Lama Govinda's Quest for the Truth

Fall 2015

Lama Govinda’s Quest for the Truth: A Summary of His Life - Part I Iván Kovács

1 Life has no meaning in itself, but only in the meaning we give it. Like the clay in the artist’s hands, we may convert it into a divine form, or merely into a vessel of temporary utility. Lama Govinda, 19692

Abstract Introduction his is the first installment of a two-part t is not often that one finds a western indi- T article dealing with the spiritual quest of I vidual who is capable of retaining the best of Lama Govinda. It follows his life story from its his own culture and who can fully assimilate beginnings in Europe to his late middle age in the essence of another. To be able to do this in India and Tibet when he married Li Gotami, a such a way that two apparently contradictory Parsee woman, and with whom he undertook paths are made to come together and then ef- an expedition into Central Tibet. This expedi- fortlessly merge is truly unique. Only a free tion was preparatory to a second expedition spirit will assert that salvation is not to be which Govinda and Li were to undertake and found exclusively in one particular religion, which will be dealt with in Part II of this arti- and that different spiritual paths are merely cle. Wherever it was found appropriate, the ______summary was rendered more colorful and per- tinent by quotations from Govinda’s own writ- About the Author ings, particularly his book The Way of the Iván Kovács is qualified as a fine artist. As a writer White Clouds. The discussion of a selection of he has published art criticism, short stories and po- his books dealing with Tibetan Buddhism is ems, and more recently, articles of an esoteric na- planned for a forthcoming article. A special ture. He is a reader of the classics and modern clas- mention and appreciation of Ken Winkler’s sics, a lover of world cinema, as well as classical biography of Govinda, A Thousand Journeys, and contemporary music. His lifelong interest in needs to be made, as it was most helpful in Esotericism was rounded off with several years of giving this summary its basic structure. intensive study with the Arcane School.

culturally and geographically determined ways afield, he made a study of the Upanishads, which all lead back to a common source. Such which finally led him to Buddhism. While Eu- a free spirit is to be found in the person of La- rope was in a state of ferment and unrest that ma Anagarika Govinda, a rare individual who, would lead to the outbreak of World War I, despite his German origin and western herit- Hoffmann made a comparative study of Chris- age, was enterprising and bold enough to break tianity, Islam and Buddhism, in an attempt to with convention. He examined a wider range determine which of the three appealed to him of options about the kind of spiritual path that the most. At first, he had a strong predilection he wanted to follow, and even before reaching towards Christianity, but eventually he was maturity, he investigated all major faiths, and won over by Buddhism which he believed had finally decided to opt for Buddhism. a morality that is based on individual freedom.5 Govinda’s intellectual capacity and inborn cre- Hoffmann’s studies were abruptly interrupted ativity display a richness that is only found in in October 1916 when he was called up and multi-talented and ingenious individuals. His sent to the Italian front where he was assigned talents were equally evident whether he em- to a heavy machine-gun company. Nothing is ployed them as an artist or a poet, a writer or a known about him whilst he was on active duty philosopher. His knowledge and understanding and his records only noted that he was admit- of the Buddhist path to enlightenment as rec- ted to a Milan hospital in 1918 after contract- orded in his various books remain to this day a ing tuberculosis. He was later transferred to a testimony of a disciple who practiced what he convalescent home in the Black Forest and believed, and as a consequence lived life to the discharged late in 1918, after which he re- fullest. He is an individual whose words carry sumed his studies in Freiburg Switzerland,6 great weight, thus in the following biography, where he studied philosophy, psychology and whenever possible, and wherever appropriate, archaeology.7 Ken Winkler, his biographer, he is made to speak for himself. sums up his life thus far in A Thousand Jour- neys as: Lama Govinda: A Citizen of Whatever Ernst Hoffmann learned through Two Worlds his experiences during the war, who his Family Background, Childhood and friends were, or how he socialized and Youth spent his time is unknown. Up until this point of his life there are only the barest ama Govinda (May 17 1898 – 14 January facts known about his family and his own L 1985), the son of a German father and Bo- thoughts and directions. Occasional refer- livian mother, was born Ernst Lothar Hoff- ences, mostly from a few surviving docu- mann in Waldheim, Germany. The family was ments and his own recollections, are all that quite well-to-do, and owned silver mines in remain from this period.8 South America as well as a cigar factory.3 Capri: The Springboard to the Wider Hoffmann was three years old when his mother World died, and he and his older brother, Oscar, were brought up by their mother’s sister, Matilde. Hoffmann left Switzerland for Italy. On the Matilde spoke Spanish to the boys; their one hand, this move was more advantageous grandmother, a Huguenot from Bremen, spoke for his health; on the other, it served as an op- to them in French; and Matilde’s husband, a portunity to further his studies in Buddhism. It German-Bolivian, preferred to speak German, was at the University of Naples where he had with the result that the boys grew up trilin- the opportunity to study a Pali Canon that had gual.4 been donated to the university by the King of Siam. To be able to follow this line of study Being barely sixteen, Hoffmann was reading Hoffmann first undertook to study Siamese. Plato and Schopenhauer, followed by the Then, to further his prospects, he crossed the Christian mystics. Then, culturally further Bay of Naples to Capri, which had become an

expatriate art colony. He found a job in a pho- Orient. Hoffmann would have liked to join tographic studio, which was owned by a wid- him, but due to a lack of money, his explora- ow, Mrs. Habermann, who had not only lost tions were restricted to the study of Stone-Age her husband but also a daughter. She was an structures of the locale, like the cylindrical attractive woman, sympathetic toward the stone nuraghi (megalithic edifices dating be- younger Hoffmann, whom she considered as a tween 1900 – 730 BCE)13 of Sardinia, the cave substitute for her own lost child who had died towns in Tunisia and Morocco, and the mega- of tuberculosis. They felt genuine affection for lithic structures in Malta.14 each other, and Hoffmann began introducing Finally, late in 1928, Hoffmann’s dream and her as his “foster mother.” Eventually, the two ambition to visit the Orient became a reality. of them shared a small house, where Mrs. Ha- He managed to collect enough money to get bermann did the housekeeping. Hoffmann, in himself and his foster mother to Ceylon. They his turn, got involved in teaching at the local sold everything they had, but the consulate Berlitz school, and at one time served both as informed them that they needed an extra speci- its director and only teacher.9 fied amount to be allowed to land in Ceylon, Another significant friendship that Hoffmann which served as a safety measure to discourage formed during this time was with Earl Brew- unwanted immigrants. When Hoffmann re- ster, the well-known American artist, who in- turned home to discuss this problem with his cluded the writer D. H. Lawrence among his neighbors and friends, someone — most likely friends. Buddhism was included among their Brewster —offered to give him the money, common interests, and in fact, Brewster was so provided it would be returned upon his arri- knowledgeable about this subject that in 1926, val.15 he wrote The Life of Gotama – The Buddha. Encountering the Buddhism of Ceylon Hoffmann was also a serious scholar on the subject of Buddhism. In 1920, he published and Burma The Basic Ideas of Buddhism and Its Relation- After his arrival in Ceylon, where he was met ship to Ideas of God. The book enjoyed a by a Singhalese man, Desilva, Hoffmann trav- short-lived popularity in Europe, and was soon eled to his destination in the interior, the mon- translated and published in Japan. A joint ven- astery of Polgasduwa. The place was in a state ture they undertook shortly after their newly of semi-ruin, because its abbot, Nyanatikola formed friendship was to experiment with Mahathera, had been forced into exile during Satti-Patthana meditation, a discipline aimed at the war. Like Hoffmann, the abbot was Ger- achieving mindfulness of body, feelings, con- man-born, and willingly became Hoffmann’s sciousness, and mental phenomena.10 As they guide and teacher, allowing him to take up his had no guides and no exercise courses availa- meditation and to continue his Pali studies. ble, they had to improvise constantly.11 Hoffmann was convinced that here, at last, he had found the place where Buddhism was Hoffmann was also painting at this time. Apart practiced in its purest form. The abbot gave from Brewster, he learned from various other him the name of Govinda, the name by which artists in Capri, and with the added discipline he shall be referred to from this point on- of his meditation exercises, he soon developed wards.16 a unique style of his own. Among his work at this time were experimental works done in pas- In March 1929, Govinda made a pilgrimage to tels, and a variety of landscape scenes.12View- Burma, and shortly after his arrival in Ran- ing examples of his later works, his paintings goon, he was joined by his abbot. Because the have a strong element of geometric structure, Theravadin communities in Asia kept close and are variously reminiscent of the works of contact with each other, it was common prac- Paul Cézanne and Nicholas Roerich. tice for young monks of one country to be sent to another for study. Govinda’s abbot, In 1922, Brewster traveled to Ceylon, which Nyanatilok Mahathera, had himself been or- turned out to be the first of several trips to the dained in Burma twenty-six years before, and

had now come to pay his respects to his recent- dhism as it was practiced in Ceylon was the ly deceased guru. During their stay in Burma, purest.19 He was under the impression that the Govinda and Nyanatilok Mahathera also visit- Buddhism of India and Tibet had “degenerated ed Mandalay where they met U Khanti, a man into a system of demon-worship and weird of great enterprising spirit who had undertaken beliefs.”20 Whilst in Ceylon, Govinda had al- to restore the temples and pagodas on a sacred ways felt that there was something missing.21 hill that had fallen into Now he was to encounter disrepair. Govinda was . . . religious truths and spir- something which was to told by an attendant itual life are more a matter radically change the Bhikku (monk) that U course of his life. Khanti was the reincar- of transcending our habitu- nation of King Mindon al consciousness than of When the Disciple is Min, the person who had Ready the Master Ap- changing our opinions or pears originally commissioned building our convictions on the building of the tem- Govinda’s radical change ples and pagodas on the strength of intellectual ar- of opinion as regards sacred hill, and Govinda guments and syllogisms . . . Tibetan Buddhism came readily believed him.17 Spiritual life is based on in- about when he was ma- It was during his visit to rooned in a Tibetan Bud- Burma that Govinda re- ner awareness and experi- dhist monastery outside ceived the yellow robes ence, which no amount of Darjeeling during a of the anagarika (home- thinking could create, three-day storm. More less one), as it had been precisely, his place of his earnest wish to be- thinking and reasoning refuge was the Ghoom come a true monk. He merely being a process of Monastery, which is and his abbot also visited digestion or mental assimi- perched atop a mountain the northern Shan States spur that juts out over the to escape the heat. They lation which follows but deep valleys surrounding spent some time in the does not precede the above- the Darjeeling area. capital of Maymyo and While the storm was rag- then parted company, mentioned faculties. ing he was huddled in his Govinda to attempt a trip up into China, and tropical robes and stared at the “weird world of his teacher to return home. However, Govinda Lamaism”. After the storm subsided, he could managed to get no further than Bhamo, where have returned to the outside world, but he the caravan route into Yunnan began, and most didn’t. “Some inexplicable force,” he wrote, probably due to lack of resources, decided to “seemed to keep me back, and the longer I return to Ceylon.18 stayed on in this magic world into which I had dropped by a strange concatenation of circum- Upon his return to Ceylon, Govinda was on the stances, the more I felt that a hitherto unknown lookout for more suitable quarters and was form of reality was revealed to me and that I eventually given permission by a Singhalese was on the threshold of a new life.”22 tea planter to build himself a house on his es- tate. The house building proceeded at a leisure- During his stay at the monastery, Govinda was ly pace, giving him ample time to continue his given permission to live in a corner of the tem- 23 studies as well as attend to his responsibilities ple. This appeared to be the ideal location by as General Secretary of the International Bud- means of which he could absorb and assimilate dhist Union. It was in this capacity that he was the spirit of the place, about which he wrote as asked to participate at an international Bud- follows: dhist conference that was held in Darjeeling in The whole universe seems to be assembled north-east India. He had no idea what awaited in this temple, whose walls opened, as it him in India, and was convinced that the Bud- were, into the depths of unheard-of dimen-

sions. And in the midst of this thousand- vinda felt drawn towards this man, and won- eyed, form-filled universe, overbrimming dered if his own spiritual transformation had (sic) with life and possibilities of conscious something to do with him. He told Kachenla experience, I lived in a state of wonder, that he wished to become the man’s pupil and contemplating and absorbing an infinite va- Kachenla answered that he would speak with riety of impressions without trying to define the abbot about it. The lama in question was or reason out their meaning – accepting Tomo Geshe Rimpoche.27 In A Thousand them, as one accepts the landscapes of a Journeys Ken Winkler elaborates on the out- foreign country through which one trav- come which resulted from the meeting be- els.24 tween Govinda and Tomo Geshe Rimpoche: As Govinda reflected upon his experience, he No other being would have as much effect realized that: on Govinda as this man. Their time together wouldn’t be long, a few short weeks, but . . . religious truths and spiritual life are the Rimpoche offered a peace and harmony more a matter of transcending our habitual Govinda hadn’t felt before and the darshan consciousness than of changing our opin- (literally a religious interchange) they expe- ions or building our convictions on strength rienced together was complete. “Merely to of intellectual arguments and syllogisms . . . be in the man’s presence,” Govinda wrote, Spiritual life is based on inner awareness “seemed to be enough to dissolve all prob- and experience, which no amount of think- lems, to make them non-existent, like dark- ing could create, thinking and reasoning ness in the presence of light.”28 merely being a process of digestion or mental assimilation which follows but does not Tomo Geshe Rimpoche was a well-known fig- precede the above-mentioned faculties.25 ure both inside and outside of Tibet, whose fame extended as far as Mongolia, China, Ja- Although a momentous awakening regarding pan, India, Ceylon, and several Western coun- the reality of the soul and the transcendence of tries, and he was loved and revered by all those one’s ordinary consciousness takes place, more who came into contact with him. In fact, he often than not, in solitude, Govinda was not was considered to be a legendary figure whose entirely alone. He had befriended an old monk, previous incarnations purportedly included Kachenla, who was the temple caretaker, and such famous teachers and holy men as Shari- who acted as mentor and spiritual father to putra, King Trisong Detzen, Milarepa, him. Kachenla’s life seemed one of constant, Khedrup Rimpoche, and Dragpa Gyaltsen.29 humble devotion. He was continuously en- gaged in the service of the temple, which he Tomo Geshe Rimpoche’s main objectives were considered part of his dharma. They would sit to uphold the Buddha’s tradition in its purest together while Kachenla taught Govinda how form, and serving his fellow human beings in to unwrap and handle a sacred book, or the old his capacity as a teacher as well as a healer. man would show his pupil how to move within Among his accomplishments were numerous the monastery. In the evenings, the old monk monasteries that had been built, including the would teach Govinda the prayers, and although creation of several large Buddha statues that Govinda couldn’t understand them, it didn’t were commissioned to adorn their temples.30 bother Kachenla, as he believed that under- Thus, when they finally met, Govinda’s admi- standing would come later.26 ration and awe of the Rimpoche were fully As Govinda was exploring the surroundings of justified, because in every sense of the word he Ghoom Monastery, he became aware of a had found a guru who conformed to the norms small, square, yellow-colored building with a of a true Master. Prior to Govinda’s initiation curved Chinese roof and a glassed-in veranda. they had several discussions during which the Its front rested on stilts, and the only door, Rimpoche stressed the fact that the Bodhicitta which was at the back, was closed. Kachenla (altruistic mind) was potentially present in all told him that a great lama meditated there. Go- living beings. Based on this fundamental truth,

the Rimpoche urged Govinda never to regard came to my mind that the day might not be himself as superior to others. “As soon, how- far when the Guru would have to leave in ever,” the Rimpoche explained, “as we under- order to return to his main monastery be- stand that we live in exactly that world which yond the border, and that years might pass we deserve, we shall recognise the faults of before I had another opportunity to sit at his others as our own.”31 Because Govinda’s feet. And in a sudden impulse I formulated knowledge of Buddhism was already exten- in my mind the following request: “Please sive, the Rimpoche found it unnecessary to give me a visible sign of the inner bond that instruct his disciple in doctrinal matters, and unites me with you, my Guru, something instead, proceeded directly to teach him the that beyond all words reminds me daily of practice of meditation, which in Govinda’s your kindness and of the ultimate aim: be it case was more important than theoretical a small image of the Buddha blessed by knowledge.32 your hands or whatever you might think fit . . .” Hardly had I pronounced these words There are no definite indicators in Govinda’s in my mind when the Guru, suddenly inter- writings regarding the manner of his initiation, rupting his talk, turned to me and said: “Be- except the fact that he considered it as a highly fore I leave I shall give you a small Bud- significant and momentous event. In his book, dha-image as remembrance.”36 Prisoners of Shangri-la, Donald S. Lopez, Jr. writes about it in a rather belittling way, stating On the day of their parting the Rimpoche re- that “(i)t is difficult to imagine what transpired mained true to his words and presented Go- between the Tibetan monk and the German vinda with “a small but exquisitely finished traveller . . . who spoke no Tibetan, or what terracotta statue of Buddha Sakyamuni”37 this ‘initiation’ may have been (it was perhaps which he had kept in his hands during his daily the most preliminary of Buddhist rituals, the meditations. This parting gift from the Guru refuge ceremony) . . .”33 later proved to be much more than a simple token of remembrance, but turned out to be a Govinda, however, thought his initiation to be powerful talisman that would pacify those the pivotal moment in his life, but considering people that Govinda was to meet on his travels. it a private matter, he was hesitant and vague Those who initially suspected him of being a when referring to it.34 Yet, one feels that he is Chinese spy would show a drastic change in attempting to convey to his readers that such attitude on the production of the small Buddha- profound experiences are, indeed, possible, image. It even worked its magic with armed and to be expected when the time is ripe, tribesmen with hostile intentions, miraculously thereby confirming the old occult truism that turning them into agents of support and hospi- “when the disciple is ready the Master is ready tality. To top it all, the image turned out to be also.”35 the handiwork of the humblest and most de- An example of the extraordinary faculties of voted of the Rimpoche’s disciples, Kachenla, the Rimpoche, about which Govinda wrote, the old temple caretaker, whose remembrance was demonstrated shortly before the Guru was for Govinda was inseparable from that of To- to take his leave of Govinda and depart for mo Geshe Rimpoche.38 Tibet. The Rimpoche, Govinda, and the inter- preter who helped them communicate were A Traveler in the Mountains of Western sitting together in conversation, when the in- Tibet terpreter put a question of his own to the Rim- It is not an easy task to summarize Govinda’s poche, and while the Rimpoche was busy an- narrative of his travels in the vast expanses of swering it, Govinda was preoccupied with his Tibet. This is due to the fact that unlike many own thoughts. In The Way of the White Clouds other travel writers, who often record in mi- he wrote about it as follows: nute detail the hardships, altitudes, weather I allowed myself to let my thoughts wander conditions, and routines of their journeys, Go- in other directions. In the course of this it vinda’s observations are mostly written down

from the perspective of an artist, intuitive, and beings and of all forms.”42 Don Juan, more a visionary. His experiences are thus given bluntly, but unequivocally, tells his pupil, Car- shape from an elevated state of consciousness los Castaneda that “(b)eyond a certain point, in which objectivity is minimized and the the only joy of a warrior-traveller is his alone- world is perceived with an inner eye, and a ness.”43 subjective vision, that is only possible for one In his own words, Govinda elucidates his gen- who is in touch with the very core of his being. eral impressions as a traveler in Tibet in the It also needs to be taken into consideration that following way: the events as narrated by Govinda in The Way The great rhythm of nature pervades every- of the White Clouds start with his sojourn at thing, and man is woven into it with mind Ghoom Monastery and his momentous meet- and body. Even his imagination does not ing with his guru, Tomo Geshe Rimpoche, fol- belong so much to the realm of the individ- lowed by his extensive travels in Tibet, but the ual as to the soul of the landscape, in which actual writing down of these events only hap- the rhythm of the universe is condensed in- pened some thirty years later. One can assume to a melody of irresistible charm. Imagina- that the narration is the product of someone tion here becomes an adequate expression who had matured and grown wiser over the of reality on the plane of human conscious- years, and was thus supported by the reflec- ness, and this consciousness seems to tions and insights of an individual who is able communicate itself from individual to indi- to extract the spiritual essence of what he aptly vidual till it forms a spiritual atmosphere labels a “Pilgrim’s Life.”39 that envelops the whole of Tibet.44 Nowhere is this more evident than when he And even more specifically, as regards con- writes that “(t)he machine made time of mod- sciousness, Govinda informs the reader that: ern man has not made him the master but the slave of time; the more he tries to ‘save’ time, Consciousness seems to be raised to a high- the less he possesses it . . . Only he who ac- er level, where the obstacles and disturb- cepts it in its fullness, in its eternal and life- ances of our ordinary life do not exist, ex- giving rhythm, in which its continuity consists, cept as a faint memory of things which can master it and make it his own . . . Nowhere have lost all their importance and attraction. have I experienced this deeper than under the At the same time one becomes more sensi- open skies of Tibet, in the vastness of its soli- tive and open to new forms of reality; the tudes, the clarity of its atmosphere, the lumi- intuitive qualities of our mind are awakened nosity of its colours and the plastic, almost and stimulated – in short, there are all the abstract, purity of its mountain forms.”40 conditions for attaining the higher stages of meditation or dhyana.45 In many ways, Govinda was duplicating the experiences and insights of his guru, Tomo Finally, Govinda’s reflections about the Tibet- Geshe Rimpoche, who had had a clear under- an environment and its relation to the individu- standing “that realisation could only be found al reach their climax, as he explains that one’s in the stillness and solitude of nature.”41 Most capacity for concentration and self-observation people cannot bear to be alone, and shy away as well as one’s psychic sensitivity tends to be from solitude as something undesirable, while increased “a hundredfold in the vastness, soli- many spiritual masters and gurus, as diverse as tude, and silence of nature," which he likens to the Master Djwhal Khul; and Don Juan Matus, a concave mirror that not only enlarges and a Yaqui Indian shaman from Mexico, attest to reflects one’s innermost feeling and emotions the importance of solitude. The Tibetan Master but concentrates them in one focal point: one’s speaks about this “not (as) the solitude of a own consciousness. This symbiosis is finally separative spirit, but the solitude that comes explained by him as “the immensity of nature from the ability to be non-separative, and from and its timeless rhythm (that) reflect the simi- the faculty of identification with the soul of all lar properties of our deepest mind.”46

Anagarika, the Homeless One played by a truly free spirit. Publicly, she would come to be known as Li Gotami.52 It was during the next few years that Govinda lived up to his name, Anagarika, the homeless Of these two women, it was Rati Petit who one, during which time his life followed a made the strongest impression on Govinda. course that can best be described as erratic. It Their first meeting took place early one morn- started upon his return from Western Tibet, ing as Rati Petit was walking by the covered and despite teaching assignments at the Uni- porch of the hostel where Govinda had his liv- versity of Patna and Shantiniketan, the school ing quarters. The light was a rose-gold color which was founded by Nobel prize winner and that is so particular to rural India, and Rati Pet- poet, Rabindranath Tagore, in western Bengal, it remembers that as she walked by “a door Govinda never stayed in one place for long.47 opened and out strolled this handsome, smiling He participated in debates about Eastern cul- foreigner dressed in the burgundy robes of a ture and also wrote articles on a regular basis monk.” She recalled asking herself who this for the Mahabodhi, a journal of the Mahabodhi “bright merry person” might be, and in retro- Society in Calcutta.48 These articles appeared spect (at least on her part) remembered the in- almost on a monthly basis and were, as Ken cident as very romantic.53 Ken Winkler de- Winkler, put it “somewhat lofty in content, scribes Rati Petit and Govinda’s early relation- though his earnestness is just as evident as his ship as follows: determination to present his views on Bud- Considering how direct Rati was, it isn’t dhism. He remained a quiet, scholarly writer, surprising they met, let alone married ten pedantic in his articles and deeply committed 49 years later. However, she was a student to explaining his findings.” and, despite what else she might have been, Whilst he was teaching at Shantiniketan, Go- she acted with respect towards teachers. vinda counted two prominent Indian women Her forward nature was tempered with a among his pupils. One of them was Indira social awareness that bordered on shyness, Nehru, at the time a motherless girl, whose a characteristic not uncommon with well- father, Jawaharlal Nehru, was often in jail un- brought-up Indian girls.54 der British rule, but who would become India’s The friendship between Rati and Govinda de- first Prime Minister once India became inde- veloped gradually. Rati, as she admitted to Ken pendent of Britain. Years later, she would fol- Winkler, became a Buddhist at this time. This low in her father’s footsteps and become Prime was instigated by her study of “easy-to-read- Minister herself, but in these early years of books” about Buddhism, rather than the more India’s struggle to gain independence, Govinda complex material—which she could not under- was teaching her French. She and Govinda 55 50 stand—that Govinda pored over. Neverthe- remained friends until her death. less, Govinda took her interest in Buddhism The other woman with whom Govinda made seriously enough to take her along with him acquaintance “was a rich, outspoken and very when he went to Sarnath in 1936 to meet with attractive Parsee (Indian follower of the Irani- his guru, Tomo Geshe.56I n his book, The Way an prophet Zoroaster) from Bombay named of the White Clouds, Govinda wrote that Tomo Rati Petit. Daughter of an industrialist and Geshe had prophesied that the marriage be- raised in a very privileged household, she had tween Rati and Govinda would take place in been to school in England and was determined 1947, but Govinda had kept this to himself, for to become an artist.”51 She had been a student which, as Rati later admitted, she was grate- at the Slade School of Art in London, but her ful.57 In the interim much was to happen that studies there had to be abandoned due to ill- kept their lives occupied, and Shantiniketan ness. Nevertheless, she then managed to study did not prevent Govinda from traveling, but with several artists in India, and won several was seen by him as a convenient base from awards for her camera work. Her independence which to explore the surrounding country- can best be described as that which is dis- side.58

Of all the places that Govinda visited, Darjee- dwelling hermits who, like the famous Tibetan ling, and neighboring Ghoom remained as his Saint, Milarepa, sought enlightenment by favorite places of retreat. Ghoom was also means of solitude. One of the most well- where his foster mother, Mrs. Habermann, had known of these hermits whom Govinda had the settled down. While Ghoom provided Govinda opportunity to meet was the Gomchen of with an anchoring spot, his foster mother al- Lachen, who had been the guru of Alexandra ways remained in the David-Neel, the French background, and Go- Buddhism is religion; as an explorer and Tibetologist, vinda referred to her only intellectual formulation of famous for her books briefly and occasionally Magic and Mystery in in his writings. It was this experience it is philos- Tibet, My Journey to Lha- also in Ghoom where ophy; as a result of system- sa, etc.61 some of Govinda’s atic self-observation it is The meeting between Go- friends from his Capri vinda and the Gomchen days came to visit, result- psychology; as a norm of was brief, but fruitful. ing in lively discussions behaviour, resulting from They were in agreement and exchange of infor- an inner conviction or atti- that “it is not the robe or mation about their differ- the shaven head but the ent worlds. tude based on the aforesaid overcoming of selfish de- Another teaching post properties, it is ethics; and sires that makes the saint” presented to Govinda at as a principle of outer con- and “the knowledge that this time came from the duct, it is morality. springs from the experi- University of Patna. The ence of ultimate reality in courses he presented there were for post- meditation . . . Mere goodness and morality graduate students in Pali-Buddhism, and Go- without wisdom is as useless as knowledge vinda’s notes were published within a year of without goodness.” In his own words, Go- his appointment under the title of The Psycho- vinda summarized this visit in The Way of the logical Attitude of Early Buddhist Philoso- White Clouds as follows: phy.59 For testimony of his expertise and con- I shall never forget the peace of his her- fidence regarding his subject matter one only mitage amidst the eternal snows and the needs to turn to his introduction, in which he lesson he taught me: that we cannot face the gives this clear and concise definition of Bud- Great Void before we have the strength and dhism: the greatness to fill it with our entire being. Buddhism is religion; as an intellectual Then the Void is not a negation merely of formulation of this experience it is philoso- our limited personality, but the Plenum- phy; as a result of systematic self- Void which includes, embraces, and nour- observation it is psychology; as a norm of ishes it, like the womb of space in which behaviour, resulting from an inner convic- the light moves eternally without ever being tion or attitude based on the aforesaid prop- lost.62 erties, it is ethics; and as a principle of outer The Passing Away of Tomo Geshe and conduct, it is morality.60 Govinda’s Reflections on Life, Death, and Whenever opportunity allowed, Govinda Rebirth would go into the mountains. In Sikkim, the Indian state in the Himalayas, he befriended It was shortly before this inspiring visit with the Maharaja, who not only welcomed him the Gomchen that Govinda’s own guru, Tomo into his home, but also aided Govinda with Geshe had passed away. Although the loss of men and materials, so that he could explore the his beloved teacher was deeply felt by Go- vinda, he refused to be demonstrative about it, region. It was off the beaten track where he 63 found numerous hermitages inhabited by cave and bore his sorrow in silence. However, this

momentous incident gave rise to serious reflec- tional test by which various monastic articles tion and contemplation about life, death, and such as rosaries, vajras, bells, teacups, wooden rebirth on Govinda’s part, and we are fortunate bowls, and other objects were spread before enough to share his insights as they have been the boy, from which he had to pick out those recorded in his writings. In The Way of the that had exclusively belonged to the late Tomo White Clouds, Govinda devotes an entire sec- Geshe.66 tion of his book to this subject, entitled Death As regards the successful conclusion of the and Rebirth, which is subdivided into eight identification of Tomo Geshe’s new incarna- chapters, and in all, totals 41 pages.64 tion, Govinda sums it up simply and objective- At the end of the chapter, which Govinda de- ly with the following words: voted to the passing away of his guru, Tomo The father, who saw all these proofs and Geshe, he formulates his ideas about the very remembered the many signs of the boy’s purpose of the path to liberation, and in this extraordinary intelligence and unusual be- regard contrasts the two approaches, one fol- haviour which had often surprised him, was lowed by the mystic, the other by what many finally convinced and – though it was with esotericists would identify as the approach of a heavy heart – he finally gave his consent the occultist. He expresses his thoughts on that the boy should go with the delegation these distinctions as follows: to his monastery in Tibet.67 The purpose of Buddhist meditation, there- In Govinda’s musings about rebirth, he points fore, is not merely to sink back into the out the part that individuality plays in relation ‘uncreated’ state, into a state of complete to consciousness, and how such an individual tranquilisation with a vacant mind [mysti- consciousness is related to universal con- cism]; it is not a regression into the ‘uncon- sciousness: scious’ or the exploration of the past, but a process of transformation, of transcend- The highest consciousness is the product of ence, in which we become fully conscious the widest range of experience: the ampli- of the present, of the infinite powers and tude between the poles of universality and possibilities of the mind, in order to become individuality . . . Individuality is not only masters of our own destiny, by cultivating the necessary and complementary opposite those qualities which lead to the realisation of universality but the focal point through of our timeless nature: to enlightenment which alone universality can be experi- [occultism].65 enced. The suppression of individuality, the philosophical or religious denial of its value Before his passing away Tomo Geshe had told or importance, can only lead to a state of his disciples not to grieve when he dies, be- complete indifference and dissolution, cause in a very short time they could look for which may be a liberation from suffering, his return. The question of Tomo Geshe’s re- but a negative one, as it deprives us of the birth was of such an importance to Tibetans highest experience towards which the pro- that even the State Oracle of Nächung in Lhasa cess of individuation seems to aim: the ex- had been invoked. The oracle was so detailed perience of perfect enlightenment or Bud- that he not only gave the name of the town dhahood in which the universality of our (Gangtok), but also the year in which the boy true being is realised.68 was born (1937), the exact age of his parents, the description of the house in which they Govinda’s musing and contemplations about lived, and even identified the two fruit-trees rebirth reach their conclusion when he asks which stood in front or their house. All that why the universe should bring into being indi- remained was to send a delegation of monk- vidual forms of life and consciousness if it officials to verify his findings. The final proof were not consistent with or inherent in its very to verify the newly reincarnated identity of spirit or nature. He answers this by asserting Tomo Geshe happened according to the tradi- that “(t)he very fact of our individual existence

must have a meaningful place in the order of which is about 1300 kilometers west of Ghoom the universe and cannot be brushed aside as a in the state of Uttarakhand,he met the Ameri- deplorable accident or a mere illusion . . .” He can Tibetologist, Dr Walter Evans-Wentz, who posits further that preceding any explanations was also an Oxford scholar, and who is best either from religious, philosophical, or psycho- known for making known The Tibetan Book of logical quarters, one needs to consider the the Dead in the West.73 74 Govinda and Evans- conviction that people had, not only as regards Wentz became friends, and Govinda even went the survival of individual consciousness be- so far as to help Evans-Wentz pick out a site yond death, but also of a return, or rebirth, into for a property which Evans-Wentz intended as the human world.69 a suitable location for an ashram.75 The place which they finally decided on was called Kasar Internment and the War Years Devi, a rising jut of land at the end of what After having come to terms with Tomo Ge- would popularly come to be known as she’s death Govinda returned to Ghoom, where “Crank’s Ridge," when the hippies started to he and his stepmother, Mrs. Habermann be- frequent it in the sixties.76 came hosts for many European visitors and The acquisition of the above-mentioned prop- travellers. Among them were refugees, and erty was to change the lives of both men, and many professional people such as intellectuals, was to have far-reaching consequences. All artists, and university professors who were “an that needs to be said at this stage is that when articulate, observant group of survivors. While Govinda returned to Almora sometime later, their presence as anti-Nazis (or at least pro- Evans-Wentz had left for home on the last pas- selves) didn’t start any immediate divisions in senger ship out of Bombay, afraid that his the local German communities, they made funds might be cut off in case hostilities should people very aware of the dangers they had just break out with the build-up to the impending left.”70 war. Kasar Devi now had a stone-block house, Ken Winkler relates how a peculiar story ap- but all the bad news coming from Europe peared at the time which would continue long made several other expatriates flee the area as after the war. An English follower of Krishna well, so that Govinda’s visit was cut short, and Prem, the British professor who lived the life he had no choice but to return to Ghoom.77 of a saduh near Almora, told of a German- The war began with Germany’s invasion of Jewish girl who had been a guest at the Go- Poland on 1 September 1939, followed by vinda home in Ghoom. She related having seen 78 Britain’s declaration of war against Germany. many National Socialist publications there that Ken Winkler writes that “(t)he results were felt had been left behind by some visitors, and was immediately, even in India, where civil and worried that someone might misunderstand the military contingency plans were put in ef- reason of their existence in the Govinda home. 79 fect.” German and Italian men were rounded However, Govinda wasn’t worried, having up within hours all over India and the nationals spoken out in no uncertain terms against the of the Axis powers of every political back- Nazis, and having held very clear views as re- ground were taken to detention camps. Be- gards their intentions.71 As it would turn out cause Govinda was the holder of a British later, the British were far from casual regard- passport, it appeared that, for the time being, at ing such matters, and would use such infor- least, he was exempt from being treated as a mation to build their case in favor of Go- 80 potentially subversive foreigner. vinda’s internment. Other factors that likely contributed to his internment were the fact that What Govinda didn’t know is that he had been his father was German, and that he was friends under surveillance all along by the Darjeeling with the Nehru family.72 police. But sometime after the outbreak of the war, the British finally stopped wavering, and Before the above-mentioned unfortunate event in 1942, he was forcefully taken from his home was to take place, an unsuspecting Govinda in Ghoom. His status as a British subject, (de- was as ever on the move. On a trip to Almora,

spite the fact that he had been naturalized since It is worth mentioning at this point that in an- 1938),81 was brushed aside, and within a few other part of the camp two very different com- days, he became a victim of incarceration, panions, the mountaineers, Heinrich Harrer which was to last until the end of the war.82 and Peter Aufschnaiter, managed to escape First an inmate of a detention center in Deolali, their British captors, and after months of ad- Govinda was then moved to Ahmednagar, and ventures that were characterized by the harsh- finally to a permanent internment camp in est conditions and dangers, successfully trav- Premnagar near Dehra Dun, which is a large eled across Tibet, and were eventually granted upland valley on the Siwalik Hills north of asylum in Lhasa. A faithful record of their ac- New Dehli. There he became one of about two tivities would later be written down by Harrer, thousand inmates who were hailing from sev- and made public in his well-known book, Sev- eral Axis countries.83 en Years in Tibet.87 Juxtaposing Harrer and Govinda, Winkler makes the following com- Since no distinction had been made by the ment: British as regards the various factions of inmates, trouble soon broke out. A small minori- At first glance, it’s surprising that two ty in the camp, of which Govinda was a part, men who helped shape Western views of had little in common with the National Social- Tibet would have so little in common, but ist majority, and was almost immediately set Harrer and Govinda lived at opposite ends upon, giving the British no choice but to sepa- of the camp and represented two philoso- rate them. Thus this smaller group, numbering phies that were worlds apart.88 a little over a hundred, were given their own As soon as the war ended in Europe, Govinda section. They largely consisted of tourists, en- was among the first detainees to be released, gineers, teachers, missionaries, as well as a likely due to the fact that he caused no trouble German Theravadin monk from Ceylon called during his internment, and was, after all, a nat- Nyanaponika Mahathera, in whom Govinda uralized British subject. As regards his fellow found an ideal companion. The two of them inmate, Nyanaponika, they remained friends, soon settled in and partitioned off an area of but after Govinda left the camp, they only met the barrack, complete with an improvised once more—in Germany twenty-five years shrine consisting of a Buddha image, brass later.89 water bowls, and oil lamps.84 A Union of Soul Mates Ken Winkler writes that Govinda and Nyanap- onika became close friends, and quotes the According to Ken Winkler, there is no precise latter to have said that “(o)n a very few occa- record of all the places that Govinda visited in sions, we had quite lively arguments on doctri- the two years following his release from in- nal differences, these were never unfriendly ternment, but he writes that Shantiniketan was and we always were aware of our common definitely a place of refuge for him, even if for ground as dedicated Buddhists.”85 Govinda, a short time. It is also assumed that he attempt- true to his scholarly nature, did not remain in- ed to return to Ghoom, but due to the re- tellectually idle, and undertook several tasks in strictions that were imposed around the border this regard. One such task was the compilation areas at the time, he may not have gained per- of a Tibetan, Sanskrit, Pali and English glossa- mission to go home directly. His foster mother, Mrs. Habermann, had spent the war years in a ry of Buddhist terms; another, aiding Nyanap- 90 onika with his study of Sanskrit. It was proba- hotel in Darjeeling. bly due to their peaceful behavior as inmates Govinda also spent a considerable time in that the British later allowed them to receive Calcutta, which had become a place where passes, which gave them the opportunity to many refugees from diverse countries got to- leave the camp twice a week, and to explore gether. However, the city was gripped by in- the town and countryside outside the camp trigue, and had become a hotbed of communal between 8 a.m. and 5 p.m.86 and political agitation. Nevertheless, it is there that Govinda used his contacts in the artistic

world to exhibit his work in Bombay the fol- important from a Buddhist point of view, was lowing year. The war and his internment had performed by the Ajo Rimpoche in the Tse- interrupted his Tibetan studies and his long- Choling monastery in the Chumbi Valley, con- held ambition to investigate the restoration and current with Govinda and Li Gotami’s initia- stabilization of Buddhism in the Tsaparang tion into the Kagyupa order of Tibetan Bud- region of Western Tibet. But his financial situ- dhism.95 ation and poor health made these aims re- The last-mentioned wedding ceremony and the mote.91 related circumstances under which it took At this point, a few words need to be said place are worth describing in a little more de- about Govinda’s old-time pupil, Li Gotami. tail, as it took place when Govinda and Li While Govinda sat out the war in an intern- Gotami were on their way to Gyantse, where ment camp, she had remained at Shantiniketan Govinda intended to get passes that would al- to further her studies in art by becoming the low them to go to Tsaparang. Ken Winkler personal pupil of Abanindranath Tagore, who writes about the launch of these plans as fol- was considered a great art master. At this stage lows: of her life, Li Gotami was a beautiful woman In addition to their settling in and getting in her mid-thirties, who had already been mar- used to each other, Govinda busily peti- ried and divorced, and who was now living an tioned the authorities to travel to Gyantse, active social and cultural life. Under Tagore’s the large trading town in southern Tibet. tutelage, she learned about all matters of art. His plans for Tsaparang were galvanising However, he eventually advised her to special- and he now understood the only way to get ize in Tibetan pictures, or to write and illus- the required passes (lamjig) and the cooper- trate fantasies and children’s books, assuring ation from local officials was to camp on her that she would shine if she followed his the front doorstep of the officials con- advice. Evidently such advice was not without cerned.96 foundation, because Li Gotami’s busy sched- ule also allowed for studying the techniques of As Govinda and Li Gotami advanced on their Tibetan fresco and tanka painting under Tibet- journey to Gyantse they had to go via the an artists, for which she seemed to show a spe- Chumbi and Tomo valleys, and consequently cial aptitude.92 stop over at the Tse-Choling monastery. Go- vinda had brought with him a letter of intro- When Govinda returned to Shantiniketan to duction to the abbot of Tse-Choling, Ajorepa recuperate from the hardships of the war, he Rimpoche, who was considered an incarnation and Li Gotami renewed their friendship. It was of an eighth-century Siddha known as Dombi- also revealed that she had kept secret faith in Heruka.97 Buddhism, which gave Govinda the opportunity to instruct her in Tibetan iconography and Ajo Rimpoche, as Govinda saw him, was as religious thought. As their relationship deep- significant a religious teacher as Govinda’s ened, marriage now became a possibility, and first guru, Tomo Geshe. What he had to impart shortly thereafter, as Govinda’s guru, the Rim- to Govinda and Li Gotami by means of their poche had predicted, it became a certainty.93 initiation and wedding ceremony, was looked upon as a continuation of Govinda’s spiritual As strange as it may sound, Govinda and Li unfoldment, and as much valued as his initia- Gotami’s marriage was legitimized no less tion that he had received from Tomo Geshe.98 than four times. And as related by Li Gotami to Ken Winkler, one of these marriages was Govinda does not provide the details of their performed by Govinda himself, who in his ca- initiation, and only mentions that much trouble pacity as a lama was authorized to perform the was taken as regards the preceding prepara- rite. Two civil ceremonies were also supposed tions. He mentions that the most important as- to have taken place, one in Bombay and one in pects consisted of the meditation techniques Darjeeling.94 The fourth ceremony, the most and visualizations which they were taught dai-

ly.99 Li Gotami was a little less reserved, but thing of interest, including those that were tak- nevertheless guarded, when relating her expe- en of dancers and performers of mystery plays. riences in her correspondence with her sister Finally, “after a cold, white Christmas, their Coomie. In her letter she explained that the permits arrived and towards the end of January seven factors of enlightenment as represented 1948, they left Gyantse.”103 By the time they by the seven lights and seven water bowls that returned to India it was spring, during which were on the altar during the ceremony stood time they visited Ghoom and Calcutta, and for wisdom; the active side of the intellect; the preoccupied themselves with packing and intellect as represented by speech; love and planning for their trip back into Tibet, and compassion; and the remembrance of a histori- more specifically, their intended visit to Tsapa- cal and transcendental wisdom.100 rang.104 Govinda summed up this important interlude Conclusion on their journey into Tibet’s interior as follows: p to this point, Govinda’s life had been U highly eventful and instructive in prepara- We also found plenty of work to do besides tion for a life of discipleship in the service of our devotional practices, as there were Buddhism. Now with Li by his side, the two of books to study, notes to be taken, woodcuts them would prove to become a very effective to be printed and some outstanding frescoes husband and wife team capable of facing the to be copied or traced in outline . . . Also toughest and most challenging tasks, namely outside the monastery there was plenty to the arduous expedition to Tsaparang. After do in the way of sketching and photo- nearly a year of work in Tholing and Tsapa- graphing. We certainly had not one dull rang, in Western Tibet, they managed to trace moment, and in-between we had ample op- and catalogue the first authentic artworks and portunities of discussing religious questions frescos of the region, dating as far back as the 101 with Ajo Rimpoche . . . eleventh century, so that future generations After their spiritually enriching interlude at could appreciate the splendors of a once great Tse-Choling monastery the Govindas contin- and highly evolved culture. Their experiences ued their journey, and finally arrived in and accomplishments will be discussed in Gyantse on 1 September 1947. Ken Winkler greater detail in Part II of this series. Part II describes Gyantse as a large town and major will also discuss Govinda’s and Li’s life after trading center consisting of about 50,000 in- their farewell to Tibet, and their interaction habitants, which is divided into secular and with the wider world as emissaries of Tibetan religious sections. Due to its commercial im- Buddhism. The article will conclude with Go- portance, there were several governmental of- vinda’s death in the San Francisco Zen Centre fices, and it was thus by appealing to these au- in California, his final place of refuge. thorities that Govinda hoped to gain permission to travel to parts of Tibet that could only 1 be accessed by means of the necessary pass- Image of Lama Anagarkia Govinda. Permis- sion granted for non-profit educational uses es.102 only. The time it took to wait for the needed docu- 2 http://www.spaceandmotion.com/Philosophy- mentation for their proposed exploration into Lama-Govinda.htm (accessed August 30, 2014). the western regions of Tibet, and more specifi- 3 cally, Tsaparang, was about four months, a http://donaldsimons.blogspot.com/2011/04/ lama-anagarika-govinda.html (accessed Sep- period that the Govindas utilized by exploring tember 1, 2014). the vicinity and visiting retreats and monaster- 4 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys (Shaftes- ies. There were also religious ceremonies and bury: Element Books Limited, 1990), 2-3. festivals in which they partook, not to mention 5 Ibid., 3-4. invitations to tea. Li took countless photo- 6 Ibid., 4-5. graphs during this period, taking shots of any-

7 http://www.arya-maitreya-mandala.org/ con- 43 Carlos Castaneda, The Active Side of Infinity, tent/lamagovinda.htm (accessed September 5, (1998; New York: Harper Perennial, 2000), 2014). 261. 8 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 5. 44 Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Way of the 9 Ibid., 6-7. White Clouds, 62. 10 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satipatthana 45 Ibid., 62. (accessed August 25, 2015). 46 Ibid., 70. 11 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 8. 47 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 36. 12 Ibid., 8. 48 Ibid., 37-38. 13 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuraghe (access- 49 Ibid., 38. ed September 7, 2014). 50 Ibid., 40. 14 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 9. 51 Ibid., 39. 15 Ibid., 11. 52 Ibid., 39. 16 Ibid., 13-14. 53 Ibid., 40. 17 Ibid., 15-16. 54 Ibid., 40. 18 Ibid., 17. 55 Ibid., 41. 19 Ibid., 18-19. 56 Ibid., 41. 20 Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Way of the 57 Ibid., 60-61. White Clouds (1966; reprint; London: Rider, 58 Ibid., 41. 2006), 13. 59 Ibid., 42. 21 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 19. 60 Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Psychological 22 Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Way of the Attitude of Early Buddhist Philosophy, (Rider, White Clouds, 13. 1969) 12. 23 Ibid., 14. 61 Iván Kovács, Alexandra David-Néel: The Life 24 Ibid., 15-16. and Work of an Early Romancer of Tibet, 25 Ibid., 16. (The Esoteric Quarterly, Winter 2014). 26 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 22- 23. 62 Ibid., 103. 27 Ibid., 23. 63 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 46. 28 Ibid., 23. 64 Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Way of the 29 http://www.nyackbuddhism.org/rinpoche.html White Clouds, 109- 151. (accessed December 2, 2014). 65 Ibid., 114 (terms in brackets added by this 30 http://www.nyackbuddhism.org/rinpoche.html author). (accessed December 2, 2014). 66 Ibid., 120-121. 31 Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Way of the 67 Ibid., 121. White Clouds, 34. 68 Ibid., 124. 32 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 25. 69 Ibid., 125. 33 Donald S. Lopez, Prisoners of Shangri-la, 70 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 48-49. (1998; Chicago: The University of Chicago 71 Ibid., 49. Press, 1999), 60. 72 Ibid., 54. 34 Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Way of the 73 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Evans- White Clouds, 36-37. Wentz (accessed February 18, 2015). 35 Mabel Collins, Light on the Path, (London: 74 Iván Kovács, The Tibetan Tetralogy of W. Y. The Theosophical Publishing House Ltd, Evans-Wentz: A Retrospective Assessment, 1971), 14. (The Esoteric Quarterly, Winter 2015, Spring 36 Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Way of the 2015). White Clouds, 38. 75 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 50. 37 Ibid., 39. 76 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crank's_Ridge 38 Ibid., 39- 40. (accessed February 18, 2015). 39 Ibid., 57. 77 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 50. 40 Ibid., 60- 61. 78 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion_of_ 41 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 24. Poland (accessed February 22, 2015). 42 Alice A. Bailey, The Externalisation of the 79 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 51. Hierarchy, (1957; New York: Lucis Publish- 80 Ibid. ing Company, 1972), 682- 683. 81 Ibid., 55.

82 Ibid., 51-53. 95 Ibid., 66. 83 Ibid., 55. 96 Ibid., 61. 84 Ibid. 97 Ibid., 66. 85 Ibid. 98 Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Way of the 86 Ibid., 56. White Clouds, 156. 87 Ibid., 57. 99 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 67. 88 Ibid. 100 Ibid., 67. 89 Ibid. 101 Lama Anagarika Govinda, The Way of the 90 Ibid., 58. White Clouds, 166- 167. 91 Ibid., 58-59. 102 Ken Winkler, A Thousand Journeys, 71. 92 Ibid., 59-60. 103 Ibid., 74. 93 Ibid., 60-61. 104 Ibid., 76. 94 Ibid., 61.