional QRRQTVWPKVKGUPGVYQTMUQTGZVGTPCNKVKGU defined as a lack of income, and that gross domestic product (regional GDP) The study therefore included variables income is a function of deforestation 5VCVKUVKEU+PFQPGUKC 5KPEGVJKU reflecting economic development, off- activities. Therefore, per capita income measure is based on the market value farm employment opportunities and is not used as a poverty measure in the of all final goods and services in the population density in neighbouring estimation. Instead, poverty incidence region over time, regional GDP rep- districts. YCUCUUGUUGFWUKPICYGCNVJKPFGZDCUGF resents regional economic and general on infrastructure and facilities, natural development, including infrastructure RESULTS AND DISCUSSION resources and socio-economic condi- and institutional development. Poverty and deforestation tions at the district level. A regional +PFWUVTKCNK\CVKQPKUGZRGEVGFVQKORTQXG The estimation results show a significant YGCNVJKPFGZYCUIGPGTCVGFHTQOVJG the social and economic welfare condi- impact of poverty on deforestation. The National Village Potential Survey tion of the regions and also to offer more observed relationship between poverty 21&'5  FCVC HQT    economic opportunities to people – an and deforestation follows an inverted CPFHTQO$CFCP2WUCV5VCVKUVKM important factor affecting deforestation U-shape which implies that deforestation (Statistics Indonesia). rates (Angelsen, 1999; Godoy et al., is lower in the poorest districts. One 5JKXGN[CPF2CIKQNC 6JWU RQUUKDNGGZRNCPCVKQPKUVJCVRGQRNGKP Proxies for returns to clearing. Since in addition to regional GDP, the pro- severe poverty lack the means to con- direct information on agricultural and portion of the population engaged in vert land to agricultural cultivation and forest-product returns which is consist- the district’s industries was included prefer to have income that can be gen- ent across different products and over CU C RTQZ[ HQT QHHHCTO GORNQ[OGPV erated quickly – in the form of cash VKOGKUFKHHKEWNVVQHKPFRTQZKGUYGTG opportunities. or subsistence – such as that obtained used. The impact of population density on HTQOHQTGUVRTQFWEVUGZVTCEVKQP6JKU To capture unobserved agricultural deforestation has been a subject of con- argument is consistent with a study by productivity, two district land suitability troversy. Several studies of deforestation Wibowo and Byron (1999) showing that measures, derived from RePPProT maps, have included population density in the poverty conditions prevented defores- were used: the proportion of the district analysis, but no systematic relationship tation in Kerinci-Seblat National Park, forested area at the beginning of each has been seen (e.g. Cropper, Griffiths Indonesia. As the people in an area period that was suitable for food crops and Mani, 1999; Pfaff, 1999; Uusivuori, become wealthier, deforestation rates (arable suitable) and for tree crops such .GJVQCPF2CNQ 6QKPXGUVKICVG increase, possibly because the people as cocoa, , rubber and coffee the impact of population on the pace now can afford to put more land into pro- (industrial crops suitable). The land suit- of deforestation, population density duction. The increase in deforestation, ability assessments, which were based was included in the study as one of the however, is at a decreasing rate (i.e. on topography, climate, water and soil GZRNCPCVQT[XCTKCDNGU the increment in the deforestation rate characteristics, indicate the most benefi- In Indonesia, HPH activities could decreases as wealth increases), which cial or productive use of the land. River stimulate local development in the sur- suggests that after a certain wealth level, density and distance between district rounding areas, which in turn could possibly when people have the required and provincial capital cities were used either stimulate deforestation in the area capital inputs for agricultural intensifi- CURTQZKGUHQTVTCPURQTVEQUVUCPFCEEGUU (Angelsen, 1995) or stimulate off-farm cation or better access to other income- to markets. economic activities which could cause a generating options, there is less demand UJKHVCYC[HTQOENGCTKPI .GXCPI  HQTHWTVJGTCITKEWNVWTCNGZRCPUKQP Proxies for regional development. To capture these potential effects, the The estimated relationship between Although the effect of development is estimations include the annual HPH poverty and the deforestation rate could already indirectly taken into account deforestation rate. be graphed (Figure) with the predicted through several factors in the wealth The study also included a district’s values of the deforestation rates esti- KPFGZ OGCUWTGOGPV VJG UVWF[ CNUQ cumulative deforestation as another mated by varying the value of the dis- includes some direct measures for dis- RTQZ[HQTNQECNFGXGNQROGPV VTKEVYGCNVJKPFGZDWVMGGRKPIVJGXCNWGU VTKEVFGXGNQROGPVVQGZCOKPGDGVVGTVJG Land-use patterns in a given district are of the other variables constant at their direct effect of the development process possibly not only a function of variables mean values. As shown in the Figure, the on relative returns and hence clearing for that district, but may also reflect the FGHQTGUVCVKQPTCVGTGCEJGUCOCZKOWO patterns. characteristics of neighbouring districts at about the ninetieth percentile of the

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vincial capital. However, the negative Deforestation rate (%) sign of this variable when it is interacted 0.04 with a time variable suggests that this effect diminishes with time, perhaps because of improved transport infra- 0.03 structure and vehicles over time. Overall, isolated areas with limited transportation facilities and poor access to markets

0.02 GZRGTKGPEGJKIJGTFGHQTGUVCVKQP FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY The results show that the per capita regional GDP variable is not significant KPVJGOQFGN1PGGZRNCPCVKQPEQWNFDG 0.01 that within-region disparities are still a serious problem in Indonesia. That is, development processes and their p10 p25 p50 p75 p90 0 KORCEVUOKIJVPQVDGGSWCNN[GZRGTK- 20 25 30 35 40 enced throughout the district and hence District wealth index the district-level variables do not reflect Inverted U-shaped conditions in frontier regions. Alterna- relationship between for industrial or estate crops will increase tively, it could be that there are offsetting poverty and deforestation VJGFGHQTGUVCVKQPTCVGD[RGTEGPV effects between development factors that However, the estimation showed the actually reduce small-scale deforestation FKUVTKDWVKQPQHVJGYGCNVJKPFGZKPFKECV- proportion of forest land suitable for rates (e.g. improved legal systems ing that the deforestation rates of most wetland and dryland agriculture to be inducing productive investments in the districts are still increasing. insignificant. This indicates that areas GZKUVKPIENGCTGFNCPF CPFHCEVQTUVJCV Since wealth reflects development, suitable for tree crops, instead of food accelerate deforestation (e.g. new con- these results suggest that the impact crops, are of greater interest to small- cessionaires’ which stimulate land of development on deforestation var- scale farmers in frontier areas. This is clearing for ). ies depending on the current state of consistent with a previous finding that %QPVTCT[ VQ GZRGEVCVKQPU VJG XCTK- YGCNVJ+PVJGUVWF[UKVGUHTQO tree-crop shifting cultivation, rather than able reflecting the number of indus- VQVJGRGTECRKVCTGIKQPCN)&2 staple-crop shifting cultivation, plays the trial workers was found to have a posi- grew at an average rate of 3.7 percent largest role in small-scale deforestation tive and significant correlation with per year. During this time, the district in Indonesia (Chomitz and Griffiths, deforestation. This may reflect limited YGCNVJKPFGZKPETGCUGFQPCXGTCIGD[ 1996). Sunderlin et al.  PQVGFVJCV opportunities for local people, who are 7.9 percent and the deforestation rate land clearing for tree crops increased as generally involved in small-scale land KPETGCUGFHTQOVQRGTEGPVRGT a result of the severe economic crisis clearing, to work in industry, as most year. The annual deforestation rate for that hit the country in 1997. of the new employment opportunities VQRTGFKEVGFWUKPIVJGUCOG The significant coefficients of river resulting from growth in industry or growth rate of the per capita regional density and distance confirm the impor- concessions are often taken by outsid- )&2CPFVJGFKUVTKEVYGCNVJKPFGZHTQO tant role of transportation costs and ers who migrate to the area. Limited VQYJKNGMGGRKPIVJGQVJGT access to markets in the deforestation skills and fears about the reliability of variables constant, shows a decrease to process. The negative coefficient of local workers are often given as the main 0.01 percent. river density suggests that in the study reasons firms are reluctant to hire them regions the net impact of better trans- .GXCPI (WTVJGTPGYOKITCPVU Returns and development proxies port facilities is to reduce deforestation. in the area increase demand for food and +PNKPGYKVJGZRGEVCVKQPUCJKIJGTRTQ- The positive sign of the distance vari- other agricultural products which can portion of available forest land suit- able suggests that greater distance to induce the farmers at the forest frontier able for tree crops leads to significantly big cities increases deforestation. The to increase their agricultural production higher deforestation. On average, a estimate shows that the deforestation rate D[GZRCPFKPICITKEWNVWTCNNCPF 1 percent increase in the proportion of increases, on average, by 14.3 percent The insignificant effect of population the district forested area that is suitable for each 100 km of distance from a pro- density on deforestation is consistent

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with the argument that, at the regional human well-being and location welfare will be to manage development in such level, population is potentially deter- components, allowing for a comprehen- a way as to ensure good and equitable mined by other factors that influence UKXGGZCOKPCVKQPQHRQXGTV[GHHGEVUQP access to labour markets and remunera- economic activity, such as off-farm the pace of deforestation. With data span- tive off-farm employment opportunities activities and infrastructure availability. PKPIOQTGVJCP[GCTUŌRTGUGPVGFCV for rural people. X Thus, population per se is unlikely to be HKXGRQKPVUKPVKOGŌCPFFKUVTKEVU the underlying cause of deforestation the study is one of the most compre- -CKOQYKV\CPF#PIGNUGP  JGPUKXGGZCOKPCVKQPUQHFGHQTGUVCVKQP The insignificance of HPH activities by small-scale farmers undertaken for OC[EQPVTCFKEVVJGEQOOQPGZRGEVC- Indonesia. tion of a positive correlation between The empirical results show an inverted Bibliography logging concessions and small-scale U-shaped relationship between district deforestation. However, previous studies wealth and deforestation where the rate Angelsen, A. 1995. Shifting cultivation and on the impact of logging intensity on of deforestation increases with wealth, deforestation: a study from Indonesia. small-scale deforestation focused on but at a decreasing rate. Poorer dis- World Development  Ō small-scale farming in abandoned log- tricts – those with a higher percentage Angelsen, A.  #ITKEWNVWTCN GZRCPUKQP ging plots, rather than on farmers’ new of poor people – tend to deforest less. and deforestation: modelling the impact clearing of forested land (Geist and Deforestation increases until a certain of population, market forces and property .CODKP  wealth level is reached and then declines. rights. Journal of Development Economics, Results show that, when controlled However, it starts to decrease only at the Ō for other influences, the percentage of top decile of the current district wealth Chomitz, K.M., Buys, P., Luca, G.D., total forest area cleared in the preced- distribution. Thomas, T.S. & Wertz-Kanounnikoff, ing period has statistically insignificant +PVJG+PFQPGUKCPEQPVGZVKVKUVJGNCPF S.  At loggerheads? Agricultural effects on the deforestation rate. This that is most suitable for tree crops that is expansion, poverty reduction, and could be because the level of local deve- most vulnerable to deforestation. When environment in the tropical forests. World lopment has already been controlled for the land is suitable for tree crops, the Bank Policy Research Report. Washington, by the variables representing the propor- incentives are obviously higher for DC, USA, World Bank. tion of forest area suitable for farming forests to be cleared for establishment Chomitz, K.M. & Griffiths, C. 1996. and tree crops available for clearing in of cash crops such as oil palm. This has Deforestation, shifting cultivation, and each period in the specifications. Alter- been a factor driving a significant part tree crops in Indonesia: nationwide natively, as was the case for the per capita of land conversion through deforestation patterns of smallholder agriculture at the regional GDP variable, it may be that in the past, and also has implications forest frontier. Poverty, Environment, and these lagged variables are insignificant for the future. Growth Working Paper No 4. Washington, because they are at the district rather The findings of this study suggest DC, USA, World Bank. than local, frontier level. that the impact of development on %TQRRGT / )TKHſVJU %  /CPK / The regional GDP and number of deforestation depends on the current state 1999. Roads, population pressures, and industrial workers in neighbouring areas of wealth and the level of development in FGHQTGUVCVKQPKP6JCKNCPFŌLand appear to have insignificant effects on the frontier regions. A worrying feature Economics  Ō a district’s deforestation, suggesting of these findings is that policies aimed Deininger, K.W. & Minten, B. 1996. that spatial interactions are not very at stimulating regional development Poverty, policies, and deforestation: the important. may stimulate further deforestation. For case of Mexico. Poverty, Environment, and most districts, increased wealth, other Growth Working Paper No. 5. Washington, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS things being equal, will initially increase DC, USA, World Bank. Unlike most previous studies on the deforestation. Dewi, S., Belcher, B., Puntodewo, A., deforestation-poverty link, the empirical Counterbalancing this concern, how- Tarigan, J. & Widodo, M.  analysis in this study utilizes a data set ever, is the finding that lower transport Deforestation: Who does what? Paper combining spatial data on forest cover costs and better access to markets reduce presented to the International Symposium and physiogeographic factors from deforestation. The study also found that of Land Use, and the satellite imagery with socio-economic greater off-farm employment opportu- Stability of Margin in South- panel data from several national surveys. nities were associated with less forest east Asia, Bogor, Indonesia, 30 September – The poverty measure incorporates both clearing. Thus, the challenge for districts 1EVQDGT.

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FAO. 1995. Forest Resources Assessment Environment and Development Economics, 1990 – global synthesis. FAO Forestry   Ō Paper No. 124. Rome. Statistics Indonesia.  Pendapatan FWI & GFW. 2002. 7KHVWDWHRIWKHIRUHVW Domestik Regional Bruto (PDRB) Propinsi- Indonesia. Bogor, Indonesia & Washington, propinsi di Indonesia Menurut Lapangan DC, USA, Forest Watch Indonesia & Global Usaha 2002–2006. Jakarta, Indonesia, Forest Watch. Badan Pusat Statistik. Geist, H.J. & Lambin, E.F.  What Sunderlin, W.D., Resosudarmo, I.A.P., drives tropical deforestation? LUCC Rianto, E. & Angelsen, A. 2000. 7KHHIIHFW FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY Report Series. Brussels, Belgium, Land- RI ,QGRQHVLD¶V HFRQRPLF FULVLV RQ VPDOO Use and Land-Cover Change (LUCC) IDUPHUV DQG QDWXUDO IRUHVW FRYHU LQ WKH +PVGTPCVKQPCN2TQLGEV1HſEG outer islands. CIFOR Occasional Paper No. Godoy, R., Franks, J.R., Wilkie, D., 28(E). Bogor, Indonesia, CIFOR. Alvarado, M., Gray-Molina, G., Roca, Uusivuori, J., Lehto, E. & Palo, M. R., Escobar, J. & Cardenas, M. 1996. 2QRWNCVKQPKPEQOGCPFGEQNQIKECN The effects of economics development conditions as determinants of forest on neotropical deforestation: household area variation in the tropics. Global and village evidence from Amerindians Environmental Change  Ō in Bolivia. Discussion Paper No. 540. Vance, C. & Geoghegan, J.6GORQTCNCPF Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, Harvard spatial modelling of tropical deforestation: Institute for International Development. a survival analysis linking satelite and Kaimowitz, D. & Angelsen, A.  household survey data. Agricultural Economic models of tropical deforestation: Economics  Ō a review. Bogor, Indonesia, Center for Vedeld, P., Angelsen, A., Sjaastad, E. International Forestry Research (CIFOR). & Berg, G.K.  Counting on the Kerr, S., Pfaff, A.S.P., Cavatassi, R., Davis, environment: forest incomes and the rural B., Lipper, L., Sanchez, A. & Timmins, J. poor. Environment Department Paper No. Effects of poverty on deforestation: 9CUJKPIVQP&%75#9QTNF$CPM distinguishing behaviour from location. Wibowo, D.H. & Byron, R.N. 1999. ESA Working Paper No. 04-19. Rome, Deforestation mechanisms: a survey. FAO. International Journal of Social Economics, Kerr, S., Pfaff, A.S.P. & Sanchez, A.   Ō  The dynamic of deforestation: Zwane, A.P.&QGURQXGTV[EQPUVTCKP evidence from Costa Rica. Wellington, New deforestation? Econometric evidence from Zealand, Motu Economic and Public Policy Peru. Journal of Development Economics, Research. Available at: www.motu.org.   Ō X nz/docs/publications/costa.rica.pdf Levang, P.  2GQRNGŏU FGRGPFGPEKGU on forests. In Technical report, Phase I 1997–2001. ITTO Project PD 12/97 Rev.1 (F) – Forest, science and sustainability: the Bulungan model forest, pp. 109–130. Bogor, Indonesia, CIFOR. Pfaff, A.S.P. 1999. What drives deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon? Evidence from satellite and socioeconomic data. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management  Ō Shively, G.E. & Pagiola, S.#ITKEWNVWTCN intensification, local labor markets, and deforestation in the Philippines.

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Uncertain In Mexico, the conservation of the jaguar Camera-trap surveys in the region estab- (Panthera onca) has mainly focused on large lished the presence of at least two jaguars coexistence: jaguars public protected areas. However, existing pro- and 10 species of prey animals (Table 1). tected areas are not always effective for spe- Human-jaguar interactions were explored and communities in cies and , and Mexico’s through semi-structured and structured inter- widespread common property land tenure views in over 100 households in the four montane forests of limits opportunities for declaring new areas. communities during 2007/08. Interviewees Thus, protection for the jaguar, as for many were legal community members aged 17 to Mexico other forms of wildlife, needs to be focused 93 years old. Most (152 individuals) were on larger landscapes where high biodiver- crop farmers; 18 of these also engaged sity coexists with human activities. In recent in small-scale cattle ranching. Only three E. Durán, J.J. Figel and D.B. Bray years, there has been a significant move- were women, since few women are legal ment towards community-based biodiversity community members under Mexico’s agra- $VWXG\RIWKHSRWHQWLDOIRU conservation, including the establishment rian laws. Legal community members under FRPPXQLW\FRQVHUYDWLRQRI of indigenous/community conserved areas the age of 60 are obligated to participate MDJXDUVLQWKH6LHUUD1RUWHRI (a category established by the International actively in decisions about natural resources Oaxaca, Mexico. Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural management, land use and conservation, Resources [IUCN] in 2004 and recognized among other community governance issues. legally in Mexico since 2008). The interviews explored knowledge about Jaguar conservation issues were examined jaguars, prey, wildlife and hunting, jaguars in four communities with over 32 000 ha of in traditional culture, livestock predation and territory in the Chinantla ethnic region of the conservation. Sierra Norte in the state of Oaxaca, which is A total of 103 jaguar sightings were docu- dominated by montane tropical forests. The mented by 67 individuals – 83 since 1990 and region’s biodiversity is among the highest in 60 since 1999. The most common prey species Mexico, and 95 percent of the territory is under mentioned were coati, armadillo, red brocket common property governance regimes, largely deer and peccary, all considered to be abun- by indigenous peoples. Because “negative dant both in forests and in agricultural areas attitudes and perceptions by humans towards (where they are considered pests). Notably, 79 Jaguar sighted by a camera trap jaguars are clearly the greatest imminent percent of the interviewees valued jaguars for threat to the species’ survival” (Rabinowitz, biological control of these pest animals. 2005), the study combined both ecological Most farmers expressed positive (68 per- and social methods. cent) or mixed (20 percent) attitudes towards

TABLE 1. Potential jaguar prey species photographed by camera traps in the study communities Spanish common English common Scientific name National endangered name name category Armadillo Armadillo Dasypus Yes: low risk novemcinctus

J.J. FIGEL Hocofaisán Great curasow Crax rubra Yes: threatened Mapache Racoon Procyon lotor No Mazate Brocket deer Mazama americana Yes: low risk, use Elvira Durán is a Researcher at the Centro restricted Interdisciplinario de Investigación para el Pecari Collared peccary Tayassu tajacu Yes: low risk &GUCTTQNNQ+PVGITCN4GIKQPCNŌ1CZCEC+PUVKVWVQ 2QNKVÃEPKEQ0CEKQPCN5CPVC%TW\:QZQEQVN¶P Serete Central American agouti Dasyprocta mexicana Yes: risk /GZKEQ Tejón Coati Nasua narica Yes: low risk, use Joe J. Figel is a Ph.D. student at Louisiana State restricted University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, United States of America. Tepezcuintle Paca Agouti paca Yes: low risk David Barton Bray is a Professor and Associate Tlacuache Possum Didelphis marsupialis No Chair, Department of Earth and Environment, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, Venado Deer Odocoileus No virginianus United States.

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jaguars. The 12 percent that expressed nega- heard stories about jaguars from parents or tive attitudes were those with cattle: As in most grandparents, and 63 percent – irrespective of regions, predation on livestock and domestic age – said that they believed in nahuales. animals was the principal source of conflict The interviews suggested that a new aware- between humans and jaguars (Table 2). ness is emerging which may favour jaguar Jaguar predation was commonly mentioned conservation. Interest in agriculture and as a reason for a decline in the number of cattle ranching has declined with outmigra- cattle in the four communities from a peak tion, and the communities are attempting to of around 300 in the 1980s to about half turn to ecotourism and other conservation- FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY that in 2007/08. Lethal control of jaguars by oriented activities to raise income. Today the E. DURÁN humans had occasionally occurred. Respon- jaguar image is used as an icon for recent

dents reported the killing of seven jaguars conservation-related institutions and cul- Today the jaguar image is and one puma in past years, nearly all in tural practices. In 2005 the communities used as an icon in the region retaliation for livestock predation. declared community conserved areas, where – as seen in this football shirt worn by a Chinantec villager The study confirmed that the Chinantec hunting is banned, in nearly 80 percent of their people have a deeply rooted cultural connec- territories; they also approved new community tion with jaguars, particularly manifested in statutes which ban the hunting of red brocket do not specifically prohibit retaliation killings. a belief in nahuales, human beings who can deer as well as other jaguar prey species Most respondents (92.5 percent) were aware change themselves into jaguars. Nearly 50 unless they are pests in agricultural areas. of the community statutes, and most felt that percent of the respondents said that they had The statutes also ban the killing of jaguars but they received benefits from conservation, mostly from a programme for payments for TABLE 2. Attacks on livestock and other domestic animals attributed to jaguars hydrological services administered by the in four study communities during the past ten years Mexican Government. Animals attacked Events Deaths Events with jaguar Deaths with These results suggest the possibility of reporteda reported sightingb jaguar sighting positive prospects for conservation of large Calves, cows 10 17 2 6 charismatic carnivores such as jaguars in Chickens, turkeys 4 24 1 1 community-dominated landscapes beyond Dogs 10 16 3 6 protected areas. Jaguars still remain vulner- Mules, donkeys, horses 4 5 0 0 able to retaliation killings by those whose Sheep 4 11 2 4 livelihoods are most directly affected; but the potential of alternative economic activities Total 32 73 8 17 may further diminish the economic impor- a4GRQTVGFD[HCTOGTU b Reported by 7 farmers. tance of cattle. Future research will need to establish the connectivity of this region Communities are with other adjacent regions which may also turning to ecotourism provide viable jaguar habitat, and the viability to raise income, building on the jaguar of economic alternatives to cattle for the few as a conservation people who have them. image (jaguar sculpture near an ecotourism cottage)

Bibliography

Rabinowitz, A.,CIWCTUCPFNKXGUVQEM living with the world’s third largest cat. In R. Woodroffe, S. Thirgood & A. Rabinowitz, eds. People and wildlife: conflict or coexistence? RR Ō %CODTKFIG UK, Cambridge University Press. E. DURÁN

UnasylvaUnasylva 234/235, 213, 8QNVol. 61, 2010 THEME 23 2 PRODUCING FOR DEVELOPMENT Large-scale forests for bioenergy: land-use, economic and environmental implications M. Jack and P. Hall

An analysis of national-level oncerns about climate change An assessment of this type has been car- impacts of forestry and energy security have driven ried out in New Zealand. It highlighted for energy production in Cmany countries to reconsider the country’s potential for producing New Zealand – a useful tool for their options and bioenergy from large-scale forestry and strategic decision-making. strategies. Energy from biomass is VJGPGZCOKPGFVJGEQPUGSWGPEGUVJKU GZRGEVGFVQRNC[CPKORQTVCPVTQNGCPF would have for land use, the economy has received significant attention in and the environment. This article sum- recent years. While its potential positive marizes the results of the study. A longer contributions are well recognized, deve- TGRQTV *CNNCPF,CEM RTQXKFGU lopment of biofuels may also have nega- more detailed discussion of the method- tive impacts. Assessment of a country’s ology and assumptions behind the work. bioenergy options should thus include Although the study was specific to New analysis of: Zealand, it raises pertinent questions that • potential biomass resources; other countries may consider in analys- • consumer energy demand (given ing their bioenergy options. other potential renewable energy While socio-political aspects are options); also key components to such decision- • available technologies for convert- making, they were outside the scope of ing biomass into consumer energy; this study and not addressed in detail. • economic cost; • potential reduction in greenhouse gases; The development of a large- •impacts of land-use change; scale forestry resource on marginal land represents •competition with food production. New Zealand’s greatest opportunity for bioenergy

Michael Jack is Senior Scientist and Team Leader (Green Processing) and Peter Hall is Senior Scientist and Project Leader (Renewable SCION Energy), Scion, Rotorua, New Zealand.

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ANALYSIS OF BIOENERGY tion forestry feedstock would have use from agriculture (which accounts for OPTIONS much lower environmental impact about half of New Zealand’s emissions) The above parameters were assessed than producing first-generation bio- to forestry (Table 4). The scenarios were through: fuel from oil and starch crops, mainly associated with increased carbon stocks, •CUKVWCVKQPCPCN[UKUGZCOKPKPIEWT- because of the less intensive farming DGECWUGHQTCUWUVCKPCDN[OCPCIGF rent biomass residual resources, the practices per unit of biomass. year rotation forest, only 4 percent is potential of purpose-grown options, •Technological maturity and cost. harvested per year (Table 4). Emission CPFVJGUVCVWUQHGZKUVKPIDKQOCUUVQ Technology for converting lignocel- TGFWEVKQPUYGTGNQYGTKP5EGPCTKQUCPF consumer energy technologies (Hall lulosic biomass to liquid transport because of the lower-intensity land use CPF)KHHQTF  fuels is progressing rapidly towards that is displaced in these scenarios. •C RCVJYC[U CPCN[UKU GZCOKPKPI commercial viability (Sims et al., Because of reduced levels of pasto- economic costs and environmen-   ral production (Table 5), the scenarios PRODUCING FOR DEVELOPMENT tal impacts (through life-cycle as- also showed benefits in a number of sessment) of nationally relevant ASSESSMENT OF LARGE-SCALE areas of environmental concern in New biomass-to-consumer energy con- FORESTRY FOR BIOMASS Zealand including erosion, sedimenta- version pathways (Hall and Jack, PRODUCTION tion and nutrient leaching into waterways   The authors assessed the impacts of (estimated using a nutrient model and a The study determined that the main role displacing agriculture (mainly low- spatial erosion model) (Table 4). of bioenergy in New Zealand is likely productivity grazing) with forestry on Largely positive biodiversity impacts to be for heat and liquid transport fuels, hilly land for four large-scale afforesta- were also found, in improved species because of the significant potential of tion scenarios (Table 1). In these scena- richness of insects, plants and native other renewable resources for electricity rios, potential land for was birds in comparison with pasture and generation. The assessment also identi- selected from a Geographic Information GZQVKEUJTWDNCPFU*QYGXGTSWCPVK- fied the development of a large-scale Systems land-use class database. The fication of these benefits requires fur- forestry resource utilizing marginal land scenarios differ in land-use class, slope, ther research. Afforestation of land that as the most significant opportunity for altitude and current land use. It was was not historically forested may not be bioenergy in New Zealand from the fol- assumed that lowest-value land would desirable from a biodiversity perspective lowing perspectives. be used first (Scenario 1) and that sub- as it reduces native grassland habitats. •Potential scale of energy supply. sequent scenarios would embrace land The analysis showed that in some areas New Zealand has sufficient low- to of progressively increasing value. The ŌVJQUGYKVJNQYTCKPHCNNCPFJKIJGZKUV- medium-productivity grazing land scenarios presume the use of scrub, idle, ing water allocations – large-scale affor- – over 60 percent (9.3 million hec- marginal and low-to-moderate produc- estation could have negative impacts tares) of available productive land tivity grazing land as the resource area on water availability and its suitability – to establish a plantation forest re- CPFGZRNKEKVN[GZENWFGEQPUGTXCVKQPCPF would thus be questionable. UQWTEGVJCVD[YQWNFDGQH arable land. sufficient scale to supply all of the The potential biomass productivity Potential for competition from country’s demand for liquid fuels. for the scenarios was calculated based alternative land uses +PEQPVTCUVQPN[CDQWVRGTEGPV QPUQKNCPFENKOCVG 6CDNG CPFVJG The current return for the land under OKNNKQPJGEVCTGU QHRTQFWEVKXG economic cost of biomass production the scenarios was assessed to determine land in New Zealand is suitable for 6CDNG   CUUWOKPI UQOG ƀGZKDKNKV[ the economic viability of forestry for agricultural crops; using all this area between energy production and other end biomass for energy production (Todd, for crops for first-generation liquid uses (e.g. timber or carbon credits), which

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TABLE 1. Afforestation scenarios derived using TABLE 2. Total sustainably extractable biomass and criteria based on land-use class, slope, altitude and corresponding energy potential of each afforestation scenario to current land use (area from minor contributing land meet consumer energy demand uses, such as deer farming, not included) Scenario Total extractable % of current consumer energy demanda biomass Scenario Total area Area from Area of sheep (million m3/year) (‘000 ha) scrubland and beef pasture (‘000 ha) (‘000 ha) 1 23 68% of heat, or 20% of liquid transport fuel 1 831 0 533 2 74 100% of heat and 42% of liquid transport fuel, or 72% of liquid transport fuel, or 73% of electricity 2 1 856 51 1 619 3 127 100% of heat and 100% of liquid transport fuel 3 3 475 69 3 160 4 169 100% of heat and 100% of liquid transport fuel 4 4 927 198 4 412 and 85% of electricity Note:0GY

TABLE 3. Range of biomass yields and production costsa Scenario Biomass Costs per cubic metreb yield Growingc Roads Harvest Transportd Total (m3/ha) NZ$ US$ NZ$ US$ NZ$ US$ NZ$ US$ NZ$ US$ 1 640–850 21–28 15–20 4–6 3–4 34–38 24–27 13–15 9–11 72–87 50–70 2 940–1 240 14–19 10–13 3–4 2–3 34–38 24–27 13–15 9–11 64–76 45–53 3 940–1 240 14–19 10–13 3–4 2–3 34–38 24–27 13–15 9–11 64–76 45–53 4 910–1 200 15–20 11–14 3–4 2–3 34–38 24–27 13–15 9–11 65–77 46–54 a6JGTCPIGKUDCUGFQPCRQVGPVKCNITQYVJICKPQHFWGVQCNVGTPCVKXGURGEKGUVTGGDTGGFKPIQTIGPGVKEOQFKſECVKQPCPFRQVGPVKCNKORTQXGOGPVUKPVTCPURQTVCPFJCTXGUVKPI GHſEKGPE[ b#NNEQUVUYGTGFGVGTOKPGFWPFGTNQECNEQPFKVKQPUCPFEQPXGTVGFVQ75CUUWOKPIVJGGZEJCPIGTCVG0< 75 c Includes land rental, land preparation, planting, weed control and forest maintenance (discount rate, 6%). d 75 km. TABLE 4. Percentage change in key environmental parameters relevant to New TABLE 5. Reduction in livestock Zealand numbers (%) Scenario Reduction in Carbon stocks Reduction Reduction in Reduction Scenario Beef Dairy Deer Sheep greenhouse (million in nitrogen erosionc in available cattle cattle a b d gas emissions tonnes CO2 leaching (%) water (%) equivalent) (%) (%) 1 3.0 0.1 2.0 2.8 1 6 208 0.3 1 1 2 15.0 0.8 11.1 15.1 2 20 647 3 8 3 3 33.3 2.0 14.9 32.1 3 37 1 183 8 17 5 4 46.8 3.5 27.2 42.0 4 48 2 034 12 20 7 a%QORCTGFVQ0GY

6#$.'2TGCHHQTGUVCVKQPCXGTCIGCPPWCNRTQſV GCTPKPIU TABLE 7. Assumed costs of biofuel production (per litre)a before interest and taxes) on land selected for bioenergya Process Bioethanolb Fischer-Tropsch biodieselc Scenario Without carbon price With carbon priceb NZ$ US$ NZ$ US$ NZ$/ha US$/ha NZ$/ha US$/ha Feedstock productiond 0.61 0.43 0.89 0.62 194666042 Conversione 1.12 0.78 0.70 0.49 2 144 101 100 70 Total 1.73 1.21 1.59 1.11 3 162 113 114 80 a All costs were determined under local conditions and converted to US$ assuming VJGGZEJCPIGTCVG0< 75 4 160 112 108 76 b Assumes a yield of 140 litres/m3. Energy content of a litre of ethanol is 0.67 litres of a All prices were determined under local conditions and converted to US$ assuming RGVTQNOGCPKPIVJCVVQVCNRTQFWEVKQPEQUVUCTG0< 75 RGTNKVTGQHRGVTQN equivalent. VJGGZEJCPIGTCVG0< 75 c 3 b#UUWOGUCECTDQPRTKEGQH0< 75 RGTVQPPGQH%1 equivalent. Assumes a yield of 95 litres/m . Energy content of Fischer-Tropsch biodiesel is  assumed to be the same as fossil diesel. d This value represents the upper bound of the values shown in Table 3. e5GG*CNNCPF,CEMHQTOQTGFGVCKNUQPEQPXGTUKQPEQUVCUUWORVKQPU

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production. Therefore, a rise in oil prices Private consumption (% change) relative to agricultural goods would have 1 detrimental effects on terms of trade and 0.8 consequently the economy as a whole.

0.6 This trade also has a major impact on domestic greenhouse gas emissions, as it 0.4 includes both the direct carbon emissions 0.2 from oil consumption and the indirect

0 greenhouse gas emissions from agricul- tural activities used to pay for imported –0.2 oil. If carbon pricing in New Zealand –0.4 includes all sectors of the economy in PRODUCING FOR DEVELOPMENT –0.6 the future (which is likely under the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme), –0.8 then this trade will magnify the poten- 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 tial impact of emission controls on the Oil price (US$/bbl) economy. Thus, domestic production of 0.8 million hectares (ethanol) low-carbon biofuels could reduce the eco- No biofuels nomic impact of both rising oil prices and 3.5 million hectares (ethanol and biodiesel) + increased efficiency + high stricter emission controls in the future. carbon price The Figure demonstrates how biofuels Economic impact of changes could reduce the economic impact of in oil prices in New Zealand, business-as-usual picture of the economy higher oil prices in the future. The with and without biofuels KP points show the impact of changes in and other measures to mitigate climate change Currently, New Zealand obtains half oil prices and biofuel production on pri- its consumer energy and 93 percent of its transport fuels from imported oil, CTGVWTPQHOQTGVJCP0< 75  and its oil consumption per unit of gross per hectare when the oil price reaches domestic product (GDP) is the third high- Residues from timber production 75VQRGTDCTTGN FGRGPFKPI GUVKPVJGYQTNF &GNDTWEM # for use in bioenergy: multipurpose QPVJGGZEJCPIGTCVG  0QVGVJCVVJG NCTIGRCTVQHVJGGZRQTVGCTPKPIUWUGFVQ forests producing a range of oil price was US$147 per barrel in July products including timber and purchase this oil comes from agricultural biomass for fuel are likely to be the  *QYGXGTVJKUGEQPQOKEFTKXGT most economically viable option may not be sufficient to lead to land- use change, as historically farmers have tended to stay with sheep and cattle farm- ing even when its profitability is low. More research is required to understand the social drivers, which were not con- sidered in this study.

Macroeconomic impact A general equilibrium model was used to estimate the consequences of using the nation’s land resources to pro- duce biomass for fuel instead of other IQQFUCPFUGTXKEGUVJCVCTGGZRQTVGFKP GZEJCPIGHQTQKN 5VTQQODGTIGP  Several economic scenarios based on assumed production costs, oil prices and SCION carbon stocks were compared with a

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vate consumption (a measure of eco- impacts. These results would most likely Todd, M., Zhang, W. & Kerr, S.  nomic welfare) compared with a baseline hold for other countries where forests Competition for land between biofuels, UEGPCTKQHQTVJCVKPENWFGUCPQKN can be grown with low inputs on low- pastoral agricultural and scrub lands. RTKEGQH75RGTDCTTGNPQDKQHWGNU productivity agricultural land. Contributing report to Hall & Jack, and an economy similar in structure to This type of assessment of land-use, X today’s. environmental and economic impacts of With no biofuels, an increase in oil bioenergy at the national level can help price to US$300 per barrel would reduce governments make strategic decisions private consumption by about 0.7 percent about large-scale bioenergy opportuni- (compared with the baseline) because of ties as part of national energy supply. VJGTGFWEVKQPKPVGTOUQHVTCFG9KVJ The approach can also help to identify million hectares used for ethanol produc- national and regional issues that need tion, oil imports would be 15 percent less to be addressed to realize the benefits and the same oil price increase would of these opportunities. X result in a smaller decline in private consumption (of about 0.45 percent). 9KVJCPGXGPITGCVGTGZRCPUKQPQHDKQ fuels (3.5 million hectares used, reducing oil imports by 63 percent), plus effi- ciency gains and a high carbon price, the Bibliography macroeconomic impact of an increase in oil price to US$300 per barrel would be Delbruck, F.1KNRTKEGUCPFVJG0GY more than completely mitigated. Zealand economy. Reserve Bank of New Multipurpose forests producing a range Zealand Bulletin, of products including timber and bio- Hall, P. & Gifford, J.  Bioenergy mass for fuel are likely to be the most options for New Zealand: situation economically viable source of biofuels, analysis. Rotorua, New Zealand, Scion. and the economic benefits of biofuels Available at: www.scionresearch. are greatest when they are competitive EQOAAFCVCCUUGVURFHAHKNG YKVJHQUUKNHWGNU*QYGXGTCUVJKUGZCO- 5%+10$KQGPGTI[1RVKQPUA ple shows, long-term energy policies situationAnalysis.pdf should take into account that biofuels Hall, P. & Jack, M.Bioenergy options may result in macroeconomic benefits for New Zealand: pathways analysis. in the future even though their current Rotorua, New Zealand, Scion. Available production costs are higher than the costs at: www.scionresearch.com/__data/assets/ of imported fossil fuels. RFHAHKNG5%+10$KQGPGTI[ Options_Pathways-Analysis.pdf CONCLUSIONS Hall, P. & Jack, M.Bioenergy options A key finding of this assessment is that for New Zealand: analysis of large-scale in New Zealand, growing large-scale bioenergy from forestry. Rotorua, New forest plantations for bioenergy on low- Zealand, Scion. Available at: www. productivity agricultural land can have scionresearch.com/__data/assets/pdf_ a significant impact on greenhouse gas HKNG.CTIGUECNGDKQGPGTI[ emissions through both land-use change from-forestry.pdf from agriculture to forestry and displace- Sims, R., Taylor, M., Saddler, J. & Mabee, ment of fossil fuels. It can also have W.  From 1st- to 2nd-generation other environmental benefits in terms biofuel technologies. Paris, France, of improved and erosion International Energy Agency (IEA). control in comparison with agriculture. Stroombergen, A.General equilibrium This is a case where land-use change analysis of bioenergy options. Contributing would thus have positive environmental TGRQTVVQ*CNN,CEM

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Valuation of forest ecosystem goods and services and forest natural capital of the Beijing municipality, China S. Wu, Y. Hou and G. Yuan

An attempt to estimate the full market and non-market values of Beijing’s forests, as well as the sectoral and spatial distribution

FORESTS IN THE SERVICE OF PEOPLE QHVJGHQTGUVDGPGſVU Y. HOU

Landscape forest orest ecosystem goods and ser- around the Great Wall: vices, and the natural capital forests, both natural and planted, have a critical Fstocks that produce them, make role in Beijing’s , significant direct and indirect contribu- aesthetics and socio- tions to national economies and human economic development welfare. There have been many attempts to value these contributions. In the past As the capital of China, Beijing is gov- two decades a good deal of progress has erned as a municipality under the direct been achieved in developing valuation administration of the central govern- methods for forest ecosystem services ment. The municipality is divided into and promoting their inclusion in national 16 urban and suburban districts and two economic accounts. TWTCNEQWPVKGUGZVGPFKPIQXGTCRRTQZK- In China the valuation of forest eco- OCVGN[  MO, of which about system goods and services has been one RGTEGPVKUOQWPVCKPQWU6JGOWPKEK- of the most researched topics over the RCNKV[JCUDGGPGZRGTKGPEKPITCRKFGEQ- past decade, with a rising number of nomic growth and urban population studies at national, provincial and local GZRCPUKQPCVVJGGPFQHKVUTGUKFGPV management unit levels (Yang, Wen and population was 16.3 million, and per 5QPI /CP[QHVJGUGJCXGHQEWUGF capita gross domestic product (GDP) was Shuirong Wu is Associate Professor, and on Beijing, carried out with different 56 000 yuan (around US$7 370).1 Yuanzhao Hou is Professor, at the Research scales, perspectives and purposes and Institute of Forestry Policy and Information, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing. using different valuation concepts and Gongying Yuan is Senior Engineer at the methods; they have come up with widely 1 Conversions in this article use the Beijing Municipal Bureau of Landscape and varying results. CXGTCIGCPPWCNGZEJCPIGTCVGHor Forestry, Beijing. US$1 yuan.

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Forests, both natural and planted, and assets (natural capital stocks) and pro- Data on forest area, growing stock, including trees spread across the ter- duction (the flow value of forest goods net increment, age classes and species rain, have a critical role in the ecology, and services), which have generally been were from a survey conducted by the aesthetics and socio-economic deve- OKZGFVQIGVJGTKPQVJGTXCNWCVKQPUVWFKGU Beijing Forestry Survey and Design lopment of the municipality. Beijing’s in China. Change in the former indicates +PUVKVWVGKPCRRN[KPI5VGEJPQNQI[ forest resources have been increasing whether forest management is sustain- (integrating remote sensing, geographic significantly since the 1950s as a result able or not. The latter is what should be information systems and global position- of active planting and management. At counted in GDP or green GDP. ing systems) and field investigations. VJGGPFQHVJGOWPKEKRCNKV[ŏUHQTGUV In this framework, the benefits people Where value data were taken from earlier area reached almost 1.1 million hectares obtain from forests are classified into UVWFKGUVJG[YGTGEQPXGTVGFVQ (Figure 1), with a total standing timber three categories: forest goods, environ- XCNWGUWUKPIVJGEQPUWOGTRTKEGKPFGZ volume of 13.7 million cubic metres. mental services and sociocultural bene- for Beijing. The dominant tree species include Quer- fits. Forest environmental services have cus mongolica, Platycladus orientalis, been included in most studies in China, VALUATION CATEGORIES Pinus tabulaeformis, Populus davidiana, but the new framework includes an addi- Forest natural capital Betula platyphylla, Robinia pseudoaca- tional and innovative category, forest Forest land assets. Forest land, one of cia and Larix principis-rupprechtii. The environmental assets. This concept dif- the most important economic assets, is forests are rich in biodiversity, hosting HGTGPVKCVGUHQTGZCORNGHQTGUVECTDQP generally valued on the basis of market a variety of fauna and flora. storage (as an asset) from forest carbon transactions, either directly (e.g. using This article reports an attempt to sequestration flow (as a service). market prices for bare forest land) or as estimate the full market and non-mar- The valuation method in this study CTCVKQQHVJGXCNWGQHGZEJCPIGFHQTGUV ket values of these forests, using the involved quantification of all forest eco- property. In this study, forest land was latest survey data on Beijing’s forest system services and goods. The main categorized into five types (forested land, resources. Unlike most other valuation methods used to value these amounts open forest land, shrub land, nursery land studies, it also includes an analysis of the were the market value, direct revealed and bare forest land) and valued accor- distribution of the benefits from forest preference (replacement costs, pro- ding to the prices of each type. Zhou and goods and services among economic ductivity loss, cost of illness, etc.) and .K  CRRNKGFCUVTCVKHKGFUCORNKPI sectors and among local, regional and benefit transfer methods. method to investigate the transaction global beneficiaries. There are naturally many limitations 1 to both the current and previous studies, Distribution of forest ecosystems and other many of which are pointed out in the land use in Beijing CTVKENGCPFKVKUTGEQIPK\GFVJCVGZRGTVU are unlikely to reach consensus on non- market values. Such efforts are neverthe- less important to help raise awareness of the multifunctional roles of forest eco- systems, and can ultimately contribute to the conservation and sustainability of forest resources.

STUDY FRAMEWORK The study applied an updated frame- work for valuation of forest ecosystems Forest land RTQRQUGFD[*QWCPF9W  YKVJ Farm land reference to authoritative international Water area Residential area FQEWOGPVUKPVJGHKGNF 'WTQUVCVC Bare land D7PKVGF0CVKQPUet al./KN- NGPPKWO'EQU[UVGO#UUGUUOGPV (#1  (KIWTG  The framework distinguishes between

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Forest land assets Aiming at the evaluation Forest natural of sustainability of Standing timber assets capital stocks development based on the change Forest environmental assets of capital stocks

Annual increment Valuation of Forest goods forest ecosystem Products of economic forests Non-wood forest products

Water conservation

Soil protection FORESTS IN THE SERVICE OF PEOPLE Aiming at macro-level Gross analysis Annual value flow Agricultural protection policy evaluation (GDP, income, of forest ecosystem and analysis within Carbon sequestration consumption, goods and services and beyond and oxygen supply savings, investment) Forest the forest sector environmental Biodiversity conservation services Air purification/ temperature regulation

Forest ecotourism

Job opportunities

Science and education

Aesthetics and living conditions Sociocultural Cultural/artistic services benefits Spiritual/historical services Source: Adapted from Hou and Wu, 2008. 2 Framework for Forest environmental assets. The and Beijing’s wildlife resources, with valuation of forest environmental assets considered in the EQPXGTUKQPVQVJGXCNWG ecosystem services and natural capital study were forest carbon stock and forest wildlife. Forest goods prices for different types of forest land Estimates of forest carbon stock and Annual increment of standing timber. in the Beijing area. Their results were stock changes were calculated based on The value of the annual increment of EQPXGTVGFVQXCNWGU growing stock and net increment using the forest stand was estimated by the VJGDKQOCUUGZRCPUKQPHCEVQTU $'(U  stumpage value method using the annual Standing timber assets. A simple of the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- increment by species and age classes and stumpage value method was used for the OCVG%JCPIG +2%% 6JGXCNWGQH the corresponding stumpage prices per valuation of standing timber. Stumpage forest carbon stock assets was calculated cubic metre by species. prices by species and diameter were taken by multiplying forest carbon stock by the HTQOGZKUVKPIVTCPUCEVKQPUKPVJGUVWF[ carbon price derived from the Badaling Products of economic forests. The area and in southern China. In the latter forest farm carbon project in Beijing market value method was used to esti-

case, the prices were adjusted using the [WCPQT75RGTVQPPG%1). mate the value of fresh fruits, nuts and TCVKQQHEQPUWOGTRTKEGKPFGZHQTVJG For Beijing’s rich wildlife resources, flower products from economic forests, area of origin to that of Beijing (and the study adopted the value estimated by i.e. forests of economic value including other conversion factors as needed).

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“Green reservoir” ment dredging in the Beijing area and services of forests the finding of Yu and Wang (1999) that include the capture, storage and the soil erosion on non-forested lands is RWTKſECVKQPQHYCVGT 3.7 tonnes per hectare per year higher than that on forested lands in Beijing. The value of soil fertility protection was estimated by applying the market value method, assuming that the forested soil around Beijing contains on average CTQWPFRGTEGPVEQORQWPFHGTVKNK\GT (Yu and Wang, 1999) and using the observed market price of compound HGTVKNK\GTKP

Agricultural protection. The study Y. HOU Y. focused on the increased crop produc- #FOKPKUVTCVKQP CPFVJGRTKEGU HQTGCEJHQTGUVV[RG6JGOCZKOWOYCVGT tion benefits provided by forest shelter- came from market surveys and direct quantity regulating capacity was seen belts. The market value method was observations. as equal to the total storage capacity of adopted to estimate this value based on the catchment forests, and its value was the increase in crop production, the area Non-wood forest products (NWFPs). estimated using the replacement cost of cropland with forest shelter and the The value of the main non-wood forest method (using the cost of establishing a price of the crop. products (wild medicinal materials, conventional water reservoir in Beijing, mushrooms, wild vegetables, bee pro- taken from Yu and Wang [1999] and Air purification and temperature ducts and hunting, as well as tree breed- Zhang et al=?CPFEQPXGTVGFVQ regulation. Air is the great- ing and planting, which are listed as VJGXCNWG  est of Beijing’s environmental prob- NWFPs in Chinese forestry statistics) lems, and the municipal government was calculated using the market value Soil protection. Forest helps has proposed as a measure method. Production data for these pro- stabilize , reduce surface erosion and to alleviate it (Yang et al 6JKU ducts were from a survey conducted by sedimentation and maintain soil fertility. study valued the services of forests in

the Beijing Municipal Bureau of Land- The estimated value of soil stabilization VJGTGOQXCNQHUWNRJWTFKQZKFG 51), ) and fluoride and UECRGCPF(QTGUVT[KP primarily reflects the costs associated PKVTQIGPQZKFG 01X with sediment clearance, calculated with the suppression of dust, based on the Forest ecosystem services the replacement cost or avoided cost average removal rates for these pol- Water conservation. “Green reservoir” method, using the average cost for sedi- lutants by broadleaves and conifers as services of forested watersheds include the capture and storage of water (contri- Xiangshan (Fragrant buting to the quantity of water available Hills) Park, a popular scenic spot for during the dry season) and the purifica- Beijing residents and tion of water through the filtering of visitors of all ages, contaminants and the stabilization of has important value for outdoor recreation soils. The total value of water conserva- as well as air quality tion services was estimated based on the and temperature water regulating capacity and the cost regulation – and also raises the value of the of supplying water for the city (which surrounding houses includes the fee). Water quantity was estimated by the water balance method, using the forest area and rainfall data to get the total water input into the catchments and subtracting S. WU evapotranspiration and surface runoff

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Forest ecotourism tion of forest stands and the soil carbon – a marketable sequestration by type of forest stand, environmental service (collection of entrance derived from the literature (Fang, Liu and fees, Badaling Xu, 1996). Again, the carbon price was National Forest Park) derived from the forest carbon project in Badaling forest farm of Beijing. The QZ[IGPRTKEGYCUVJGQDUGTXGFRTKEGQH KPFWUVTKCNQZ[IGP

Forest ecotourism. The travel cost method has often been used to estimate the value of forest ecotourism. Because of limited time and funding, the present

FORESTS IN THE SERVICE OF PEOPLE study applied the results from other research: the ecotourism value estimated D[

Biodiversity conservation. The study adopted the average per-hectare value of forest biodiversity conservation for the $GKLKPICTGCGUVKOCVGFD[

FAO/J. CARLE FAO/J. (QTGUVUQEKQEWNVWTCNDGPGſVU reported in the State report on biodiver- The study’s analysis of remote sensing, Job opportunities. Employment crea- sity of China (State Environmental Pro- field investigation and meteorological tion was considered as a social rather VGEVKQP#FOKPKUVTCVKQPQH%JKPC  data showed that in areas of Beijing than an economic benefit because the The costs of removing these pollutants with forest vegetation, temperature was capacity of forests to provide traditional were calculated based on air pollution decreased by an average of 3͠ in sum- employment in remote communities was charges in China. mer (May to September). Forests also seen as more important than the strictly The study also included the value of conserved heat in winter (December to economic benefits of employment crea- noise reduction by the so-called “four February), although the effect was less tion, since employment opportunities sides” tree belt (comprising trees on pronounced. Other studies (e.g. Li et al., are abundant in Beijing. The analysis non-forested lands beside villages, ,KCPI%JGPCPF.K9W covered direct and indirect employment, houses, roads and watercourses), esti- 9CPICPF

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TABLE 1. Different types of output from Beijing’s forests but its forests are making a notable con- Output Marketable Non-marketable Total tribution to improving environmental and air quality. Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion yuan US$ yuan US$ yuan US$

Forest goods 6.77 0.89 – – 6.77 0.89 GDP and annual output of forest goods and services Forest ecosystem servicesa 1.12 0.15 39.96 5.26 41.08 5.41 The flow value of the annual output of Forest environmental services 0.38 0.05 39.66 5.22 40.03 5.27 forest ecosystem goods and services in Forest sociocultural benefits 0.74 0.10 0.30 0.04 1.04 0.14 Beijing amounted to 5.3 percent of its Total 7.89 1.04 39.96 5.26 47.85 6.30 )&2KP$TQMGPFQYPHWTVJGTVJG a+PENWFGUHQTGUVGPXKTQPOGPVCNUGTXKEGUCPFUQEKQEWNVWTCNDGPGſVU XCNWGQHHQTGUVIQQFUCOQWPVGFVQ Note: The ratio of services to goods is 6.07. The ratio of non-marketable to marketable goods and services is 5.06. percent of GDP and forest environmen- the Beijing Songshan National Natural ecosystem goods and services of Beijing, tal services and sociocultural benefits 4GUGTXGWUKPIVJGGZRGPFKVWTGOGVJQF 39.7 billion yuan (US$5.3 billion), was amounted to 4.6 percent. The value of The total value was estimated by mul- PQVTGCNK\GFVJTQWIJVJGGZKUVKPIOCTMGV marketable forest outputs amounted to tiplying this unit price by the total area system. Non-marketable outputs had 5.1 0.9 percent of Beijing’s GDP, and non- of forest parks and nature reserves in times the value of marketable outputs marketable output 4.5 percent. Beijing. (Table 1). However, the share of forest goods and Among the forest environmental ser- services included in Beijing’s official RESULTS vices, water conservation and air puri- )&2KPKPCEEQTFCPEGYKVJVJG Stock value of forest natural capital fication had the most important role current national accounting system, was The value of the capital stock of the (Figure 3). This finding accords with the QPN[RGTEGPV forest resources of Beijing reached 19.5 real situation in Beijing: Forest inven- DKNNKQP[WCP 75DKNNKQP CVVJGGPF tory data indicate that the city has scant DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST BENEFITS QHQHYJKEJHQTGUVGPXKTQPOGPVCN YCVGTTGUQWTEGUQDVCKPKPIRGTEGPV Among different economic sectors CUUGVUCEEQWPVGFHQTRGTEGPVUVCPF- of its drinking-water from the Miyun The current system of national account- KPIVKODGTRGTEGPVCPFHQTGUVNCPF Reservoir of Beijing. Protection forests ing records the direct economic outputs 16.0 percent. The per capita stock of CEEQWPVHQTRGTEGPVQHVJGHQTGUV from forests such as timber and timber- HQTGUVPCVWTCNECRKVCNYCU[WCP area, and watershed forests account for related products, part of the non-wood (US$157). RGTEGPVQHVJGUGRTQVGEVKQPHQTGUVU forest products and forest ecotourism. Beijing is listed among the world’s ten However, part of these outputs are #PPWCNƀQYXCNWGQHHQTGUVIQQFUCPF OQUVRQNNWVGFEKVKGU 9QTNF$CPM  counted in the forestry sector, and part services The flow value of annual output of forest 3 ecosystem goods and services of Beijing Forest environmental Soil services in the Forest protection ecotourism was 47.9 billion yuan (US$6.3 billion), Beijing municipality 0.5% Agricultural Carbon 0.7% of which forest environmental services sequestration protection and oxygen supply 0.2% CEEQWPVGFHQTRGTEGPVHQTGUVIQQFU 8.8% RGTEGPVCPFHQTGUVUQEKQEWNVWTCN DGPGHKVURGTEGPV+PQVJGTYQTFUVJG Biodiversity value of intangible forest environmen- conservation 18.5% tal services and sociocultural benefits YCUUKZVKOGUVJCVQHVJGHQTGUVOCVG- rial goods. The forest goods were all marketable. Of the forest environmental services, only forest ecotourism was marketable. As for the sociocultural benefits, job opportunities were market- Air purification Water able while the scientific and educational and temperature regulation conservation benefits were not. Therefore, most of 19.3% 52.0% the value of the annual output of forest

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6#$.'&KUVTKDWVKQPQHHQTGUVDGPGſVUCOQPIFKHHGTGPVGEQPQOKEUGEVQTU Output Forestry Other sectors

Subtotal Environment Water Agriculture Tourism Science, education and culture

Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion yuan US$ yuan US$ yuan US$ yuan US$ yuan US$ yuan US$ yuan US$

Forest goods 4.48 0.59 2.29 0.30 ––––2.29 0.30 – – – –

Forest environmental 0.21 0.03 39.82 5.24 25.14 3.31 14.19 1.87 0.11 0.01 0.38 0.05 – – services

Forest sociocultural 0.74 0.10 0.30 0.04 ––––––––0.30 0.04 benefits

FORESTS IN THE SERVICE OF PEOPLE Subtotal 5.44 0.72 42.41 5.58 25.14 3.31 14.19 1.87 2.41 0.32 0.38 0.05 0.30 0.04

Share of total 11.4 88.6 52.5 29.7 5.0 0.8 0.6 flows (%)

in the agriculture and tourism sectors. Among different groups in society )NQDCNDGPGHKEKCTKGUTGEGKXGFRGT- Forest ecosystem services besides forest The analysis showed that communities cent of the benefits, through services ecotourism are not included at all in living just outside the Beijing municipal- such as carbon storage, biodiversity con- national economic accounts but are ity and those residing elsewhere in China servation and international tourism. partly indirectly reflected in the outputs were the largest receivers of benefits of related sectors or industries. from Beijing’s forests, receiving 47.3 CONCLUSIONS: POLICY The analysis indicated that the value of percent of the total flow value of forest IMPLICATIONS forest goods and services to non-forestry ecosystem goods and services (Table 3). Unless most forest values are recog- sectors of the economy accounted for Such non-local communities benefit nized through institutionalized valuation RGTEGPVQHVJGVQVCNHNQYUQHYJKEJ directly from recreation and indirectly methods, forests as a land use will not the environment sector accounted for from environmental services such as get the societal attention needed to make RGTEGPVCPFVJGYCVGTUGEVQT watershed protection, even though they them an integral part of a sustainable RGTEGPV 6CDNG 6JGKORQTVCPEGQH may not be fully aware of the value of global economy. Many attempts in this the forests of Beijing to these sectors the indirect benefits they receive. direction have been made in China, as of the economy is thus clear. Local beneficiaries, living in close in many other parts of the world, but RTQZKOKV[VQVJGHQTGUVTGEGKXGF because of the wide differences in con- Catchment forests percent of the benefits. These benefi- cepts and methods, the many estimates around the Miyun ciaries are usually aware of the direct of forest ecosystem goods and services Reservoir, which provides 80 percent benefits they receive from the forest. made in the past have been inconsistent of Beijing’s water and not amenable to meaningful com- parison across services and periods. As natural capital and ecosystem ser- vices become more stressed in the future, on account of both greater demand and reduced supplies (in part due to changing ENKOCVG VJGKTXCNWGECPDGGZRGEVGFVQ increase. Given the huge uncertainties involved, it may never be possible to have a precise estimate of the value of ecosystem services. Nevertheless, even crude estimates provide a useful start- ing point (Costanza et al., 1997), with implications for decision- and policy- making. What this study makes clear is Y. HOU Y.

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6#$.'&KUVTKDWVKQPQHHQTGUVDGPGſVUCOQPIFKHHGTGPVITQWRUKPUQEKGV[ Finally, these findings can be used to Output Local beneficiaries Regional Global raise public awareness of the multiple beneficiaries beneficiaries values of forests to society. Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion Billion The absence of a real market for most yuan US$ yuan US$ yuan US$ of the forest ecosystem services dis- Forest goods 6.77 0.89 – – – – cussed in this article implies a certain Forest environmental degree of subjectivity in the valuation 7.4 0.97 22.35 2.94 10.28 1.35 services RTQEGUUCPFKVKUNKMGN[VJCVOCP[GZRGTVU Forest sociocultural would hesitate to concur with the actual 0.74 0.10 0.30 0.04 – – benefits values assigned to these services, even Subtotal 14.92 1.96 22.65 2.98 10.28 1.35 if they agree with the methodology in Share of total flows (%) 31.2 47.3 21.5 general. However, the central purpose of this study will have been achieved if that forest ecosystem services provide an This finding could also be helpful in it helps to further robust debate on the important part of the total contribution building cross-sectoral alliances based valuation process. X to economic development and social on mutual benefits. welfare of Beijing. The forest natural The analysis of distribution of forest capital stock that produces these services benefits among different groups in soci- must thus be given adequate weight in ety is useful in identifying obstacles to the decision-making process. sustainable forestry. Local communi- In recent years, the importance of forest ties in mountainous areas of Beijing, Bibliography ecosystems to Beijing has been well HQTGZCORNGJCXGJCFVQHQTGIQUQOG recognized, and the forest sector has forest uses in order to maintain a sustain- Beijing Statistics Bureau.  Beijing been getting an increasing share of the able flow of forest protection services, Statistics Yearbook 2007. Beijing, China, public budget for forest protection and and these foregone benefits need to be China Statistics Press. management. The institutionalization of compensated adequately. The incen- Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., deGroot, R., payment for forest ecosystem services tive for sustainable forestry declines Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B., has become a prominent policy issue. A when local communities do not receive Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O.’Neill, R.V., special fund has been allocated to local appropriate benefits. The identification Paruelo, J., Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P. & communities for tending of protection of stakeholders provides a good basis for van den Belt, M. 1997. The value of the forests in the mountainous areas since negotiations over payments for forest world’s ecosystem services and natural  ecosystem services. capital. NatureŌ The share of forest goods and ser- Estimation of the full range of values Eurostat.CThe European framework vices actually included in Beijing’s from forests is helpful in designing forest for integrated environmental and GDP accounting, however, is a small management strategies. Forests have economic accounting for forests – IEEAF. fraction of the flow value of the annual multifunctional uses to society, and by .WZGODQWTI 1HHKEG QH VJG 'WTQRGCP output of forest ecosystem goods and quantifying the relative values and iden- Communities. services shown in this study. This find- tifying the economic trade-offs among Eurostat.DNatural resource accounts ing could support requests for a larger competing uses of forests, it should be for forests .WZGODQWTI 1HſEG QH VJG share of the national budget for forest possible to determine optimal and sec- European Communities. management and investment, which are ondary targets for forest management, Fang, J., Liu, G. & Xu, S. 1996. Biomass and often woefully underfunded in many use and investment, and to take appropri- net production of forest vegetation in China. developing countries. ate measures to achieve them. Acta Ecologica Sinica  Ō +P The demonstrated importance of forest Forest valuation can also demonstrate Chinese with English abstract) ecosystem services to other sectors, the impacts of non-forestry policies on FAO. Manual for environmental and especially water and environment, could forest use. It can help identify poten- economic accounts for forestry: a tool for contribute to the design of economic tial conflicts between the development cross-sectoral policy analysis, by G.M. instruments such as water resources fees objectives of forestry and those of other Lange. FAO Forestry Department Working CPFGPXKTQPOGPVCNVCZGUYJKEJEQWNFDG sectors, as well as within the forest sec- Paper. Rome. used to promote sustainable forest use tor, for the design of a forest strategy that Hou, Y. & Wu, S.4GEGPVRTQITGUUQP or to compensate local communities. takes into account all stakeholders. theory and method of ecosystem valuation

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and discrimination on the related concepts Ecosystem Assessment Series. Washington, in air pollution reduction. popular in China. World Forestry Research, DC, USA, Island Press. & Urban Greening  Ō    Ō +P %JKPGUG YKVJ 'PINKUJ State Environmental Protection Admini- Yang, J., Wen, B. & Song, S.&QOGUVKE abstract) stration of China State report on research advances in valuation of forest IPCC.  Good practice guidance for biodiversity of China. Beijing, China, ecosystem services. Journal of Southwest land use, land-use change and forestry. China Environmental Science Press. (In Forestry College  Ō +P%JKPGUG Hayama, Japan, Intergovernmental Panel Chinese) with English abstract) on Climate Change National Greenhouse State Forestry Administration.  Yu, Z. & Wang, L., eds. 1999. The study on Gas Inventories Programme. China Forestry Statistical Yearbook 2007. VJGDGPGſVQHYCVGTTGUQWTEGEQPUGTXCVKQP Jiang, Z., Chen, Y. & Li, J.*GCVKUNCPF Beijing, China, China Forestry Publishing forest. Beijing, China, Chinese Forestry effect of Beijing based on Landsat TM Press. Press. data. Geomatics and Information Science United Nations, European Commission, Zhang, B., Li, W., Xie, G. & Xiao, Y. of Wuhan University  Ō +P International Monetary Fund, Water conservation of forest ecosystem in

FORESTS IN THE SERVICE OF PEOPLE Chinese with English abstract) Organization for Economic Cooperation Beijing and its value. Ecological Economics, Leng, P., Yang, X., Su, F. & Wu, B. and Development & World Bank. FQKLGEQNGEQP Economic valuation of urban green space System of integrated environmental and Zhang, X.Valuation on use value of GEQNQIKECNDGPGſVUKP$GKLKPI%KV[Journal economic accounting 2003 ( SEEA–2003). biodiversity of Songshan Natural Reserve. of Beijing Agricultural College, 19(4): New York, USA, United Nations. Masters Thesis, Chinese Academy of Ō +P%JKPGUGYKVJ'PINKUJCDUVTCEV World Bank.  China: air, land, and Forestry, Beijing, China. (In Chinese with Li, J., Sun, G., Wang, Q. & Xiao, X. water. Washington, DC, USA. English abstract)  )TGGP CKTEQPFKVKQP XGIGVCVKQP Wu, P., Wang, M. & Zhang, X.  Zhang, Y.  Evaluation on forest adjusting temperature/humidity in Xi’an Relationship between vegetation greenness biodiversity of China. Beijing, China, China during midsummer. Journal of Arid Land and urban heat island effect in Beijing. Forestry Publishing Press. Resources and Environment  Ō Journal of Beijing Forestry University, Zhou, B. & Li, Z.  Value of forest 106. (In Chinese with English abstract) 31(5): 54–60. (In Chinese with English resources in Beijing. Beijing, China, China Millennium Ecosystem Assessment abstract) Forestry Publishing Press. (In Chinese) X Ecosystems and human well-being: a Yang, J., McBride, J., Zhou, J. & Sun, Z. framework for assessment. Millennium 6JGWTDCPHQTGUVKP$GKLKPICPFKVUTQNG

Unasylva 234/235, Vol. 61, 2010 THEME 37 4 CARING FOR OUR FORESTS Fire in the seasonal semideciduous forest: impact and regeneration at forest edges

A.C.G. Melo and G. Durigan

$WWKHHGJHRIIRUHVWIUDJPHQWV ire is one of the main factors caus- DETAILS OF THE STUDY WUHHUHFRYHU\DIWHU¿UHLV ing biodiversity losses in tropi- The studied area is in the northern part constrained by grasses and vines, Fcal forests. Its main effects on of the Ecological Station of Caetetus in which recover more quickly and ecological processes in these forests are VJGUVCVGQH5ºQ2CWNQ$TC\KN   5 DUHDOVRPRUHVXVFHSWLEOHWR¿UH losses in stocks of biomass, changes in CPF  9 6JGENKOCVGKUVTQRKECN hydrological cycle and nutrients (Salati with a dry season usually lasting from CPF8QUGR CPFKORQXGTKUJOGPV April to August. The forest is separated of native plant and animal communities from neighbouring coffee plantations by (Pinard, Putz and Licona, 1999), which a dirt road 5 m wide, where the invasive may be followed by biological invasions grass Panicum maximum proliferates. /WGNNGT&QODQKU  An accidental fire occurred in October Biodiversity losses are reported to be CVVJGGPFQHCPGZEGRVKQPCNN[ especially intense at forest edges. The long dry season, burning an area about lower humidity and greater number of VQOYKFGCPFONQPI6JKU dead trees (flammable material) make area was compared with a neighbouring edges of fragmented forests more prone unburned forest 40 m distant from the to frequent fires than the forest interior burned forest, having the same environ- %QEJTCPG.CWTCPEGet al. mental conditions as the control. Uhl and Kauffman, 1990). In addition, Five permanent transects (10 m wide CJKIJGTFGPUKV[QHNKCPCUCPFGZQVKE and 50 m long) were installed in each grasses from the surrounding pastures sector (burned and unburned), from the is common. Previous studies have found edge to the forest interior, each consist- that lianas hamper the regeneration of KPIQHHKXGRNQVUQHZO. A distance fragments affected by fire (e.g. Castel- of at least 10 m was maintained between lani and Stubblebine, 1993; Rodrigues transects. For comparison, the plots were et al. CPFVJCVFGETGCUGUKPVJG grouped into two strips according to their density and richness of the seed bank FKUVCPEGHTQOVJGHQTGUVGFIGVQO after fire are greater at the edge of the GZVGTPCN CPFVQO KPVGTPCN  forest (Melo, Durigan and Gorenstein, 5KZOQPVJUCHVGTVJGHKTGCNNKPFKXKFWCNU  +VEQWNFVJWUDGGZRGEVGFVJCV of arboreal species (at least 1.7 m tall) structural and floristic losses, as well were identified, labelled, measured and as the resilience of plant communities, categorized as: depend on the distance from the forest •survivors: living trees with no signs edge. of burned canopy; To test this hypothesis, the study reported •dead: plants with no leaves and no KPVJKUCTVKENGGZCOKPGFVJGGHHGEVUQHſTG signs of regrowth; on plant communities at different dis- •shoots: aerial structures burned, tances from the edge of a fragment of sprouts from the stem base or from seasonal semideciduous forest in Brazil. TQQVUWRVQCOCZKOWOFKUVCPEGQH Antônio Carlos Galvão de Melo and Giselda The article also characterizes the dynam- 50 cm from the stem; DuriganCTGHQTGUVT[GPIKPGGTUCPFUEKGPVKſE ics of the recovery of forest structure and •recruits: plants emerging from seed researchers at Assis State Forest, Forestry URGEKGUTKEJPGUUCHVGTVJGſTG after the fire. Institute, São Paulo State, Brazil.

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5VTWEVWTCNRCTCOGVGTUCPFƀQTKUVKETKEJPGUUQHVTGGURGEKGUKPHQTGUVTGIGPGTCVKQPCHVGTſTGEQORCTGFYKVJWPDWTPGFHQTGUV at the Ecological Station of Caetetus, Brazil Time Basal area Density after fire (m2/ha) (trees/ha) (months) Total Surviving Seed bank Sprouting Total Surviving Seed bank Sprouting trees trees trees trees trees trees

External Internal External Internal External Internal External Internal External Internal External Internal External Internal External Internal 6 0.78 3.58 0 2.12 0.58 1.37 0.20 0.09 1 290 3 559 0 193 1 100 3 235 190 131

CARING FOR OUR FORESTS 15 2.57 6.47 0 2.12 2.16 4.00 0.41 0.36 1 690 4 120 0 193 1 310 3 555 380 372 24 3.49 10.01 0 2.12 2.96 7.48 0.53 0.41 1 890 4 327 0 193 1 430 3 787 460 520 Not burned 20.68 20.26 1 870 3 607

Time Cover Number of tree species after fire (%) (months) Trees Lianas Grasses Sprouting From seed Surviving Total species richness

External Internal External Internal External Internal External Internal External Internal External Internal External Internal 6 20.0 50.6 79.9 69.3 11.8 0.6 8 10 6 10 0 16 14 26 15 47.7 85.6 81.2 70.1 13.4 1.8 13 22 11 13 0 11 19 32 24 47.3 87.5 85.2 76.9 14.1 0.1 15 23 13 23 0 11 24 37

Not burned 62.4 70.8 71.4 62.0 9.8 0 45 66

Vegetation cover was also assessed, in 1 Arboreal basal area in percentage of land occupied by the pro- Basal area (m2/ha) different periods post- jection of the aerial structures (branches, ſTGKPEQORCTKUQP 35 leaves) in two parallel lines in each plot, to unburned forest, 3 m from its lateral limits. Trees, lianas Ecological Station 30 of Caetetus, Brazil and grasses (P. maximum only) were (vertical lines indicate measured separately. standard deviation) 25 In the burned sector, all data were col- 20 NGEVGFCVCPFOQPVJUCHVGTVJG fire. In the unburned sector, data were 15 EQNNGEVGFOQPVJUCHVGTVJGHKTG 10 INTENSITY OF DAMAGE 5 The fire caused damage of major conse- quence to the structure and floristic com- 0 position of the forest. Both internal and 6 15 24 Unburned GZVGTPCNUVTKRUQHDWTPGFHQTGUVFKHHGTGF Time (months after fire) considerably from the unburned forest 0–20 m from the edge 20–50 m from the edge in tree density and biomass (represented by basal area) (Table). The shorter the distance from the edge, the higher the fore the degradation which the event as well as the lower relative humidity intensity of damage (Figure 1). may have caused the plant community normally found in edges of forest frag- The estimated loss of biomass by fire -TWIGTC9JGNCP +PVJG ments (Forman, 1995). TCPIGFHTQORGTEGPVQHVJGDCUCNCTGC GZVGTPCNUVTKRYJGTGVTGGUYGTGHGYGT in the internal strip to 100 percent in the fire was probably more intense RECOVERY OF STRUCTURE AFTER FIRE VJGGZVGTPCNUVTKR6JGNQUUQHDKQOCUU because of the greater availability of The rate of forest recovery also varied indicates the intensity of fire and there- easily combustible grasses and lianas, with distance from the edge. Both the

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Forest edge, two vulnerability to fire and the recovery FC[UCHVGTſTG varied among species. 1XGTCNNOQPVJUCHVGTVJGHKTGVJG biomass measurement of the burned forest had not reached that of the unburned forest, and the recovery of DKQOCUUYCUUNQYGTKPVJGGZVGTPCNUVTKR (Figure 1). At this time, trees from the seed bank or seed rain already accounted for the largest portion of the basal area (Table) as compared with surviving VTGGU CPF URTQWVU QH RTGGZKUVKPI individuals. If the increase in basal area of the burned forest remained constant at

A.C.G. MELO the rate estimated for the first two Forest edge six years by regressions, the internal strip OQPVJUCHVGTſTG YQWNFTGSWKTG[GCTUCPFVJGGZVGTPCN burned trees and high strip 11 years to achieve their original biomass of the grass Panicum maximum biomass. are visible The tree canopy cover stabilized nearly 15 months after the fire in both strips but was higher in the internal strip. The differences in tree biomass (den- sity, cover and basal area) between the UVTKRUCVOQPVJUCHVGTVJGHKTGECPDG GZRNCKPGFD[UGXGTCNHCEVQTU •the density of trees was also lower closer to the edge before fire, de- creasing the availability of sprouts for regeneration; •the seed bank was considerably re- FWEGFKPVJGGZVGTPCNUVTKR /GNQ

A.C.G. MELO &WTKICPCPF)QTGPUVGKP  Forest edge 18 months •the already scarce seedlings and CHVGTſTGYKVJ URTQWVUQHCTDQTGCNURGEKGUKPVJGGZ- abundance of grasses ternal strip faced strong competition and lianas climbing dead and living trees from vines and invasive grasses. Grasses and lianas (from the seed bank or sprouting from suckers) quickly recovered in the burned area in the first UKZOQPVJUCHVGTHKTG8KPGUSWKEMN[EQX- ered the area during this time but did not increase considerably thereafter. Vines have a more diverse spectrum of adaptation to vegetative replication than VTGGU )GTYKPI CPFJCXGITGCV capacity for regrowth, which ensures rapid occupation of disturbed sites, so they are obviously more abundant at VJGGFIGU ,CP\GP2WV\  A.C.G. MELO

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Increased frequency of lianas (woody OQPVJUCHVGTVJGHKTGVJGDWTPGFHQTGUV Previous studies have shown that sea- and herbaceous) with increased intensity still had fewer species than the unburned sonal semideciduous forest has a consider- of fire has also been reported (Cochrane forest in both strips. able number of species capable of regrowth and Schulze, 1999). (TQOVJGUKZVJVQVJGVYGPV[HQWTVJ CHVGT ſTG %CUVGNNCPK CPF 5VWDDNGDKPG The grass growth rates were very high. month after fire, a significant increase 1993; Hayashi et al.4QFTKIWGU Coverage by P. maximum was always in the density of sprouts was observed et al. *QYGXGTVJGNCEMQHNQPI JKIJGTKPVJGGZVGTPCNVJCPKPVJGKPVGT- in both strips. The importance of sprout- term monitoring of burned communities nal burned plots. It was also generally ing as a strategy for survival in post- makes it impossible to draw conclusions JKIJGTKPVJGGZVGTPCNDWTPGFUVTKRVJCP fire regeneration has been reported CDQWVſTGCUCPGNGOGPVQHGXQNWVKQPCT[ CARING FOR OUR FORESTS in unburned forest. Once established, for various tropical forest ecosystems pressure in this type of forest. grasses can reduce the light availabil- (Uhl et al.-TWIGTD4QWYP ity on the forest floor up to 99 percent 1993; Marod et al.   -GPPCTF 2 (Hughes and Vitousek, 1993), impairing et al.  Model proposed for the germination and recruitment of tree two years of post- species. In addition to hampering the ſTGTGIGPGTCVKQPCV the edge of seasonal development of tree species, grasses semideciduous forest provide dry fuel in the winter, leaving the area prone to new fires. Tree density is lower near the edge. Liana cover does not differ with distance from the edge. IMPACT AND RECOVERY OF Grasses occur only near the edge. FLORISTIC RICHNESS The response of plants to fire, even Fire within the same population, depends on the intensity of fire in each location Fire destroys aerial structures of all plant life at the edge. and the morphological characteristics and location of each individual (Whelan, T 1995). Ivanauskas, Monteiro and Rod- i m rigues  UVWF[KPIVJGGHHGEVUQHHKTG Lianas and grasses quickly recover in the burned area (mostly e in seasonal forests in Mato Grosso, Bra- through sprouting), overcoming the arboreal species. zil, found mortality rates ranging from 0 to 100 percent among 76 species. In the present study, the burned forest had, in general, much lower tree spe- Arboreal species slowly return by sprouting or from the seed bank (pure stand of pioneer species) but are dominated by grasses and lianas. cies richness than the unburned forest Richness and diversity are threatened. (Table). Of the 77 tree species sampled in the unburned forest, 43 (56 percent) were not sampled in the burned forest CVOQPVJUCHVGTVJGHKTG Trees sprouts occur with low density and lower growth rate, but account The elimination of species in the burned for a significant part of the richness of the community. forest can be temporary if the fire reaches only part of the forest, as they can be reintroduced by seed dispersal or wind. However, the results suggest that fire can External strip Internal strip NGCFVQNQECNGZVKPEVKQPQHUQOGURGEKGU Tree density is lower, with greater Lack of grasses and relatively high if the whole fragment is burned. biomass of grasses and lianas. availability of seeds remaining in the bank encourage relatively quick In general, both ranges from the edge Slow pace of recovery of biomass recovery of the forest. showed an increase in the number of and richness indicates low resilience. Recovery of biomass and richness tree species throughout the period of Low humidity and large quantity of demonstrates higher resilience than monitoring (Table). Species returned fine biomass (grasses and lianas) in the external strip. point to high propensity for new fires. over time, for a gradual recovery of the richness of the community. Even so,

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CONCLUSIONS and non-invasive species can be used Janzen, D.H.  Ecologia vegetal nos Fire was a strong agent of degradation to reduce light incidence at the forest trópicos. Temas de Biología, Vol. 7. São in the studied forest, almost completely edges to discourage growth of grasses, Paulo, Brazil, EPU/EDUSP. destroying the arboreal biomass, as well as an alternative to chemical control Kauffman, J.B. 1991. Survival by sprouting as remarkably reducing species richness with herbicides. X HQNNQYKPIſTGKPVTQRKECNHQTGUVQHVJGGCUVGTP in the arboreal layer. Recovery of forest Amazon. BiotropicaŌ biomass was very slow (low resilience) Kennard, D.K., Gould, K., Putz, F.E., in both strips. Fredericksen, T.S. & Morales, F. Recovery of the forest structure was 'HHGEVUQHFKUVWTDCPEGKPVGPUKV[QP faster the larger the distance from the regeneration mechanisms in a tropical dry edge; this pattern appears to be related to Bibliography forest. and Management, VJGGFIGGHHGEVUCNTGCF[GZKUVKPIDGHQTG Ō the fire. Castellani, T.T. & Stubblebine, W.H. 1993. Kruger, F.J. C 'HHGEVU QH HKTG QP 6JGITCUUGURTGUGPVCNOQUVGZENWUKXGN[ Sucessão secundária em mata tropical vegetation structure and dynamics. In P.V. near the forest edge, do not prevent the OGUÎſNCCRÎURGTVWTDCÁºQRQTHQIQRevista Booysen & N.M. Tainton, eds. Ecological arrival of seeds but do inhibit germina- Brasileira de BotânicaŌ GHHGEVUQHſTGKP5QWVJ#HTKECPGEQU[UVGOU, tion, establishment and development of Cochrane, M.A. & Schulze, M.D. 1999. Fire R Ō $GTNKP )GTOCP[ 5RTKPIGT seedlings. Certainly their rapid prolifera- as a recurrent event in tropical forests of the Verlag. tion in the post-fire community inhibits eastern Amazon: effects on forest structure, Kruger, F.J.D(KTGKPHQTGUVIn P.V. the development of arboreal species from biomass and species composition. Biotropica, Booysen & N.M. Tainton, eds. Ecological the seed bank and affects the regener- Ō GHHGEVUQHſTGKP5QWVJ#HTKECPGEQU[UVGOU, ating community. So, in the strip 0 to Cochrane, M.A.5[PGTIKUVKEKPVGTCEVKQPU p. 177–197. Berlin, Germany, Springer- OHTQOVJGGFIGQHVJGHTCIOGPVVJG DGVYGGPJCDKVCVHTCIOGPVCVKQPCPFſTGKP Verlag. density of trees is much lower than in evergreen tropical forests. Conservation Laurance, W.F., Perez-Salicrup, D., the more internal strip, where grasses BiologyŌ Delamonica, P., Fearnside, P.M., Dangelo, are virtually absent. Cochrane, M.A.  (KTG UEKGPEG HQT S., Jerolinski, A., Pohl, L. & Lovejoy, T.E. The results make it possible to infer . NatureŌ  4CKP HQTGUV HTCIOGPVCVKQP CPF VJG a model for structural changes in frag- Forman, R.T. 1995. Land mosaics: the structure of Amazonian liana communities. ments of semideciduous seasonal forest ecology of landscapes and regions. EcologyŌ over a two-year period after fire (Fig- Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Marod, D., Kutintara, U., Tanaka, H. & WTG +VKURTQRQUGFVJCVVJGTCVGQH Press. Nakashikuza, T.  6JG GHHGEVU QH recovery of tree biomass is constrained Gerwing, J.J.#FKXGTUKFCFGFGJKUVÎTKCU FTQWIJV CPF ſTG QP UGGF CPF UGGFNKPI mainly by the presence of grasses and de vida natural entre seis espécies de cipós dynamics in a tropical seasonal forest in vines which rapidly occupy the burned GOƀQTGUVCPCVKXCPC#OC\ÏPKC1TKGPVCN Thailand. Plant Ecology, 161: 41–57. area and are highly flammable. The In E. Vidal & J.J. Gerwing, eds. Ecologia Melo, A.C.G., Durigan, D. & Gorenstein, convergent conclusions from this and e manejo de cipós na Amazônia Oriental, M.R.'HGKVQFQHQIQUQDTGQDCPEQ other studies (Cochrane and Schulze, p. 95–119. Belém, Brazil, Imazon. FGUGOGPVGUGOHCKZCFGDQTFCFG(NQTGUVC 1999; Pinard, Putz and Licona, 1999; Hayashi, A.H., Penha, A.S., Rodrigues, Estacional Semidecidual, SP, Brasil. Acta %QEJTCPG/WGNNGT&QO- R.R. & Appezzato-da-Glória, B.  Botânica BrasilicaŌ DQKU5NKMet al.8GNFOCP Anatomical studies of shoot bud-forming Mueller-Dombois, D.  $KQNQIKECN et al. UWIIGUVVJCVVJGRTQRQUGF roots of Brazilian tree species. Australian invasions and fire in tropical biomes. model is applicable to other fragmented Journal of Botany, 49: 745–751. In K.E.M. Galley & T.P. Wilson, eds. tropical forests wherever fire has been Hughes, F. & Vitousek, P.M. 1993. Barriers Proceedings of the invasive species CRGTUKUVGPVVJTGCVGZCEGTDCVGFD[GFIG VQ UJTWD GUVCDNKUJOGPV HQNNQYKPI ſTG KP YQTMUJQR VJG TQNG QH ſTG KP VJG EQPVTQN effects in a vicious circle. the seasonal submontane zone of Hawaii. and spread of invasive species R Ō Management strategies for preventing Oecologia, 93: 557–563.  /KUEGNNCPGQWU 2WDNKECVKQPU  fire damage in forest fragments should Ivanauskas, N.M., Monteiro, R. & Tallahassee, Florida, USA, Tall Timbers be directed towards controlling the pro- Rodrigues, R.R.  #NVGTCVKQPU Research Station. liferation of grasses and vines along the HQNNQYKPI C ſTG KP C HQTGUV EQOOWPKV[ Pinard, M.A., Putz, F.E. & Licona, J.C. forest edges rather than just installing of Alto Rio Xingu. Forest Ecology and 1999. Tree mortality and vine proliferation firebreaks. Shelterbelts of fire-resistant ManagementŌ HQNNQYKPICYKNFſTGKPCUWDJWOKFVTQRKECN

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forest in eastern Bolivia. Forest Ecology Salati, E. & Vosep, B.#OC\QP$CUKP Uhl, C., Clark, K., Clark, H. & Murphy, and ManagementŌ a system in equilibrium. Science  P.  'CTN[ RNCPV UWEEGUUKQP CHVGT Putz, F.E.  6JG PCVWTCN JKUVQT[ QH Ō cutting and burning in the upper Rio Negro lianas on Barro Colorado Island, Panamá. Slik, W.F., Bernard, C.S., Van Beek, M., region of the Amazonian basin. Journal of EcologyŌ Breman, F.C. & Eichhorn, K.A.O Ecology, 69: 631–649. Rodrigues, R.R., Torres, R.B., Matthes, Tree diversity, composition, forest structure Veldman, J.W., Mostacedo, B., Peña- L.A.F. & Penha, A.F.6TGGUURGEKGU and aboveground biomass dynamics after Claros, M. & Putz, F.E5GNGEVKXG resprouting from root buds in a semideciduous UKPINGCPFTGRGCVGFſTGKPC$QTPGCPTCKP NQIIKPICPFſTGCUFTKXGTUQHCNKGPITCUU HQTGUVCHHGEVGFD[ſTGU%CORKPCUUQWVJGCUV forest. OecologiaŌ invasion in a Bolivian tropical dry forest. CARING FOR OUR FORESTS Brazil. Brazilian Archives of Biology and Uhl, C. & Kauffman, J.B. 1990. Deforestation Forest Ecology and Management, 258: TechnologyŌ effects on fire susceptibility and the 1643–1649. Rouwn, A. 1993. Regeneration by sprouting RQVGPVKCN TGURQPUG QH VTGG URGEKGU VQ ſTG Whelan, J. 1995. The ecology of fire. in slash and burn rice cultivation, Taï rain in the rain forest of the eastern Amazon. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University HQTGUV%ÏVGFŏ+XQKTGJournal of Tropical Ecology, 71: 437–449. Press. X EcologyŌ

Unasylva 234/235, Vol. 61, 2010 THEME 43 5 DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES &KDOOHQJHVRIPRELOL]LQJIRUHVW¿QDQFHLQDKHDYLO\ indebted poor country: case study of Uganda

J. Kamugisha-Ruhombe

$QH[DPLQDWLRQRISODQQLQJ nternational forest-related discus- ingly allocated through sector-wide- EXGJHWLQJDQG¿VFDOUHVRXUFH sions emphasize that implementa- approaches (SWAPs), basket funding allocation in Uganda Ition of sustainable forest manage- CPFOGFKWOVGTOGZRGPFKVWTGHTCOG- demonstrates a disconnect ment depends on mobilizing adequate works (MTEFs), and in alignment with between the global discussion financial resources. In adopting the national poverty reduction strategies. RQIRUHVW¿QDQFHDQGQDWLRQDO Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All One of the major instruments influ- realities in heavily indebted poor Types of Forests, the United Nations encing financial allocation in Uganda countries. Forum on Forests (UNFF) agreed to is the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries reverse the decline in official develop- (HIPC) Initiative, launched in 1996 by ment assistance (ODA) for sustainable the International Monetary Fund (IMF) forest management, to mobilize signif- and the World Bank to ensure deep, icantly increased, new and additional broad and fast debt relief to contribute financial resources from all sources and towards growth, poverty reduction and to take action to raise the priority of sus- debt sustainability in the poorest, most tainable forest management in national indebted countries. To qualify for debt development plans and poverty reduction relief, HIPCs must maintain macroeco- strategies. nomic stability, carry out key structural The Paris Declaration on Aid Effective- reforms and satisfactorily implement a ness, endorsed at the Paris High-Level poverty reduction strategy. Uganda has (QTWO KP  EQOOKVU FQPQTU CPF satisfied these provisions and conse- recipients to harmonize, align and man- quently received “irrevocable” debt age results-based aid and to improve the TGNKGH COQWPVKPI VQ CDQWV 75 DKN- quality of aid and its impact on develop- NKQP 9QTNF$CPM *QYGXGTVJG OGPV 1'%& 6JGIQXGTPOGPVU required fiscal reforms also limit the and development institutions adhering funding available to sectors that are not to the declaration commit themselves considered high priority. to, among others: The Paris Declaration opens up new •strengthen partner countries’ deve- opportunities for countries to secure lopment strategies and associated increased ODA for sustainable forest operational frameworks; management, but only if forestry is •increase alignment of aid with part- included as a priority in national develop- ner countries’ priorities, systems and ment. This has not happened in Uganda. procedures and help to strengthen Under the Poverty Action Fund, which their capacities; uses the money saved under the HIPC •enhance donors’ and partner coun- Initiative, environment and natural tries’ accountability to their citizens TGUQWTEGU GZENWFKPINCPFU OCPCIGOGPV Jones Kamugisha-Ruhombe is Coordinator and parliaments; is allocated only 0.06 to 0.11 percent of the Forest Finance Programme of the Global •define measures and standards of QHVJGDWFIGVHQTVQ Mechanism of the United Nations Convention to performance and accountability of (Table 1) – and this entire allocation %QODCV&GUGTVKſECVKQP 70%%& 4QOG+VCN[ partner country systems. goes to wetlands management; nothing This article and the studies on which it is based With changes in civic governance, goes to forestry. YGTGRTGRCTGFYKVJJWOCPCPFſPCPEKCNTGUQWTEGU domestic public budget is increas- 6JKUCTVKENGGZCOKPGURNCPPKPIDWF provided by the Global Mechanism of UNCCD.

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TABLE 1. Poverty Action Fund (PAF) resources combined with medium-term expenditure framework (MTEF) (billion U Sh) Sector 2006/07 (approved) 2007/08 (projected) 2008/09 (projected) 2009/10 (projected) PAF MTEF Total PAF MTEF Total PAF MTEF Total PAF MTEF Total Agriculture 67.48 146.58 214.06 79.49 184.86 264.35 85.18 350 434.71 107.48 542 649.67 Environment and natural 0.72 22.54 23.26 0.72 29.73 30.45 1.29 32 33.03 1.57 35 36.17 resources (excluding lands) Security 0.00 377.27 377.27 0.00 396.90 396.90 0.00 397 396.90 0.00 397 396.90 Works and transport 40.99 464.88 505.87 40.99 563.70 604.69 40.99 646 686.67 56.99 744 800.65 Education 585.86 720.81 1306.67 600.83 752.34 1 353.17 621.55 1 975 2 596.27 673.90 3 270 3 944.07

DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES Health 206.01 381.85 587.86 206.36 386.45 592.81 223.81 817 1 040.43 242.51 1 283 1 525.45 Water 62.35 99.23 161.58 83.14 128.32 211.46 80.98 292 373.42 121.98 495 617.38 Justice, law and order 20.88 195.75 216.63 20.88 201.78 222.66 21.68 244 266.02 23.48 290 312.98 Accountability 38.56 197.11 235.67 38.61 216.58 255.19 40.78 296 336.75 41.87 379 420.49 Economic functions and 18.46 670.84 689.3 31.88 720.25 752.13 36.32 788 824.77 57.38 882 939.53 social services Public-sector management 77.28 258.26 335.54 77.28 288.25 365.53 77.28 443 520.09 77.28 597 674.65

Public administration 318.42 318.42 307.66 307.66 308 307.66 308 307.66 Interest payment due 253.90 253.9 300.02 300.02 300 300.02 300 300.02 Total 1 118.59 4 107.44 5 226 1 180.18 4 476.84 5 657.02 1 229.86 6 887 8 116.74 1 404.44 9 521 10 925.62 % share of environment and natural resources 0.06 0.45 0.06 0.54 0.10 0.41 0.11 0.33 Source: /Q(2'& 75 75J &GEGODGT 

geting and fiscal resource allocation in a National Forestry and Tree Planting stakeholders. The Local Governments Uganda, demonstrating a disconnect #EVKP6JGUGKPUVTWOGPVUEQOOKV Act of 1997 obliges District Councils between the global discussion on forest government to implement sustainable VQHQTOWNCVGCRRTQXGCPFGZGEWVGVJGKT finance and national realities in heavily forest management and set aside the plans and budgets in accordance with indebted poor countries. permanent forest estate for sustained national priorities. provision of forest goods and services. FOREST GOVERNANCE IN UGANDA FISCAL ARRANGEMENTS AND +PRGTEGPVQHVJGVQVCNNCPFCPF DEVELOPMENT PLANNING FLOWS swamp area of Uganda was forested and The National Planning Authority pre- The Government of Uganda funds local 41 percent of the forested area was in pares the National Development Plan, governments via three kinds of grants. protected areas, conservation areas under drawing on Uganda’s poverty reduction •Unconditional grants are paid an- the management of the Uganda Wildlife strategy (the Poverty Eradication Action nually from the Consolidated Fund Authority or forest reserves under the Plan), the anchor of the country’s deve- for decentralized services and are management of the National Forestry lopment. The National Development calculated on the basis of the human Authority (NFA) and district forestry Plan is implemented through a rolling population in the district. They are UGTXKEGU 0(# 6JGTGUVKUQP three-year MTEF, which is reviewed and part of District Council revenue and private land and managed with the tech- GZVGPFGFFWTKPIVJGCPPWCNDWFIGVKPI are integrated in its budget. nical support of district forestry services. cycle. The budgeting process, based on •Conditional grants are provided to Many areas also feature various forms a National Budget Framework Paper, finance specific programmes. They of farm forestry, and the district forestry involves consultation with all stake- are separate from district government services provide advisory services on holders and approval by Parliament. revenue, budgeted for separately and their management. Constitutional pro- At the subnational level, District Coun- appended to the main budget. visions commit the State to sustainable cils prepare comprehensive and inte- •Equalization grants are paid from forest management, and the government grated development plans. The District the Consolidated Fund to districts approved a National Forestry Plan in Councils develop the annual workplan that lag behind the average national CPGY(QTGUVT[2QNKE[KPCPF and budget through a conference of all standard for a particular service.

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SECTOR-WIDE APPROACH IN all stakeholders in forestry, fisheries, tives are also included in complementary ENVIRONMENT AND NATURAL wetlands, climate, wildlife and environ- sectors such as energy, land, water and RESOURCES ment and is implemented through a sec- environment. The National Development The SWAP shifts focus from institu- toral working group led by the Ministry Plan provides for, among others: tional to sector-wide interests within a of Water and Environment. •increasing State investment in re- given sector, promoting shared manage- forestation, afforestation and forest ment and implementation systems and FORESTRY IN NATIONAL restoration; emphasizing common vision, priorities, PLANNING •increasing private investment objectives and goals. Areas for support The theme of the National Development in forestry and promotion of are no longer defined based on institu- Plan is “Growth, Employment and Pros- agroforestry; tional priorities and plans. Stakeholders perity for Socio-Economic Transforma- •instituting a policy, legal and insti- engage in a participatory process to tion”. The development scenario focuses tutional framework for governing define sectoral priorities and plan institu- spending on the sectors with the great- privately owned forests. tional contributions to realize them. This est potential to contribute to economic 6JG/6'(HQTVQ approach is intended to provide greater growth. It curtails spending in non- /Q(2'&   JCU VJG HQNNQYKPI efficiency and equity in the distribution priority sectors and supports develop- forestry priorities: QHTGUQWTEGUOQTGHNGZKDKNKV[KPVJGWUG ment in priority sectors through increased •strengthening institutional and com- of funds and more effective partnerships aid. Forestry is among the primary growth munity capacity and regulatory and among stakeholders. The SWAP in envi- sectors (those that directly produce goods fiscal framework for forest and ronment and natural resources includes and services), but forest-related objec- watershed management; •providing operational resources and More than 40 in-service training for national and percent of Uganda’s subnational teams; forest area is in government- •supporting district and other sub- managed protected national natural resource planning areas, conservation processes; areas or forest reserves •developing participatory plantation plans and promoting tree planting in private lands, local forest reserves and degraded areas; •mobilizing farmers into tree planting groups; •forming and training field teams and carrying out boundary surveying and demarcation of forest reserves; S. NSITA •controlling illegal activities in cen- Much of Uganda’s tral forest reserves and systemati- forest area is on cally removing encroachers; private land, and family and farm •training and sensitizing timber trad- forestry are common ers and sawmillers; •developing and implementing forest management plans; •monitoring production, processing and movement of timber products; •adjusting the size of the NFA payroll; •identifying seed sources/stands and producing seedlings for sale to the public. The Sector Investment Plan for envi- ronment and natural resources covers ten S. NSITA

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[GCTU VQ  /KPKUVT[QH Restoration of degraded forest 9CVGTCPF'PXKTQPOGPV 9KVJKP ecosystems is one of this plan, strategic objectives for forestry the objectives of the include: Sector Investment • improving the ability of forests and Plan for environment  and natural resources trees to yield increased benefits (eco- nomic, social and environmental) for all people; •conserving and managing wildlife and protected areas;

DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES •establishing laws, policies, regula- tions, standards and guidelines; •strengthening the capacity of lead

agencies and other institutions to NSITA S. implement programmes on environ- mental management; •restoring degraded forest ecosys- 1 tems; Environment and natural • resources in Uganda’s promoting research. medium-term expenditure The budget for forestry constitutes 46 framework (MTEF) percent of the Sector Investment Plan budget. This makes forestry a very high Sector priority. However, the key determinants regarding the financing actually allo- Agriculture

cated to a given sector are budget ceilings Energy and natural which are set by the Ministry of Finance, resources (excluding lands)

Planning and Economic Development on Security the basis of resource envelopes avail- able for fiscal control to ensure macro- Works and transport economic stability to qualify for debt Education relief. Thus, while the forestry subsec-

tor has the lion’s share of the budget Health allocation in the Sector Investment Plan and could actually mobilize the recom- Water mended funding from willing donors, MTEF ceilings hinder it from accessing Justice, law and order

the funding (Figure 1). Accountability So despite strong positive statements, Economic functions the environment and natural resources and social services sector in general and forestry in particu- Public-sector management lar are not given a corresponding prior- ity in national and subnational budget Public administration allocation (Table 1). It is clear that the priorities in the MTEF could never be Interest payment due achieved with the budgeted funding, 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 even if all the money were released Budget estimate 2006/07 (billion U Sh) (which is often not the case).

Donor projects REVENUE RETENTION Government of Uganda NFA is a self-accounting statutory body Source: MoFPED, 2007. Total with its own planning and budgeting Note: US$1 = U Sh1 730 (December 2007).

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TABLE 2. National Forestry Authority TABLE 3. Impact of timber monitoring systems on revenue (NFA) income statements (million U Sh) Year Total revenue Impounded timber revenue Impounded timber Source of 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 Million US$a Million US$ revenue as % revenue U Sh U Sh of total Own revenue 5 420.08 6 438.91 8 262.84 1995/96 148.2 142 475 36.8 35 378 24.8 Government 1996/97 602.8 566 290 33.6 31 565 5.6 subsidy 163.94 194.16 23.97 1997/98 760.4 656 015 111.2 95 935 14.6 ODA 6 679.43 7 281.31 6 012.61 1998/99 812.9 594 732 78.9 57 725 9.7 Subtotal 12 263.45 13 914.37 14 299.41 1999/2000 1 044.7 680 498 134.1 87 350 12.8 Own revenue as 2000/01 1 518.0 842 197 57.2 31 735 3.8 % of total 44 46 58 2001/02 1 159.5 675 898 18.9 11 017 1.6 Source:0(##PPWCN4GRQTV Note:75 75J &GEGODGT  2002/03 1 408.6 768 405 3.7 2 018 0.3 2003/04 2 563.0 1 294 514 184.7 93 288 7.2 process. At establishment, the bulk of its 2004/05 3 075.0 1 810 560 247.9 145 964 8.1 budget was funded through ODA as up- 2005/06 4 223.0 2 300 858 317.8 173 150 7.5 front investment for the first four years. Source:0CVKQPCN(QTGUVT[#WVJQTKV[FCVCDCUGU Although the agency’s own revenue has a75XCNWGUCTGDCUGFQPOKF[GCTGZEJCPIGTCVGU increased over the years, a substantial proportion of its funding still comes to guarantee concrete results, although that refunds 50 percent of tree farmers’ HTQO1&# 6CDNG 6JGRTQITGUUKXG the attributes of a holistic approach to costs, provided certain technical stand- increase in NFA’s revenue (Table 3) development are theoretically attrac- CTFUCTGHQNNQYGF+PCPCFFKVKQPCN can be attributed to its businesslike tive, particularly in sectors like envi- ŝOKNNKQP CDQWV75OKNNKQP YCU approach, robust law enforcement, good ronment and natural resources that are approved by the EU, as well as another 36 governance and initial strong support not politically vote-winning. However, million Norwegian kroner (about US$6 HTQOIQXGTPOGPV(QTGZCORNG although the Government of Uganda OKNNKQP VQVCMGVJKUUEJGOGVQ •the Law Enforcement Section moni- encourages budget support funding, The funds are part of ODA although tors the movement of forest pro- some donors are still funding projects. the activities funded are carried out by ducts and publicly auctions all il- Projects funded by ODA are required to private tree farmers. These grants are legal forest produce impounded, for remain within the MTEF ceilings and outside MTEF ceilings. Another factor transparency and to generate the best must address priorities in the National in the growth of private investment is prices the market can offer; Budget Framework Paper. In contrast, the Ugandan Government’s decision to •competitive bidding limits corrup- forestry projects implemented by civil rent forest reserve land to tree farmers tion and creates realistic market society organizations have no standard QPHNGZKDNGVGTOU prices – raising the average price planning and budgeting procedure and A recent survey (Global Mechanism, of 1 m3 of roundwood from are immune to MTEF ceilings. WPRWDNKUJGF GUVKOCVGFVJCVHTQO UJKNNKPIU 75J  75  VQRTKXCVGUQWTEGUEQPVTKDWVGF KPVQ75J 75  PRIVATE-SECTOR FOREST over US$41 million to development of KP FINANCE forest plantations in Uganda. Small- to •revenue collection has been decen- Private-sector funds have an impor- medium-scale tree growers (with up to VTCNK\GFCPFGZRGPFKVWTGVKGFVQKVCUCP tant role in financing forestry nation- JC CEEQWPVGFHQTRGTEGPVQHVJG incentive for staff to develop mecha- ally and locally, but these sources are investors in commercial forest planta- nisms for generating revenue. largely undocumented, and therefore tions and 69 percent of the planted area It is clear that law enforcement and their importance often goes unnoticed. (15 104 ha), which indicates that tree governance can generate substantial Investment from private sources is growing is becoming an attractive small- forest finance. KPETGCUKPI (KIWTG GXGPCURWDNKE- to medium-scale enterprise even if the sector funding decreases (Figure 3). A payback is long term. Almost half of BUDGETING THROUGH SPECIFIC stimulus to private investment is the VJGKPXGUVQTU percent) used personal PROJECTS Sawlog Production Grant Scheme, a UCXKPIUHQNNQYGFD[RGTEGPVWUKPI 'ZRGTKGPEGQHWUKPI1&#HQTDWFIGVUWR- ŝOKNNKQP 75OKNNKQP WRHTQPV HWPFUHTQOVTCFKPIQTDWUKPGUURGT- port increasingly shows that it is difficult grant from the European Union (EU) cent using personal loans from financial

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KPUVKVWVKQPUCPFRGTEGPVWUKPIITCPVU 2 from donors. Not one respondent had Private-sector Volume of investment (million U Sh) funding from 25 000 received a loan earmarked for forestry domestic sources, Uganda (2002–2008) by a financial institution. 20 000 Of the private-sector investment in com- mercial forestry operations, 71 percent 15 000 went to tree growing and management. Natural forest management accounted for 10 000 4 percent. Ecotourism and production of 5 000 medicinal plants accounted for 1 percent

DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES each. Forest-based enterprises such as 0 beekeeping, ecotourism and medicinal 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 plants, often touted for their importance Year

in forest management, do not seem to Source: Global Mechanism, unpublished, 2009. have interested many private owners of Note: US$1 = U Sh1 988 (December 2008). natural forests as yet.

The survey results suggest that people 3 are investing in forest management for Public funding Projected budget (billion U Sh) (domestic and donor) profit, motivated by the low risk they 35 for environment associate with tree growing, the promise (including forestry) for 30 of future income and the availability the period 2007/08– of land in central forest reserves under 2010/11, Uganda 25 licence. Financial gain and security are 20 the driving forces behind their invest- 15

ment in forest management rather than 10 environmental protection per se; how- ever, responsible management of forests 5 for financial gain should also help con- 0 serve the environment. The innovative 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 sources of funding that have become Year popular at the international level (car- Domestic Donor Total bon, payment for environmental ser- Source: Global Mechanism, unpublished, 2009. Note: US$1 = U Sh1 927 (December 2009). vices, corporate social responsibility) are virtually unknown at the forest man- CIGOGPVNGXGN5KPEGVJGICR 4 Volume of Investment (billion U Sh) between donor funding for environment 6TGPFUKPſPCPEKPI forest management 40 (which includes forestry) and domestic in Uganda investment in commercial timber planta- 30 tions has been closing (Figure 4). As observed above, public financing HQTGPXKTQPOGPVKUGZRGEVGFVQEQPVKPWG 20 FGENKPKPI HTQO  VQ  (Figure 3). The MTEF estimates a drop 10 QHPGCTN[RGTEGPVKPRWDNKEUGEVQT funding (donor and domestic) over those 0 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 three years. On the other hand, invest- ment in forest management from domes- Year tic private-sector sources has grown by Donor funding Domestic private nearly 330 percent. Given the interest (environment) sector (commercial timber plantations) in commercial tree growing generated Source: Global Mechanism, unpublished, 2009. UKPEGKVKUNKMGN[VJCVHWPFKPIHTQO Note: US$1 = U Sh1 927 (December 2009).

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domestic private-sector sources will con- •Forestry in Uganda is dominated by tinue to increase. an informal sector which lacks in- stitutional visibility, record-keeping CONCLUSIONS and regulatory and organizational Uganda has a new forest policy and new structure, leading to huge losses in forestry legislation, has restructured forest revenues for government. forestry governance and has developed •Political commitment in favour of a National Forestry Plan, which has been forestry is inconsistent at both the na- mainstreamed into the poverty reduc- tional and subnational levels. Many tion strategy. Uganda has decentralized political actors recognize the socio- governance, elaborate planning and economic and environmental value budgeting procedures and impressive of forests but have little courage to HKUECNVTCPUHGTU6QVJGGZVGPVRQUUKDNG support investment in the sector. the country has implemented all the key •With the advent of electoral de- outcomes of the global forest dialogue mocracy, the average politician’s and the tenets of the Paris Declaration. immediate interest is to be elected.

Despite this effort, forestry is still not Politicians will allocate resources to NSITA S. a priority in terms of budget allocation; projects that will easily garner votes there is a mismatch between the poverty (roads, schools, hospitals). Financial gain and security reduction strategy, Sector Investment Above all, however, budget ceilings are are the driving forces behind Plan and MTEF targets and the even- the main cause of low financial alloca- private investment in forest management, but responsible tual financial allocations, which severely tions to forestry. Herein rests an apparent management of forests for hampers implementation. Reasons for contradiction in international support: ſPCPEKCNICKPUJQWNFCNUQJGNR the scantness of forestry funding may While the Paris Declaration embraces conserve the environment include the following. respect for country priorities, the budget •Forestry has a major role in sup- ceilings established by Uganda are in resources from all sources” should be porting the development of other practice a conditionality under the HIPC provided through a global forest fund or sectors of the economy (agriculture, Initiative, since heavily indebted poor a facilitative mechanism. The question construction, health, water, energy, countries must have a poverty reduc- is, if either of these were established industry and environment) but this tion strategy and MTEF with ceilings tomorrow with billions of dollars, how link is difficult to demonstrate, to qualify for debt relief. would a highly indebted poor country mainly because it takes a long time The current global debate on forest like Uganda access the resources for for the impact of forests (or their finance revolves around whether forestry in view of the budget ceil- absence) to show. “increased new and additional financial ings? There are 40 such countries, a number of them in the “highly forested While public-sector low deforestation” category. The ques- investment in forestry tion of budget ceilings is therefore a is declining, private- sector investment pertinent one. The debate also appears in commercial tree to assume that the new and additional growing is increasing, resources must be provided by developed especially on a small to medium scale countries to developing countries. This attitude not only contradicts other agreed recommendations, but also ignores the key clause “from all sources”. Forest law enforcement and governance can yield substantial resources as shown in Table 3, and a simple stimulus can evoke an enormous private-sector response as UJQYPKP(KIWTG There is still work to be done at the national level to unleash the full S. NSITA

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potential for domestic forest finance, MoFPED.National Budget Framework and global dialogue needs to focus on 2CRGTHQTſPCPEKCN[GCTUŌ. this. Poor policies and laws, indirect Kampala, Uganda. subsidies, poor law enforcement, weak Bibliography NFA.  Annual report for 2006/07. KPUVKVWVKQPUGZEGUUKXGCPFQTKPCFGSWCVG Kampala, Uganda, National Forestry regulation, corruption, low absorption OECD.  Paris Declaration on Aid Authority. capacities, unstable macroeconomic Effectiveness and Accra Agenda for Action. NFA.National biomass study. Kampala, regimes, budget ceilings and local Paris, France, Organisation for Economic Uganda. politics are but a few of the issues that Co-operation and Development. World Bank.HIPC at-a-glance guide. need urgent attention. If these were dealt Ministry of Water and Environment. Washington, DC, USA. X

DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES with, domestically generated public and  Environment and natural resources private-sector funds, supported by ODA, sector – Sector Investment Plan. Kampala, would fulfil an important leveraging Uganda. function to boost the quality and quantity MoFPED.National Budget Framework of forest finance at the national level, 2CRGTHQTſPCPEKCN[GCTUŌ. hence paving the way towards sustain- Kampala, Uganda, Ministry of Finance, able forest management. X Planning and Economic Development.

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51 5 DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES

How can Turkey’s Forest cooperatives are generally created urban migration (ORKÖY, 2009). Forest villag- to assist forest owners in obtaining the best ers depend on traditional animal husbandry, forest cooperatives value for goods and services. They help low-productivity agriculture and forestry forest owners participate in activities such work. Their average gross annual income is contribute to as afforestation, tending and protection; pro- only US$400 (OGM, 2004), compared with duce and distribute superior planting stocks; US$5 780 in 2004 for the entire country (State reducing rural provide members with up-to-date technical Planning Organization, 2008). information and training; and collect, grade, There are 2 123 forest cooperatives in Turkey, poverty? process, pack and distribute forest products. with 290 000 members. Most of them focus on They contribute to local skills and business the production and marketing of wood. Forest development, mentoring and employment, cooperatives distribute among their members ($WPLú+%*QúHQDQG and can also promote democracy and good such jobs as timber harvesting, debarking, 6g]GHQ governance (ICA, 2003). removal and transport, under the supervision In Turkey, where almost 100 percent of for- of the local forest authority. A small propor- &RQVWUDLQWVRQWKHHI¿FLHQF\ est is State owned, forest cooperatives have tion also engage in other businesses such RI7XUNH\¶VIRUHVWFRRSHUDWLYHV been established primarily to improve the as ecotourism, local handicrafts, petrol sales, suggest that small is not always income and living conditions of people living dairy and honey production, cultivation of fruits EHDXWLIXO in forest villages, and thus to reduce the socio- and vegetables, and collection of non-wood GEQPQOKERTGUUWTGUQPVJGHQTGUV &CĩFGOKT forest products. 2002). Forest villages are those containing As incentives, the General Directorate of a forest within their administrative borders. Forestry (OGM) gives priority to cooperatives They typically have a living standard far below in , forest nursery production, the national average, limited education and afforestation, forest maintenance and building healthcare services and high unemployment of forest roads. Government orders for wood rates. Today Turkey has more than 21 000 are not subject to tender, and are placed with forest villages; their combined population is the nearest forest cooperative according to 7 million (10 percent of Turkey’s population), Turkish forest law. To enable cooperatives’ although it has been declining with rural-to- right to market sale, OGM sells them one-third of the fuelwood produced in Turkey at cost Turkey’s forest cooperatives (i.e. well below the usual market price), as well are mostly tasked with as some of the wood produced, at discounted organizing work in village prices. The total government subsidy provided forests and distributing the wood harvested from them

'TFQþCP#VOKĩand*$CVWJCP)×PĩGPare in VJG(CEWNV[QH(QTGUVT[$CTVÆP7PKXGTUKV[$CTVÆP +%*h1ù(1 Turkey. Sezgin Özden is in the Faculty of Forestry, šCPMÆTÆ-CTCVGMKP7PKXGTUKV[šCPMÆTÆ6WTMG[

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5 52

months or less per year (and 25 percent only one month). Only about 10 percent of the cooperatives have diversified activities and work year round; these are the ones that have succeeded in reducing the poverty of VJGKTOGODGTU &GOKTVCĩ 1TVCNÆEC(QT- est Cooperative in Kastamonu Province, for example, obtains 74 percent of its total income from activities other than wood production, RCTVKEWNCTN[FCKT[RTQFWEVKQP šCþNCT  DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES Marketing. About half of the forest coopera- tives surveyed reported marketing problems. The biggest problem with marketing (reported by 83 percent of the cooperatives) was insuf-

+%*h1ù(1 ficient capitalization. Since most forest coop- erative members are poor, all income is shared among the members; no funds are left in

A villager’s shed in the forest: reserve to serve as operating capital. forest villagers typically have sons. The survey was carried out in Sinop, a living standard far below -CUVCOQPW-CTCD×M$CTVÆPCPF

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53 5 DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES

Greater involvement of women might enhance xManagers and members of cooperatives National Forestry Cooperatives Symposium the cooperatives’ effectiveness, encourage need to be trained in cooperative busi- RTQEGGFKPIU8QNRRŌ#PMCTC the creation of rural women’s organizations ness, forestry processes, product deve- Turkey, Central Union of Turkish Forestry and help promote equal participation of women lopment, management and marketing. Cooperatives (OR-KOOP). in economic, social and political activities. Capacity in leadership, entrepreneurship &GOKTVCĩ#14-©;+P Mühendislik and organizational aspects should be mimarlik öyküleri – III [Tales of engineering Conflicts. Communication problems and strengthened. and architecture], pp. 135–147. Ankara, lack of concrete short-term benefits cause xThe umbrella organization OR-KOOP 6WTMG[6×TM/×JGPFKUXG/KOCT1FCNCTÆ frequent conflicts between the members EQWNFJGNRſNNVJGNGCFGTUJKRXCEWWOCV $KTNKþK 6//1$  and management of cooperatives, between cooperative level. ICA.%QQRGTCVKXGUHQTUQEKCNGEQPQOKE cooperatives and their umbrella organiza- xGender awareness raising and train- and democratic development. Press release. tions, and between cooperatives and the ing for women could help cooperatives Geneva, Switzerland, International Co- forest authorities. In the latter case, the main DGPGſVHTQOYQOGPŏUETGCVKXGRQYGTCPF operative Alliance. Available at: www. cause is disagreement over the unit prices leadership skills. KECEQQRRWDNKECVKQPURTGUUTGNGCUGU for wood fixed by the authorities. Competition x6QNGUUGPEQPƀKEVUCVTCPURCTGPVRNW- ICQUNQRFH for the jobs assigned by the forest authorities ralistic and democratic management OGM.  7NWUCN QTOCPEKNKM RTQITCOÆ also creates conflict among the many small approach is needed in the coopera- Ō [National forest programme cooperatives. tives. TGRQTV Ō? #PMCTC 6WTMG[ General Directorate of Forestry. Available Recommendations CVYYYQIOIQXVT PFFTCHV Strategies that could help improve forest OR-KOOP.  Türkiye ormancilik cooperatives’ effectiveness in raising the MQQRGTCVKHNGTK OGTMG\ DKTNKþK IGPGN economic and social well-being of forest DCĩMCPNKþK OR-KOOP promotional villages include the following. Bibliography brochure. Ankara, Turkey, Central Union of xNew laws and administrative procedures Turkish Forestry Cooperatives. Available must be developed to increase the forest $WPLú ( *QúHQ +% /LVH %%  at: www.orkoop.org.tr/uploads/files/ cooperatives’ power to contribute to Lise, W. 2009. Factors affecting forest 1TMQQRA6CPKVKOA$TQUWTWAFQE reducing rural poverty. cooperative’s [sic] participation in forestry ORKÖY.  14-©;  [ÆNÆ HCCNK[GV xThe possibility for forest cooperatives to in Turkey. Forest Policy and Economics, raporu =14-©;  CPPWCN TGRQTV? receive external grants or initial assist- 11(2): 102–108. Ankara, Turkey, General Directorate ance should be strengthened. šCþNCT /  6×TMK[GŏFG QTOCP for Forest Village Relations. Available xMarket analysis of wood and non-wood köylerinin sosyo ekonomik sorunlari at: www.sgb.cevreorman.gov.tr/f_ forest products is needed. MQQRGTCVKHNGĩOGPKP DW UQTWPNCTKP TCRQTA(CCNK[GVA4CRQTWRFH xLarger cooperatives, started jointly by ÁÑ\×O×PG XG MCNMKPOCNCTKPC QNCP State Planning Organization.  several villages, could help overcome MCVMKNCTK -CUVCOQPW1TVCNÆEC6QU[C International economic indicators 2008. problems of scale and also reduce con- ©TPGþK  =5QEKQGEQPQOKE RTQDNGOU QH Ankara, Turkey. Available at: ekutup. ƀKEVUCOQPIEQQRGTCVKXGU forest villages in Turkey and impact of dpt.gov.tr xCooperatives should widen the range of cooperatives on the development and their products to include non-wood pro- solution of these problems (Kastamonu- ducts and also forestry services such as 1TVCNÆEC6QU[CGZCORNG ?++In Congress afforestation, natural regeneration and on Socio-economic Issues in Forestry forest maintenance. RTQEGGFKPIURRŌ+URCTVC6WTMG[ xOR-KOOP should widen its marketing Forestry Economics-Social Working Group capacity for new products and provide the (ORMIS). marketing facilities that the cooperatives &CĩFGOKT ć  5CTÆMCOÆĩ XG 1NVW cannot afford to establish by themselves. ;ÑTGUKPFGMK1TOCPEÆNÆM-QQRGTCVKƀGTKPKP Quality of existing products should be -ÆTUCN -CNMÆPOC XG $ÑNIG 1TOCPEÆNÆþÆ evaluated, and new markets should be #ÁÆUÆPFCP &GþGTNGPFKTKNOGUK ='XCNWCVKQP created in towns closer to the producers of forest cooperatives in Sarikamis and to avoid problems in transportation of Oltu regions from the perspective of products. rural development and regional forestry].

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Promoting good forest governance for sustainable livelihood improvement: a Tanzanian example A. Ramadhani

$SURMHFWLQIRXUIRUHVWDGMDFHQW n the United Republic of Tanzania, governmental organization Envirocare villages helped community sustainable management, use and UGG $QZ  KORNGOGPVGF C UKZOQPVJ PHPEHUVLGHQWLI\REVWDFOHVWR Iconservation of forests and wood- project to promote good governance VXVWDLQDEOHIRUHVWPDQDJHPHQW lands (covering over 35 million hectares in forest management for sustainable propose solutions and begin to or almost 40 percent of the country’s land livelihood improvement in Kilindi Dis- ORGANIZING FOREST DEVELOPMENT implement them. area) are essential for lasting poverty trict. The project was supported by the reduction and sustainable development. National Forest Programme Facility. Thus good forest governance – referring The project worked with four village for the purposes of this article to the for- communities adjacent to Songe-Bokwa mulation, administration and implemen- forest. It was grounded in the principle tation of policies, legislation, regulations, that local people’s ownership rights and guidelines and norms relating to owner- empowerment to govern the resources on ship, access, rights, responsibilities and which they depend must be recognized. practices for sustainable management of The objectives were: forests at the local or national levels – is of •to build capacity in forest gover- vital importance. Key principles guiding nance; good governance of forests include equity •to identify and promote policy, legal, and justice, empowerment, accountabil- institutional and economic arrange- ity, transparency, subsidiarity and sus- ments that contribute to improved tainability ( and forest governance; Ministry of Environment and Natural •to promote and consolidate equal gen- 4GUQWTEGU  der participation in forest decision- +P  VJG 6CP\CPKCDCUGF PQP making;

About Envirocare

The Environmental, Human Rights Care and Gender Organization (Envirocare) is a 7DQ]DQLDQQRQSUR¿WQRQSDUWLVDQQRQJRYHUQPHQWDOUHJLVWHUHGRUJDQL]DWLRQIRXQGHG in 1993 and funded by Hivos (the Netherlands), FAO, ReCoMaP (the Regional Coastal Management Programme of the Indian Ocean Countries) and Care Tanzania. Its vision LVWRVHHDVRFLHW\ZLWKDFOHDQDQGVDIHHQYLURQPHQWWKDWFDQEHQH¿WDOOFLWL]HQVHTXDOO\ and in a sustainable way. Envirocare implements development projects aimed at improving environmental conservation, people’s livelihoods and equitable sharing of natural resources, with a human rights and gender based perspective. It has worked in promoting organic farm- ing and improved farming methods; tree planting and participatory forest management at household and community levels; civic education and HIV/AIDS awareness of youth; economic empowerment of vulnerable groups; and women’s rights and agricultural poli- Abdallah Ramadhani works for Envirocare (the cies favourable to the environment. Environmental Human Rights Care and Gender For more information, see: www.envirocaretz.com Organization), Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania.

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Songe-Bokwa forest 1DUVCENGUKFGPVKſGFD[VJG was continuously communities subjected to heavy pressures from Policy and legal obstacles. The national livelihood activities, forest policy’s failure to regulate trade including agricultural in wood- and non-wood forest products encroachment was a factor facilitating their unmanaged GZRNQKVCVKQPRGTOKVVKPIHQTGUVFGUVTWEVKQP and degradation. A further obstacle to sus- tainable forest management was the lack of harmonization in the policies and laws of the various sectors related to land use – agriculture, wildlife, environment, land development, water, energy and minerals – and the lack of an effective mechanism for intersectoral collaboration. F. SILAYO F.

•to promote and strengthen transpar- heavy pressures from livelihood activi- Institutional obstacles. In the usual pro- ency in allocation and use of forest ties such as random , setting of cedure, the yearly plans for conserv- resources. forest fires to enable hunting of wild ing and managing the resources of the Although the scale and budget of the animals and growth of good forage Songe-Bokwa forest were generally first RTQLGEVYGTGTGNCVKXGN[UOCNNVJKUGZRG- for livestock, agriculture (permanent discussed by village council members, TKGPEGFGOQPUVTCVGUVJGEQORNGZUGTKGU and shifting cultivation), unmanaged then taken to the village assembly for of actions required to begin to influence fuelwood gathering, charcoal making, public discussion and agreement, and forest outcomes in a local district. collection of other forest products and then taken to the ward development herding of cattle, sheep and goats. After council – comprising the village chair- SONGE-BOKWA FOREST seeing that the resulting depletion of RGTUQPUCPFXKNNCIGGZGEWVKXGQHHKEGTU The Songe-Bokwa forest in Kilindi Dis- forest resources was contributing to dry- QHVJGHQWTXKNNCIGUVJGYCTFGZGEWVKXG trict covers about 3 000 ha and shares ing of water sources, disappearance of officer and technical personnel in that borders with four villages together hav- traditional medicines and the need for particular ward – for further comments. ing about 10 000 inhabitants: Songe, women to walk long distances for fuel- Finally, the plans would be approved by Bokwa, Vilindwa and Kwamba. The wood, village leaders became interested the general meeting of the district (the forest is village land; all community in promoting more sustainable use of full council) for implementation. members have control over it. the resources. Unfortunately, village assemblies were The forest is rich in biodiversity. not well attended. Local officials with Economic activities carried out by the PROJECT ACTIVITIES forest-adjacent communities include Envirocare organized a series of work- Forest-adjacent communities beekeeping, hunting, collection of wild shops to identify the problems facing met in workshops to identify fruits, vegetables, weaving materials the forest and propose solutions in a obstacles to sustainable participatory manner. Forest-adjacent forest management, propose CPF OGFKEKPCN RNCPVU CPF GZVTCEVKQP solutions and devise a of timber and precious stones. Forest communities in each of the four vil- conservation action plan resources are thus vital to livelihoods, lages helped identify the policy, legal, poverty alleviation and environmental institutional and economic obstacles to sustainability in the district. sustainable management of the Songe- As it was non-reserved, Songe-Bokwa Bokwa forest and the equitable access forest did not have a management plan and benefits that sustainable forest to ensure that local forest-dependent OCPCIGOGPVGPVCKNU0GZVEQOOWPK- people took responsibility for manag- ties proposed solutions, and on this ing the forest. Sustainability was not basis devised conservation action plans. given priority; good practices and good Other key project activities included forest governance were not in place. The training and awareness raising on good F. SILAYO forest was continuously subjected to forest governance.

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personal interests in the forest resources TABLE 1. Short-term conservation action plan for Mount Bokwa forest could easily take advantage of the igno- Activity Time frame Responsible rance of the community to protect their Make by-laws 8/07–10/07 Village chairpersons, village executive own interests. secretary, Envirocare Local government had limited capa- Form forest patrol groups 10/07–12/07 Chairpersons, village executive officers city for law enforcement. Forest guards, Start and strengthen beekeeping 10/07–11/07 Beekeeping groups, Envirocare, district forest officers and other stakeholders groups beekeeping officer needed training on the provisions of the Plant trees 9/07–3/08 Tree nursery establishing groups, Envirocare, district forestry officer Forest Act and associated legislation Provide training on hunting wild 10/07–11/07 Elders and Envirocare and guidelines. rabbits using nets instead of fire Start small income-generation 10/07–11/07 Group chairpersons, district council, Economic obstacles. Poverty had projects (e.g. raising chickens, Envirocare increasingly become a major cause of vegetable gardens, tree nurseries) forest decline, since poor forest-adjacent Create awareness on land-use 10/07–12/07 Village governments, Envirocare, district

ORGANIZING FOREST DEVELOPMENT planning land-use officer RGQRNGUCYPQQRVKQPDWVVQQXGTGZRNQKV Make long-term management plan 8/08–11/08 District council, Envirocare, village the natural resources in order to survive. governments The communities noted that illegal or unmanaged logging and hunting, col- devised a short-term conservation action in Songe-Bokwa forest, participatory lection of medicinal plants, charcoal plan listing all activities that were to be forest resources assessment and trans- OCMKPICPFGZVTCEVKQPQHRTGEKQWUUVQPGU implemented for the period of August parent procedures for granting conces- were contributing to the degradation VQ0QXGODGT 6CDNG  sions for harvesting forest products. of the forest and reducing the quanti- Trainees were equipped with the neces- ties of resources available. Investors Training and awareness raising sary materials, knowledge and skills to from outside Kilindi District were also In addition to holding local discussions train others in their respective com- contributing to depletion of the forest with the communities about good forest munities. resources. governance, the project organized five Information materials produced by workshops to train community leaders Envirocare in the local language, Kiswa- Proposed solutions to promote good practices and raise hili, were given to workshop participants Solutions proposed by the community village awareness. Training was pro- for distribution in the villages. These workshops included the following: XKFGFHQTXKNNCIGIQXGTPOGPVNGCFGTU materials included posters on environ- •making of by-laws; CPFTGRTGUGPVCVKXGUQHHQTGUVWUGT mental degradation in Mount Bokwa •tree nursery establishment; groups in each village. The training forest and on good governance in forest •alternative income-generating ac- emphasized good governance concepts, conservation, as well as the booklet tivities; local people’s empowerment, policy Understanding forest policy, laws and •establishing boundaries for Songe- options for promoting good governance land rights in Tanzania. Bokwa forest; •conserving water catchments; Workshop participants •learning forest policies and laws were trained in good governance taking good governance into consi- concepts including deration; local people’s •land-use planning; empowerment and participatory forest •establishing forest patrol groups; resources assessment •involving the community in forest conservation and planning for sus- tainable use of forest resources.

Conservation action plan Following the discussion on the causes of environmental degradation and proposed solutions for sustainable management of F. SILAYO Songe-Bokwa forest, the beneficiaries

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Workshop participants RESULTS received information The project results were monitored materials to raise awareness in their for two years. The following is a sum- villages mary of the progress made during that time.

Increased community awareness of policy intentions to promote people’s participation The community was made aware of pol- icy aims to encourage people’s partici- RCVKQPKPHQTGUVCEVKXKVKGU(QTGZCORNG the National Forest Policy includes the statement that: “Local communities will be encouraged to participate in forestry F. SILAYO F. activities. Clearly defined forest land The project also addressed the different Monitoring progress and tree tenure rights will be instituted roles of women and men in livelihood To track the efficiency and effectiveness for local communities, including both activities with respect to management of of the planned activities over the course men and women.” the available resources and development QHVJGRTQLGEVEQOOWPKV[OGODGTU of alternative income-generating oppor- (five from each village) and the Envi- Greater community response in village tunities. This gender perspective helped rocare project management team came assemblies promote equitable benefit-sharing and together to develop a monitoring system. Before implementation of the project, more effective local government. Measurable indicators were developed the attendance at village assemblies In addition, village groups were trained in a participatory manner with the ben- YCU RQQT 1H  RGQRNG KP 5QPIG on fire prevention methods by the district GHKEKCTKGU 6CDNG  XKNNCIGHQTGZCORNGQPN[CVVGPFGF natural resource officer. the meetings. But following awareness-

TABLE 2. Development of indicators for monitoring progress Problem Source of the problem Impacts Solution Indicators Forest Illegal hunting Forest degradation Start income-generation Increase in the number of households with activities small ruminants and chickens Honey harvesting Make by-laws Increase in water availability Pasture regrowth Establish boundaries for Increase in number of beehives fire control Decrease in cases of forest fire Increase in number of planted trees Deforestation Fuelwood collection Unreliable rainfall Make by-laws Presence of by-laws patterns Charcoal burning Establish forest patrols Increase in number of trees planted Destruction of water Illegal timber logging catchment Plant trees Increase in conserved water catchment area

Encroachment of Shifting cultivation Soil erosion Use best agricultural Increase in forest area/cover Mount Bokwa practices Land scarcity Destruction of Increase in water flow catchment areas Create awareness on Livestock grazing land-use plan Illegal hunting Need for income Extinction of Make by-laws Presence of by-laws endangered animal Need for food species Forest patrols Increase in number of wild animals Start alternative income- Increase in number of small-scale generation activities livestock keepers Charcoal burning Lack of income Environmental Look for alternative sources Increase in number of households using degradation of energy and income energy-saving stoves Lack of alternative source of energy Promote tree planting Increase in number of trees planted in farms and other areas

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awareness of the importance of con- serving forest resources, increased fire management training and the villagers’ desire to protect their beekeeping activi- ties in Songe-Bokwa forest all contrib- uted to the decrease in forest fires.

Decreased encroachment of Village groups began Mount Bokwa forest beekeeping to raise Implementation of the project resulted in additional income and discourage villagers VJGTGEQXGT[QHQXGTJCQHHQTGUVVJCV HTQOUGVVKPIHQTGUVſTGU had been encroached by cultivators. The recovery could be partly attributed to the F. SILAYO influence of the district commissioner, ORGANIZING FOREST DEVELOPMENT who gave the order for villagers to stop farming in forest areas. But local peo- raising activities on the importance of were placed in the forest to discourage ple’s involvement in creating by-laws to participation in forest resource decision- villagers from setting forest fires, since discourage encroachment by outsiders, making, attendance increased to 400. many villagers were investors in the and in convincing their fellow villagers More members of the community hives. All together, the groups estab- to stop farming on the forested slopes of became concerned about the fast rate lished 100 hives. On average each hive Mount Bokwa, also had a role. of disappearance of their forest resources produces 10 litres of honey per harvest, and recognized the need to participate in which is then sold for 5 000 shillings Tree nursery establishment and tree decision-making on how the resources (TSh) (about US$4) per litre. planting should be managed and used. The project supplied the environmen- Increased community response to tal committee of each village with 1 kg Enhanced income opportunities HQTGUVſTGCPFFGETGCUGFKPEKFGPEG of (Tectona grandis), arbhorrea The project resulted in the formation of QHſTGU (Gmelina arborea) and Grevillea robusta several community groups focused on Communities in all four villages became seeds and watering cans, racks and shov- alternative income-generating activities, active in the prevention of forest fire. els, with which they established tree which are helping to reduce pressure They established fire boundaries and nurseries, raising about 10 000 seedlings on the forest. engaged forest patrols and income-gen- in total. The seedlings were distributed In Songe, the Tumaini women’s group erating groups in reporting and fighting to the village communities to start their UVCTVGFMGGRKPINQECNEJKEMGPU  CPF forest fire. On one occasion a pastoralist own forest farms. EWNVKXCVGFCJCHCTOYJKEJRTQFWEGF set fire to the forest at Kwamba village. DCIUQHDGCPU6JGITQWRCNUQOCFG The event was quickly communicated to Creation of local by-laws 1 000 energy-saving stoves which were the community and the fire was put out To persuade forest-adjacent communi- sold at an affordable price in their com- before major damage could occur. The ties to abide by the forest management munities, reducing the time needed for culprit was caught and fined TSh30 000 rules and regulations, the four villages fuelwood collection and giving women CDQWV75  made by-laws in Kiswahili related to more time for other household tasks and In Bokwa village no forest fire inci- the management, access and equitable for rest. In Kwamba, the Mshikamano dent was reported. In Songe village, sharing of natural resources. These were group established a 0.4 ha vegetable YJKEJWUGFVQGZRGTKGPEGCVNGCUVHKXG to be taken to the ward development garden which produced 10 bags of toma- forest fires per year, there was only council for discussion and then to the toes and 15 bags of sweet peppers. The one reported fire incident, which was district council for approval. income-raising activities have empow- quickly put out by village volunteers. ered women economically. Vilindwa village also reported a signifi- Formation of forest patrols The Kiegeya group and the Tumaini cant decrease in forest fire incidence. Forest patrols were formed according men’s group of Songe and the Uja- In Kwamba village, annual incidents VQVJG(QTGUV#EV0QQH(QWT maa group of Bokwa started apiaries decreased to three from a previous mini- patrols of five people each were formed in their respective villages. The hives mum of seven. It is likely that greater for the four villages. They agreed to

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patrol their respective village forest areas VJCVYKNNRTQVGEVVJQUGYJQGZRQUG in other village development (ranging from 71 to 1 666 ha) twice a illegal loggers or people who set activities. week on days agreed by them but not forest fires. The village govern- •Strengthen income-generation disclosed to others. According to the ment might institute annual awards groups. Groups generating income new by-laws, the patrol members are to recognize their contributions in through forest conservation related PQVRCKFCPFCTGVJGTGHQTGGZGORVHTQO GZRQUKPIYTQPIFQKPIUFGVTKOGPVCN CEVKXKVKGUHQTGZCORNGVTGGPWTUGT[ having to work in other village develop- to forest resources. establishment, tree planting and ment activities such as construction of •Maintain discipline in managing production of energy-saving stoves, classrooms. natural resources. Many villagers need to be supported in obtaining ac- consider forests on non-reserved cess to markets for their products. CONCLUSIONS AND land as no man’s land. This percep- •Allocate unprotected forest land for RECOMMENDATIONS tion allows illegal loggers to take conservation and sustainable use by Although the concept of good gover- out timber and other resources as villagers. The Kilindi District au- nance was relatively new among the and when they please; it will have to thority should legally give the com- DGPGHKEKCTKGU VJG GZRGTKGPEG QH VJG change if good governance in forest munities adjacent to Songe-Bokwa project in Bokwa forest was positive. management is to be a reality. forest the role of conserving it and Target groups and stakeholders received •Continue fighting corruption in using its resources sustainably. X the project wholeheartedly; they were harvesting and trade of forest pro- eager to learn and cooperated to the ducts. Each village government fullest during the entire period of project should identify the areas under its implementation. Forest monitoring con- authority that are prone to corrup- tinues within other ongoing Envirocare tion and take measures to tighten projects in Kilindi District, helping to procedures, review the delegation of Bibliography sustain these outcomes. powers, identify areas of discretion The following recommendations may and prepare associated guidelines. Kenya Forest Service & Ministry of help to continue promoting good gover- Wide publicity should be given to Environment and Natural Resources. nance of forest resource management in forest-related corruption and the re-  Forest law enforcement and the project area and elsewhere. medial steps taken to deal with it. The governance in Kenya, by W. Mathu. •Put good governance in forest man- public must be convinced that the Nairobi, Kenya. X agement into practice in all village village government is honest, means governments. The village govern- business and is bent on eradication ments must make a commitment to of forestry-related corruption. the principles of good governance. •Mainstream good governance in vil- •Simplify laws. To be accessible to vil- lage meetings. In each meeting, the lagers, laws need to be drafted in lan- village government could review the guage that they can easily understand steps taken for good governance. – in this case non-technical Swahili. •Set up a standing committee on good •Make local government more trans- governance. The concept of good parent and accountable. Account- governance will have to be refined ability in each office is only possible from time to time to adapt to chang- if the people at large, as well as the ing societal requirements. A standing staff and officers themselves, know committee in each village could con- YJCVVJGQHHKEGKUGZRGEVGFVQCEJKGXG tinuously interact with stakeholders and on which parameters their per- to make suitable recommendations formance will be judged. All offices on the subject. involved in natural resource manage- •Strengthen and motivate the forest ment at the village and district levels patrols. The forest patrols need to should adopt a mission statement and be equipped with the necessary gear publicize it widely. for effective operation (e.g. overalls, •Protect and reward whistle-blow- boots, torches) and should continue ers. Villages need to devise by-laws VQ DG GZGORV HTQO RCTVKEKRCVKPI

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Work in the forestry sector: some issues for a changing workforce

C. Ackerknecht

On labour unions, occupational orests cover one-third of the •having social protection; KHDOWKDQGVDIHW\WUDLQLQJDQG YQTNFŏUNCPFCTGCCPFRGT- •maintaining a social dialogue with FKDQJHVLQWKHZRUNIRUFH±ZLWK Fcent of them are publicly owned. freedom of union association, col- SDUWLFXODUUHIHUHQFHWR&KLOH +PINQDCNITQUUXCNWGCFFGFHTQO lective negotiation and participation

PEOPLE AND FORESTS IN HARMONY HQTGUVRTQFWEVUYCU75OKNNKQP of all the parties involved. accounting for 1 percent of gross domes- This article addresses some common tic product (GDP). Forestry (considered issues of relevance to the world’s forest here as wood production, wood process- workers. It does not, however, address ing and pulp and paper industries) pro- the negative impacts of the international vided employment to 13.7 million people financial crisis on work in the forest KPCEEQWPVKPIHQTRGTEGPVQHVJG sector. [Ed note: That subject has been YQTNFŏULQDU 6CDNG  (#1  addressed in depth in Unasylva? The International Labour Organization At the global level, information on +.1C FGHKPGUYQTMCU “human forestry employment is scarce or incon- activities, paid or unpaid, that produce sistent. This article relies heavily on the goods or services in an economy, GZCORNGUCPFFCVCHTQO%JKNGYJKEJJCU or supply the needs of a community, or statistics and specific studies related to provide a person’s accustomed means of the forestry sector available covering the livelihood”. In the past decade, ILO has past 40 years, as well as an occupational shown a special concern for decent work, health and safety system recognized as which is defined as that performed “in one of the best in the world. conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity” (ILO, 1999). Decent FOREST EMPLOYMENT work is characterized as being: The Global Forest Resources Assess- •productive and secure; OGPV (#1 EQNNGEVGFKPHQT- •respectful of labour rights; mation on forestry employment just in •providing adequate income; RTKOCT[RTQFWEVKQP GZENWFKPIRTQEGUU-

TABLE 1. Employment in the formal forestry sector (wood production, , pulp and paper) in 2006, by region Region Forest % of total Growth trend employment 2006 employment (‘000 workers) Africa 530 0.1 Unstructured #UKCCPF2CEKſE 5 811 0.3 Increasing slightly Europe 3 815 1.1 Decreasing Latin America and the 1 510 0.7 Increasing Caribbean North America 1 677 0.8 Decreasing Carlos Ackerknecht is Director of the Forestry Western and Central Asia 365 0.2 Increasing moderately and Wood Industries Safety Programme, Asociación Chilena de Seguridad (Chilean Safety World total 13 709 0.4 Association, ACHS), Santiago, Chile. Source:(#1

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Much of the work UNIONIZATION AND in the world’s ORGANIZATION OF WORKERS forests is informal, characterized by poor Forest workers’ union activities date working conditions, back at least a century in Europe and low pay, and lack spread to other parts of the world with of job security and health and safety immigration. In the North American protection forest sector, the union movement began with the founding of the International Woodworkers of America (IWA) in the United States in 1937; a branch opened in Canada in 1946. IWA had its highest membership – about 115 000 workers – in the 1970s, but by 1994 the United 5VCVGUDTCPEJJCFQPN[CDQWV FAO/FO-6982/A. WHITEMAN FAO/FO-6982/A. active members, so it merged into the ing of wood and non-wood forest pro- protection for workers. This is particu- International Association of Machin- FWEVU #NVJQWIJEQWPVTKGUTGRQTVGF larly true in developing countries, where ists as the Woodworkers Department on this parameter, differences in the QPN[RGTEGPVQHYQTMGTUKPCNNUGEVQTU +#/  data collected made it difficult to draw are enrolled in some form of social secu- In Latin America, the labour union EQPENWUKQPU5QOGEQWPVTKGUHQTGZCO- rity or welfare system for themselves and movement has not been as pervasive as ple, reported part-time work without VJGKTHCOKNKGUCUEQORCTGFYKVJRGT- KP0QTVJ#OGTKEC%JKNGHQTGZCORNG converting to full-time equivalents; cent in developed countries (Superin- has about 136 unions, but it is estimated some included sawmilling while others tendencia de Seguridad Social, Chile, that no more than 10 percent of the forest included only roundwood production;  +PHQTOCNYQTMKUQHVGPEJCTCEVGT- sector workforce has union membership and some included fuelwood collection, ized by deplorable working conditions, #EMGTMPGEJV  while others did not. low pay, and lack of job security and The body currently covering the great- Even before the financial crisis, the health and safety protection. est number of forest-sector workers is number of forest workers was declining; However, international regulations that the Building and Wood Workers’ Inter- it had fallen by about 1 million since 1990 companies must observe in order to gain national (BWI), created in December (#1 6JGFGENKPGYCUUWDUVCPVKCN QTTGVCKPCEEGUUVQGZVGTPCNOCTMGVUUWEJ HTQOVJG+PVGTPCVKQPCN(GFGTCVKQP particularly in Asia and Europe as a result as clean production mechanisms, cor- of Building and Wood Workers and the of mechanization, business restructuring porate social responsibility obligations World Federation of Construction and and the privatization of State activities. and commitments involved in obtaining Wood Workers. The current organiza- Other countries saw slight increases. forest certification, are being put in place VKQPEQORTKUGUWPKQPUTGRTGUGPVKPI $NQOD¼EMCPF2QUEJGP  GUVKOCVGF to improve the situation. CRRTQZKOCVGN[OKNNKQPOGODGTUKP that the forest workforce would decrease D[RGTEGPVDGVYGGPCPF Training is key to in Europe and the Commonwealth of improving safety and productivity in Independent States because of reductions forest operations in tree felling quotas imposed by legisla- tion or environmental regulations. In the United States of America it was estimated that sources of employment in agricul- ture, forestry, hunting and fisheries YQWNFFGETGCUGD[RGTEGPVCPPWCNN[ DGVYGGPCPF 7PKVGF5VCVGU $WTGCWQH.CDQT5VCVKUVKEU  Although there are no firm estimates, much of the work in the world’s forests and wood industries is informal; in other words, it does not provide social security ACHS

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the building, building materials, wood, France, Germany and the Netherlands TABLE 2. Fatalities per million cubic forestry and related sectors in 130 coun- produced a methodology to monitor metres of wood harvested, 1999 to 2004 VTKGU $9+  and evaluate the level of skills among Country All operations Small-scale forestry workers. operations TRAINING AND SKILLS +PRGTEGPVQHHQTGUVGPVGT- Sweden 0.11 0.80 CERTIFICATION RTKUGUKP#WUVTCNKCTGRQTVGFVJCVVQ Germany 0.67 2.20 In many countries, the main problem fac- 100 percent of their workers were trained Chile 0.95 – ing forest enterprises seeking to improve (#(2'5% +P0GY

PEOPLE AND FORESTS IN HARMONY but few programmes to develop the skills Despite these efforts, many countries, pational safety and health in the forest needed by timber- and woodworkers to especially developing countries, still sector, making comparison almost perform safely and productively while have large numbers of workers requiring impossible. Many countries use incident protecting the environment. proper training. TCVGQTHTGSWGPE[TCVGŌRGT The compulsory training programmes 500 000, 1 million or other amount of established in some developed countries OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND worked hours – to calculate occupational are worthy of note. In Germany, for HEALTH safety levels. In most countries, time GZCORNGQRGTCVQTUQHRQYGTUCYUCPF In many countries, the failure to report lost due to accidents is counted from the other forestry equipment are required by health and safety incidents in the work- third day. But in Argentina it is counted law to follow a three-year course under place hampers provision of the effective from day 11, while Chile counts lost time the guidance of a forestry supervisor. An medical and preventive attention needed from the day of the accident. Employers CFFKVKQPCNJQWTCFXCPEGFEQWTUGKU to improve forest workers’ quality of life sometimes hide accidents by sending required for those desiring to become and also makes it impossible to obtain injured people to work doing light duties supervisors. reliable statistics to assess the true state or counting them as first-aid cases; in In an attempt to standardize training of occupational safety and health in the some countries, this alternative is for- for workers in Europe, the Leonardo da sector. bidden by law. Finally, some countries Vinci Learn for Work Project in Austria, The world’s countries have not adopted include accidents during travel time in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Finland, common indicators or criteria for occu- their statistics, while others do not. The number of fatal accidents per mil- lion cubic metres of harvested wood Principles and criteria for occupational health is perhaps the only category for which and safety: some examples HKIWTGUECPDGEQORCTGF 6CDNG  Standards and regulations developed FOREST STEWARDSHIP COUNCIL (FSC) since the 1990s to reduce the accident Principle 4. Community relations and workers’ rights. Forest management operations rate in forest operations and to contribute shall maintain or enhance the long-term social and economic well-being of forest workers to the creation of healthier and safer and local communities. working environments in the sector Criterion 4.2. Forest management should meet or exceed all applicable laws and/or regula- include: tions covering health and safety of employees and their families. •ILO codes of good forest practices RTQOQVGF +.1  CHILEAN SYSTEM FOR SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT CERTIFICATION •principles and criteria for worker (CERTFOR) protection included in criteria and Principle 7. Those responsible for forest management must respect forest workers’ direct indicators used for certifying sus- and indirect rights, compensate them adequately and equitably, safeguarding their health tainable forest management (see and safety in the workplace. $QZNGHV  Criterion 7.4. Those responsible for the forest management unit shall safeguard workers’ •International Organization for Stand- health and safety. ardization (ISO) standards for quality management (ISO 9001) and environ-

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TABLE 3. Growth in the world Female employees are often preferred for population and percentage of older tedious tasks or those requiring delicacy adults between 2000 and 2050 and precision. At the engineer level many Period Growth Over age 60 women work in research, development rate of total % of total Annual and planning, while at the medium and population population growth rate (%) (%) lower levels women are found mainly 2000 1.6 8.1 3.2 in jobs involving supervision, risk pre- 2025 0.9 14.5 3.7 vention and tasks involving fine motor 2050 0.2 24.1 1.8 skills, such as applied genetics (ACHS, Sources: 70EKVGFD[$GTVTCPQW C +POCP[EQWPVTKGUYQOGPCTG not equally represented in management mental management (ISO 14001), and and decision-making (Blombäck and the subsequent addition of a series of 2QUEJGP 1PGQHVJGOCLQTEJCN- occupational health and safety evalu- lenges facing working women today (and

CVKQPETKVGTKC 1*5#5  increasingly, working men) is that of FAO/J. CARLE The combination of these management combining their working activities with systems with sustainable forest man- caring for their family and the needs agement regulations can help reduce of their personal life (ILO and UNDP, Women’s participation is QEEWRCVKQPCNTKUMUKPHQTGUVU UGG$QZ  5QOGGPVGTRTKUGUJCXGKORTQXGF increasing in forestry work, p. 64). social benefits and working conditions typically in tasks requiring delicacy and precision, to address this balance. such as applied genetics CHANGES IN THE FOREST-SECTOR WORKFORCE CONCLUSIONS in spheres requiring attention to detail. Ageing Adequate social security coverage – This trend could be encouraged through Perhaps the greatest challenge facing including attention to risk prevention, improved social benefits and working forest-sector enterprises in the creation health care and economic compensation conditions to facilitate a balance between of healthier and safer working condi- for the harsh and potentially dangerous the roles of worker and mother. tions is that of adapting to a workforce working conditions – is fundamental to A final conclusion is that informa- that is ageing in every part of the world improving working conditions in forests tion on employment in the forest sector (Table 3). Ageing is a positive trend and timber industries. must be improved if policies related inasmuch as it is a sign of improved life Codes of good practices, holistic man- to safety and working conditions in GZRGEVCPE[CUYGNNCUKORTQXGFSWCN- agement systems and sustainable forest forests and forest industries are to be ity of life increasing the number of old management models can contribute to improved. X people capable of working (although it is healthier and safer working environ- also an outcome of a reduced birth rate). ments in the world’s forests and wood However, greater longevity also entails industries. new social risks, such as destabilization Where the social status of forest work- of pensions and other social security ers is low, its improvement requires sys- RTQVGEVKQPU[UVGOU +.1D  tems for training them and for certifying Bibliography It is likely that in most countries, the their skills, to make them true forest harsh conditions of forest work con- professionals. ACHS.CEstadísticas y estudios varios tribute to the ageing of the sector’s The world’s workforce is ageing, and sobre seguridad en el trabajo forestal. workforce, as fewer young people are this general trend may be compounded Santiago, Chile, Asociación Chilena de motivated to pursue a career in forestry in the forest sector by a lack of motiva- Seguridad. at all levels (engineer, technician and tion for young people to take up a forest ACHS.DRelación edad y accidentalidad NCDQWTGT  XCP.KGTQR  career. Social and welfare protection en trabajadores del sector forestal en Chile. may need to be intensified commensurate Santiago, Chile. (Unpublished document) Women in the workforce YKVJVJGKPETGCUGKPCIGKPFGZCPFKPVJG Ackerknecht, C.  (QTGUV NKHG CPF The gradual entrance of women into vari- number of dependent older adults. work, prospects of health and occupational ous forest activities and the Women are increasingly finding safety. In Congress proceedings, XII World industry has also altered the workforce. employment in the sector, particularly Forestry Congress8QN#R3WGDGE

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Occupational health and safety in Chile

Some indicators suggest a trend towards improved safety and health in Chile’s forest sector. For example, reductions have been observed since 1993 in both the accident rate (relating the number of accidents to the average number of workers) and the loss rate (relating the number of days lost through workplace accidents and work-related disease to the average number of workers) (Figures 1 and 2). With a view to assessing the impact of sustainable forest management systems on occupational safety and health, the Chilean Safety Association (ACHS), working with the University of la Frontera, monitored 25 forest harvesting enterprises over ten years. Since LPSOHPHQWDWLRQRI,62RUVLQFHDGRSWLRQRI)RUHVW6WHZDUGVKLS&RXQFLO )6& UHTXLUHPHQWVWKHHQWHUSULVHVVDZVLJQL¿FDQW increases in their competitiveness as a result of improvements in the accident and loss rates and in the average number of days lost through accidents (Ackerknecht et al., 2005). Some change has also been observed in the age of workers suffering accidents in the sector since 1998 (ACHS, 2009b) (Figure 3).

PEOPLE AND FORESTS IN HARMONY 1 25 Evolution of the accident rate in Chile’s forest sector 20 between 1989 and 2008 in 1 892 enterprises belonging 3 to the Chilean Safety Evolution of the age of 15 Association (ACHS) workers suffering accidents in forest sector enterprises 10 belonging to the Chilean Safety Association (ACHS)

5 % 100 0 2.0 1.9 2.9 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 6.9 7.1 10.4 Forest Industry Forest sector 90 Age Source: ACHS, 2009a. 16.1 18.5 >60 80 51-60 25.3 41-50 70 14.9 36-40 15.5 2 60 31-35 Evolution of the loss rate in Chile’s forest sector between 26-30 1989 and 2008 in enterprises 16.7 18.0 21-25 belonging to the Chilean 50 16.5 Safety Association (ACHS) 18-20

400 40 <18 16.5 350 18.4 17.4 300 30 250 200 20 16.3 150 17.1 16.9 100 10 50 11.6 0.2 0 5.6 1.0 5.7 0.5 0.1 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 0 Forest Industry Forest sector 1998 –2002 2001–2005 2004–2008

Source: ACHS, 2009b. Source: ACHS, 2009a. Note: Average population = 55 098 workers

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%KV[ %CPCFC Ō 5GRVGODGT  ILO. C ILO thesaurus 2005. Geneva, (Abstract) Switzerland. Available at: www.ilo.org/ Ackerknecht, C., Bassaber, C., Reyes, M. public/libdoc/ILO-Thesaurus & Miranda, H.  'PXKTQPOGPVCN ILO.DVJ'WTQRGCP4GIKQPCN/GGVKPI EGTVKſECVKQPU[UVGOUCPFKORCEVUQHVJGKT in Budapest – The impact of ageing on implementation on occupational health labour markets and pension reform. Feature and safety in Chilean forest companies. article, 17 February, Geneva, Switzerland. New Zealand Science, Available at: www.ilo.org/global/About_   Ō the_ILO/Media_and_public_information Bertranou, F.  Envejecimiento de la ILO & United Nations Development población y los sistemas de protección Programme (UNDP).  Work and social en América Latina. Santiago, Chile, family: towards new forms of reconciliation +.15WDTGIKQPCN1HſEGHQTVJG5QWVJ%QPG with social co-responsibility. Santiago, of Latin America. Chile. Blombäck, P. & Poschen, P.&GEGPV Superintendencia de Seguridad Social, work in forestry? Enhancing forestry work Chile.  5KUVGOC FG OWVWCNKFCFGU and forest-based livelihoods. In Congress chileno. Presented at V Congreso proceedings, XII World Forestry Congress, Internacional de Prevención de Riesgos 8QN#RRŌ3WGDGE%KV[%CPCFC Laborales, Santiago, Chile. Ō5GRVGODGT United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. BWI.About BWI. Carouge, Switzerland,  Employment projections 2006–16. Building and Wood Workers’ International. Washington, D.C. Internet document. Available at: www. van Lierop, P.6JGEJCPIKPIYQTNFQH bwint.org forest education: global trends? Presented FAFPESC. Forest and forest products CVVJG:++9QTNF(QTGUVT[%QPITGUU3WGDGE industry workforce and industry data %KV[%CPCFCŌ5GRVGODGT X collection survey report 2006. Victoria, Australia, Forest and Forest Products Employment Skills Company Ltd. FAO.  Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005 – Progress towards sustainable forest management. FAO Forestry Paper No. 147. Rome. FAO.  State of the World’s Forests 2009. Rome. Hudson, B.6JGKORQTVCPEGQHUCHGV[ in forestry. In Second International Conference on Safety and Health in Forestry. Annecy, France. IAM.  Woodworkers history. Upper Marlboro, Maryland, USA, International Association of Machinists. Internet document. Available at: www.goiam. QTIKPFGZRJRJGCFSWCTVGTUFGRCTVOGPVU woodworkers/woodworkers-history ILO.  Safety and health in forestry work. Geneva, Switzerland, International .CDQWT1HſEG ILO. 1999. Report of the Director-General: Decent work. International Labour Conference, VJ5GUUKQP)GPGXC5YKV\GTNCPF

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World forestry at a crossroads: going it alone or joining with others? H. Savenije and K. van Dijk

6RPHUHÀHFWLRQVRQIRUHVWVHFWRU he XIII World Forestry Con- ingly alienated from forests (because of WUHQGVLQOLJKWRIWKH;,,,:RUOG gress was hosted by Argentina WTDCPK\CVKQPHQTGZCORNG KVJCUDGEQOG Forestry Congress. THTQOVQ1EVQDGT+VU evident that many more people (city dwell- theme, “Forests in Development: a Vital ers, NGOs, etc.) are becoming stakeholders Balance”, referred to the importance of in those same forests. Forests are increas- establishing a sustainable equilibrium ingly considered as part of a larger whole. not only among the ecological, social /CP[ HQTGUVTGNCVGF RTQDNGOU GZVGPF and economic functions of forests, but beyond geographic borders, and most also between forestry and other sectors. are closely interwoven with other issues 'ZVTGOGN[YKFGTCPIKPIVQRKEUŌXKTVW- beyond the forest sector. ally every current forestry issue – were The increasing number of claims on considered during the various plenary forests – economic, social and environ- sessions, thematic sessions, side events, mental – and the plurality of stakeholders at specialized fora and poster sessions. all scales (global, national and local), with The congress was attended by more FKHHGTGPVCPFUQOGVKOGUEQPƀKEVKPIKPVGT- VJCPHQTGUVT[GZRGTVUHTQOQXGT ests, values and vocabularies, complicate 160 countries, representing a wide the play of forces and the decision-making range of disciplines (technical, social, regarding forests, requiring an integrated, economic, ecological) and functions coordinated, collaborative approach. (policy-makers, scientists, trade and A general shift can be observed in industry, non-governmental organiza- many countries in governance practice tions [NGOs], and students). Since the and policy-making and in the role and World Forestry Congress is the largest position of central government, i.e. from forestry gathering in the world, its find- government to governance. Two ten- ings collectively provide a picture of dencies in governance are prominent: a views and trends in the forest sector. XGTVKECNGZRCPUKQPWRVQYCTFUVJGINQDCN This article identifies some trends per- and down to the local levels (multilevel ceived by the authors, using as the point IQXGTPCPEG CPFCJQTK\QPVCNGZRCPUKQP of reference their observations from the to include markets and society (multi- :++9QTNF(QTGUVT[%QPITGUUJGNFUKZ actor governance). Forests are increas- [GCTUGCTNKGTKP%CPCFC UGG$QZ 6JG ingly becoming a societal concern, of article concludes with the authors’ rec- interest to others besides foresters. ommendations for change to ensure the sector’s relevance and effectiveness in The vertical and horizontal sustainable development. connections are only developing with FKHſEWNV[ Herman Savenije is in the Ministry of TOPICS AND TRENDS The connection between international #ITKEWNVWTG0CVWTGCPF(QQF3WCNKV[6JG Globalization and social integration of dialogue and local implementation of Hague, the Netherlands. forests continue unabated, and display sustainable forest management has Kees van Dijk is with Tropenbos International, Wageningen, the Netherlands. great dynamism and diversity KORTQXGF NKVVNG UKPEG  6JG UQNG Although the congress’s Final Declaration change is that regional forestry proc- A longer version of this article has previously states that people are becoming increas- esses are now encouraged to fill the been published online.

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frequently watches from the sidelines Some trends observed at the XII World CPFHGGNUVQCEGTVCKPGZVGPVGZENWFGF Forestry Congress in 2003 from decisions. The real challenge for the forest sector In 2003 the authors recorded the following impressions after attending the XII World lies in forging links with other sectors Forestry Congress in Quebec City, Canada. and among various levels. Treaties were seen increasingly to shape the broad environmental context for national forest policies and management, but the links to global Growing awareness of the developments in land use, trade, information and communication technology, urban-rural multifunctionality and importance relationships and institutional and administrative developments were not automatic. of forests is encouraging, but forest management and protection are still The multifunctionality of forests, the multi- improving too slowly FKOGPUKQPCNPCVWTGQHKPƀWGPEGUVJGRNWTCNKV[QHUVCMGJQNFGTUCPFVJGPGGFVQDWKNFDTKFIGU The greatest threats to forests come from through partnerships, participation and new alliances were recognized. Forests could no beyond the domain of forestry, arising longer be viewed as the exclusive domain and responsibility of the forest sector. from the rapidly increasing demand for Policy-making at the global level had food, feed and fuel. Given the major increased, while connections to the local level were decreasing. Locally generated experi- predicaments facing humanity – poverty, GPEGYCUQHVGPHCKNKPIVQKPƀWGPEGKPVGTPCVKQPCNFKUEWUUKQP famine, energy, water, climate change, Increasing interest in a landscape financial crisis, emergencies, conflicts approach to forests was resulting in greater emphasis on intersectoral relationships and – and the political and social urgency of the underlying causes of deforestation. tackling them, forests, if seen in isolation from these, easily become a secondary It had become apparent that strict separa- political priority, despite the rhetoric tion between protected areas and utilization areas was neither tenable nor feasible, and devoted to them. that utilization and protection objectives needed to be achieved as part of sustainability Despite growing recognition of the to support livelihoods and combat poverty. importance of protecting forests for their Good governance, based on regulatory functions and biodiversity, democratization, accountability, empowerment, transparency and equitability, was being increasing claims on land and on wood allocated a more important place in discussion of forests at all levels. as a raw material (for construction and Much energy) are leading to greater pressures interest was seen in payment or compensation for environmental functions of forests by on forests. Whether an equilibrium can VJGDGPGſEKCTKGUVJWUFKUEWUUKQPQHVJGſPCPEKPIQHHQTGUVOCPCIGOGPVYCUKPETGCUKPIN[ be found among these competing claims, shifting away from development cooperation to international cooperation. in the form of sustainable, integrated forest management, is open to ques- The increasing appreciation that the sector cannot “go tion, especially because the production it alone” was leading to the development of many new types of partnership, for example functions of forests immediately provide involving local communities and businesses, or NGOs and businesses. Stakeholders money (whether legally or not), while UGGOGFVQDGſPFKPIOQTGEQOOQPITQWPFCPFOQTGQRRQTVWPKVKGUHQTEQQRGTCVKQPVJCP collective goods such as the regulatory in the past. functions of forests are rarely priced and compensated. gap in communication between the local at all. Much is said about integrating and international levels and to facilitate forests into landscape approaches and (QTGUVUCPFENKOCVGLWUVKſCDNG national and local implementation of into national policy, and about strength- expectations or just the latest hype? internationally agreed principles. ening the relationships with others that The topic of forests and climate had little The effects of other economic sectors KPƀWGPEG QTCTGKPƀWGPEGFD[ HQTGUVU XKUKDKNKV[KPCPFJCTFN[CP[TQNGCV on forests are becoming greater, espe- Yet neither those in the forest sector nor the XII World Forestry Congress, but cially those of large-scale agriculture those in other sectors have been able to KPKVYCUQHVJGITGCVGUVKPVGTGUV and bioenergy. But while the importance give effective shape to this integration. attracting the largest audiences. of cross-sectoral relationships and plan- The lack of intersectoral connections also A message formulated by the congress ning continues to be emphasized, in most applies to international climate discus- for delivery to the United Nations Climate countries these have improved little if sions, where the forestry community Change Conference in Copenhagen,

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&GPOCTMKP&GEGODGTőPQVG=F? demand for renewable sources of energy and effective management of secondary with concern the impacts of climate is good or bad for forests and forestry. forests are equally important, because change on forests and strongly empha- Some predict that future developments forests are often essential components of size[d] the important role forests play in in biorefining and bioprocessing tech- the landscape on which poor local people climate change mitigation and adaptation nology will lead to major opportunities depend for their livelihood and culture, as well as the need for forest-dependent for bioenergy from forests, including and they are also vital for biodiversity people and forest ecosystems to adapt RQVGPVKCNHQTVJGGZRCPUKQPQHKPVGPUKXGN[ (and the recovery of biodiversity) and to this challenge”. The general message managed forest plantations for biomass ecological regulation. Sessions on forest was that forests provide far more than production. landscape recovery and management just carbon sequestration. Others are concerned that the increasing of secondary forests concluded that Reducing emissions from deforestation demand for bioenergy, particularly first- these are two of the main challenges for and forest degradation in developing generation biofuels, is already bringing forestry and require more attention. countries (REDD), in particular, was about major changes in land use that presented as an opportunity to channel directly or indirectly threaten forests, for What has happened to the interest in more money into forest protection, forest GZCORNGVJGEQPXGTUKQPQHPCVWTCNHQTGUV and social forestry? recovery and other aspects of sustainable into plantations for soybean, oil-palm or For many years, participation by local forest management. It is clear that the other rapidly growing biomass crops. populations in forest management, in the “climate trump card” (or should that be Potential social and environmental risks form of community forestry and social “straw to clutch at”?) has quickly had a of this type of land-use change were forestry, was strongly promoted as the positive effect on the overall mood in the pointed out, including potential impact way to sustainable forest management. forest sector. It has led, in a relatively on soil, water and biodiversity and on the Although interest in this subject has not UJQTVVKOGVQPGYHGTXQWTJKIJGZRGEVC- income, property rights and livelihoods actually disappeared, it no longer takes an tions and a large number of new initia- of local populations. KORQTVCPVRNCEGKPFKUEWUUKQP(QTGZCO- tives regarding forests and carbon. Whether bioenergy development will ple, projects and programmes concerning Doubts and misgivings have also have positive or negative outcomes for the relationship of people and forests in CTKUGPJQYGXGTCUVQVJGGZVGPVVQYJKEJ forests and forest-dependent people will FT[CTGCUIGPGTCVGFCDWPFCPVGZRGTKGPEG VJGUGGZRGEVCVKQPUECPDGOGV6JGTG FGRGPFVQCITGCVGZVGPVQPVJGTWNGU in the past, but this issue has been sidelined are still major problems in technology, standards and incentives created for the methodology and implementation, for production of biomass and the effective- The importance of GZCORNGTGICTFKPIFGſPKVKQPUCPFVJG ness of their implementation. protecting forests for their What was striking (and perhaps also a biodiversity and other OQPKVQTKPICPFXGTKſECVKQPQHEJCPIGU environmental services is There are also concerns that a REDD warning) was that the congress dealt with increasingly recognized OGEJCPKUOEQWNFDGLWUVCUEQORNGZ issues of forests and energy primarily and unworkable for forests as the Clean from an environmental perspective (i.e. Development Mechanism (CDM) was as an alternative to fossil-fuel-generated in the past (as evidenced by the dearth energy) and almost entirely overlooked of afforestation/reforestation projects the socio-economic issues, particularly under the CDM). Most countries that the ties between fuelwood use and pov- are candidates for REDD funding do not erty. This remains a dire problem in currently have the institutional capacity many countries but has almost entirely to use it effectively. Deforestation and disappeared from international develop- forest degradation remain deeply rooted ment cooperation agendas. in macroeconomic, political and institu- tional conditions, power relations, land- Forest landscape recovery and ownership and poverty; there are no quick management of secondary forests solutions to any of these problems. should not be neglected The climate and energy discussion has Forests and energy: a controversial generated additional interest in the

dilemma conservation of natural forests and the H. SAVENIJE Opinions at the congress differed regard- creation of forest plantations. However, ing whether rapidly developing industrial recovery of degraded forest landscapes

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Forest landscape +UEGTVKſECVKQPGHHGEVKXGQTFQGU recovery is a key it simply lead to proliferation of challenge, as many poor local people standards? depend on forests (QTGUVRTQFWEVEGTVKſECVKQPEQPVKPWGUVQ for their livelihood have appeal as a market instrument to and culture promote sustainable management and production, but it has not really taken hold yet for tropical forests (for which the concept was originally developed). %GTVKſECVKQPRTQEGUUGUCTGUVKNNFTKXGPD[ the international market; the concept has barely taken hold in national markets, where the largest quantities of timber and other forest products are sold and H. SAVENIJE YJGTGEGTVKſECVKQPEQWNFCEJKGXGVJG as others – particularly climate change services need not necessarily be done ITGCVGUVDGPGſVKPVGTOUQHUWUVCKPCDNG – have attracted more attention. through the market, as is often supposed; management. Reasons for this limited in some cases it may involve obligatory success include the direct and indirect 8CNWCVKQPQHHQTGUVUKUPQVGPQWIJ RC[OGPVKPVJGHQTOQHCVCTKHHQTVCZ EQUVUKPXQNXGFKPEGTVKſECVKQPYJKEJCTG ultimately, what is needed is a healthy Attention is also focusing on new PQVEQORGPUCVGFHQTKPRTKEGUVJGURGEKſE ſPCPEKCNDCUKUHQTOCPCIGOGPVCPF sources of funding, including institutional requirements set; and above all the lack protection investors. Many countries, however, are of policy and institutional preconditions Financing is increasingly seen as the key only beginning to tap such sources. One for sustainable forest management. to effective management and protection major challenge is how more money At the same time, forest managers are of forests, and there is a great deal of can be generated from the capital mar- confronted by a plethora of new standards KPPQXCVKXGVJKPMKPICPFGZRGTKOGPVC- ket (already the most important source) and certification or verification schemes, tion in this area. The multifunctionality and used in a socially responsible and HQTGZCORNGHQTDKQOCUUGPGTI[ECT- of forests is emphasized as a basis for sustainable manner for forest recovery, DQPFKQZKFGUGSWGUVTCVKQPHCKTVTCFGCPF IGPGTCVKPIKPXGUVOGPVCPFGZVTCKPEQOG management and protection. More than legality. This proliferation not only may for forest management. New ideas are in the past, the forest sector must create lead to confusion and higher costs for also being developed for setting up green a workable link to the financial sector; producers and consumers; it also entails national accounts (which incorporate this involves the two sectors learning “to the risk of unequal requirements for the the value of environmental services in speak each other’s languages” in order various systems. The certification market economic accounting), within which to do business together, particularly as requires harmonization and coherence if the actual contribution of forests to the regards the provision of formal financing it is to achieve its intended credibility, economy and society is quantified. to small producers. effectiveness and scope. There is a great deal of interest in pay- ment for ecosystem services (PES), a The forest and concept that was still new and unelabo- ſPCPEKCNUGEVQTU must learn more TCVGFCVVJGEQPITGUUDWVJCUPQY about each other in become part of mainstream thinking. order to do business together, particularly 5KIPKHKECPVGZRGTKGPEGJCUDGGPICKPGF as regards the but the many publications on the subject provision of formal make clear that the PES concept is still ſPCPEKPIVQUOCNN under development. Problems that still producers PGGFVQDGUQNXGFKPENWFGHQTGZCORNG how the value of a certain can be quantified, how the price

should be determined, who the users H. SAVENIJE are, and how those users should pay for the service. But paying for ecosystem

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Without good governance and to current political and intersectoral Congress will be held. What is certain, effective institutions, the extent of agendas, indicating what it has to offer. however, is that the developments and sustainable forest management will Persuasiveness vis-à-vis the agricultural tendencies sketched here – ongoing glo- remain limited sector, the financial sector and political balization and decentralization, social Governance was an emerging topic at circles in general will be decisive. New KPVGITCVKQPKPVGTEQPPGEVKQPEQORNGZ- VJGEQPITGUUYKVJECWVKQWUFKUEWU- agendas, such as that for the world’s ity, governance changes and increasing sion of corruption, illegality and bad climate, can bring new opportunities to competing claims on forests – constitute governance. Attention to it has grown, the forest sector. major challenges for the forest sector as shown by Forest Law Enforcement However, the necessary skills to oper- and for forestry specialists. The ques- and Governance (FLEG) and Forest Law ate and communicate strategically are tion is how those challenges are to be Enforcement, Governance and Trade not currently well developed in the forest tackled. (FLEGT) processes. Good governance sector. Investment is needed to develop Forestry cannot “go it alone” in isola- and sound institutions are viewed as the skills in communicating, managing con- tion from other sectors. In addition to decisive factors for sustainable forest flict, achieving consensus and collabo- maintaining and guaranteeing substan- management. Good (or good enough) rating with others. This entails giving VKXGGZRGTVKUGCEVQTUKPVJGUGEVQTYKNN forest governance is now a generally up some of the autonomy (or supposed PGGFVQDGHNGZKDNGKPVJGKTKFGCUCVVKVWFGU accepted concept in discussion of autonomy) of the sector and learning and methods if they wish to remain inter- forests; this is seen as involving not only to accept being only a small part of a esting, relevant and effective partners in trust, transparency and accountability, larger dimension. developing and implementing global and but also fair and equitable participation Forestry institutions will need to focus local forestry agendas. and organization of roles, rights, respon- outward, to become service providers In Buenos Aires, the Director General sibilities and powers among stakeholders that can supply concepts and methods, of the Center for International Forestry and institutions at all levels, and not only substantive and policy-oriented forestry Research (CIFOR), Francis Seymour, in the forest sector. Substantial progress GZRGTVKUGCPFKORNGOGPVCVKQPECRCEKV[ wondered: “Can we orchestrate good has been made in sustainable production so that forests can deliver the best pos- vibrations?”, referring to the question chains, combating illegality, modern- sible contribution to sustainable deve- of what policy and institutions are nec- izing the forest sector and responsible NQROGPV+PVJKUEQPVGZVKVKUVJGVCUMQH essary so that sustainable forest man- business activity. the forest sector to make clear the value agement has a positive impact on local of forests, i.e. the value of all the goods households and society in general. AND THE FUTURE? and services they provide, including their The authors believe that this is indeed The trends observed above suggest that role in combating poverty. possible if the forest sector manages to the forest sector must focus, more than 6JG YQTNF KP  KU FKHHGTGPV HQT come out of its shell and make progress in the past, on the outside world and HQTGUVUVJCPKVYCUKPCPFKVKU in connecting and cooperating with other questions and perceptions that are aris- difficult to predict what the situation will parties, as a fully recognized and equal ing there. Currently, the sector focuses DGKPYJGPVJGPGZV9QTNF(QTGUVT[ stakeholder. X inward in its approach to problems and solutions – often viewing other sectors Going it alone, or and society at large as the cause of the joining with others? problems (or lamenting their lack of sup- port and recognition) rather than as part- ners and facilitators in solving them. Many of the solutions to forest prob- lems have to come from other sectors, society in general and political circles. Conversely, major functions that prop- erly managed forests can provide to society and the cost of losing forests are often not highlighted sufficiently.

The forest sector must adopt a more H. SAVENIJE active, strategic and political position in public debate and must contribute

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FAO’s most comprehensive forest review to date indicates that globally, just under 13 million hectares of forests were converted to other uses or lost through natural causes each year in 2000–2010, as compared with close to 16 million hectares per year during the 1990s. The study covers 233 countries and areas. It indicates that the world’s total forest area is just over 4 billion hectares or 31 percent of the total land area. Brazil and Indonesia, which had the highest loss of forests in VJGUJCXGUKIPKſECPVN[TGFWEGFVJGKTFGHQTGUVCVKQPTCVGU+P

FAO/G. NAPOLITANO © addition, ambitious tree planting programmes, especially in China, India, the United States of America and Viet Nam – combined with natural expansion of forests in some regions – have added more than 7 million hectares of new forests annually. The net loss of forest area has thus been reduced to 5.2 million hectares per year in 2000–2010 (an area equivalent to that of Costa Rica), down New leader for FAO forestry from 8.3 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The FAO Forestry Department welcomes a new head, Assistant South America and Africa had the highest net annual loss Director-General Eduardo Rojas-Briales, effective 1 March 2010. of forests in 2000–2010, with 4.0 and 3.4 million hectares Rojas-Briales, a Spanish national, comes to FAO from the Faculty respectively. Oceania also registered a net loss, due partly to of Agronomy of the Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain, severe drought in Australia since 2000. where he was a professor in the M.Sc. programme in Forestry from Asia, on the other hand, registered a net gain of some 2.2 million 2003. In 2004 he was appointed Vice-Dean of the Faculty. hectares annually in the last decade, mainly because of large- Rojas-Briales holds an M.Sc. degree in Forestry from the scale afforestation programmes in a few countries, especially University of Freiburg, Germany and a Ph.D. from the Polytechnic China. However, conversion of forested lands to other uses University of Madrid, Spain. From 1992 to 1998, he was Director continued at high rates in many countries in South and Southeast of the Catalan Forest Owners Association. He also served as Asia. part-time Professor of Forestry Policy at the University of Lleida, In North and Central America, the forest area remained fairly Spain (between 1994 and 2000). From 1996 to 1999 he headed stable, while in Europe it continued to expand, although at a VJG(QTGUV2QNKE[#TGCHQTVJG/GFKVGTTCPGCP4GIKQPCN1HſEGQH slower rate than previously. the European Forest Institute (EFI), where he was responsible +PIGPGTCNVJGTGUWNVUCTGGPEQWTCIKPIUJQYKPIHQTVJGſTUV for projects on multifunctional forestry as a means for rural time that the rate of deforestation has decreased globally through development, on multifunctional forest management and policy concerted efforts taken at both the local and international levels. for mountainous regions and on national forest programmes. However, the rate of deforestation is still very high in many From 1999 to 2003 he did consulting work in forest policy. Earlier countries. Primary forests – forests undisturbed by human activity in his career, he worked for the forest services of Germany and – account for 36 percent of total forest area but have decreased Catalonia, Spain. by more than 40 million hectares since 2000. This change is His particular areas of interest and expertise include , NCTIGN[FWGVQTGENCUUKſECVKQPQHRTKOCT[HQTGUVVQőQVJGTPCVWTCNN[ afforestation, forest law, forest policy, national and regional forest regenerated forests” because of selective logging or other human programmes, and institutional reform. interventions. Since 1997 Eduardo Rojas-Briales has been on a number of 1VJGTMG[ſPFKPIUQH(4#KPENWFGVJGHQNNQYKPI DQCTFUCPFRCPGNUCOQPIQVJGTUVJG5EKGPVKſE#FXKUQT[$QCTFQH xThe area of forest in national parks, areas and EFI from 1998 to 2002. other legally protected areas has increased by more than 94 million hectares since 1990, now equalling 13 percent of the total forest area. (#1TGNGCUGUMG[ſPFKPIUQHVJG)NQDCN(QTGUV xForests – among the world’s most important carbon sinks 4GUQWTEGU#UUGUUOGPV – store some 289 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon in trees and World deforestation, mainly the conversion of tropical forests vegetation. Carbon stocks in forest biomass decreased by an to agricultural land, has decreased over the past ten years but estimated 0.5 Gt per year in 2000–2010, mainly because of a continues at an alarmingly high rate in many countries, according to reduction in total forest area. the results of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010 (FRA xFires, pests and diseases are causing increased damage to 2010), released in March. forests in some countries. On average, 1 percent of all forests

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YCUTGRQTVGFVQDGUKIPKſECPVN[CHHGEVGFGCEJ[GCTD[HQTGUV deforestation and poor watershed management, which have ſTGU1WVDTGCMUQHHQTGUVKPUGEVUFCOCIGUQOGOKNNKQP ECWUGFUGXGTGUQKNGTQUKQPCPFXWNPGTCDKNKV[VQƀQQFKPIHTQO hectares of forest annually. Extreme weather events such as frequent tropical storms and hurricanes. Some 95 percent of storms, blizzards and earthquakes also took a heavy toll in the Haiti’s original forests have been destroyed; nearly 10 percent of past decade. the country’s forest cover (11 000 ha) was lost between 1990 and xSeventy-six countries have issued or updated their forest 2005. policies since 2000, and 69 countries – primarily in Europe The earthquake creates a risk of even greater deforestation as and Africa – have enacted or amended their forest laws since displaced residents of Port-au-Prince, seeking food and shelter 2005. in the countryside, are likely to cut remaining trees as a source of Data collection for the Global Forest Resources Assessment energy and construction material. is becoming more comprehensive and precise. New data and The restoration of the protective and productive functions of additional information on afforestation and on natural expansion of forests through reforestation and agroforestry on the barren hills of forests for the past 20 years has made it possible to estimate rates Haiti will play a critical role to prevent soil erosion and landslides, of deforestation and loss from natural causes more accurately. protect downstream agricultural production and act as a protective The new global estimate for 1990 to 2000 (close to 16 million buffer to regulate the quantity and quality of water to downstream hectares per year) is higher than was estimated in FRA 2005 EQOOWPKVKGUCITKEWNVWTGCPFſUJGTKGU(#1EQPUKFGTUWRNCPF (13 million hectares), because it now also includes deforestation reforestation and agroforestry as urgent priorities, as any initiatives within countries that have had an overall net gain in forest area. in downstream rural areas and cities can be destroyed without FAO’s Global Forest Resources Assessments are published related upstream integrated watershed management. FAO has GXGT[ſXG[GCTU/QTGVJCPURGEKCNKUVUHTQOEQWPVTKGU developed project proposals on reforestation and agroforestry and forest-related international organizations were involved in which are to be presented for funding at the International Donors’ the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2010. The full report of Conference “Towards a New Future for Haiti” in New York on this assessment will be released in October 2010. In addition, an 31 March 2010. The conference has been organized by the FAO-led global remote-sensing survey of forests, sampling some 7PKVGF0CVKQPU1HſEGQHVJG5RGEKCN'PXQ[HQT*CKVKVQOQDKNK\G 13 500 sites in the world over a 15-year period, will be completed international support to lay the foundation for Haiti’s long-term towards late 2011, providing even more accurate information recovery. on rates of deforestation, afforestation and natural expansion of The proposed reforestation programme includes targeted forests. measures to protect reforested areas from overexploitation #DTQEJWTGTGRQTVKPIVJGMG[ſPFKPIUKUCXCKNCDNGCVYYYHCQQTI for fuelwood and charcoal to ensure the sustainable long-term forestry/fra/fra2010 rehabilitation of Haiti. FAO has also launched the initiative “Fruit Trees for Haiti” in support of the Haitian Government’s campaign to plant 10 million 4GHQTGUVCVKQPCPFCITQHQTGUVT[HQTNQPIGTVGTO trees. FAO Director-General Jacques Diouf, during a four-day visit TGEQXGT[KP*CKVK VQVJGEQWPVT[KP/CTEJPQVGFVJCVCUKIPKſECPVKPETGCUGKPPCVKQPCN The magnitude 7.0 earthquake that struck Haiti on 12 January food production, rural employment and reforestation are the keys 2010 was devastating in terms of fatalities, injuries and loss to a greener, more productive Haiti. The FAO initiative focuses on of housing, infrastructure and livelihoods. Recovery will be providing fast-growing fruit trees for school gardens. Later other an enormous undertaking. The United Nations immediately tree species will be included. A mere US$5 donation will buy an launched a Flash Appeal for US$1.4 billion to cover emergency avocado or mango tree for a Haitian school garden, and covers humanitarian assistance and key early recovery projects until fertilizer and other inputs as well as educational material to build December 2010. awareness of the role of trees in protecting the environment and In the longer term, relief efforts will have to focus on “building TGFWEKPITKUMUHTQOJWTTKECPGUƀQQFKPICPFGTQUKQP(QTOQTG back better” – ensuring that Haitian institutions are stronger and information, or to contribute, see: getinvolved-donate.fao.org more resilient than before, and that the most vulnerable people are protected. With more than 65 percent of Haitians engaged primarily in agriculture, FAO has already begun to provide seeds, (#1CPF%2(KPXGUVKICVGOGCUWTGOGPVQHHQTGUV fertilizer and tools, aiming to reach 180 000 smallholder farming FGITCFCVKQP families. Rates of deforestation and forest loss are regularly measured, but Forestry will have a key role in improving the country’s low forest degradation is harder to measure, even though it is similarly agricultural productivity. Over time, Haiti has suffered from important. Many recent environmental goals and initiatives rely loss of fertile soils and potential farmlands as a result of heavy QPOGCUWTGOGPVQHHQTGUVFGITCFCVKQPŌKPENWFKPIVJGſTUV)NQDCN

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Objective of the United Nations Forum on Forests, climate change Among its main outcomes, the meeting endorsed a generic initiatives for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest FGſPKVKQPQHőHQTGUVFGITCFCVKQPŒCUCTGFWEVKQPKPVJGECRCEKV[QHC degradation (REDD) in developing countries, and the 2010 HQTGUVVQRTQXKFGIQQFUCPFUGTXKEGUCPFPQVGFVJCVVJKUFGſPKVKQP Biodiversity Target of the Convention on Biological Diversity. RTQXKFGUCHTCOGYQTMHQTFGXGNQRKPIOQTGURGEKſEFGſPKVKQPUHQT +PVGTPCVKQPCNHQTGUVTGNCVGFQTICPK\CVKQPUJCXGFGſPGFHQTGUV particular purposes. Participants also called for: degradation as the reduction of the capacity of a forest to provide ximproved communication of the many different aspects of IQQFUCPFUGTXKEGU$G[QPFVJKUEQTGFGſPKVKQPJQYGXGT forest degradation to climate change negotiators; perceptions regarding forest degradation are many and varied, xHQEWUGFCVVGPVKQPQPJCTOQPK\CVKQPQHFGſPKVKQPUCPFOGVJQFU depending on the driver of degradation and the main point of HQTOQPKVQTKPIſXGCURGEVUQHHQTGUVFGITCFCVKQPUVQEMKPI interest – biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, wood level, biodiversity, forest health, level of use/production and production, soil conservation or recreation, for example. In the forest soil; CDUGPEGQHCITGGFFGſPKVKQPUCPFCUUGUUOGPVOGVJQFUHGY xthe inclusion of forest degradation in terms of climate countries are currently able to report on the area of degraded change into the proposed mechanism for reducing emissions forests or the degree of forest degradation. from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD), since FAO and other members of the Collaborative Partnership on methodologies do exist to monitor changes in carbon stocks; Forests (CPF), together with other partners, are undertaking a xthe development of tools and guidelines for measuring special study to identify the elements of forest degradation and different aspects of forest degradation. the best practices for assessing them. The main objective of the Further information is available at: www.fao.org/forestry/ study, which is carried out under the umbrella of the Global Forest degradation-cpf Resources Assessment 2010 (FRA 2010), is to help strengthen the capacity of countries to assess, monitor and report on forest degradation by: xKFGPVKH[KPIURGEKſEGNGOGPVUCPFKPFKECVQTUQHHQTGUV degradation and degraded forests; xENCUUKH[KPIGNGOGPVUCPFJCTOQPK\KPIFGſPKVKQPU xidentifying and describing existing and promising assessment methodologies; xdeveloping assessment tools and guidelines. Forests may be degraded in terms of loss of any of the goods CPFUGTXKEGUVJCVVJG[RTQXKFG ſDTGHQQFJCDKVCVYCVGTECTDQP storage and other protective, socio-economic and cultural values). By using the seven thematic elements of sustainable forest management, the study will identify suitable indicators to assess the degree of degradation of a forest at different management levels. The study approach includes a survey of existing country practices to see what is being measured; an analytical study on FGſPKVKQPUVQRTQXKFGCHTCOGYQTMHQTVJGRTQEGUUCPFCUGTKGUQH case studies to describe proven or promising methodologies and tools for assessing different aspects of forest degradation. From 8 to 10 September 2009 a technical meeting was held at FAO headquarters in Rome to review the results and to recommend actions to improve measurement, assessment and reporting on forest degradation. Participants included all the contributors to the study and representatives of international agencies. The ECUGUVWFKGUCPFCPCPCN[UKUQHFGſPKVKQPUQHHQTGUV degradation were presented and discussed. Working groups then discussed indicators of degradation and proven and promising assessment methodologies in more detail. A session was also held on forest degradation and climate change.

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)TQYKPIXKUKDKNKV[HQTHQTGUVUKPENKOCVGFKUEWUUKQPU and positive incentives in REDD-plus in the AWG-LCA Good progress was made on forest issues at the climate change discussions. The draft text outlines principles, safeguards, scope meetings held in Copenhagen, Denmark from 7 to 18 December and a phased approach for implementing REDD-plus actions 2009, even though the outcomes were generally disappointing in under a UNFCCC instrument. It requests SBSTA to identify most other respects. drivers of deforestation and to work on methodologies to estimate #VVJGſHVGGPVJUGUUKQPQHVJG%QPHGTGPEGQHVJG2CTVKGU emissions and removals and assess mitigation potential, and (COP 15) to the United Nations Framework Convention on calls for coordination of REDD-plus activities among those Climate Change (UNFCCC), the two ad hoc bodies tasked with supporting them. Issues still to be resolved include national versus delivering a follow-up to the Kyoto Protocol and agreement on subnational approaches to REDD-plus; measurement, reporting further action under the convention – the Ad Hoc Working Group CPFXGTKſECVKQPQHFGXGNQRGFEQWPVT[UWRRQTVVJGTGNCVKQPUJKR on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto between REDD-plus and nationally appropriate mitigation actions Protocol (AWG-KP) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term 0#/#U CPFVJGſPCPEKPIOQFCNKV[ HWPFXGTUWUOCTMGVDCUGFQT Cooperative Action under the Convention (AWG-LCA) – were mixed). unable to conclude their work, and their terms were extended. The Negotiations of AWG-KP on land use, land use change and Copenhagen Accord was “noted” but not approved. Parties agreed forestry (LULUCF) in industrialized (Annex 1) countries addressed to notify the UNFCCC Secretariat of their wish to associate with the rules relating to accounting of greenhouse gas emissions and the accord and their mitigation targets or activities by 31 January removals. Key issues include accounting for forest management 2010. activities and for carbon in harvested wood products. AWG-KP The Copenhagen Accord recognizes the importance of holding also discussed the proposal to broaden the scope of activities the increase in global temperature to 2°C. However, no aggregate eligible for Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects. The emission reduction commitments were agreed. Countries draft text calls on SBSTA to begin exploring ways to move towards pledged funding of US$30 billion for the 2010–2012 period and more comprehensive accounting of greenhouse gas emissions and up to US$100 billion a year from 2020. The accord called for the removals by sinks by LULUCF activities. establishment of the Copenhagen Green Climate Fund. Regarding adaptation, the draft AWG-LCA text calls for a The Copenhagen Accord includes the following text on reducing Copenhagen adaptation framework or programme, under which emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD): “We action would be initiated by countries. Aspects that remain recognize the crucial role of reducing emissions from deforestation undecided, however, include institutional structures (new versus and forest degradation and the need to enhance removals of existing) and the establishment of an insurance mechanism for greenhouse gas emission by forests and agree on the need to climate change–induced losses. Agreement seemed clear on the provide positive incentives to such actions through the immediate need for enhanced regional cooperation on adaptation, and the establishment of a mechanism including REDD-plus, to enable the draft AWG-LCA text calls for establishment of regional adaptation OQDKNK\CVKQPQHſPCPEKCNTGUQWTEGUHTQOFGXGNQRGFEQWPVTKGUŒ “centres” or “platforms”. During the meetings, six countries (Australia, France, Japan, On 13 December 2009, the Government of Denmark and the Norway, the United Kingdom and the United States of America) Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) with the collectively agreed to dedicate US$3.5 billion “as initial public other members of the Collaborative Partnership on Forests ſPCPEGVQYCTFUUNQYKPIJCNVKPICPFGXGPVWCNN[TGXGTUKPI (CPF) co-hosted Forest Day 3, attended by 1 600 participants. deforestation in developing countries”. It included three subplenary sessions (on mitigation, adaptation The COP adopted a decision on methodological guidance and forest degradation) and eight parallel learning events. This for REDD-plus (covering REDD plus conservation, sustainable Forest Day, as did the previous two, provided an opportunity to management of forests and enhancement of forest stocks). The extend messages from the forestry community to the UNFCCC FGEKUKQPTGƀGEVKPIVJGQWVEQOGQHUGXGTCN[GCTUQHYQTMWPFGT discussions. 70(%%%ŏU5WDUKFKCT[$QF[HQT5EKGPVKſECPF6GEJPQNQIKECN Though inconclusive, the Copenhagen meetings were Advice (SBSTA), requests Parties to identify drivers of UKIPKſECPVHQTVJGHQTGUVUGEVQT2QNKVKECNXKUKDKNKV[HQTHQTGUVUKU deforestation and forest degradation; to identify REDD-plus actions at an all-time high. The focus on adaptation and mitigation has to take; to use the most recent Intergovernment Panel on Climate become more balanced. It appears likely that REDD-plus funding Change (IPCC) guidance and guidelines for carbon accounting; could increase dramatically in the short term; as a consequence, to establish national forest monitoring systems; and to engage capacity strengthening for developing countries will take on indigenous people and local communities in monitoring and increased urgency. Proposed changes related to LULUCF reporting. It also calls for stronger capacity building and increased accounting and offset rules have the potential to improve forest coordination of support. management and increase forest-based mitigation in developed Good progress was made on negotiations on policy approaches countries as well.

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+PVGTPCVKQPCN;GCTQH$KQFKXGTUKV[ FGNKXGTKPICYKFGTCPIGQHDGPGſVUKPENWFKPIKPETGCUGFUQKNHGTVKNKV[ As many as 13 million different living species, including plants, absorption of atmospheric carbon and restoration of degraded land. animals and bacteria, share the earth; only 1.75 million of these The science and practice of agroforestry offer useful directions have been named and recorded. This incredible natural wealth in solving the problem of how to feed a growing population while is a priceless treasure forming the ultimate foundation of human protecting the environment. Forests and trees in agricultural well-being. landscapes are central to sustainable agriculture. The practice Safeguarding biodiversity and reducing biodiversity loss are of conservation agriculture and increasing tree cover on farms vital for current and future human well-being. To raise global can also offer prospects to smallholder farmers for diversifying awareness and increase understanding of the crucial role that livelihoods and incomes via emerging carbon markets. biodiversity plays in sustaining life on Earth, the United Nations “Agroforestry, the future of global land use” was the theme of the has proclaimed 2010 as the International Year of Biodiversity. At second World Congress of Agroforestry, cohosted by the World VJGQHſEKCNNCWPEJQHVJG[GCTQP,CPWCT[7PKVGF0CVKQPU Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) and the United Nations Environment Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon proclaimed the need for a new Programme (UNEP) in Nairobi, Kenya from 23 to 28 August 2009. biodiversity vision and called upon every country and every citizen The congress attracted almost 1 200 researchers, educators, of the planet to engage in a global alliance to protect life on earth. practitioners and policy-makers from around the world, who came The celebrations for the International Year of Biodiversity are led to share new research ideas and experiences, explore partnership by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), opportunities and strengthen communities of practice, while with numerous partners. Throughout the year countless initiatives strengthening links between science and policy. will be organized to disseminate information, promote the The congress had three subthemes: food security and protection of biodiversity and encourage organizations, institutions, livelihoods; conservation and rehabilitation of natural resources; companies and individuals to take direct action to reduce the and policies and institutions. constant loss of biological diversity worldwide. A clear message that came out of the congress was that over the Under the slogan “Biodiversity is life. Biodiversity is our life”, the past 30 years, agroforestry has matured into a robust, science- celebration of the year draws attention to four key messages: based discipline, and a land use that can address many of the • Humans are part of nature’s rich diversity and have the power world’s most pressing problems. to protect or destroy it. The question therefore arises of why, although the number of • Biodiversity, the variety of life on earth, is essential to trees on farms is steadily increasing, agroforestry is not being sustaining the living networks and systems that provide all adopted more widely and rapidly. The congress attributed this in people with health, wealth, food, fuel and the vital services that RCTVVQVJGHCKNWTGQHCITQHQTGUVGTUVQEQOOWPKECVGVJGDGPGſVUQH their lives depend on. agroforestry in a compelling and intelligible way to policy-makers, • Human activities – felling or burning of forests, removal of politicians and the public. The importance of good public relations OCPITQXGUKPVGPUKXGHCTOKPIRQNNWVKQPUVTGUUQXGTſUJKPI was highlighted. and the impacts of climate change – are causing the diversity In the Congress Declaration, the participants expressed their of life on earth to be lost at a greatly accelerated rate. These belief that widespread scaling-up of agroforestry innovations losses are irreversible, impoverish everyone and damage the during the next decade could greatly facilitate the success of life support systems people rely on every day. But they can be global commitments and conventions such as the United Nations prevented. Millennium Development Goals and the conventions on biological • The International Year of Biodiversity provides an occasion FKXGTUKV[ENKOCVGEJCPIGCPFEQODCVKPIFGUGTVKſECVKQP6JG VQTGƀGEVQPRTKQTCEJKGXGOGPVUVQUCHGIWCTFDKQFKXGTUKV[ declaration included the following proposals: and to focus on the urgency of challenges for the future. The xvigorous development of cross-sectoral policy and institutional International Year of Biodiversity is a chance to prove the will frameworks that support agroforestry at regional and national to stop the losses. levels in the context of development strategies and multilateral For more information, see: www.cbd.int/2010 environmental agreements; xenhanced public and private investment in agroforestry initiatives, including research, education and development; 5GEQPF9QTNF%QPITGUUQH#ITQHQTGUVT[ xaccelerated development of methodologies for measuring, In tropical countries, agricultural expansion is often a cause of valuing and monitoring ecosystem services provided by deforestation. But farming and forests do not have to be mutually agroforestry; exclusive. Agroforestry has a key role in addressing the challenges xenhanced research and development in tree domestication, of food security that are inevitable with the world’s rapid population genetic improvement, use of biotic resources and value growth, while contributing to rural livelihood improvement and adding to agroforestry products at all levels;

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xexpansion of choices available for women and vulnerable groups to further increase their access to land and tree-based products and services; xconcerted efforts to popularize the deployment of agroforestry through an integrated, interdisciplinary, multi-institutional and multistakeholder approach; xKORTQXGFEQOOWPKECVKQPCDQWVVJGDGPGſVUQHCITQHQTGUVT[ for social, economic, cultural, ecological and environmental sustainability; xincreased recognition of agroforestry as an important area of

investment for , biodiversity conservation, L. DAMMERT climate change mitigation and adaptation, and improved food and nutritional security. Further information is available at: www.worldagroforestry. org/WCA2009 Strict laws, or royal decrees, now protect the existing forests and suitable areas. The development of tourism, for instance, is not allowed to disturb mangrove forests. Only careful ecotourism #ODKVKQWUOCPITQXGCHHQTGUVCVKQPRTQITCOOGKP such as birdwatching is allowed on a small scale. Any coastal 1OCP development must be at least 50 m above the highest tide and 1OCPJCUKPVGPUKſGFKVUOCPITQXGCHHQTGUVCVKQPRTQITCOOGQXGT 150 m from any lagoon. the past several years, in the wake of hard evidence of the vital Education and awareness raising for the population is a very coastal protection that mangroves provide. The tropical cyclone important part of the mangrove afforestation strategy. The Gonu devastated large areas on the coast of Oman in June 2007, importance of mangroves is stressed in newspapers, magazines leaving 70 people dead. It also damaged parts of the mangrove and posters. Schools provide regular environmental education for forests around the capital and in the Qurum (“mangrove”) area of children. The Omani Women’s Association is very active in this the city. But the surviving mangrove forests protected the coastal ſGNF CTGCUCICKPUVVJGVKFCNYCXGUƀQQFKPICPFKPNCPFKPVTWUKQPQHUCNV 1PGQHVJGCTGCUKFGPVKſGFHQTKOOGFKCVGVTCPURNCPVCVKQPQH water. mangroves is the island of Mahout, located about 400 km south of Oman has 1 700 km of coastline, which was densely covered /WUECVYJKEJKUVJGUGCVQHVJG5WNVCPCVGŏUUJTKORſUJGT[EGPVTG by mangroves in ancient times. Human activities – cattle herding, 6JG1OCPKUJQRGVJCVſUJKPIYKNNIGPGTCVGKPEQOGKPVJGRQUVQKN fuelwood collection, building and agriculture – reduced these years. In recent years, the catches of economically valued species forests to some isolated areas around lagoons, inlets, tidal JCXGCNNFGENKPGFUKIPKſECPVN[VJTQWIJQXGTſUJKPI KPENWFKPIſUJKPI channels and islands. The Marine Environmental Conservation by foreign vessels) and reduction in mangroves. Sustainable Department in the Ministry of Environment started a mangrove ſUJGTKGUJQYGXGTJCXGITGCVRQVGPVKCNCPFVJGOCPITQXGHQTGUVU conservation programme in 2000 with support from the Japan RNC[CPKORQTVCPVRCTVKPGHHQTVUVQEQPUGTXGCPFFGXGNQRVJGſUJ International Cooperation Agency (JICA). A master plan for UVQEMUKPVJGEQWPVT[ŏUTKEJſUJKPIITQWPFU/CPITQXGUKPVJG3WTWO mangrove afforestation was drafted in 2002. JICA also helped Reserve and Mahout are nursery grounds for juveniles of many GUVCDNKUJ1OCPŏUſTUVRGTOCPGPVRWORKTTKICVGFOCPITQXG EQOOGTEKCNſUJKPENWFKPIOWNNGVOKNMſUJUPCRRGTCPFUGCDTGCO PWTUGT[KP3WTWOCPFRTQXKFGFVJGſTUVUGGFNKPIU L. Dammert ([email protected]) Today there are four nurseries, both pump irrigated and tidal irrigated, and the planting and soil preparation work continues. In connection with the JICA aid, over 250 000 seedling pots were 5EKGPEGVTCKPKPIYQTMUJQRUGGMUVQKPVGITCVGPGY planted. After that, the Omanis continued the work. Between 2000 EQPEGRVUKPVQ%QPIQ$CUKPHQTGUVOCPCIGOGPV and spring 2009, over 418 000 transplantable seeds had been The Congo Basin holds the second largest primary tropical forest raised in the four nurseries. Trees have been planted all along in the world. Home to an immense biodiversity, the Congo Basin the coast wherever possible. Some of the plantations have now forest is a source of subsistence for local populations, and of become self-seeding. In the coastal area, there are at present income and wealth to the region through the export of wood and only some 1 000 ha of mangrove forests, but much more can non-wood products. At the regional scale, the Congo Basin forest be created. The most common mangrove species in Oman is KPƀWGPEGUENKOCVGVJTQWIJKVUEQPVTKDWVKQPVQVJGJ[FTQNQIKECNE[ENG Avicennia marina, which is also the dominant species along the At the global scale, this forest basin mitigates climate change by coasts of the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea. sequestering carbon in its biomass.

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#VVJGUVCTVQHVJGVYGPV[ſTUVEGPVWT[VJG%QPIQ$CUKPHQTGUVKU to the Network of Central African Forestry and Environmental WPFGTCFQWDNGVJTGCV6JGſTUVOQTGCRRCTGPVEQOGUHTQOVJG Training Institutions (RIFFEAC) for the inclusion of new concepts direct pressure of human activities. The second and less apparent into the curriculum. Recommendations were also produced for threat is linked to climate and global changes and the ensuing the Central African Forest Commission (COMIFAC) and for perturbations to the ecosystem dynamics of this forest, including national governments for the inclusion of biodiversity and climate the century-long equilibrium with the extensive human use of its change concerns in subregional priorities. Finally, the workshop resources. GPCDNGFVJGGUVCDNKUJOGPVQHUVTQPIUEKGPVKſEEQNNCDQTCVKQPU Within this context, the École Nationale des Eaux et Forêts between Canadian and Congo Basin researchers on the practice (ENEF, Gabon) and Université Laval organized the subregional of and ecoagriculture and on the adaptation to climate science training workshop Linking Ecoagriculture, Ecoforestry, change. Biodiversity and Climate Change in the Congo Basin, held in This workshop was held as part of the project “Appui à la Libreville, Gabon from 4 to 8 January 2010, for researchers and Formation en Gestion des Ressources Naturelles dans le Bassin teachers involved in forestry training in the Congo Basin subregion FW%QPIQŒſPCPEGFD[VJG%CPCFKCP+PVGTPCVKQPCN&GXGNQROGPV at the university and technical levels. Over 50 participants from Agency (CIDA). The project has as its objective to increase Canada, Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the number of trained specialists in tropical ecoforestry and Gabon, including specialists, researchers, teachers and high-level ecoagriculture in the subregion in order to help meet the twenty- civil servants, examined the linkages between ecoagriculture, ſTUVEGPVWT[EJCNNGPIGUKPVJGOCPCIGOGPVQHPCVWTCNTGUQWTEGUKP ecoforestry, biodiversity and climate change, as well as issues the Congo Basin. related to the conservation and ecosystem management of Congo The workshop was also supported by the Center for Forest Basin forests. The workshop also covered issues related to the Research (Canada), Natural Resources Canada and the German Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and reducing deforestation #IGPE[HQT6GEJPKECN%QQRGTCVKQP )6<  and forest degradation (REDD), as well as socio-economic and For further information, please contact the project coordinator: cultural aspects of sustainable forest management. [email protected] As part of its outputs, the workshop produced recommendations

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resource-poor small-scale farmers and local communities in low- and middle-income countries, is intended to raise awareness about rural livelihood opportunities arising from non-wood forest products (NWFPs). It explores the sustainable and complementary contribution that NWFPs can make to livelihoods through subsistence and trade, and provides advice about how the right support and services can help promote NWFPs as a successful NKXGNKJQQFQRVKQP+VGZCOKPGUVJGRQVGPVKCNDGPGſVUHCTOGT requirements and constraints, and critical success factors in NWFP-based activities. An introduction outlining the history of NWFPs, their current status and their role in improving rural livelihoods is followed by an overview of the many NWFPs and their principal uses. /CPCIKPIEQPƀKEVUDGVYGGPRGQRNGCPFYKNFNKHG Subsequent chapters address NWFP assets for sustainable *WOCPYKNFNKHGEQPƀKEVKP#HTKECŌECWUGUEQPUGSWGPEGUCPFOCPCIGOGPVUVTCVGIKGU NKXGNKJQQFUŌPCVWTCNUQEKCNJWOCPRJ[UKECNCPFſPCPEKCN F. Lamarque, J. Anderson, R. Fergusson, M. Lagrange, Y. Osei-Owusu & L. Bakker. – and NWFP value chains, covering stages from production to 2009. FAO Forestry Paper No. 157. Rome, FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-106372-9. harvesting, post-harvest, transport, processing and marketing. %QPƀKEVUDGVYGGPJWOCPUCPFYKNFNKHGJCXGQEEWTTGFUKPEGVJG The publication next examines strategies for successful NWFP dawn of humanity. Impacts include human injuries and deaths, trade. This chapter explores sustainable management of the crop destruction, attacks on domestic animals, transmission of natural resources; social assets and personal skills for successful disease to livestock or humans, and threats to other plant and trade; value chain analysis; improving physical access, transport animal species (particularly those that are endangered or highly and communication; support and services to help promote valuable). NWFPs; and policy, assistance and extension. While smaller animals present in vast numbers, such as birds, 6JG(#1&KXGTUKſECVKQP$QQMNGVUGTKGURTQſNGUHCTOQTPQPHCTO grasscutters and locusts, may actually have greater impact, enterprises that can be integrated into small farms to increase the larger herbivores (elephants, buffalo and hippopotamus), incomes and enhance livelihoods, based on their suitability in mammalian carnivores (lions, leopards, cheetahs, spotted hyenas terms of resource requirements, costs, exposure to risk and and wild dogs) and crocodiles are generally seen as more complexity. Most volumes emphasize products or services aimed threatening to humans and are the focus of this book. at local markets. However, the present booklet also considers This book presents the issues, describes many different methods export markets, because international market demand for NWFPs QHEQPƀKEVOCPCIGOGPVCPFQWVNKPGUCVJTGGUVGRHTCOGYQTMHQT KPƀWGPEGUUOCNNGPVGTRTKUGFGXGNQROGPVCPFNQECNOCTMGVU decision-making. After a global introduction, the text focuses on In addition to helping service providers support small-scale #HTKECYJGTGJWOCPYKNFNKHGEQPƀKEVUCTGRCTVKEWNCTN[RTGXCNGPV#PF farmers in exploring new opportunities, this publication also they have become more frequent and severe over recent decades suggests actions that policy-makers and programme managers in as a result of human population growth, extension of transport government and non-governmental organizations can take to help routes and expansion of agricultural and industrial activities, which create enabling environments for small-scale farmers to diversify together have led to increased human encroachment on previously their income-generating activities. wild and uninhabited areas. *WOCPYKNFNKHGEQPƀKEVGZKUVUKPQPGHQTOQTCPQVJGTCNNQXGTVJG world. Thus this publication will be of interest beyond Africa. Its audience will include wildlife practitioners, development workers and researchers, local, regional and national authorities, and ultimately anybody keen to learn more about the issue.

2TQOQVKPIPQPYQQFHQTGUVRTQFWEVUVQFKXGTUKH[ farmers’ livelihoods Non-farm income from non-wood forest products. E. Marshall & C. Chandrasekharan.

(#1&KXGTUKſECVKQP$QQMNGV0Q4QOG(#1+5$0 This short publication, aimed at people and organizations that provide advisory, business and technical support services to

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+ORNKECVKQPUQHHQTGUVIQXGTPCPEGTGHQTOKP#HTKEC Governing Africa’s forests in a globalized world. L.A. German, A. Karsenty & A.-M. Tiani, eds. 2010. London, UK, Earthscan. ISBN 978-1-84407-756-4. Many countries in Africa, as elsewhere in the world, are engaged in processes to decentralize forest management. Yet most African countries continue to face serious problems of forest IQXGTPCPEGHTQOKPGSWKVCDNGDGPGſVUJCTKPIVQWPUWUVCKPCDNG forest management and illegal activities. This book summarizes experiences and outcomes of decentralization to date and explores the viability of different governance instruments in the context of expanding commercial pressures on forests. After an introductory section framing the evolution of forest governance in Africa, Part II addresses the different forms and %WTTGPVKUUWGUHQTRNCPVGFHQTGUVU outcomes of decentralized forest management, emphasizing 2NCPVGFHQTGUVUŌWUGUKORCEVUCPFUWUVCKPCDKNKV[J. Evans, ed. 2009. Wallingford, livelihoods, sustainability of natural resource use, gender issues, UK, CAB International (CABI) & FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-106222-7 (FAO), 978-1 84593 RCTVKEKRCVKQPCPFFKUVTKDWVKQPQHDGPGſVU5RGEKſEECUGUCTG 564 1 (CABI). presented from Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Although planted forests make up only 7 percent of the world’s Madagascar, Mali, Senegal, South Africa, Uganda, the United forest resources, they have superseded naturally regenerating 4GRWDNKEQH6CP\CPKCCPF

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products in the market, both from international and national buyer groups and from community forest producers. The experiences described in this publication suggest that the main prerequisites for successful trade with communities include the formation of strong community business organizations and the stepwise development of community forest management and business capacity. The experience of the fair trade movement in addressing these issues makes it logical to build better links between forestry and fair trade.

.KPMUDGVYGGPHQTGUVUCPFJWOCPJGCNVJ *WOCPJGCNVJCPFHQTGUVUŌCINQDCNQXGTXKGYQHKUUWGURTCEVKEGCPFRQNKE[C.J.P. Colfer, ed. 2008. People and Plants International Conservation Series. London, UK, %QPPGEVKPIHQTGUVEGTVKſECVKQPCPFHCKTVTCFGVQ Earthscan. ISBN 978-1-84407-532-4. UWRRQTVEQOOWPKV[RTQFWEGTU The relationship between the health of the world’s forests and the Distinguishing community forest products in the market: industrial demand for a health of the hundreds of millions of people who live and work

OGEJCPKUOVJCVDTKPIUVQIGVJGTHQTGUVEGTVKſECVKQPCPFHCKTVTCFGD. Macqueen, A. Dufey, in them is a topic that researchers have only recently begun to A.P. Cota Gomes, N. Sanchez Hidalgo, M.R. Nouer, R. Pasos, L.A. Argüelles Suárez, examine. This book is a comprehensive introduction to the issues

85WDGPFTCPCVJCP<*)CTEÈC6TWLKNNQ58GTOGWNGP/FG#NOGKFC8QKXQFKE surrounding the health of people living in and around forests, E. Wilson. 2008. Small and Medium Forestry Enterprise No. 22. Edinburgh, UK, particularly in Asia, South America and Africa. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). ISBN 978-1-84369-682-7. Part I presents a set of policy, public health, environmental Evidence increasingly shows that small forest enterprises, conservation and ecological perspectives on health and forests. especially those democratically managed by communities, have Chapters focus on medicinal plants, nutrition, woodfuel, women’s more potential for reducing poverty than large-scale commercial and children’s health, and tropical forest diseases such as Ebola, forestry, even though policy and practice often favour the latter. Nipah encephalitis and malaria. Part II features four case studies: *QYGXGTXQNWPVCT[OCTMGVOGEJCPKUOUUWEJCUEGTVKſECVKQP on the links between HIV/AIDS and the forest sector; on forest JCXGPQV[GVJGNRGFEQOOWPKV[GPVGTRTKUGUQPCUKIPKſECPVUECNG disturbance and health risk to the Yanomani in the Amazon region; Community forest producers must match what the buyer wants, on biodiversity, environment and health issues among rainforest often in competition with other more powerful, better informed dwellers around the world; and on links between diet and health. CPFDGVVGTſPCPEGFGPVGTRTKUGU6JKUTGRQTVCUMUYJGVJGTKVOKIJV 2CTV+++NQQMUCVVJGURGEKſEEJCNNGPIGUVQJGCNVJECTGFGNKXGT[ be possible to develop a mechanism to bring together forest in forested areas, including remoteness and the integration of EGTVKſECVKQPCPFHCKTVTCFGKPVJGVKODGTOCTMGVVQGPCDNGGVJKECN traditional medicine with modern health care. consumers to distinguish responsibly produced community forest The book concludes with a synthesis designed to enable products in the market so as to open up new market niches in practitioners and policy-makers to work with forest dwellers to support of small forest enterprise. improve their health and their ecosystems. 6JGRWDNKECVKQPſTUVFGUETKDGUVJGTGUWNVUQHCPKPVGTPCVKQPCN This publication will be a vital addition to the knowledge base of demand survey of timber buyers in 21 countries. It showed that of professionals, academics and students working on forests, natural more than 180 companies known for their social or environmental resources management, health and development worldwide. interest, over two-thirds were interested in principle in the idea of distinguishing community forest products in the market. Their interest was mainly based on increasing customer demand for knowledge about the sustainability of fair trade timber items. Next, the publication presents four case studies on the demand for community forest products in Brazil, Guatemala, Mexico and Papua New Guinea, based on literature reviews and interviews along value chains involving community forest producers. In each country, one value chain was reviewed in more detail, to determine whether and how a mechanism to distinguish community forest RTQFWEVUOKIJVDGFGXGNQRGFHQTVJGDGPGſVQHVJQUGKPXQNXGF 6JGTGRQTVEQPENWFGUVJCVVJGTGFQGUUGGOVQDGUKIPKſECPV demand for a mechanism to credibly distinguish community forest

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