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An Evaluation of Key Factors That Enabled the Proliferation of Wind Energy Generation in the United States Through 2016

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An Evaluation of Key Factors That Enabled the Proliferation of Wind Energy Generation in the United States Through 2016 Old Dominion University ODU Digital Commons Graduate Program in International Studies Theses & Dissertations Graduate Program in International Studies Spring 2018 When the Wind Blows: An Evaluation of Key Factors that Enabled the Proliferation of Wind Energy Generation in the United States Through 2016 Mary Sodini Bell Old Dominion University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/gpis_etds Part of the Energy Policy Commons, International Relations Commons, and the Oil, Gas, and Energy Commons Recommended Citation Bell, Mary S.. "When the Wind Blows: An Evaluation of Key Factors that Enabled the Proliferation of Wind Energy Generation in the United States Through 2016" (2018). Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Dissertation, International Studies, Old Dominion University, DOI: 10.25777/my3s-8745 https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/gpis_etds/24 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Program in International Studies at ODU Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Program in International Studies Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ODU Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. WHEN THE WIND BLOWS: AN EVALUATION OF KEY FACTORS THAT ENABLED THE PROLIFERATION OF WIND ENERGY GENERATION IN THE UNITED STATES THROUGH 2016 by Mary Sodini Bell B.A. May 1992, New Mexico State University M.A. May 2000, St. Mary’s University A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Old Dominion University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY INTERNATIONAL STUDIES OLD DOMINION UNIVERSITY May 2018 Approved by: Peter Schulman (Director) Austin Jersild (Member) Glen Sussman (Member) ABSTRACT WHEN THE WIND BLOWS: AN EVALUATION OF KEY FACTORS THAT ENABLED THE PROLIFERATION OF WIND ENERGY GENERATION IN THE UNITED STATES THROUGH 2016 Mary Sodini Bell Old Dominion University, 2018 Director: Dr. Peter Schulman Increasing CO2 emissions have led to extreme weather phenomena labeled as climate change. Energy consumption and the burning of fossil fuels are primary contributors to climate change, which necessitates finding ways to decrease fossil fuel consumption critical to preserving the planet while helping nations reduce dependence on costly fossil fuels. Renewable energy is one part of the solution to reducing CO2 emissions. Wind energy is the fastest growing form of renewable energy across the world and within the U.S., but the key factors that enabled the U.S. wind industry to grow from zero installed capacity at the beginning of 1981 to enough capacity to power 25 million average U.S. homes by the end of 2016 remain unclear. This dissertation examines the wind industry growth and identifies the factors of public opinion, presidential leadership, state incentives and mandates, technological developments, and fossil fuel prices as crucial to wind energy development in the U.S. iii © Copyright, 2018, by Mary Sodini Bell, All Rights Reserved. iv This dissertation is dedicated to my son, Jaxson, who was four years old when I started my Ph.D. program. He doesn’t remember a time when I wasn’t working and going to school. He has loved and supported me through this entire process. Nobody is prouder of my hard work, perseverance, and accomplishment than him. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Words do not suffice in explaining how much my director and mentor, Dr. Steve Yetiv, has meant in guiding me through this challenging process. His brilliance and dedication to the field of education was sometimes hidden behind a façade of light- heartedness. In the final weeks leading up to completion of this project, Dr. Yetiv suffered from severe health issues that led to his passing. It is with incredible sadness and gratitude that I write my thoughts about him and recognize how much he has fostered my academic growth. Without his presence in my life for these last five and a half years, I would be a completely different type of academic. I am grateful to his dedication and am thankful to him for who I have become. In companion to that grief in losing Dr. Yetiv much too early is my sincerest gratitude to the director of the Graduate Program for International Studies (GPIS), Dr. Regina Karp, for courageously making the difficult decision that propelled me across the finish line of this work. Following suit, Dr. Peter Schulman voluntarily stepped up to serve as my dissertation director at the most difficult time in this process. Dr. Austin Jersild filled out the committee only two weeks before my defense. Dr. Glen Sussman spent hours assessing and improving my work while also suggesting future options for study and publication. The complete dedication of my committee and the program director is apparent in all they do. Their willingness to volunteer their time to help me is a true testament not only to the program, but especially to Dr. Steve Yetiv and how much everyone supported and valued his work. Their efforts to further the education of all students goes beyond any expectation. vi I am also sincerely thankful to the professionals with whom I work. They have been my biggest supporters and cheerleaders. These people include, Dr. Chuck Davis, Professor Teresa Dicks, Dr. Liz Yeomans, Colonel Chris Rogers, Dr. Rick Gribling, Captain “Boo” Peko, and many others at the Joint Forces Staff College. My daily interaction with these professionals has been uplifting and has kept me on my desired path. I could not have done any of this without support from my family. My mother, Jimmie Sue Hobert, spent hours reading and editing my work. She was my eyes when my eyes became too bleary to see. She was my logic, when my logic had taken a break. I am thankful to my brother, Charlie Bell, who personifies the quality of grace. The rest of my family cheered me on and celebrated with me through every achievement, big or small. I come from a very, very large family and it would take an entire dissertation to properly acknowledge how much they have meant to me. My church family has been with me every day. They have kept me sane and helped me continually build a stronger relationship with God. They helped with childcare when I was in a bind. They fed me dinner when I was hungry. They prayed over me relentlessly and the support of their faith kept me moving forward through the valleys and the deserts. It is due to the grace of God and through the will of God that I have been able to continue to accomplish what He has wanted me to accomplish. Without Him, this accomplishment would be hollow. I close with this verse from Galatians 6:9 (New International Version) – “Let us not become weary in doing good, for at the proper time we will reap a harvest if we do not give up.” I did not give up. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... XI LIST OF MAPS ............................................................................................................ XIII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................... XIV Chapter I. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1 METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH ................................................................................... 6 CONTRIBUTION TO THE LITERATURE ............................................................................ 14 II. LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 19 OVERVIEW OF WIND ENERGY ..................................................................................... 19 PUBLIC OPINION ........................................................................................................ 22 PRESIDENTIAL LEADERSHIP ........................................................................................ 25 STATE MANDATES AND POLICY ................................................................................... 27 TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS .............................................................................. 28 FOSSIL FUEL PRICES ................................................................................................. 30 III. CLIMATE CHANGE AND RENEWABLE ENERGY IN REVIEW .............................. 32 HOW HAS HUMAN BEHAVIOR AFFECTED CLIMATE CHANGE? ........................................ 34 THE U.S. AS ENERGY CONSUMERS AND PRODUCERS .................................................. 45 WHAT IS RENEWABLE ENERGY? ................................................................................. 47 THE TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY .......................................................................... 48 Biomass ................................................................................................................. 49 Hydropower ............................................................................................................ 50 Wind Power ............................................................................................................ 52 Solar Power ........................................................................................................... 55 Geothermal Power ................................................................................................. 56 Power Density and the Grid ................................................................................... 58 HOW
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