DOCSLIB.ORG

Refining Automatically-Discovered Lexical Relations: Combining Weak Techniques for Stronger Results

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Refining Automatically-Discovered Lexical Relations: Combining Weak Techniques for Stronger Results From: AAAI Technical Report WS-92-01. Compilation copyright © 1992, AAAI (www.aaai.org). All rights reserved. Refining Automatically-Discovered Lexical Relations: Combining Weak Techniques for Stronger Results Marti A. Hearst Gregory Grefenstette ComputerScience Division Department of Computer Science 571 Evans Hall 210 MIB University of California, Berkeley University of Pittsburgh Berkeley, CA94720 Pittsburgh, PA 15260 raa rti @cs.berkeley, edu [email protected], edu Abstract level language processing techniques in isolation often do not suffice for a particular task; for this reason we Knowledge-poor corpus-based approaches to nat- are interested in finding ways to combine various ap- ural language processing are attractive in that proaches and improve their results. they do not incur the difficulties associated with complex knowledge bases and real-world infer- Accordingly, we conducted experiments to refine the ences. However, these kinds of language process- results of an automatic lexical discovery technique by ing techniques in isolation often do not suffice for makinguse of a statistically-based syntactic similarity a particular task; for this reason we are interested measure, and integrating them with an existing knowl- in finding ways to combine various techniques and edge structure. The discovery program uses lexieo- improvetheir results. syntactic patterns to find instances of the hyponymy Accordingly, we conducted experiments to refine (i.e., ISA) relation in large text bases. Once relations the results of an automatic lexical discovery tech- of this sort are found, they should be inserted into an existing lexicon or thesaurus. However, the terms in nique by making use of a statistically-based syn- the relation may have multiple senses, thus hampering tactic similarity measure. The discovery program automatic placement. In order to address this problem uses lexico-syntactic patterns to find instances of we applied a term-similarity determination technique the hyponymyrelation in large text bases. Once to the problem of choosing where, in an existing lexi- relations of this sort are found, they should be in- cal hierarchy, to install a lexieal relation. The union of serted into an existing lexicon or thesaurus. How- these two corpus-based methods is promising, although ever, the terms in the relation may have multiple only partially successful in the experiments run so far. senses, thus hampering automatic placement. In order to address this problem we applied a term- These ideas are related to other recent work in sev- similarity determination technique to the problem eral ways. We make use of restricted syntactic in- of choosing where, in an existing lexical hierarchy, formation as do Brent’s (Brent 1991) verb subcate- to install a lexical relation. The union of these gorization frame recognition technique and Smadja’s two corpus-based methods is promising, although (Smadja & McKeown1990) collocation acquisition al- only partially successful in the experiments run so gorithm. The work reported here attempts to find se- far. Here we report some preliminary results, and mantic similarity among terms based on the contexts make suggestions for how to improve the technique they tend to occur in; (Church & Hanks 1990) uses in future. frequency of co-occurrence of content words to create clusters of semantically similar words, (Hindle 1990) uses both simple syntactic subject-verb-object frames Introduction and frequency of occurrence of content words to deter- Knowledge-poor corpus-based approaches to natural mine similarity among nouns, and (Calzolari & Bindi language processing are attractive in that they do 1990)use corpus-basedstatistical association ratios not incur the difficulties associated with complex to determinelexical information such as prepositional knowledge bases and real-world inferences, while they complementationrelations, modification relations, and promise to offer efficient means of exploiting ever- significantcompounds. This paperpresents an at- growing quantities of on-line text. However, coarse- temptto combineknowledge-poor techniques; (Wilks 64 et al. 1992) discusses the potential power behind com- For example, the noun "board" appears in the synsets bining weak methods and describes advances achieved {board, plank} and {board, committee~, and this using this paradigm. grouping serves for the most part as the word’s defi- The next section describes in detail the problem be- nition. In version 1.1, WordNetcontains about 34,000 ing addressed and the two existing coarse-level lan- noun word forms, including some compounds and guage processing techniques that are to be combined. proper nouns, organized into about 26,000 synsets. This is followed by a description of how the similar- Noun synsets are organized hierarchically 1 according ity calculations are done, the results of applying these to the hyponymyrelation with implied inheritance and calculations to several examples, the difficulties that are further distinguished by values of features such as arise in each case, and a sketch of somesolutions for meronymy. WordNet’s coverage is impressive and pro- these difficulties. Wethen illustrate a side-effect of vides a good base for an automatic acquisition algo- the integration of statistical techniques with a lexical rithm to build on. knowledgesource, followed by a brief conclusion. Now, assuming we have discovered the relation hy- ponym(X, Y), indicating that X is a kind of Y, we wish The Problem: Integration of Lexical to enter this relation into the WordNetnetwork. Relations If the network is sufficiently mature, as is Word- Net, we can assume that most of the highly ambiguous (Hearst 1992) reports a method for the automatic ac- words are already present and appear in higher levels quisition of the hyponymylexical relation from unre- of the network. Therefore, most of the time we will be stricted text. In this method, the text is scannedfor in- trying to insert a rather specific term that itself does stances of distinguished lexico-syntactic patterns that not need to be disambiguated (i.e., it has only one main indicate the relation of interest. sense) as a hyponym of a term that can have one or For example, consider the lexico-syntactic pattern more senses. If we assume this is indeed the case, then ... NP {, NP}~ (,}or otherNP ... there are two scenarios to consider: (Scenario 1) Each sense of Y has several child sub- Whena sentencecontaining this pattern is found(with trees and ~he task is to determine which subtree X somerestrictions on the syntax to the left and the right shares context with. This in turn implies which sense of the pattern) it can be inferred that the NP’s on the of Y the hyponymrelation refers to. left of or other are hyponymsof the NP on the right (Scenario 2) One or more of the senses of Y have (where NP indicates a simple noun phrase). From the no children. Thus there are no subtrees to compare X sentence against. Bruises, wounds, broken bones or o~her There are two considerations associated with Sce- injuries are common. nario 1: (la) X is not a direct descendent of Y, but belongs we can infer: two or more levels down. hyponym~bruise, injury) (lb) X belongs in a new subtree of its own, even hyponym(wound, injury) though the correct sense of Y has one or more child hyponym:brokenbone, injury) subtrees. This pattern is one of several that have been identified In the work described here we address only the sit- as indicating the hyponymyrelation. uation associated with Scenario 1, since our technique This approach differs from statistical techniques in uses the child subtrees to determine which sense of Y an interesting way. Both require as their primary re- to associate X with. source a large text collection, but whereas statistical It has been observed (e.g., (Kelly & Stone 1975)), techniques try to find correlations and make general- that the sense of a word can be inferred from the lex- izations based on the data of the entire corpus, only ical contexts in which the word is found. As a (sim- a single instance of a lexico-syntactic pattern need be plified) example, when ’bank’ is used in its riverbank found in order to have made a discovery. sense, it is often surrounded by words having to do Once the relation is found, it is desirable to inte- with bodies of water, while when used in its financial grate it as a part of an existing network of lexical re- institution sense, it appears with appropriate financial lations. We want to develop a means to correctly in- terms. The strategy we present here makes use of an sert an instance of the hyponymyrelation into an ex- extension of this idea; namely, we will look at the con- isting hyponymically-structured network (hyponymyis texts of each subtree of the hypernymof interest, and reflexive, and transitive, but not symmetric.). see which subtrees’ contexts coincide most closely with For our experiments we use the manually con- the contexts that the target hyponymtends to occur structed thesaurus WordNet(Miller et al. 1990). In in. WordNet, word forms with synonymous meanings are 1Although WordNet’shyponyms are structured as a di- grouped into sets, called synsets. This allows a dis- rected network, as opposedto as a tree, for the purposes of tinction to be made between senses of homographs. this paper, wetreat it as if it werea tree. 65 To restate: in order to place the hyponymrelation creation, instauration into the network, we propose the following: => colonization, settlement Similarity Hypothesis: when comparing the contexts that hyponymX occurs in with the contexts of the subtrees (e.g., senses) of hypernymY, X’s contexts Our goal is to see if, by examiningthe syntactic con- will be found to be most similar to those of the sub- texts of these terms in a corpus of text, we can decide tree of Y in which X belongs. under which synset to place ’Harvard’. Howwill the context comparison be done? (Grefen- Given a large enough text sample, SEXTANTcan stette 1992b) has developed a weak technique, embod- tell us what words are used in the most similar ways ied in a program called SEXTANT,which, given a tar- ¯ to ’Harvard’.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Young Housekeeper
    Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page Blank Page YOUNG HOUSE-KEEPER. Blank Page THE YOUNG HOUSE-KEEPER, OR THOUGHTS ON F OOD AND COOKERY. BY WM. A. ALCOTT, Author of the Young Husband, Young Wife, Young Woman's Guide, House I Live in, &c. &c. S ixth Stereotype Edition BOSTON: WAITE, PEIRCE & COMPANY, No. 1 Cornhill. 1846. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, by W m. A. A lcott, in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. G. C. R a n d Printer, 3 Cornhill. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. DIGNITY OF THE HOUSE-KEEPER Silent influence of the house-keeper. Her character as a teacher and educator. Should the mother be the house-keeper? Vulgar notions. Anecdote. Dignity of the house-keeper asserted. She is, in some respects, a legislator—a counsellor—a minister—a missionary— a reformer—a physician............................................ 21—48 CHAPTER II. FIRST PRINCIPLES. 1. Obey the dictates of conscience. 2. Dare to disobey the mandates of fashion. 3. Dignify your profession. 4. Keep the house yourself, as much as possible. 5. Whatever is worth doing, is worth doing well. 6. Importance of securing the aid of the husband and others. 7. Anecdote and reflections...................... 49—60 CHAPTER III. HAVING A PLAN. Why a plan is indispensable. Hour of rising. Ar­ rangements. Breakfast. Particular advantages. Mrs. Parkes’s opinion. Time gained, how to be employed. 61—70 6 CONTENTS CHAPTER IV. KEEPING ACCOUNTS. Every housewife should keep her own accounts. Defi­ ciency in female instruction. Method of keeping an account. Advantages.............................................
    [Show full text]
  • Between Bread…
    cured, marinated, smoked… one fish, two fish… bigger & interactive… 5 ea. 9 for two. 13 for three. 17 for all. crispy rhode island calamari, piccalilli 8 new england dinner 2.0, corned beef brisket, napa cabbage, crispy potatoes, raye’s maple mustard, pickled veg 15 maine scallops fried clams, pickled peppers, cocktail onions, raye’s mustard aioli 7 johnny cake community, cornmeal pancakes, mustard-pickled green beans brown sugared pork shoulder, house sauces, locally caught whitefish, zucchini gratin, nh mushrooms, crispy onion, pickled cucumbers 14 spicy vegetables caramelized carrot jus 14 misty knoll farms pan-seared chicken thighs, nh mushrooms crème fraiche, pickled ginger, cilantro, crispy onion, lettuce for wraps 14 while you’re thinking… everything else… mixed lettuces, buttermilk herb vinaigrette, shaved radish, land rovers… portsmouth rarebit, anadama bread, beer cheese sauce, marinated cucumber, toasted sunflower seeds 8 pork belly bites, rhubarb pickle, farm radish 8 caramelized onions, apple, pickled beets 6 chevre tartlet, red onion marmalade 6 beef short rib marmalade, grilled bread, crispy potatoes, “patatas portsmouth”, pickled onions, shades of blue cheese 9 spicy tomato, herbed sour cream 7 roasted cauliflower, beet & ramp relish, crispy onion, mint 9 pork cutlet, stewed lentils, sofrito, fennel espuma 14 roasted broccoli, grilled tomato pomodoro, chili, tomme, crumb 9 fried pickle chips, raye’s honey mustard, spicy ranch 5 goat sausage, semolina dumplings, spinach, roasted beets, chevre crema 11 marinated beets, enna’s
    [Show full text]
  • In 1934 General Foods Introduced a Chocolate Pudding Mix As “Walter Baker’S Dessert.” in 1936, They Renamed It “Pickle’S Pudding.”
    In 1934 General Foods Introduced A Chocolate Pudding Mix As “Walter Baker’s Dessert.” In 1936, They Renamed It “Pickle’s Pudding.” Each year on June 26th, National Chocolate Pudding Day gets us all excited for a serving of this creamy dessert. Children and adults alike love chocolate pudding and have done so for generations. Usually eaten as a snack or dessert, chocolate pudding is also used as a filling for chocolate creme pie. Historically, chocolate pudding is a variation of chocolate custard, using starch as a thickener instead of eggs. The 1903 edition of Mary Harris Frazer’s Kentucky Receipt Book and the 1918 edition of Fannie Farmer’s Boston Cooking School Cook Book, both printed recipes for the earlier version, using both eggs and flour. In 1934, General Foods (Jello) introduced a chocolate pudding mix as “Walter Baker’s Dessert.” However, in 1936, they renamed it “Pickle’s Pudding.” Originally a British dish, pudding could be made on very short notice. Ingredients vary, but it was basically a sweetened porridge made from flour, tapioca or oatmeal and milk. The term originated in the late 16th century. In Colonial America cornmeal was cheaper and more readily available, so here, Hasty Pudding was a cornmeal mush (cornmeal added to boiling water and cooked) with molasses, honey, brown sugar or maple syrup and milk. There are both savory and dessert versions of this dish. An example of a savory version would be a meat pudding. The sweet and creamy confection we know as pudding emerged in the mid-19th century when an English chemist named Alfred Bird developed an egg-free custard powder.
    [Show full text]
  • A Taste of Scotland?
    A TASTE OF SCOTLAND?: REPRESENTING AND CONTESTING SCOTTISHNESS IN EXPRESSIVE CULTURE ABOUT HAGGIS by © Joy Fraser A thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Department of Folklore Memorial University of Newfoundland October 2011 St. John's Newfoundland Library and Archives Bibliotheque et 1*1 Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington OttawaONK1A0N4 OttawaONK1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre r6f6rence ISBN: 978-0-494-81991-3 Our file Notre r6ference ISBN: 978-0-494-81991-3 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation.
    [Show full text]
  • Cooking 101 in the 1620S
    Cooking 101 In the1600s When our Pilgrim ancestors left England for Holland in 1608, they were eager for changes that would allow them to worship in the manner that they had practiced for fifty years. When they arrived in Holland, they were able to worship in the open, but they had to adjust to those changes. Housing and work was scarce and the language was very different. The English immigrant children had to work to help support families. Some of the children worked as a fuller for a wool weaver. The fuller made the wool more full by pressing the wool into tubs of stale urine with their feet so that the fibers would expand with the fluid. This method was also used A fuller made wool more full to “clean” the wool enabling the dye to set into the woven fabrics. Some children were fortunate enough to work making ribbons, lace or working at bakeries to make pancakes called pannekoeken. Dutch homes did not have ovens so bread- baking was done by bakeries in town. Homes had fireplaces which gave warmth, light and a place for cooking hodgepodge, hutspot in Dutch, inexpensive cuts of meats for soups and stews. The young girls most likely shared their The Pancake Bakery by Pieter Aertsen newly-acquired baking talents to treat the family to sugary pannekoeken. In his book, Strangers and Pilgrims, Travellers and Sojourners, Jeremy Bangs describes how a thick wool cloth would hang along the mantel. This cloth may have been used to direct the smoke from the fireplace away from the room and up the chimney.
    [Show full text]
  • Colonial New England Recipes
    Colonial New England Recipes Gathering as a community to share a big meal was a very important way of celebrating in Rhode Island in the half-centuries before and after the War for Independence. Many regular menu items came from English tradition, like Shepherd’s Pie, Boiled Dinner, and gingerbread. Seafood was plentiful and often served in old and new ways. The abundance of new local foods, particularly corn (maize), but also such treats as maple sugar, lobsters, and turkey added or modified culinary styles. Because this was such an active shipping area, many spices were available, if expensive, coming from other parts of the world. The growth of international trade also brought with it dishes and ingredients from Irish, Portuguese, Italian, and a variety of other cuisines. Old recipes often take quite a long time to prepare, by today’s standards. But modern equipment, short-cuts, and pre-packaged ingredients make at least a good approximation of older dishes available to today’s cooks. This collection is meant to serve as a teaser – inspiration to try some foods that might have made it to shared dinner tables in the early 18th and early 19th centuries. Some of the dishes in this collection will seem quite familiar and modern. Others will seem strange and adventurous. A little internet research will produce many more choices. Be brave. Try one or more for our next parish pot luck supper. Here are some good old dishes, mostly updated for 21st century cooks. They come from a variety of sources, both printed and online.
    [Show full text]
  • O:\Divisions\XE\REPORT\2400\2437
    xxviii. Platanus Occidentalis (Sycamore) Sycamore is a large deciduous tree that grows to 45 meters in height and has a trunk diameter of up to 4 meters. It prefers moist soils along streams and on bottomlands, but it will grow on dry upland slopes (Brown and Brown 1972:124). The species is mentioned by Lawson in North Carolina in 1701 (1952:102). xxix. Taxodium distichum (Bald Cypress) These are deciduous, cone-bearing trees that grow naturally only in swamps or wet soils, where the roots develop erect, conical “knees” that extend above the water level. Cypress wood is moderately heavy, hard, strong, and very resistant to decay (Brown and Brown 1972:12). there is a kinde of wood we called Cypres, because both the wood, and leafe did most resemble it, and of those trees there are some neere 3 fadome and about at the root very straight, and 50, 60 or 80 foot without a branch [Smith 1986:151]. Hariot says of bald cypress, “Cyprus . is a wood of price and no small estimation” (1893:34). Cypress is not an Ever Green with us, and is therefore called the bald Cypress, because the Leaves, during the Winter-Season turn red, not recovering their Verdure till the Spring. These Trees are the largest for Height and Thickness, that we have in this Part of the World; some of them holding thirty-six foot in Circumference. Upon Incision they yield a sweet-smelling grain, though not in great Quantities . [Lawson 1952:99]. Robert Evelin in mid-seventeenth-century New Jersey in the vicinity of Delaware Bay mentions bald cypress (Force 1836-1846:II:23, see Section IV.B.4.a.vii, above).
    [Show full text]
  • Hasty Pudding Versus Tasty Bread
    Hasty pudding versus tasty bread: regional variations in diet and nutrition1 during the Industrial Revolution Sara Horrell and Deborah Oxley Abstract Using parish-level information from Sir F.M. Eden’s The state of the poor (1797) we can identify typical diets for the counties of England. These diets varied considerably and afforded very different standards of nutrition. We compute a nutritional score for this diet, paying attention to the presence of vitamins, minerals and micro- nutrients shown to be essential for health and growth in constructing this measure. Other information in the reports allows us to relate county-level nutrition to factors in the local economy. In particular we find nutrition was positively related to the availability of common land in the area and to women’s remunerated work if conducted from home. Lack of common land and little local supply of dairy products also pushed households into buying white wheaten bread rather than baking their own wholemeal loaf. Replicating some of this analysis with household-level data confirms these results. Diet also maps onto stature: male convicts to Australia were significantly taller if they originated in a county with a more nutritious diet. This verifies the important impact of nutrition on stature and demonstrates the sensitivity of height as a measure of key aspects of welfare. Introduction Sir Frederic Morton Eden’s detailed study published as The state of the poor in 1795 highlighted regional differences in diet amongst the working class and extolled the virtues for
    [Show full text]
  • Los Angeles Times Cook Book No. 2
    957 COOKING AND OTHER RECIPES BY CALIFORNIA WOMEN. 79 RECIPES FOR SPANISH DISHES; IO9 RECIPES FOR SOUPS; 135 RECIPES FOR SALADS; 37 RECIPES FOR BREAD AND ROLLS; 111 RECIPES FOR CAKES; 51 RECIPES FOR COOKIES AND DOUGHNUTS; 28 RECIPES FOR PIES; 57 REC- IPES FOR PUDDINGS; 62 RECIPES FOR DESSERTS; 90 REC- IPES FOR MARMALADES; 8 WAYS OF PREPARING EGGS; 27 RECIPES FOR COOKING FISH AND FOWL; 20 RECIPES FOR COOKING MEATS AND STEWS; 24 WAYS OF PREPAR- ING VEGETABLES; 55 RECIPES FOR MAKING CANDIES; 18 MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES; 1 MENU FOR EASTER LUNCHEON, COMPRISING 4 RECIPES; 9 MENUS FOR PICNIC LUNCHES, COMPRISING 42 RECIPES ......................................................................... BROUGHT OUT BY THE 1905 SERIES OF PRIZE RECIPE CONTESTS IN THE LOS ANGELES TIMES. PUBLISHED AND FOR SALE BY THE TIMES-MIRROR CO. LOS ANGELES, CAL. Blank Page COOKING AND OTHER RECIPES 3 SPANISH DISHES. NO. 1. ALLIGATOR PEAK SALAD. (Rec- NO. 5. SPANISH STRING BEANS. Mrs. L. ipe from Mexico.) Mrs. S. Y. Yglesias, 7 Hugo, Placentia, Cal.—Take two pounds green Albany street, Los Angeles.—Take two large string beans, chop fine. Put a tablespoon of alligator pears, peel and remove the stone; lard in frying pan and one onion, cut fine, cut in one-half-inch cubes, sprinkle with salt, half of a dry red pepper, cut fine; let onion add two tablespoons or more of the best olive and pepper fry brown, then add three ripe oil, with or without a very small piece of tomatoes, cut fine, and stir in a tablespoon of onion, minced fine to flavor. Put in a salad flour; then add a quart of cold water, then dish already prepared with crisp lettuce leaves.
    [Show full text]
  • By Amelia Simmons, American Cookery Books
    AMERICAN COOKERY, OR THE ART OF DRESSING VIANDS, FISH, POULTRY and VEGETABLES, AND THE BEST MODES OF MAKING PASTES, PUFFS, PIES, TARTS, PUDDINGS, CUSTARDS AND PRESERVES, AND ALL KINDS OF CAKES, FROM THE IMPERIAL PLUMB TO PLAIN CAKE. ADAPTED TO THIS COUN- TRY, AND ALL GRADES OF LIFE. By Amelia Simmons, AN AMERICAN ORPHAN. PUBLISHED ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS. HARTFORD PRINTED BY HUDSON & GOODWIN. FOR THE AUTHOR. 1796 IN THE APPENDIX, PAGE 41 American Cookery Books 1742-1860 By Waldo Lincoln REVISED AND ENLARGED BY Eleanor Lowenstein 1 PREFACE. As this treatife is calculated for the improvement of the rifing gen- eration of Females in America, the Lady of fafhion and fortune will not be difpleafed, if many hints are fuggefted for the more general and univerfal knowledge of thofe females in this country, who by the lofs of their parents, or other unfortunate circumftances, are reduced to the neceffity of going into families in the line of domeftics, or taking refuge with their friends or relations, and doing thofe things which are really effential to the perfecting them as good wives, and ufeful mem- bers of fociety. The orphan, tho’ left to the care of virtuous guardians, will find it effentially neceffary to have an opinion and determination of her own. The world, and the fafhion thereof, is fo variable, that old people cannot accommodate themfelves to the various changes and fafhions which daily occur; they will adhere to the fafhion of their day, and will not furrender their attachments to the good old way— while the young and the gay, bend and conform readily to the tafte of the times, and fancy of the hour.
    [Show full text]
  • Images of the Midwest: Cornfields in Poetry, Fiction, and Film
    / s Images of the Midwest: C, arOWD, 1935), p. vii. All further refer- IIOpf. 1942). All further references "'ill be Cornfields in Poetry, tooks. 1969), pp. v-vi. All further refer­ Fiction, and Film {Lil\l;oln: Universil} of Nebra~ka Press. 1962,pp.IJI-JJ2. ilbed di~!oCrlalion. "MaTi Sandoz: An by 'are, 1970. Nancy H. Pogel ondon: MacMillan, 1961/, p.1. let Lo Mrs. RO~rl Kryger, March. 21. as sa... Ihewi!ld<Jm of lragedy on their :nl away happier, ralher than saddened . • i<:.l.l<'holar John Ri"e 811he LJni"eT>i!~ Allhough a few "hola" might di..g.ee aboul it, exact o.;gi"" . 11K Greek concept of lraged".. and its in the mind~ of mosl Americans maize or corn is a native American lion when she was a malure adult, may product Through the years it has become a parr of our collective .Ir.I d&al wilh. tragedy, lhe darker side of national awareness and identity. meaningful as myth and symbol in ill," "Smart Man ....ilh Hogs," "Dumb our history, in our written literature, and more recently in our motion 8 reriewer of CruI." Horsf', for example. piclure6. Abundance; a benign community of slrong individuals who lpatlietic IOW8cd Crazy Horse, wlio .... as work the land; a well-ordered, predictable world that turns with the seasons--these are the cornfield's agrarian promise. The associations .om& City: Saga, 1938). that orderly rows of corn have for us come not merely from early fICrlily oFOklalioma Pre~s. 19J5, 1956), nalional mythology but from years of national and regional experi­ ence and from a much older inheritance: from ancient religious tqlrinled in LiIUUIIif<' or /1t1r Amuicun lloIimin.19711, pp.
    [Show full text]
  • The Complicated History of Pudding Lesson
    Savoury, Sweet, Boiled & Baked! THE COMPLICATED HISTORY OF PUDDING LESSON FOR ELEMENTARY-AGED CHILDREN OBJECTIVES • Develop food preparation and food safety skills • Practice fine motor skills • Learn to count, measure and follow recipe directions • Learn about the history of cooking and food in North America GRADE LEVEL(S) • We created this lesson for Elementary aged-children, but students of all ages may enjoy the activity. • This is dependent on your student as some children have very fine motor skills at a young age and others have a natural interest in food and history. Please fully read this lesson and adapt it to the child’s level. • If adapting to K-2, focus on practising fine motor skills. • If adapting to 3-5, add more emphasis to the history lesson. MATERIALS NEEDED • Large pot • Water for boiling • Stove • Fine bread crumbs • Currants or raisins • Lemon zest • Lard or vegetable shortening • Flour • 4 eggs • Powdered ginger • Slotted spoon • Plate • Maple syrup because the cloth used to make the bag was easy to HISTORY LESSON find and could be reused. Today, most people you know describe pudding as a Have you heard the words “savoury” and “sweet” dessert with a creamy consistency. A typical modern describe food before? Savoury food is flavourful recipe includes sugar, cornstarch, milk and egg food cooked with salt and spices. Sweet food yokes and makes a custard-style pudding. contains sugars. We use savoury to describe food like meat, pasta, and roasted vegetables. We use sweet to describe food like ice cream, pastries, fruit, and candy. Usually your meal is savoury and your dessert is sweet.
    [Show full text]