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Copyright and Use of This Thesis This Thesis Must Be Used in Accordance with the Provisions of the Copyright Act 1968 COPYRIGHT AND USE OF THIS THESIS This thesis must be used in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Reproduction of material protected by copyright may be an infringement of copyright and copyright owners may be entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. Section 51 (2) of the Copyright Act permits an authorized officer of a university library or archives to provide a copy (by communication or otherwise) of an unpublished thesis kept in the library or archives, to a person who satisfies the authorized officer that he or she requires the reproduction for the purposes of research or study. The Copyright Act grants the creator of a work a number of moral rights, specifically the right of attribution, the right against false attribution and the right of integrity. You may infringe the author’s moral rights if you: - fail to acknowledge the author of this thesis if you quote sections from the work - attribute this thesis to another author - subject this thesis to derogatory treatment which may prejudice the author’s reputation For further information contact the University’s Director of Copyright Services sydney.edu.au/copyright Spying and Surveillance in Shakespeare’s Dramatic Courts Richard Angus Smith A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2014 Department of English The University of Sydney Contents Declaration of originality ii Abstract iii Acknowledgments iv Note on editions used v 1. Introduction: Elizabethan espionage and the behavioural equivocation of Elizabethan spies 1-62 2. Much Ado About Nothing: surveillance and self-deception 63-96 3. The Tempest: the political rehabilitation of spymaster Prospero 97-134 4. Measure for Measure: manipulation in the space of the prison 135-175 5. Henry V: surveillance operations during a hot war 176-210 6. Hamlet: dangerous play at the Danish court 211-255 7. Conclusion: plotting a thesis on espionage 256-260 Bibliography 261-278 i Declaration of originality I declare that this thesis is my own work and that I have acknowledged all sources appropriately. No part of this thesis has been submitted for examination at another institution. Signed: Richard Angus Smith Date: 02/07/2014 ii Abstract This thesis examines representations of spying and surveillance in Shakespearean drama in conjunction with historical practices of espionage in later sixteenth-century England. The introductory chapter outlines how spying operations were conducted in Elizabethan England, with specific attention to the complex attitudes and behaviour of individual agents working in the broader context of the religious wars, both hot and cold, taking place between Protestant England and the Catholic powers of continental Europe. It also provides some analysis of the organisational structures within which those agents worked and examines a wide range of particular cases to illustrate how surveillance operations might play out in practice. The memory of Sir Francis Walsingham, often described as the ‘spymaster’ of Elizabeth’s government and noted for his skill in intelligence work, would have loomed large for any dramatist thinking about espionage at the turn of the seventeenth century. Subsequent chapters each examine a specific play in light of the material presented in the introduction, comprising Much Ado About Nothing, The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Henry V and Hamlet. Each chapter seeks to elucidate how Shakespeare draws upon the world of Elizabethan espionage to provide vital structural components in his dramatic plotting, especially as regards inter-personal relationships between courtiers, secretaries and agents on the ground. Real individuals and the spies depicted in Shakespeare’s plays all behave in a manner that is personally inflected to a profound degree, and it is this particular aspect of early-modern espionage that provides the single most important connection between history and drama. Periodically, this thesis also reflects upon the metatheatrical relationship between characters’ schemes and Shakespeare’s own plotting as a dramatist. iii Acknowledgements First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor Associate Professor Liam Semler: his enthusiasm has proved vital throughout this project, as has his skill in helping me develop an endless stream of half-formed ideas whose usual gambit was to hide behind the arras and wait for me to tempt them out. I would also like to thank my associate supervisor Dr Huw Griffiths for his input, particularly on aspects of early-modern court culture. I am very grateful to Dr Emma Cole and Dr James Marland for taking the time to read through the thesis in its entirety and provide comments. My thanks also to Dr Alex Cameron-Smith for his comments on the introduction. The Early Modern Literature and Culture research cluster within the Department of English provided the opportunity for me to interact regularly with others working in the same field. Dr Melissa Hardie has also taken a keen interest in my work on a number of occasions; unfortunately her suggestion that I write the thesis in invisible ink and supply each examiner with a box of lemons did not come to pass. The Australian Government funded my candidature through its Research Training Scheme, as well as providing an Australian Postgraduate Award for living expenses. The Postgraduate Research Support Scheme at the University of Sydney provided financial assistance for conferences held in Hobart (August 2010) and Auckland (February 2011), and the Australia and New Zealand Shakespeare Association provided a bursary to help with expenses for their conference held in Perth in November 2012. This thesis could not have been completed without the support of my parents Paul and Jane, and my sister Helen. Thanks also to all those who provided other forms of support or simply the opportunity for time out: Margaret Boulos, Daniel Fleming, Jez Fletcher, Sam Fletcher, Sarah Fletcher, Roberta Kwan, Rebecca Lo, Qiu Zitong and Annette Thomas. iv Note on editions used Unless otherwise indicated, all references to works by Shakespeare are to the following edition: William Shakespeare, The Complete Works, Second Edition, ed. Stanley Wells, Gary Taylor, John Jowett and William Montgomery (Oxford: Clarendon, 2005). v 1. Introduction: Elizabethan espionage and the behavioural equivocation of Elizabethan spies This thesis examines representations of spying and surveillance in Shakespearean drama in conjunction with historical practices of espionage in later sixteenth-century England. The first chapter outlines how spying operations were conducted in Elizabethan England, with specific attention to the complex attitudes and behaviour of individual agents working in the broader context of the religious wars, both hot and cold, taking place between Protestant England and Catholic powers in continental Europe. Subsequent chapters each examine a specific play in light of the material presented in this introduction, comprising Much Ado About Nothing, The Tempest, Measure for Measure, Henry V and Hamlet. At heart, this thesis argues that Shakespeare’s widely varied use of concepts relating to espionage throughout his dramatic writing draws on the prevalence of such behaviour in later sixteenth-century England. This introductory chapter is split into two parts. The first half provides some general background about the purpose and nature of spying operations in later sixteenth-century England, with significant attention paid to the political career of Sir Francis Walsingham, Principal Secretary to Elizabeth I from 1573 until his death in 1590, often described as the ‘spymaster’ of her government. It also sets up some connections between that culture of espionage and the practice of early-modern theatre, including Shakespeare himself. The second half of the chapter examines the roles played by five government agents in the context of specific spying operations during the 1580s and 1590s. Often such individuals feigned allegiance to the Catholic faith in order to penetrate organisations plotting to overthrow Elizabeth and her Protestant government, allowing them to provide intelligence about such plots to Walsingham and his secretaries. These spies were quite willing to alter their behaviour and attitudes as occasion demanded, thus indicating that the success or failure of spying missions became critically dependent on the whim of such agents. Real individuals and the spies depicted in Shakespeare’s plays all behave in a manner that is personally inflected to a profound degree, and it is this particular aspect of early-modern espionage that provides the single most important connection between history and drama. 1 Part 1: Elizabethan espionage ‘Spymaster’ Walsingham The past decade has proved something of a boom time for interest in Elizabeth’s ‘spymaster,’ with the publication of no less than five new biographies on Walsingham.1 All, however, owe a significant debt to the scholarly endeavours of Conyers Read, whose account of Sir Francis’s professional life in Mr Secretary Walsingham and the Policy of Queen Elizabeth, first published in 1925, is little short of exhaustive.2 As Read states in his preface, virtually all information about Walsingham’s life and work must be extracted from official records because there is no extant material of a more personal nature.3 Robert Beale, Walsingham’s private secretary for many years, noted in his pamphlet entitled ‘Instructions for a Principall Secretarie’ that ‘upon the death of Mr. Secretarie Walsingham all his papers
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