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Imaging of Pulmonary Hypertension: an Update

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Imaging of Pulmonary Hypertension: an Update 296 Review Article Imaging of pulmonary hypertension: an update Harold Goerne1,2, Kiran Batra3, Prabhakar Rajiah3 1IMSS Centro Medico Nacional De Occidente, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico; 2CID Imaging and Diagnostic Center, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico; 3Radiology Department, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA Contributions: (I) Conception and design: H Goerne, P Rajiah; (II) Administrative support: H Goerne, P Rajiah; (III) Provision of study materials or patients: All authors; (IV) Collection and assembly of data: H Goerne, P Rajiah; (V) Data analysis and interpretation: H Goerne, P Rajiah; (VI) Manuscript writing: All authors; (VII) Final approval of manuscript: All authors. Correspondence to: Prabhakar Rajiah, MD. Associate Professor, Department of Radiology, Cardiothoracic Imaging, UT Southwestern Medical Center, E6.120 B, Mail code 9316, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, TX 75390-8896, USA. Email: [email protected]. Abstract: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is characterized by elevated pulmonary arterial pressure caused by a broad spectrum of congenital and acquired disease processes, which are currently divided into five groups based on the 2013 WHO classification. Imaging plays an important role in the evaluation and management of PH, including diagnosis, establishing etiology, quantification, prognostication and assessment of response to therapy. Multiple imaging modalities are available, including radiographs, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear medicine, echocardiography and invasive catheter angiography (ICA), each with their own advantages and disadvantages. In this article, we review the comprehensive role of imaging in the evaluation of PH. Keywords: Computed tomography (CT); pulmonary; hypertension; dual-energy; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); nuclear Submitted Dec 12, 2017. Accepted for publication Jan 08, 2018. doi: 10.21037/cdt.2018.01.10 View this article at: http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/cdt.2018.01.10 Introduction Classification, pathophysiology and clinical features Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a progressive disorder characterized by elevated pulmonary arterial pressure. It is PH is diagnosed when the mean pulmonary artery pressure caused by a multitude of intrinsic and extrinsic pulmonary (mPAP) is ≥25 mmHg at rest in right heart catheterization vascular disease processes that cause hemodynamic (RHC) (3). PH was earlier classified as primary and alterations which overcome the normal pulmonary secondary types or precapillary and post-capillary types. vasoregulatory mechanisms. PH is an important cause of Precapillary type has low pulmonary capillary wedge mortality and morbidity, accounting for approximately pressure (PCWP) of <15 mmHg, while the post-capillary 200,000 hospitalizations and 15,000 deaths per year in the type has high PCWP >15 mmHg. In 2013, the World USA (1), with an estimated prevalence of 10 to 52 cases Health Organization (WHO) classified PH into five per million (2). Multiple imaging modalities are available, types based on the etiology (Table 1) (4). Group 1 includes including radiograph, echocardiography, nuclear medicine, diseases centered in the small arterioles [pulmonary arterial invasive catheter angiography (ICA), computed tomography hypertension (PAH)]. These are predominantly precapillary (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), each with types, although pulmonary veno-occlusive disease (PVOD) their own advantages and disadvantages. and pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis (PCH), which In this article, we review the comprehensive role of are post-capillary types are also included in this group due imaging in the evaluation of PH. to similar clinical presentation (5). PAH is diagnosed when © Cardiovascular Diagnosis and Therapy. All rights reserved. cdt.amegroups.com Cardiovasc Diagn Ther 2018;8(3):279-296 280 Goerne et al. Pulmonary hypertension Table 1 Causes of pulmonary hypertension (based on Updated classification of pulmonary hypertension from 5th WSPH Nice 2013) (4) No Type Entities 1 Pulmonary arterial 1.1 Idiopathic PAH hypertension 1.2 Heritable PAH (BMPR2, ALK-1, ENG, SMAD9, CAV1, KCNK3, unknown) 1.3 Drug and toxin induced 1.4 Associations with other diseases (connective tissue disease, HIV, portal hypertension, congenital heart disease, schistosomiasis) 1' Pulmonary veno-occlusive disease and/or pulmonary capillary hemangiomatosis 1" Persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn (PPHN) 2 Left heart disease 2.1 Left ventricular systolic dysfunction 2.2 Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction 2.3 Valvular disease 2.4 Congenital/acquired left heart inflow/outflow tract obstruction and congenital cardiomyopathies 3 Lung diseases and/or 3.1 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease hypoxia 3.2 Interstitial lung disease 3.3 Other pulmonary diseases with mixed restrictive and obstructive pattern 3.4 Sleep-disordered breathing 3.5 Alveolar hypoventilation disorders 3.6 Chronic exposure to high altitude 3.7 Developmental lung diseases 4 Chronic thromboembolic – pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) 5 Unclear multifactorial 5.1 Hematologic disorders (chronic hemolytic anemia, myeloproliferative disorders, splenectomy) mechanisms 5.2 Systemic disorders (sarcoidosis, pulmonary histiocytosis, lymphangioleiomyomatosis) 5.3 Metabolic disorders (glycogen storage disease, Gaucher disease, thyroid disorders) 5.4 Others (tumoral obstruction, fibrosing mediastinitis, chronic renal failure, segmental PH) PAH, pulmonary arterial hypertension; PH, pulmonary hypertension. there is high PAP, high PVR (>3 Woods units) and low PCWP and emphysema (5). Group 4 is caused by chronic (<15 mmHg), but without evidence of other precapillary thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension (CTEPH) and types of PH. Group 2 is the most common type in USA (6) other diseases of pulmonary artery obstruction such as and includes disorders of the left heart, including valvular neoplasms, congenital pulmonary artery stenosis, arteritis, and outflow tract obstructive lesions. PH is observed in and hydatid cyst (6). Group 5 involves miscellaneous entities 60–70% of patients with LV dysfunction, either systolic or with unclear and multi-factorial mechanisms. diastolic (7). PCWP is elevated in these patients with There are three clinical phases of PH, namely the obstruction at the post-capillary level. Group 3 includes asymptomatic compensated, symptomatic compensated disorders of the lung and other hypoxic diseases with and advanced decompensated phases (7-9). Clinical associated vasoconstriction. PCWP is normal in these symptoms are often variable and include dyspnea, patients and it is unusual to have severe PH in this fatigue, syncope, chest pain and Raynaud phenomenon. group except in the case of combined pulmonary fibrosis Symptoms of right heart failure are seen in the late © Cardiovascular Diagnosis and Therapy. All rights reserved. cdt.amegroups.com Cardiovasc Diagn Ther 2018;8(3):279-296 Cardiovascular Diagnosis and Therapy, Vol 8, No 3 June 2018 281 the evaluation of PH. The classic radiographic pattern of PH is enlargement of central pulmonary arteries (i.e., right interlobar pulmonary artery >15 mm in women or >16 mm in men), with or without pruning of the peripheral arteries (Figure 1). RV dilatation is seen in advanced stages (10), with enlargement of the cardiac silhouette in PA radiograph and obliteration of the retrosternal clear space in the lateral radiograph. Right heart border appears prominent due to right atrial enlargement. Chest radiograph has been shown to have high sensitivity (97%) and specificity (99%) in the detection of PH (11,12), but a normal chest radiograph does not exclude PH, especially in patients with mild disease. Chest radiograph is also useful in the diagnosis of causes of Figure 1 Chest radiograph. Posteroanterior (PA) chest radiograph PH such as emphysema, ILD, chest wall deformities, and shows dilated central pulmonary arteries (arrows), consistent with left-heart disease. In CTEPH, areas of oligemia, pleural pulmonary arterial hypertension. thickening and scarring may be seen. stages, eventually resulting in death if untreated. Since Echocardiography the symptoms are non-specific, high level of suspicion of Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is an essential tool PH should be present in patients with connective tissue in the evaluation of patients with suspected PH. It is widely diseases, pulmonary thromboembolism and congenital available, portable, non-invasive, inexpensive and has no heart disease (CHD) (9). Other symptoms are present radiation. Echocardiography has good spatial and high depending on the underlying cause, such as symptoms spatial resolution, that provides morphological, functional of heart failure in group 2 and lung disorders in group and hemodynamic analysis. Limitations include operator 3 and recurrent DVT in group 4. Physical signs include dependence and limited field-of-view, especially in patients hypotension, tachycardia, low oxygen saturation, with obesity, emphysema or chest wall deformities. TTE elevated JVP with ‘a’ wave, loud P2, cardiac murmurs, is often the initial screening modality used in the diagnosis hepatomegaly, ascites and edema. BNP, pro-BNP and high- of PH, particularly in patients with gene mutations, first- sensitive troponin may be elevated and uric acid level is degree relative with PH, congenital disease, connective low (6). Six-minute walk test, ABG and PFT are also tissue disease or portal hypertension. Pulmonary artery performed for functional evaluation. ECG shows right axis
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