Naval War College Review Volume 33 Article 25 Number 3 May-June
1980 May & June 1980 Review The .SU Naval War College
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PRESIDENT'S NOTES ...... Resistance to the tyranny of King Fortunately for rhe future of the George lll took many forms in the United States-and wirhour impugning beleaguered American colonies in citizen Coggeshall's show of independ November 1775. One of the more ence-an event of much greater and inrriguing accounrs, which I came across lasring moment took place in Philadel recently, concerned the individual act of phia char very week of 1775. defiance of a good citizen of Newport by The Continental Congress, on LO the name of Coggeshall. As reported in November 1775, ordered the creation of the Newport Mercury of 6 November two battalions of Marines, thereby 1775: establishing the United States Marine Earl.y lase Saturday morning Corps. One of rhe mandates of the (November 4) one Coggeshall, Continental Congress in this resolution being somewhat drunk or crazy, was char " ... particular care be taken, went on the Long-Wharf, and rhat no persons be appointed ro office, rurn'd up his backsides coward the or inlisred [sic] inro said battalions, bur bomb brig in rhis harbour, using such are good seamen, or so acquainted some insulting words; upon which with maritime affairs so as to be able co the brig fired two 4 pound shot at serve co advantage by sea when him; one of which went through required .... " the roof of Mr. Hammond's store The Marine Corps has served with on the said wharf, and lodged in disrincrion in maritime affairs since its Mr. Samuel Johnston's distillery, at birth in 1775. Here at the Naval War the N.E. part of the cove, within College, Marine officers are an the Long Wharf. The man was important part of our faculty and soon after taken up, and sent our of student body. Ar present, 26 are town. enrolled in the College of Naval The British retaliation to this Warfare, 20 are in the College of Naval singular (if unusual) act of patriotism Command and Staff and 10 serve in key could hardly be termed a measured positions on the faculty. response; indeed ir might even be Marines were present at the termed overkill. Certainly, hitting the beginnings of the Naval War College Newporrers' source of liquid refresh and have played an important role in its ment might have evoked an unwanted evolutionary development as the response by fanning faster the flames of highest professional-level educational https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25rebellion. institution in the Navy. The first4 War College: May & June 1980 Review
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NATO's 30-yea-rexirtence has given it almost the character of a familiarstatue we seldom ask how it came to he. Thi; paper looks at the founding of NATO, the treaty, the organizational structure, and the military forces-what conditions reqnired and fostered NATO and why what resulted,rather than something ehe, did result. It also invites a consUeration of two not opposite questions-whether the defense of Europe ,hould be more "Europeanized"; whether NATO should be geographically and fnnctionally broadened.
THE CREATION OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC ALLIANCE,
1948-1952
by Alan K. Henrikson
And the earth was withouc form, European power since irs 1778 and void; and darkness was upon Revolutionary War alliance with France the face of the deep. And the Spirit dissolved by murnalagreement in 1800, of God moved upon the face of the Probably more than any other waters. Genesis 1:2. international arrangement in history, On 4 April 1949, at a ceremony in the even the League of Nations and rhe ornate Departmental Auditorium in United Nations, the North Atlantic Washington, D.C., the North Atlantic AIHance has set-not to say in a deeper Treaty was signed. For all of rhe 12 sense caused-the pattern of interna parties, European no less than North tional relations that we in the Atlantic American, rhe pact-a peacetime world today tend to take forgranted. It military coalition transoceanic in has been regarded-rightly-as a major scope-was unprecedented. Not since core of international stability. "To the breakup in 1822 of the Quadruple protect this area against war,'' declared Alliance against a Bonapartist resur President Truman at the signing gence in France had Europe known such ceremony, "will be a long step toward a strong grouping of Great Powers in permanent peace in the whole world." 1 peace. In 1947 the United States had Nonerheless, there is a growing signed the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro to apprehension that the Atlantic protect the Western Hemisphere, bur it AlJiance, confined as it is in member had not been formally linked with any ship, geography, and function, may be
This arricle is based on a paper delivered orallyat The Newport lnstirute Conference-"Is There a Need For an Alternadve to NATO?''-on 10 November 1979. The autho.wishes tu thank the partkipants in that meeting .uwell as othec persons who havecommemed on the basic text. Besides several colleagues at The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomaty, these .includeTheodore C. Achilles, James M. Gavin, Lord Gladwyn, AndrewJ. Goodpaster,Ernest A. Gross, AlfredM.Gruenther,JohnD. Hickerson, Lord Inchyra, George R Kennan, Lyman L. Lemnirzer, Robert A. Lovctr, and Francis 0. Wikox. For any remaining errorsPublished of historical by U.S. Naval fa<:t or War intcr Collegeprerarion, Digital of course,Commons, the author1980 alone is responsible. 7 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
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Glavnoe komandovanie, the Soviet equivalent of the Westernconcept of theater commandj was usually used in World lV'ar Ifin those critical operatloni requiring coordination and direction of two or more fronts and involving the several JerviceJ, Soviet militaryliterature is evincing increased interest in the concept and there have been hints that such a command has already been established in the Far East.
GLAVNOE KOMANDOVANIE: THE SOVIET THEATER COMMAND by Gregory C. Baird
Introduction, The command and and its modern applicability as control of a Soviet front, the highest evidenced in Soviet Hterature.' strategic ground formation, is typically understood as a direct Moscow-to-front The High Commands of 1941-1942. scheme, devoid of intermediary The formation of the high command command entities, In fact, the command echelon was a direct result of the failure and control of Soviet fronts throughout of Soviet prewar defense plans World War II included a numberof such following the German attack on 22June intermediaries. Of these, one equates to 194 I. The Soviets had envisioned a our conception of a theater command. forward defense of their European The theater of military operations border by three fronts-the North (Teatr eoennykh deystvijor TVD) had western, Western and Southwestern become accepted by many Western each charged with the defense of a analysts as the Soviet equivalent of a strategic sector (Le., the approaches to theater command. 1 However, the TVD Leningrad, Minsk and Kiev). The from, is, simply, "that place where military as it had been in both WW I and the operations will be carried out."2 It Civil War, was virtually a theater roughly equates to the Euro pean command in this scheme. Consequently, military-geographic term, theater of the necessity for multifront coordinMed operations, The actual Sovjet equivalenr operations had not been envisioned to a theater command is the Glavnoe prior m the war. lwmandovanie or high command. This Overall strategic direction of these article will briefly describe the high fronts was the responsibility of the command, the Soviet use of this Central M ilirary Council headed by the Publishedcommand by echelonU.S. Naval during War College World Digital War Commons, II, CommJssar 1980 for Defense. Centralized 43 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
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War Plan ORA Neil! assumed tht1t Americaalone would/ace Japan in,, Pacific war tl/tvr Germany had heen defeated, th,it there would be no threat in the Atlanticand Caribbean are,ir. As 1,,te a.r October 1940 it remained the only we/I-developedplan even after h'ttropewas overrun and l!'ng/,md wa.rbracing for invusion. Little wonder that critfr.r of that time and .rince have Jm,lh:d the plan and the Navy's 1mmovin1< support of 1/, Another view crm be taken, however;" wider view that considen naval officers'ana/yJis of .rtraleRJand diplomatic qtte.rtions regardini!,the pre-1941 Pacific. THE U.S. NAVY AND WAR PLAN ORANGE, 1933-1940: MAKING NECESSITY A VIRTUE
by Michael K. Doyle
In October 1940 Capt. A.W. Clarke, What is remarkable is that the Navy's R,N,, the British Government's Bask War Plan ORANGE, the personal liaison with President drn.:umem Clarke perused. was little Franklin Roosevelt, received an more than a literary artifact in October inviration ro visit the Navy 1910.' Events in Europe had radically Department's War Plans Division. trnnsformcd the conditions under Once there, Clarke's host, Capt. which any Pad fie war would be fought. Richmond "Kelley" Turner, ushered Hitler's armies had overrun the Low him into a room, unlocked a safe, and Countries and Frnnce, the German air presented him with a document that force was systematically devastating proved co be the U.S. Navy's English cities, and conceivably the operational plans for war with Japan Brirish Isles would face invasion in the Left atone and encouraged to read, the near forure, The growing danger ro the British captain was astonished at the security of the Atfantic and Caribbean amount of derail the plans contained. had already been publicly expressed, What he was seeing was the first in the Ace of Havana in July and culmination of almost two decades of followed by the descroyers-for�bases efforts by U.S. Navy strategists to deal with Britain in September 19,JO} prepare for a conflict they had believed Yet the fleet remained at Pearl Harhor, almost unavoidable since the end of symbol of traditional American https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25World W,ir One. 1 preo(cuparion with the Pacific.52 War College: May & June 1980 Review
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Terrorism, a term in common use, has little common meaning amonf!, its user!. Individual experience, background, prejudice, and intention may flavorany attempt at definition but efforts toward increased clarityshould continue. This article is such an endeavor. TERRORISM IS ••••'!
by Major William R. Farrell, U.S. Air Force
When one speaks of terrorism it is man in the screer. Though definitional nor always dear just what one has in precision is difficult, terrodsm is not mind. The term has no precise and hard to describe and, for those who have completely accepted definition. Some experienced it, is easy to comprehend, countries label those who engage in "Terrorism is thus an easily recognized violenc acts against chem as ''terrorists.·• activity of a bad character, subjectively Freedom fighters rarely label them• determined and shaped by social and selves in such a way, but they often claim political considerations." 3 The term is they are subjccred to governmental in flux-like fashion, it is anything we terror. "In short, the definition of choose it to be. When the question terrorism seems to depend on point of "What is terrorism?" is raised, there view-it is what the 'bad guys' do.'' 1 always is present some sort of an Terrorism is frequently described as answer, though it is often coloredby rhe mindless, senseless and irrational purposes of asking it.4 vjolence. However, none of these terms From a "purely physical" perspective, is appropriate. It is not mindless and terrorism is not easily isolable from there is a theory of terrorism that wars, disasters, and the like. And, when frequently works. Terrorism should be combined with the known subjectivity viewed as a means to an end and not an of those who seek to attach a definition end unto itself. While terrorist activity to it1 greatly complicates any attempt to may appear random, closer examination count and me asure terrorist trends.� reveals that terrorism has objectives. Early attempts to isolate and deal with Attacks are often carefully choreo terrorism ( 1890s) produced a number of graphed to attract news media theories. Cranial measures of captured attention. Hostages serve to increase terrorists were taken and a connection the drama, especially if their being betweenterrorism and lunar phases was killed is a possibility. Terrorism is detected. Cesare Lombroso, a distin aimed at the people watching and, in guished criminologist of his day, found this sense, "terrorism is rheater."2 bo th med ical and climatological While the term "terrorism" is often explanations. "Terrorism, like pellagra indiscriminately used and is difficult to and some other diseases. was caused by use acrurately in a strictly legal context, certain vitamin deficiencies, hence its it raises little doubt in the mind of the prevalence among maize-eating people Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 67 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
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In early 1941 the United States and Great Britain agreed that strategic reJpomibi/ity for the Weftern Atlantic wouldreJt with the United States when that nation entered the war, The United States did asrume such respomibi/ity. It is little remembered, however, that ihe U.S. N(wy contributed only twopercent of the eJCort forces to the sub.requent Battle of the Atlantic while Canada contributed 48 percent. With this force disparity and with the U.S. Navy's relative inexperience in antisubmarine warf,,re (and the charge of its unwillingnesr to learn), little wonder that Canada was dissatisfiedand sought to regain control of her own seapower. She fin;;lly rucceeded and the revised relationrhips that were then ertablirhed are reflected in those of today.
THE ROYAL CANADIAN NAVY'S QUEST FOR AUTONOMY IN THE NORTH WEST ATLANTIC: 1941-43
by Commander W.G.D. Lund, Canadian Forces
On 30 April !943 the Royal Canadian Beginnings. On 14 September 1939, Navy assumed responsibility for the after war had been declared, an Order• protection and control of shipping in in�Council was issued that directed the North West AtJanrk. This evem Canada's six destroyers "to cooperateto marked the successful conclusion of a the fullest extent with the forces of the campaign by the Royal Canadian Navy Royal Navy." 2 These six ships, in to gain control of its rapidly expanding addition to five minesweepers, were seapower and to assen autonomy in an the Roya! Canadian Navy and the ocean area that was of primary national intent of the order was to avoid placing interest. Canada's small navy completely under In 194 I the Mackenzie King the control of the British Admiralty. government had stated that it was This reflected Mackenzie King's prewar " , , , not prepared to place the strategical policy of maintaining the grearesr direction of the Royal Canadian Navy measure of autonomy possib!e in [in the Western Arlantic] unreservedly defense arrangements with Great under rhe will of rhe United States," 1 Britain. However, when Grear Britain signed A change that affected command che Americun�British Conversations-1 relationships occurred in early ! 940 (ABC. I) Agreement with the United when the Naval Council received Srates on behalf of rhe British approval from the Cabinet War Commonwealth, the Royal Canadian Commir:ree to place all the Canadian Navy was relegated w the position of a destroyers under rhe operational https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 76 subcommand of the U.S. Navy. control, in fact ar rhe disposal, of the War College: May & June 1980 Review
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SET AND DRIFT
ENERGY: BACK TO BASICS by Richmond M. Lloyd*
Introduction. The American people confused and even chaotic ar rimes. first felt the effects of tbe energy crisis There have been the perennial hunts in 1973 when OPEC curtailed oil for scapegoats, an illusive search for shipments ro the United Scates and quick solutions, and cries for massive raised rhe price of a barrel of oil from government inrervemion and crash S2.59 ro SI I.65. Federal price controls prograff1s reffiinisrent of the 1960s, and allocation schemes were pm into Even the very existence of an energy operation as a temporary measure, and crisis has been questioned. FinaJly, President Ford called on the nation to rhroughout, there has been an overall embark on Project Independence, sense of national frustration. ln 1979, oil shipments were cm ft i!, t imc that the nation turn back to again, this rime as a result of the basics. There are four major factors that political upheaval in Iran. Long gas must be considered: lines and odd/even rationing • National Security reappeared. Federal comrols were still • Efficiency in place. Presidem Carter once a,t;rtin • Equity called on the nation to move toward • Environment independence. A fundamental shift in the balance The total petroleum product among these four factors is required in supplied to the United States in 1973 order to establish a comprehensive was I 7.3 million barrels per day of energy policy. This shift is occurring, which 6.3 million barrels per day were though very slowly. It affects the imported. During 1974 and 1975, essence of American values and imports fell slighrly such that U.S. institurions and that partly explains dependence on imported perro1eum why rhe de bare has been so long and held ar abour 37 percent. However, by rorruous. Each of rhe four facmrs will be 1976 imports were again on the rise, In considered in turn. l978 they reached 8,2 million b,urels per day or 44 percent of the daily supply National Security. The energy of 18.8 million barrels. 1 shortage is a major threat to the The 7-year long debate over a national sernrity of rhe Unired Sratcs national energy policy has appeared and its allies, and yet) its effect on narional security policy and military https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25•Professor of Management, Naval War College. forces is just beginning to be felr, This is96 War College: May & June 1980 Review
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Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 115 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 116 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 117 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 118 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 119 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 120 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 121 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 122 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 123 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 124 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 125 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 126 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 127 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 128 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 129 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 130 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 131 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 132 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 133 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 134 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 135 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 136 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 137 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 138 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 139 Naval War College Review, Vol. 33 [1980], No. 3, Art. 25
https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol33/iss3/25 140 War College: May & June 1980 Review
Published by U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons, 1980 141