Nicholas Gardin 12 February 2018

(Pictured: ABOVE- Louis Henry Sullivan) Louis Henry Sullivan

Louis Henry Sullivan was born in Boston, Massachusetts on September 3rd, 1856. His father was an Irish immigrant named Patrick Sullivan and his mother was Andrienne List, a

Swiss immigrant. They had immigrated to the United States in the late 1840s-early 1850s before meeting and getting married in 1852. Louis was the second child, preceded by his brother,

Albert Walter Sullivan.1 Living in the city, but spending a lot of time on his grandparents’ farm,

Louis Sullivan developed an acute attention to detail and its natural forms and functions. His understanding of these forms and functions in his architecture can be attributed to the time he spent on the farm as a child. Later in life, Sullivan coined the phrase, “Form follows function”, which was an important, influential precedence in his design work and the architectural period

1 Berman, Andrew. “The Death and Life of Louis Sullivan.” ​

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that he was active during. He had developed an interest in looking at buildings throughout

2 Boston, specifically the Masonic Temple on Tremont and Boylston Street.

(Pictured: LEFT: Masonic Temple)

In his own account in his autobiography, Sullivan remembers seeing, “...a large man of dignified bearing, with beard, top hat, and frock coat, come out of a nearby building, enter his carriage, and signal the coachman to drive on.”3 Upon discovering that this dignified man was an architect, Louis Sullivan promptly decided that he wanted to be an architect as well.

After childhood, Sullivan began to attend the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

(M.I.T.) in 1872. This was the first architecture school in the United States, which had only opened in 1865. He was 16 years old when he began studying architecture at M.I.T. However, by the end of the school year, Sullivan left the university and began working at Furness &

Hewitt, which was an architecture company in Philadelphia founded by Frank Furness and

George W. Hewitt. It was here that he was able to get his first interaction with architectural design outside of M.I.T. Furness’s style of architecture has been described as eclectic and

2 Morrison, Hugh. Louis Sullivan: Prophet of Modern Architecture ​ ​ 3 Sullivan, Louis Henry. The Autobiography of an Idea. ​ ​ ​ Gardin 3

rejected the ideals of classicism and Neo-Romanesque and Neo-Gothic styles.4 Sullivan acquired his taste for something different and unique compared to the styles around him while working here. He only stayed with Furness & Hewitt for a little while until The Financial Panic of 1873 hit and Sullivan decided to head off to Chicago, where his parents had moved to. He worked with famous architect, William Le Baron Jenney, but soon decided he must go to Paris to study at Ecole des Beaux Arts, but only for a year, before returning to Chicago in 1875.5

(Pictured: LEFT- Adler & Sullivan office glass)

Sullivan became a junior partner to Johnston and Edelmann, and it was Edelmann who introduced Louis Sullivan to Dankmar Adler, who would become Sullivan’s business partner in

1881 after working in Adler’s office starting in 1879, forming Adler & Sullivan. The design and construction of the Auditorium Building in Chicago in 1886 marks the beginning of Sullivan’s

4 Koeper, H.F. “Louis Sullivan.” ​ 5 Van Zanten, David. Sullivan’s City: The Meaning of Ornament for Louis Sullivan. ​ ​ Gardin 4

maturity in architecture. This building was a compilation of an office building, hotel, and a theater. It was the tallest building in the United States at the time, standing at 17 stories tall. The design of the structure was to have load bearing outer walls of steel, which left the interior space to be open and more variety available for the layout. There was inspiration drawn from the

Marshall Field Warehouse designed by H. H. Richardson. Adler handled figuring out the engineering feats of the building, such as designing the foundation and skeleton, while the ornamentation and aesthetics were left to Sullivan.6 Frank Lloyd Wright was a draftsman for

Adler and Sullivan during the design and construction of this building, and is said to have been influenced by Sullivan’s taste for natural design and form following function. 7

(Pictured: BELOW LEFT- Auditorium Building, BELOW RIGHT- Marshall Field Warehouse)

The exterior is considered to be “Richardson Romanesque” in its style of large, geometric block at the base levels of the building, and appearance of arches above the windows.

Originally, terra-cotta was to cover the outside of the building, but this was changed to granite and limestone partway through the construction process. The auditorium’s ornamentation has many elements of nature and natural form, and around 3,500 light bulbs, which were a new

6 Stott, Rory. “Spotlight: Louis Sullivan .” ​ 7 Sullivan, Louis Henry. The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered. ​ ​ Gardin 5

addition to buildings at that time. Due to the Chicago Fire in 1871, the ornamentation inside of the building was mostly sculpted and cast plaster, which was much more resilient to fire than wood. The floor of the auditorium was also convertible to be the same height as the stage, which meant the room could be used for a ballroom or dining hall. The grand scale of the building, along with its multi-use as a theater, hotel, and office building had not been previously attempted. Because of this, Louis Sullivan was really able to make a name for himself for the first time. This opportunity acted as a jumping point for Sullivan’s career, which prompted other businessmen throughout the city to hire Adler and Sullivan to be the architects to design and construct many more buildings and structures.8

(Pictured: ABOVE- Interior of Auditorium Building)

The Wainwright Building, built in 1889 in St. Louis, Mississippi, is considered Sullivan’s most important design. This building is known as the first successful use of a steel frame for its construction. For the facade of the first two floors, brown sandstone was used, followed by terra-cotta for the next seven floors, and then the cornice being decorated with circular windows

8 Manieri-Elia, Mario. Sullivan, Louis H. Louis Henry Sullivan ​ ​ Gardin 6

surrounded by plantlife. The building also features an overhanging roof, which became a characteristic design aesthetic of Sullivan’s.9

(Pictured: ABOVE- exterior of Wainwright Building)

9 Bright, Wendy. “A Not-So-Brief History of a Chicago Landmark: The Sullivan Center.” ​ Chicago Architecture Gardin 7

(Pictured: ABOVE- Cornice detail of Wainwright Building)

The bottom two floors were storefronts, which is why Sullivan designed the windows to be large and inviting, and let large amounts of natural lighting into the stores. Above the stores were offices. Between the windows of the offices, there are ornate plates of the terra-cotta between the windows that feature plant life, much like the cornice at the top. All of the windows were slightly inset so as to not disrupt the vertical power that the building held. The top of the building held the water heaters and other equipment that ran the building, which is why the windows are relatively small and the most ornate section of the building. Given the shape of the building and its architectural detail of the base, shaft, and attic, connections can be made to say that it is reminiscent of a column. Sullivan’s emphasis for tallness and grand scale is touched on in an article written by himself in 1896: “What is the chief characteristic of the tall office building? And at once we answer, it is lofty. This loftiness is to the artist-nature its thrilling aspect … It must be tall, every inch of it tall … It must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exaltation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line...” 10

10 Sullivan, Louis Henry. The Autobiography of an Idea. ​ ​ ​ Gardin 8

(Pictured: ABOVE- famous quote by Louis Sullivan)

Also within the article, Sullivan dives into his famous philosophy of “Form ever follows function”. He discusses that in nature, everything has its own distinct look, such as a tree or a fish, that is immediately identifiable. Within this identity, the function is captured as well. The fish looks the way it does because its functions have shaped its appearance in order for the fish to be able to sustain itself. Following this, Sullivan then argues that the same principles apply to buildings as well, specifically the tall office building in this case. His argument is that one should be able to look at an office building and know that it is an office building even before entering, because its function has dictated its look to be as it is. If the function of the building changes, then so does its form, in order to suit the new functions’ needs. It is also said by

Sullivan that the multiple layers of a building must work together to form a coherent structure, rather than each layer looking as though it is its own building.11 These philosophies are ones that

11 Stott, Rory. “Spotlight: Louis Sullivan .” ​ Gardin 9

has been echoed throughout all of Sullivan’s work, making his architecture clearly distinguishable and characteristic.12

The Columbian Exposition was held in Chicago, Illinois in 1893, and opted to focus the architecture on more classical styles such as Beaux Arts, rather than expanding on the up-and-coming architecture that was developing at the time. The designs of the buildings being white gave the exposition the nickname, “The White City.” Sullivan was greatly disappointed at this decision, and decided to not conform to the stark white designs of the other buildings.

Instead, Adler & Sullivan designed a building that was grand and boldly painted, called the

Transportation Building.13 (Pictured: BELOW- Transportation Building)

Here, displays showcased various forms of transportation from around the world. There were displays of cars, trains, bikes, motorcycles, ect. from countries lined against the walls of the long building, forming what operated as a nine-hundred-sixty feet by two-hundred-fifty feet long hallway. The hall rose to a grand clerestory which was was supported by colonnades that also aided in separating the different categories of transportation of the exhibits. 14

12 Sullivan, Louis Henry. The Autobiography of an Idea. ​ ​ ​ 13 Sullivan, Louis Henry. The Public Papers. ​ ​ 14 Sullivan, Louis Henry. The Public Papers. ​ ​ Gardin 10

(Pictured: ABOVE: Interior Exhibit of Transportation Building)

Directly behind the main building, The Baltimore & Ohio Railway Company exhibited

"The Railways Of The World" in a large annex. The exterior features ornamentation made up of angels, animals, scenes of nature, and ornate reliefs of plantlife. The claim to fame of the building was its entryway, know as the “Golden Door”. 15

(Pictured: ABOVE- Entrance To The Transportation Building) ​

15 Morrison, Hugh. Louis Sullivan: Prophet of Modern Architecture ​ ​ Gardin 11

This doorway, standing at one-hundred feet wide and seventy feet tall, was a huge visual icon of the fair, as it was gilded in gold leaf and was five layers of arches coming together to form a breathtaking entrance to the exhibition. Amongst the gold were intricate reliefs of sea plant life. The arches hold some similarity to the use of golden arches in the Auditorium

Building that Adler & Sullivan created back in 1886. A commissioner, M. Andre Bouilhet, of the Union Centrale des Arts Decoratifs de Paris was extremely impressed by Sullivan’s work, and coordinated an exhibit of Sullivan’s work, featuring a model of the”Golden Door” and various plaster casts of ornamentation present in a lot of Sullivan’s work.16 Unfortunately,

Sullivan saw the Columbian Exposition as a disaster. He believed that it was a significant setback to architecture. Ending his biography, “The Autobiography of an Idea”, Sullivan says ​ ​ that “the damage wrought by the World’s Fair will last for half a century from its date, if not longer.” 17 He thought that the architecture showcased at the fair became ingrained into the minds of Americans of what modern architecture should be, and therefore did not allow progress to be made. This opinion is one that Sullivan was openly bitter about through the rest of his career, and partially holds it accountable for the eventual decline of his success.18

16 Koeper, H.F. “Louis Sullivan.” ​ 17 Sullivan, Louis Henry. The Autobiography of an Idea. ​ ​ ​ 18 Sullivan, Louis Henry. The Autobiography of an Idea. ​ ​ ​ Gardin 12

( Pictured: LEFT- Guaranty Building)

(Pictured: ABOVE- Entrance to Guaranty Building)

In 1895, the Guaranty Building was designed and built by Adler & Sullivan in Buffalo,

New York. This building was thirteen floors tall and was visually split into three distinct sections, much like the Wainwright Building. There was a basement to this building, however, which held mechanical equipment. The base of the building was once again storefronts, topped Gardin 13

by offices, and then more mechanical equipment for the centralized elevator at the top. The layout of this building shaped it as a large “U” with the bottom part of the “U” being where the elevators, stairs, and mail slots were held. This shape allowed for light to be able to get to the inner offices of the building, which would have been dark, had the building been a rectangle.

The entire outside of the Guaranty Building is covered in terra-cotta. The ornamentation follows strict vertical patterns to help carry the eye up the building, until you reach the ornamentation at the top of branches, leaves, vines, and a variety of nature inspired plant life. Sullivan’s work in ornamentation pulls a lot of influence from Europe, specifically France, and is heavily influenced by the Arts and Crafts aesthetic of embracing nature in the ornamentation. Comparisons can be made between the design of the Guaranty Building and the Wainwright building, due to similarities in the layers, and the circular windows at the top levels of the building. Although the buildings do share a resemblance, a main difference between the two is that the outside of the steel structure of the Guaranty building is entirely covered in terra-cotta, rather than a variety of stone, like the Wainwright. 19

19 Manieri-Elia, Mario. Sullivan, Louis H. Louis Henry Sullivan ​ ​ Gardin 14

(Pictured: LEFT- Carson Pirie Scott Building)

In Chicago, Sullivan, working alone, designed the Carson Pirie Scott Building in 1899.

This building, now called the Sullivan Center, varies slightly from Sullivan’s usual design for tall business buildings. Instead of being tall like his other works, this building was more expansive horizontally because it was a department store. Rather than making room for countless offices, the function for the department store was to be able to have displays and merchandise spread out for customers to see. As usual, however, the building was still split into the base, mid-section, and cornice. The first two floor which form the base are enveloped in dark green cast iron ornamentation. The entrance to the store is on the corner, where State and Madison Street meet, and has three doors which can nearly always be seen when approaching the store from any angle.

This intersection is in the heart of Chicago and is so integral to the city, that in 1908, the intersection became the starting point for the street grid system of Chicago. The cast iron that decorates these doors is cast in the shape of foliage that has a lot of poetry behind it. Sullivan called it “a garment of poetic imagery” because he used nature as a way to offset consumerism. Gardin 15

Walking alongside the building feels as though you are walking through a forest due to the foliage in the ornamentation. The ornamentation on the vestibule resembles mahogany trees, and as you enter the store, you see the columns that are capped with foliage ornamentation as well, continuing the natural aspects within the design. There is a distinct contrast between the base and middle section of the building. In the middle, the exterior is clad in white terra-cotta. There is little to no ornamentation here, though it does feature the “Chicago Windows” which are windows with a large center pane of glass, and two smaller panes on either side.20 The stark difference between the two portions of the building have been compared to one another as being masculine and feminine. 21

(Pictured: ABOVE- Entrance to Carson Pirie Scott Building)

The masculine portion is mathematical and structured, which is the middle portion, and the feminine is organic and nature-centric, which is the bottom of the building. The curve of the cornice at what would be the corner of the building brings the flow of the design around the

20 Berman, Andrew. “The Death and Life of Louis Sullivan.” ​ 21 Morrison, Hugh. Louis Sullivan: Prophet of Modern Architecture ​ ​ Gardin 16

whole structure, uninterrupted. By rounding the “corner” of the building, Sullivan created the illusion that there is a large pillar that joins the building together. 22

The next significant project taken on by Sullivan was the National Farmer’s Bank in

Owatonna, Minnesota in 1907. The red brick on top and sandstone on the entryways building with green bands around it is known as Sullivan’s first “jewelry box” building. It is called this because its look is reminiscent of a decorative jewelry box. 23

(Pictured: ABOVE- National Farmer’s Bank)

The shape was intended to give customers a sense of security that their wealth was in good hands and would be looked after. Being on a corner, there are two street facing entrances to the building, which are capped with large arches that frame the entryways. Once again,

Sullivan has focused on nature as the inspiration for the plant life shaped ornamentation, which occupied the green bands decorating the bank. The two large, arched windows allow plenty of light to enter the building and light up the public portion of the bank’s operations. The bank’s interior ornamentation covered a variety of techniques, such as intricate tile, plaster, terra-cotta, stained glass, mural, iron, metal, and woodwork. Sullivan had other designers and architects

22 Morrison, Hugh. Louis Sullivan: Prophet of Modern Architecture ​ ​ 23 Van Zanten, David. Sullivan’s City: The Meaning of Ornament for Louis Sullivan. ​ ​ ​ Gardin 17

work on some of the ornamentation, such as the four electroliers, which were large chandeliers that resembled blooming flowers that were hung on the ceiling. 24

(Pictured: ABOVE- Interior of National Farmer’s Bank)

Unfortunately for Sullivan, after his departure with Adler, he began receiving less and less work. Accounts of other architects and potential customers report that he was difficult to work with, would never compromise, and gave his opinion where he should not have. These traits, along with economic instability, caused Sullivan to lose a lot of work. As he got older, he designed less, and wrote more. He had to continue to downsize his living and sell off his personal items to the point where he was solely supported by friends and family. He died in

April, 1924, one week after publishing The Autobiography of an Idea and the completion of 19 ​ ​ ​ ​

24 Van Zanten, David. Sullivan’s City: The Meaning of Ornament for Louis Sullivan. ​ ​ ​ Gardin 18

plates for A System of Architectural Ornament According with a Philosophy of Man’s Powers ​ (1924). 25

Sullivan’s ornamentation is an incredible masterpiece to study and really observe the intricacies of his designs. It seemed that he faces a lot of opposition for his work throughout his life, but I believe that it was work well done. Looking at the level of detail and heart he put into his work, how could one dare say anything negative about it? Sullivan is truly a master of the craft and does not receive the credit he deserves.

25 Manieri-Elia, Mario. Sullivan, Louis H. Louis Henry Sullivan ​ ​ Gardin 19

Works Cited:

Berman, Andrew. “The Death and Life of Louis Sullivan.” The Death and Life of Louis Sullivan, ​ ​ gvshp.org/blog/2016/04/14/the-death-and-life-of-louis-sullivan/. Accessed 30 January 2018.

Bright, Wendy. “A Not-So-Brief History of a Chicago Landmark: The Sullivan Center.” Chicago Architecture, 27 Feb. 2013, ​ https://www.chicagoarchitecture.org/2013/02/07/a-not-so-brief-history-of-a-chica go-landmark-the-sullivan-center/. Accessed 5 February 2018. ​

Koeper, H.F. “Louis Sullivan.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 15 ​ ​ Nov. 2017, www.britannica.com/biography/Louis-Sullivan. Accessed 5 February 2018.

Manieri-Elia, Mario. Sullivan, Louis H. Louis Henry Sullivan. Princeton Architectural Press, ​ ​ 1996. Print.

Morrison, Hugh. Louis Sullivan: Prophet of Modern Architecture. W. W. Norton & Company, ​ ​ 2001. Print.

Stott, Rory. “Spotlight: Louis Sullivan .” Arch Daily, 3 Sept. 2017, ​ ​ www.archdaily.com/544355/spotlight-louis-sullivan. Accessed 8 February 2018.

Sullivan, Louis Henry. The Autobiography of an Idea. Edited by Claude Bragdon and Ralph ​ ​ Marlowe Line, Dover Publ., 1980. Print.

Sullivan, Louis Henry. The Public Papers. University of Chicago Press, Apr 14, 1988. Print. ​ ​

Sullivan, Louis Henry. The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered. Getty Research ​ ​ Institute. 1896. Web. Accessed 11 February 2018.

Van Zanten, David. Sullivan’s City: The Meaning of Ornament for Louis Sullivan. W. W. Norton ​ ​ & Company, 2000. Print. Gardin 20

Pictures Cited: (In order of appearance) Title Page of Slideshow: Widdifield, John. Spandrel Panel Detail http://arch329widdifield.blogspot.com/2013/02/louis-sullivan-wainwright-building.html

Page 1: Unknown. Photograph of Louis Henry Sullivan http://arcchicago.blogspot.com/2006/08/louis-sullivan-at-150-new-chicago.html

Page 2: Historic New England. Masonic Temple, Tremont Street at Temple Place, Boston, Mass., 1860-1890.https://www.historicnewengland.org/explore/collections-access/capobject/?ref ​ d=PC001.01.TMP.505

Page 3: The Richard Nickel Committee and Archive. Adler & Sullivan Firm Window Glass. https://www.dwell.com/article/the-architecture-of-adler-and-sullivan-e67f12f5

Page 4: Franklloydwrightfan. Auditorium Building Exterior. https://www.tumblr.com/search/adler%20and%20sullivan.%20auditorium%20building% 20chicago

Turi Di, Dario. Marshall Field Warehouse. http://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/1883/flashcards/634705/jpg/marshall-field-wh olesale.jpg

Page 5: Barnett, Harold C. Auditorium Building. https://buildingchicago.wordpress.com/2013/04/02/first-chicago-school-of-architecture-a uditorium-building/

Unknown. Inside The Auditorium Building, Chicago. https://www.dwell.com/article/the-architecture-of-adler-and-sullivan-e67f12f5

Unknown. Wainwright Exterior. https://i.pinimg.com/236x/53/32/2f/53322fa921c66e78c056c09973ac97c0--louis-sullivan -st-louis.jpg Page 6:

Pflueger, Timothy. Wainwright Building Cornice Gardin 21

https://blog.timothypflueger.com/2010/06/19/searching-for-louis-sullivan/

(Window Detail of Wainwright building in slideshow) Built St. Louis. Historic Downtown Wainwright Building. https://www.builtstlouis.net/opos/wainwright.html

Page 7:

Wind, Mercedesa. Form Ever Follows Function. http://arch-student.com/pin/form-ever-follows-function-quote-by-louis-sullivan/

Page 8: Wikimedia Commons. Transportation Building — Official Views Of The World's Columbian Exposition.https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Transportation_Building_%E2%80 ​ %94_Official_Views_Of_The_World%27s_Columbian_Exposition_%E2%80%94_

Page 9: Wellcome Library, London. Key, J.R. Entrance To The Transportation Building. ​ ​ https://1893fair.weebly.com/transportation-building.html

Friedman Fine Art. Transportation Exhibit Entrance. https://www.friedmanfineart.net/vintage-1893-columbia-exposition-worlds-fair-photogra phs/

Library of Congress. Interior Transportation Building. http://ecuip.lib.uchicago.edu/diglib/social/worldsfair_1893/transcript_15_images-10.html

Page 10: Hodgson Ross. Louis Sullivan’s Guaranty Building. http://www.hodgsonruss.com/Louis-Sullivans-Guaranty-Building.html

Page 11: Wikipedia. Guaranty Building. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prudential_(Guaranty)_Building

Page 13: Blueprint Chicago. Carson Pirie Scott. http://www.blueprintchicago.org/2010/09/29/carson-pirie-scott/

Page 14: ​ Blueprint Chicago. Carson Pirie Scott. http://www.blueprintchicago.org/2010/09/29/carson-pirie-scott/

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Page 15: Wikimedia Commons. National Farmer’s Bank. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OwatonnaBank.JPG

Page 16: Getty Images. Interior of National Farmer’s Bank. https://www.gettyimages.com/detail/photo/interior-view-of-the-main-entrance-to-the-hig h-res-stock-photography/521166086