Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012
Geological Society of America Special Papers
NASA volcanology field workshops on Hawai'i: Part 2. Understanding lava flow morphology and flow field emplacement
Peter J. Mouginis-Mark, Sarah A. Fagents and Scott K. Rowland
Geological Society of America Special Papers 2011;483;435-448 doi: 10.1130/2011.2483(26)
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The Geological Society of America Special Paper 483 2011
NASA volcanology fi eld workshops on Hawai‘i: Part 2. Understanding lava fl ow morphology and fl ow fi eld emplacement
Peter J. Mouginis-Mark1,†, Sarah A. Fagents1, and Scott K. Rowland2 1Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA 2Geology and Geophysics Department, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA
ABSTRACT The Big Island of Hawai‘i presents ample opportunities for young planetary volcanolo- gists to gain fi rsthand fi eld experience in the analysis of analogs to landforms seen on Mercury, Venus, the Moon, Mars, and Io. In this contribution, we focus on a subset of the specifi c features that are included in the planetary volcanology fi eld workshops described in the previous chapter in this volume. In particular, we discuss how remote- sensing data and fi eld localities in Hawai‘i can help a planetary geologist to gain exper- tise in the analysis of lava fl ows and lava fl ow fi elds, to understand the best sensor for a specifi c application, to recognize the ways in which different data sets can be used syn- ergistically for remote interpretations of lava fl ows, and to gain a deeper appreciation for the spatial scale of features that might be imaged in the planetary context.
INTRODUCTION these features with planetary analogs in state-of-the-art remote- sensing images. Rowland et al. (2011, Chapter 25, this volume) described The participants covered a wide range of disciplines during the background and history of the 10 planetary volcanology the workshop, including physical volcanology (Francis, 1993; fi eld workshops that have been held on the island of Hawai‘i Kilburn and Luongo, 1993; Parfi tt and Wilson, 2008), planetary since 1992. These workshops have provided an opportunity for remote sensing (Pieters and Englert, 1993; Mouginis-Mark more than 130 young National Aeronautics and Space Admin- et al., 2000; Campbell, 2002), and volcanism on the planets istration (NASA)–funded graduate students, postdoctoral fel- (McGuire et al., 1996; Zimbelman and Gregg, 2000; Lopes and lows, and junior faculty to view basaltic volcano features up Gregg, 2004; Keszthelyi et al., 2006; Lopes and Spencer, 2007). close, in the company of both terrestrial and planetary volca- It is also hoped that they gained some familiarity with the theo- nologists. The goal for each workshop was to give these young retical aspects of volcanism on the Moon (Wilson and Head, scientists a strong background in basaltic volcanology, and to 1981), Mars (Wilson and Head, 1994), and Venus (Head and provide the chance for them to view eruptive features up close Wilson, 1986, 1992). Thus, the range of topics that they studied so that the participants can then compare the appearance of in the fi eld in one short week was a mixture of geology, sensor
Mouginis-Mark, P.J., Fagents, S.A., and Rowland, S.K., 2011, NASA volcanology fi eld workshops on Hawai‘i: Part 2. Understanding lava fl ow morphology and fl ow fi eld emplacement, in Garry, W.B., and Bleacher, J.E., eds., Analogs for Planetary Exploration: Geological Society of America Special Paper 483, p. 435–448, doi:10.1130/2011.2483(26). For permission to copy, contact [email protected]. © 2011 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved. 435 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012 spe483-01 page 436
436 Mouginis-Mark et al. technology, and planetary exploration. To help the reader here, Viewing active lava fl ows was an additional aid to work- we provide a summary of the sensors used during the work- shop participants because they gained fi rsthand knowledge of shop, along with the appropriate planetary/terrestrial analog the temperature distribution of the surface of an active fl ow, instruments, and the wavelength range and spatial resolution of as well as the speed at which such fl ows can move (Lipman the sensors (Table 1). and Banks, 1987; Kilburn and Luongo, 1993). This knowledge In this contribution, we focus on some specifi c planetary ana- could then be employed in the planetary context for modeling log fi eld sites developed for the workshops to aid in the interpreta- the emplacement of lava fl ows on the Moon (Schaber, 1973; tion of lava fl ows and lava fl ow fi elds. Over the course of 3 days Hulme and Fielder, 1977), Mars (Wadge and Lopes, 1991; in the fi eld, we illustrated the level of diffi culty that is involved in Glaze et al., 2009), or Venus (Roberts et al., 1992; Lancaster mapping the spatial extent and other physical attributes of a lava et al., 1995), and it can help to interpret the duration of erup- fl ow fi eld. In the planetary context, mapping an entire lava fl ow is tions (Keszthelyi and Pieri, 1993; Mouginis-Mark and Yosh- important because, together with an estimate of fl ow thickness, it ioka, 1998). Knowledge of terrestrial lava fl ows can aid the provides a measure of the volume of lava erupted and some of the interpretation of active effusive volcanism on Io (Williams processes that control fl ow emplacement (Moore, 1987; Baloga et al., 2001). In each day in the fi eld, use was made of the abun- et al., 2003). Use of thermal infrared data that highlight the sur- dant remote-sensing data that have been collected for Hawai‘i face glass coatings of different Mauna Loa lava fl ows (Kahle et over the years, including high-resolution (1 m/pixel) visible al., 1988) was particularly helpful for correlating multiple fl ow images, thermal infrared images (Kahle et al., 1988, 1995), and lobes from a single eruption, and thus determining the length of radar data (Gaddis et al., 1989; Campbell et al., 1993). each lava fl ow. It was also important to identify the surface rough- ness differences between the two principal types of lava fl ows, REMOTE-SENSING IMAGES OF LAVA namely, relatively rough ‘a‘ and relatively smooth p hoehoe, FLOW FIELDS because these differences relate to the fl ow rate at which the lava is erupted; ‘a‘ fl ows are erupted at high rates (>~20 m3 s–1), and A major goal of the workshops was and is to permit the attend- p hoehoe are erupted relatively low rates (<~5m3 s–1) (Rowland ees to study volcanic landforms in the fi eld while viewing the same and Walker, 1990). An understanding of the discharge rate for landforms in remote-sensing data that are analogous in spatial or planetary lava fl ows and total fl ow volume is important for inter- spectral characteristics of planetary images. This provides the par- preting the subsurface structure of a volcano (Wilson and Head, ticipants with a greater familiarity with the strengths and weak- 1994; Head and Wilson, 1992), and so the workshop participants nesses of different sensors (optical, thermal, and radar) for mapping learned how to use orbital data to make inferences about the sub- landforms and a greater understanding of volcanic processes, as surface structure of a planetary volcano from the distribution well as an understanding of the spatial resolution of each instru- of lava fl ow types. The utility of multiparameter (i.e., different ment. Such an approach is particularly helpful when the wavelength wavelengths and different polarizations) imaging radar data for of the sensor is outside the optical region of the spectrum. surface roughness studies was also explored, particularly in the The interpretation of lava fl ow textures observed on Venus by context of studying lava fl ows on Venus, where the thick atmo- the Magellan radar (Fig. 1) and mapping of individual long lava sphere precludes optical imaging of the surface. fl ows within Mare Imbrium on the Moon (Fig. 2) are particularly
TABLE 1. REMOTE-SENSING DATA SETS FOR THE EARTH AND OTHER PLANETS mynorcA emanllufrosneS noituloseRtenalPmroftalP htgnelevaW AIRSAR AIRcraft Synthetic Aperture Radar Aircraft Earth 5 m 5.7, 25.0, and 68.0 cm SOLA etilletaSnoitavresbOdnaLdecnavdA elbairaVhtraEetilletaS mc42 reniviD retemoidaRranuLreniviD tilletaS e Moon ~500 m 0.3–3.0; 7.8–100 microns TASIVNE etilletaSlatnemnorivnE htraEetilletaS m03 c6.5 m HiRISE High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment Satellite Mars 25 cm 400–850 nm CSRH aremaCoeretSnoituloseRhgiH etilletaS sraM m01 mn527–574 IKONOS IKONOS satellite Satellite Earth 1 m 526–929 nm Landsat TM Landsat Thematic Mapper Satellite Earth 30 m 450–2350 nm LROC Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera Satellite Moon 50 cm 450–750 nm Mini-RF Miniature Radio Frequency experiment Satellite Moon 75 m 3 and 12 cm COM aremaCretibrOsraM etilletaS m21–5.1sraM mn009–005 N SMI retemortcepSgnippaMderarfnIraeN Satellite Jupiter Variable 0.7–5.2 microns TASRADAR etilletaSradaR elbairaVhtraEetilletaS 5 mc6. B-RIS tnemirepxeradaRgnigamIelttuhS B Space shuttle Earth 20–30 m 23.5 cm THEMIS IR Thermal Emission Imaging System, infrared Satellite Mars 100 m 7.93–12.57 microns THEMIS VIS Thermal Emission Imaging System, VISible Satellite Mars 18 m 425–860 nm T SMI IlamrehT lartcepsitluMderarfn Scanner Aircraft Earth 8 m 8–12 microns UAVSAR Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Synthetic Aperture Radar Aircraft Earth 1.8 m 24 cm radarnallegaM suneVetilletaS m57 mc21 radarinissaC mk7.1–m053nrutaSetilletaS mc81.2 Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012 spe483-01 page 437
NASA volcanology fi eld workshops on Hawai‘i: Part 2 437
appropriate topics for comparison with fl ow fi elds in Hawai‘i. In each case, the spatial extent of an individual fl ow, as well as the eruption conditions (i.e., low or high effusion rate) are diffi cult to identify using optical images. For example, numerous individual lava fl ows can be identifi ed in the southern part of Mare Imbrium on the Moon. These fl ows are typically 10–20 km wide and ~35–50 m thick (Schaber, 1973). However, very few vents can be identifi ed using optical wavelength panchromatic images such as the ones obtained during the Apollo missions, and so it is reasonable to expect that multispectral data (such as the thermal infrared images from the Diviner lunar radiometer) might show compositional vari- ations. On the northern fl ank of Mauna Loa, there are series of lava fl ows that are very informative in terms of their surface structure and weathering state, as well as being easily accessible in the fi eld via paved and dirt roads. Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) images of Mauna Loa volcano (Fig. 3) provide a close comparison to the spatial resolution of Thermal Emission Imaging System Visible imager (THEMIS VIS) (18 m/pixel) or High-Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) (20 m/pixel) images of Mars (Table 1). The main goal of workshop activity was to allow the participants to walk Figure 1. Magellan radar image from the Atla region of Venus, showing along some of these roads (Fig. 4) with remote-sensing images several types of volcanic vents and lava fl ows. Full-resolution Magellan data are 75 m/pixel. Note the small shields (S) that have radar-dark fl ows close to in hand, to observe the structure of the lava fl ows, and to discuss their summits, and radar-bright fl ows on the lower fl anks. Also visible is a how the different sensors have imaged the landscape. Through this lava fl ow (F) with a central channel, and a collapse depression (D) that feeds fi eld analysis, the participants gain a better understanding of the use into a channel that may be a lava channel. Image is centered at 9°S, 199°E. of thermal infrared data in mapping lava fl ow units, as well as the Part of Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) image no. PIA00201. strengths and limitations of different imaging radar systems and the limitations of data sets with different spatial resolutions. Over the past 20 years, the northern fl ank of Mauna Loa has been the focus of several remote-sensing investigations, includ- ing the weathering properties of the lava fl ows using thermal
Figure 2. Apollo handheld Hasselblad photo of lava fl ows in Mare Figure 3. Landsat 7 image mosaic of the NE rift zone of Mauna Loa. Imbrium on the Moon. Direction of fl ow was toward the top of the The white rectangle in the main image illustrates the area of cover- image. AS15-M-1558, center coordinates 28.12°N, 28.92°W. Oblique age of Figure 5. North is toward top of the image. Inset at top left view looking north, with a camera tilt of ~40°. Sun elevation is ~2°, shows location on the island of Hawai‘i. Base mosaic was compiled by and the illumination direction is from the right. The largest impact the Hawai‘i Synergy Project, University of Hawai‘i, and includes the craters in this view are ~2 km in diameter. eruption plume on 5 January 2003. Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012 spe483-01 page 438
438 Mouginis-Mark et al.
Figure 4. Workshop participants observe many lava fl ows during their walk along one of the Mauna Loa strip roads. Equipped with a global positioning system (GPS) and printouts of the remote-sensing data in Figures 5, 6 and 7, they learn about the data that are useful for recognizing fl ow types (A), and they gain a better understanding of the roughness properties (B) and weathering surfaces of fl ows of different known ages. infrared data (Fig. 5) (Kahle et al., 1988; Abrams et al., 1991; Kahle from commercial panchromatic images (Fig. 7) has been conducted, et al., 1995), and many data sets serve as good planetary analogs although these have not been used for any published investiga- (Table 1). High-resolution airborne radar data (Fig. 6) have been tions. Because of the coincident spectral range (8.0–12.0 μm), the collected, and very high-resolution 0.6 m to 1.0 m/pixel mapping Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner (TIMS) data (Fig. 5) could
Figure 5. Principal components (PC) image of Thermal Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (TIMS) data for a portion of the NE fl ank of Mauna Loa volcano (Kahle et al., 1988). See Figure 3 for location. The path along which the participants walk is the bright yellow line that is included in the three boxes “A,” “B” and “C,” which mark the locations of the IKO- NOS images presented in Figure 7. The 1855–56, 1880–81, and 1935–36 fl ows are p hoehoe. The 1899 fl ows are ‘a‘ . Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012 spe483-01 page 439
Figure 6. L-band (24 cm wavelength) horizontally transmitted and vertically received (HV polarization) aircraft radar data collected by National Aero- nautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) UAVSAR instrument, show- ing the same set of fl ows as depicted in Figure 5. Radar look-direction is from the right in this image, and the in- cidence angle is ~45°. North is toward top of image. Boxes delineate the IKO- NOS coverage presented in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Panchromatic IKONOS images for the three sub-areas (A, B, and C) illustrated in Figures 5 and 6. North is toward the top in all images. At full resolution (D), the IKONOS 1 m/pixel data are useful analogs to High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) images of Mars and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter camera (LROC) images of the Moon for recognizing details of lava fl ow lobes and structures such as channels within the fl ow. Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012 spe483-01 page 440
440 Mouginis-Mark et al. be considered to be an analog to the Diviner nine-channel infrared are therefore given additional consideration during a second day mapping radiometer onboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in the fi eld (see section on Lava Flow Textures). (LRO), although Diviner has a much lower spatial resolution The second objective of the hike through the Mauna Loa (~500 m/pixel; Paige et al., 2009). TIMS data are also comparable lava fl ows is to gain an appreciation for the types of features that to THEMIS infrared (IR) measurements for Mars (Fergason et al., can or cannot be identifi ed in particular data sets. In the planetary 2006), although surface dust can obscure the spectral properties context, these data sets include images from the High-Resolution of the surface in many places. As has been documented by Kahle Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) for Mars (25 cm/pixel) et al. (1988), TIMS data accentuate subtle differences in the glassy and the narrow-angle camera on the Lunar Reconnaissance surfaces of p hoehoe fl ows and produce distinct (although only Orbiter Camera (LROC) for the Moon (50 cm/pixel). Good ter- qualitative) differences among individual fl ows in principal com- restrial analogs for these data sets are IKONOS images (Fig. 7), ponent (PC) images (Kahle et al., 1988). Thus, data of this type can which have a spatial resolution of 1 m/pixel. The workshop par- be used to map the spatial extent of p hoehoe lava fl ows that have ticipants are given a set of full-resolution IKONOS images that similar glassy surfaces. However, the PC image also shows that allow the fl ow boundaries and internal structures (such as lava ‘a‘ fl ows do not possess this glassy surface, and all ‘a‘ fl ows tend channels) to be compared with the appearance of these features to have the same color in the PC image. in the fi eld. We have found this to be particularly helpful in the An extensive array of different radar data sets has also been interpretation of HiRISE images of fl ows on Mars (Fig. 8; Morris collected for Mauna Loa, including both orbital (Mouginis- et al., 2010). The exercise also leads to a discussion of lighting Mark, 1995) and airborne (Kahle et al., 1995) measurements. geometry within a scene. This is relevant when considering sat- Radar data can provide information about wavelength-scale ellite orbits and the local time of image acquisition because the surface roughness, as well as the dielectric properties of the photointerpretation of lava fl ow morphology and texture is much material (Campbell, 2002). Because radar is a side-looking easier with data collected at low solar incidence angle (e.g., the (rather than nadir-looking) instrument, it is also useful for the easily identifi ed lunar lava fl ows in Fig. 2) compared to images identifi cation of subtle topographic features (such as faults, collected near local noon (Fig. 7A). Discussion of the lighting scarps, and cones) oriented toward the sensor. Furthermore, geometry can be further enhanced by considering the constraints all radars have a wavelength that can penetrate clouds, and so imposed on thermal infrared data used to compute thermal inertia it is particularly useful for imaging volcanic features on the of the surface, as is the case with THEMIS IR data (Fergason surface of Venus (Roberts et al., 1992; Lancaster et al., 1995) et al., 2006). In this situation, day- and nighttime data are best or Titan (Lopes et al., 2007). Radar is an active sensor (i.e., collected when differences in surface temperatures are at their it provides its own source of illumination), and so it can also greatest, typically close to 2:00 p.m. and 2:00 a.m. Past workshop be used to image the permanently shadowed polar areas of the participants have concluded that collecting low-solar-incidence- Moon (Spudis et al., 2010). In the case of the fi eld workshop, angle data for geomorphic studies concurrently with good data we used the 5 m/pixel radar data collected by NASA’s L-band for thermal inertia investigations is not possible with the same (24 cm wavelength) Uninhabited Aerial Vehicle Synthetic instrument on the same spacecraft. Aperture Radar (UAVSAR) instrument (Fig. 6), but several fi ne Conclusions from this part of the workshop include: (1) Ther- orbital data sets from the European ENVIronmental SATellite mal infrared images are excellent for the identifi cation of differ- (ENVISAT) Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) and ent fl ow lobes from the same eruption. (2) In instances where an Canadian RADAR SATellite (RADARSAT) C-band (5.6 cm entire area is covered by radar-bright ‘a‘ fl ows, radar images are a wavelength) radars, or the Japanese Advanced Land Observing less useful discriminator of different fl ow units within an extensive Satellite (ALOS) L-band radar also exist (Table 1). fl ow fi eld of similar lava textures. However, radar images are good Inspection of Figure 6 illustrates the problem in using radar at distinguishing lava channels or the edges of thick lava fl ows. data for young volcanic terrains, and it illuminates the problems (3) It is remarkably challenging to locate oneself on a lava fl ow that may exist in the interpretation of Magellan images of Venus fi eld using panchromatic images with 1 m/pixel spatial resolution. (Fig. 1). Despite the different ages and subtle differences in the (4) Solar incidence angle is an important factor when interpreting surface roughness (Fig. 4), most of the lava fl ows visited on planetary images. Mauna Loa appear bright in radar images, indicating that they are all similarly rough at L-band wavelengths. It is particularly dif- LAVA FLOW TEXTURES fi cult to map the extent of a single fl ow, or to distinguish among individual fl ow lobes that originated during the same eruption. The investigation of the radar image of Mauna Loa (Fig. 5) In a few instances, the existence of a lava channel within a fl ow introduces the workshop participants to the realization that some unit can be detected using the radar data because of the bright, types of radar data may not be suitable for the interpretation of near-specular, returns that the feature possesses within a particu- topographically rough lavas such as the ‘a‘ fl ows. To further lar image (Fig. 6). Radar shadows at the edge of some thicker explore this issue, and to provide a better insight into ways in (>~4 m) fl ows also allow some unit boundaries to be identifi ed. which volcanic fl ows on Venus or the Moon might be studied The participants therefore learn that the TIMS thermal infrared using orbital radar data, during a second day of the workshop, data are preferable in mapping the spatial extent of p hoehoe lava we explore the value of multiwavelength, multipolarization fl ows in this application. The problems in interpreting radar data radar data (Fig. 9). We lead the workshop participants through Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012 spe483-01 page 441
NASA volcanology fi eld workshops on Hawai‘i: Part 2 441
Figure 8. Recent spacecraft images can have very high spatial resolution, such as the High-Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) instrument for Mars, and the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter camera for the Moon. Workshop par- ticipants compare 1 m/pixel IKONOS images with comparable images of the planets, such as this 25 cm/pixel image of a lobate fl ow on the southwestern rim of Tooting crater on Mars (Morris et al., 2010). Image at right shows the full-resolution view of the area outlined by the box at left. HiRISE image PSP_002646_2035. Image centered at 23°06 N, 207°34 W.
Figure 9. (A) AIRSAR C-band (5.6 cm) horizontally transmitted and horizontally received (HH polarization) image of the distal portion of the December 1974 lava fl ow in the Ka‘ Desert. (B) AIRSAR C-band data, horizontally transmitted and vertically received (HV polarization). Notice the greater image contrast in these cross-polarized data, which aids the identifi cation of fl ow boundaries. (C) Color composite of AIRSAR images obtained of P-band (68 cm wavelength) HV data in red, L-band HV data in green, and C-band (5.6 cm) data in blue. The area shown in the visible image in Figure 10 is delineated by the white box. Direction of fl ow of the lava was from right to left. Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012 spe483-01 page 442
442 Mouginis-Mark et al. the applications of radar remote sensing for the analysis of Venus but in recent years it has become useful for the analysis of planetary radar. Campbell (2002) provided an excellent review Cassini radar images of Titan (Lopes et al., 2007), and of Mini- of radar-scattering and radar-polarization nomenclature, radar RF radar images of the Moon (Spudis et al., 2010) (Table 1). refl ection and transmission from plane surfaces, as well as the Because of its accessibility and range of surface morpholo- mathematical representations of scattering surfaces at different gies, the December 1974 lava fl ow in the Ka‘ Desert has been radar wavelengths. One of the best places in Hawai‘i to perform the site of a number of radar-based quantitative texture stud- this analysis is in the Ka‘ Desert southwest of K lauea caldera ies. Gaddis et al. (1989, 1990) measured the centimeter-scale (Fig. 10). During the fi rst few workshops, this case study was roughness of this fl ow (Fig. 11) in order to interpret L-band primarily relevant for the analysis of Magellan radar images of radar images collected during the 1984 Space Shuttle Imaging
Figure 10. Oblique air view of the central portion of the December 1974 lava fl ow. View is looking southwest, toward the dis- tal end of the fl ow, which is just out of the view to the upper left. Brightness differences in the fl ow result from different fl ow textures: the p hoehoe (P) is relatively light toned, and the ‘a‘ (A) is relatively dark. Note parts of the Koa‘e fault scarp at “S,” which is ~10 m high and is detectable in the radar image (Fig. 9) because the scarp is perpendicular to the radar look-direction.
Figure 11. Field measurements of the surface roughness of p hoehoe (left) and ‘a‘ (right) made along the December 1974 lava fl ow. These measurements have been used to understand radar backscatter from both terrestrial (Gaddis et al., 1989, 1990) and Venusian lava fl ows (Campbell et al., 1993; Campbell and Rogers, 1994). The vertical rods are spaced 1 cm apart and show the dramatic difference between smooth p hoehoe surfaces and rough ‘a‘ . Photos by L. Gaddis. Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012 spe483-01 page 443
NASA volcanology fi eld workshops on Hawai‘i: Part 2 443
Radar-B (SIR-B) radar mission. These (and subsequent) radar and look-direction, both of which play a crucial role in the data have enabled a series of comparisons between basaltic lava specifi c topographic features that can be identifi ed in radar fl ows on Earth and Venus (Campbell et al., 1993; Campbell data (Campbell, 2002). This, in turn, engenders a discussion and Rogers, 1994; Carter et al., 2006), as well as more detailed of orbits appropriate for imaging radar experiments; global analyses of centimeter- to meter-scale topography of lava fl ows mapping requires a near-polar orbit, but this limits the ability (Campbell and Shepard, 1996; Shepard et al., 2001; Morris of radars to view north or south to detect east-west–trending et al., 2008). structural features. One motivation for such studies is to correlate lava fl ow Multiwavelength and multipolarization radar data are par- type with eruption rate, specifi cally exploring the relation- ticularly useful in distinguishing between ‘a‘ and p hoehoe ships between p hoehoe (produced by low-effusion-rate erup- lava fl ows (Fig. 9). Participants examine dual-polarization (i.e., tions) and ‘a‘ (high effusion rates) (Rowland and Walker, both horizontally transmitted and horizontally received [HH] 1990). Workshop participants walk more than 3 km from the data, as well as horizontally transmitted and vertically received vent area of the 1974 fl ow (Fig. 12) to the point where the [HV] data) C-band measurements (5.6 cm wavelength), which fl ow ran up against a scarp that forms part of the Koa‘e fault are the closest terrestrial analog to the S band (12 cm) Magellan system (Fig. 11), during which time they see the narrow (>2 m radar data. From Figure 9, it is apparent that in this particular wide) fi ssures, thin (<50 cm thick) proximal p hoehoe fl ows, case, the C-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received and the transition of these p hoehoe fl ows into ~3–4-m-thick (i.e., cross-polarization) data (Fig. 9B) are more useful because ‘a‘ fl ows. these data reduce the high radar returns from older fl ows, while The point where the 1974 fl ow encountered the Koa‘e improving the ability to map the boundaries of the 1974 fl ow. faults also provides the opportunity to discuss the way in Although radars with wavelengths longer than S-band have not which small fractures and faults, of the kind that are prob- yet been fl own to other planets, we demonstrate to the work- ably very numerous on the lava plains of Venus (Fig. 1), can shop attendees the advantage of using longer wavelength data; be recognized in radar images if the viewing geometry is a three-wavelength color composite of radar data collected appropriate (i.e., perpendicular to the look-direction) and vir- from the NASA AIRSAR instrument (Fig. 9C) includes L-band tually invisible when the feature parallels the look-direction. (24 cm wavelength) and P-band (70 cm wavelength) data. At this point in the workshops, there is often a discussion of Figure 9C shows that the surface of most fl ows are rough at orbital radar acquisition parameters such as incidence angle C-band (notice the large areas of blue in the image), that there
Figure 12. Field observations of the proximal parts of the December 1974 lava fl ow (out of view in Fig. 9). The fi eld party is walking between p hoehoe fl ow lobes within ~100 m of the vents. Note how thin the fl ows are close to their vents. Mauna Loa volcano is in the background. Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012 spe483-01 page 444
444 Mouginis-Mark et al. are several brown-colored fl ows (a consequence of being bright the two missions (Kieffer et al., 2000). When Galileo returned at both C- and L-band), but that only the December 1974 fl ow is high-resolution views of the surface, it could be seen that the bright at P-band (i.e., it appears as white in the image), because volcanic center consisted of a lava-fi lled caldera (Fig. 13B), the surface roughness is greater than 70 cm. Inspection of radar with a south-trending fi ssure erupting lava fl owing to the west images in the fi eld leads to a discussion of which radar systems (Keszthelyi et al., 2001). would be optimum for investigating the surface of a planet. We The surface of the Prometheus’ lava fl ows consists of a often discuss the physical sizes of the radar antennas that are patchwork of darker and lighter fl ow units, with the darkest needed to collect specifi c data sets (L-band and P-band data surfaces being the youngest (Fig. 13C). The fl ows brighten would require antennas that are too big to fl y to the other plan- with age because as they cool, sulfur dioxide frost is depos- ets on existing rockets), as well as the operational constraints ited from the eruption plume (Lopes and Williams, 2005). The (data rates, antenna power, and orbital control) that also make it patchwork effect is produced by the successive breakout of challenging to fl y the most appropriate imaging radars to Mars, lava from beneath cooled solid crust, in the same way that com- Venus, or one of the moons of the outer planets. pound p hoehoe fl ow fi elds are produced at K lauea (Fig. 14A; Conclusions to be drawn from fi eld studies of the 1974 Keszthelyi et al., 2001). The convoluted margins of individual fl ow include: (1) Multiparameter radar images provide infor- breakouts at Prometheus Patera are reminiscent of p hoehoe- mation complementary to optical data of lava fl ows, but differ- like characteristics, suggesting that the Prometheus fl ow fi elds ent surface textures in radar images have non-unique origins. may therefore have been formed by relatively low-effusion- (2) Cross-polarized radar data (HV or VH) often provide addi- rate p hoehoe eruptions (Rowland and Walker, 1990). One dif- tional textural information in comparison to like-polarized data ference between the lavas of K lauea and Io is that very high (HH or VV). (3) At longer radar wavelengths (L- or P-band), temperatures have been measured for Io using the near infrared there is enhanced contrast between smooth p hoehoe (dark) and mapping spectrometer (NIMS) on the Galileo spacecraft—up rough ‘a‘ fl ows (bright). (4) Structural features such as graben to 1800 K (~1526 °C; McEwen et al., 1998), compared to typi- and fault scarps appear very bright if oriented perpendicular cal basaltic eruption temperatures of ~1150 °C on Earth (Flynn to the radar look-direction, and they are virtually invisible if and Mouginis-Mark, 1992). This has been attributed to the pos- aligned parallel to the radar look-direction. (5) Radar studies of sibility that lavas on Io are ultramafi c (similar to ancient ter- lava fl ow fi elds on Venus (Fig. 1) must therefore consider both restrial komatiites), or to superheating of basalt during rapid the wavelength and the polarization of the data sets, and recog- ascent in the crust (McEwen et al., 1998). Repeat imaging on nize that shorter wavelengths may not be optimum for certain successive orbits of the Galileo spacecraft showed that the rate investigations. of resurfacing at the Prometheus and Amirani volcanic centers was 0.5 and 5 km2/d, respectively (Keszthelyi et al., 2001), ACTIVE LAVA FLOWS AS AN ANALOG FOR which is one to two orders of magnitude greater than K lauea VOLCANISM ON IO fl ows (Mattox et al., 1993). Typically, workshop participants have been able to observe The active fl ow fi elds at K lauea provide an excellent ana- active lavas downslope from the Pu‘u ‘O‘o vent on the east rift log to volcanism on Jupiter’s moon Io, the only other body zone of K lauea (Mattox et al., 1993; Heliker and Mattox, 2003) in the solar system where active silicate volcanism has been (Fig. 14). Upon approaching a fl ow, participants recognize that observed. During another day of the workshops, participants the fl ow surface has a range of temperatures, from incandescent have been able to view active surface fl ows and/or lava ocean lava to a silver-gray crust or dark clinker, even if the fl ow is entry points. Direct observation provides the participants with still moving. As has been recognized from thermal remote sens- critical insights into the thermal structure of an active fl ow, an ing of active fl ows (Flynn and Mouginis-Mark, 1992; Wright understanding of the rate of advance of basaltic lavas, fi rsthand and Flynn, 2003; Wright et al., 2010), there are many different experience of the structure and evolution of a fl ow fi eld at the thermal components to an active fl ow fi eld on Earth; lava fl ows time of formation, and the opportunity to inspect lava infl ation in Hawaii are erupted at a temperature of ~1150 °C, but the features (such as tumuli, lava rises, and lava-rise pits; Walker, surface may cool within tens of seconds to ~800 °C, and then 1991) that may have analogs in the highest resolution planetary completely cool over a period of days to weeks. In the planetary images (e.g., HiRISE data; Keszthelyi et al., 2008). context, this rapid cooling is discussed as it pertains to thermal The heat driving Io’s extreme activity is generated by modeling of active fl ows and lava lakes on Io (Howell, 1997; gravitational interactions between its neighbor satellites and Davies et al., 2000; Howell and Lopes, 2007), and the partici- Jupiter (Schubert et al., 1986). The prodigious heat output is pants learn how the evolution of volcanic hotspots on Io may manifested as massive outpourings of lava, large lava lakes, be investigated via the measurement of the spatial variations in and plumes of gas and particles reaching up to 450 km above surface temperature derived from the NIMS data. the surface (McEwen et al., 2000). Figure 13 shows a series A second key observation made by workshop partici- of views of Prometheus Patera. The 75-km-high plume asso- pants is the relatively slow advance speed of active p hoehoe ciated with Prometheus was observed by the Voyager and lava fl ows (Fig. 14A) compared to ‘a‘ fl ows (Fig. 14B), Galileo spacecraft to have migrated ~70 km to the west between which can advance at many meters per minute. Of particular Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012 spe483-01 page 445
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Figure 13. Active fl ow fi eld at Prometheus volcano, Io. (A) Global view showing the many volcanic centers on Io. (B) Closer view of Prometheus Patera and lava fl ows at 170 m/pixel resolution. To the upper right is a caldera, with a fi ssure extending to the south, from which the lavas are erupting. (C) High-resolution (12 m/pixel) images reveal that the fl ow fi eld formed by successive emplacement of fl ow units, with darker surfaces being younger. Brightest pixels in inset boxes represent actively erupting incandescent lava. Image produced by National Aeronautics and Space Administra- tion (NASA)/Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)/University of Arizona. JPL Photojournal images PIA02308, PIA02565, PIA02568, and PIA02557.
Figure 14. Workshop participants have had many opportunities to ob- serve active lava fl ows. (A) Participants of the 2010 workshop explor- ing an active p hoehoe fl ow, and (B) a participant in 1998 viewing an ‘a‘ fl ow, ~2 m high, moving toward the photographer at ~50 cm/s, across a recently emplaced p hoehoe fl ow. Downloaded from specialpapers.gsapubs.org on March 5, 2012 spe483-01 page 446
446 Mouginis-Mark et al. interest is the (small) scale of preexisting topographic depres- CONCLUSIONS sions that can divert the advance of p hoehoe fl ows (Peitersen and Crown, 2000), or of obstacles that might divert or be over- We have described here only a small selection of the vol- run by a moving fl ow (Glaze and Baloga, 2007). Stalling of canic features that the participants visit during each of the a fl ow against a barrier provides additional insights into the planetary volcanology workshops. Some of these examples dynamics of a moving lava fl ow, as this can promote the devel- require several hours of strenuous hiking to study, whereas oth- opment of lava infl ation features such as tumuli, lava pits, and ers benefi t from the “drive-in-volcano” nature of K lauea and rises (Walker, 1991). Over a period of about an hour, work- parts of Mauna Loa volcanoes. Although we recommend all shop participants have observed part a fl ow surface infl ate by of these sites to other investigators interested in learning about tens of centimeters, thereby giving them insights into the way the planetary analogs that exist at K lauea, it is unfortunate in which the hummocky surface of a compound p hoehoe fl ow that the summit activity that is ongoing as of this writing (July fi eld evolves over weeks or months. Although analogous infl a- 2011) precludes access to the 1974 lava fl ow in the Ka‘ Des- tion features have not been confi dently identifi ed on Mars, par- ert. Nevertheless, we recommend a visit to Hawai‘i to see the ticipants learn that tumuli and lava pits would be key features other landforms. Finally, if you have a graduate student or post- to search for in HiRISE images in order to identify infl ated doctoral research assistant studying planetary volcanology, we fl ows on Mars. hope that you will encourage them to attend a future workshop! Discussions that arise at the active fl ows focus on the issues involved in numerical modeling of such complex processes to ACKNOWLEDGMENTS gain insights into planetary fl ow emplacement (Wilson and Head, 1994; Mouginis-Mark and Yoshioka, 1998). Often, a Our thanks go to Gordon, Joann, and Ki‘i Morse from My Island two-component model of surface temperature distribution (hot Bed and Breakfast, Volcano Village, who played such an impor- lava in cracks surrounded by cooler crust) is used in lava cooling tant role as hosts for the fi rst seven of these workshops; their hos- models (Crisp and Baloga, 1990; Harris et al., 1998), although pitality and great cooking helped foster a strong feeling of com- fi ve components may be necessary to adequately describe the panionship among all the workshop participants. Pineapple Park surface temperature distribution of active lava fl ows (Wright hostel and especially Marshall, Virgie, and Maggie Freitas fi lled and Flynn, 2003). In the context of understanding the thermal the Morses’ big shoes very well for the ninth and tenth work- variability of the lava fl ow surface, the participants can see (and shops. The workshops were sponsored by grants NAG5-4127, feel) that the fl ow surface of a p hoehoe fl ow cools rapidly in NAG5-8921, NAG5-10228, NAG5-13151, NNG05G159G, and tens of seconds, but that the core of both p hoehoe and ‘a‘ NNX08AL52G from National Aeronautics and Space Adminis- fl ows may remain incandescent for many days. This realiza- tration (NASA)’s Planetary Geology and Geophysics Program. tion infl uences their understanding of satellite remote sensing This is School of Ocean Earth Science and Technology publica- of active lava fl ows for the Earth (Wright and Flynn, 2003; tion 8204 and Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology Wright et al., 2010) as well as numerical models of lava fl ow contribution 1893. emplacement on other planets. 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