The Afro-American Transformation of European Set Dances and Dance Suites Author(s): John F. Szwed and Morton Marks Source: Dance Research Journal, Vol. 20, No. 1 (Summer, 1988), pp. 29-36 Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of Congress on Research in Dance Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1478814 Accessed: 22/04/2010 04:28

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http://www.jstor.org THE AFRO-AMERICAN TRANSFORMATIONOF EUROPEAN SET DANCES AND DANCE SUITES1 John F Szwed and Morton Marks

It is well acknowledgedthat the courtdances which developed in The chief problemin workingwith Afro-Americanfolk dances Europefrom the seventeenthcentury onward spread to the rural is theirlack of visualor writtendocumentation. As in anyfolk dance areas of Europeand to the new world.2 What has not been pro- tradition,these forms are passed down in an "oral"- i.e., body- perlyrecognized is thatthese dances - the quadrille,the cotillion, to-body - tradition.But there are additionalproblems, beyond the contradanceand the like - were takenup by Afro-Americans those of transformation,in the documentationof Afro-American in North and South America and the West Indies and were dances. Whiledance is frequentlymentioned in historical,travel, modifiedand adaptedto localcultural circumstances. In manycases and ethnographicliterature, it is treated briefly, quite often in - especiallyin the WestIndies - they continueto be found today. negative comparisonto Europeandancing. Yetas similaras these dances may look or sound, their functions And even where descriptionsexist, they are often minimaland are not always necessarily the same as those of their European confusing; a Europeandance name may referto an entirely dif- sources. At one extreme,they were "Africanized"for sacredpur- ferent dance; or a native New Worldterm may disguise a well- poses; at the other,they were re-formedand became the basis of knownEuropean form; and the Europeanname for a step maylabel a new world popularculture. An exampleof the formeroccurs on a complexdance in its own right.On the otherhand, descriptions the island of Montserrat.3 of the for these dances are fuller,and the audio documen- Therecountry dance orchestras made up of variouscombinations tationis quiterich, especiallyas the recordingsof folkmusic in the of fife, fiddle, concertinaor accordion,triangle, and two drums WestIndies began well beforethat of the U.S., in the firstdecade known as the woowooand the babala(or babla)4play for social of the 1900s. dancing,but the same music is also used for inducingpossession This uneven documentationhas had the unfortunateresult of on other occasions, called "jombeedances'"5 On these latteroc- reinforcingWestern scholars' tendency to thinkof danceand music casions quadrille dance rhythms are intensified and gradually as separate.But in the Afro-Americantradition, they are thought 'Africanized"6in orderthat individuals may become possessed and of together,the steps and the music inextricablyintertwined - in convey the messages of the spirits. Secular customs such as theory, the same. It may be possible for dance scholarsto recover suppersfor guests aretransformed into ritualsacrifices for spirits, some of the dancefrom the music and musicaldescriptions alone, and the mundane of quadrille become part of the since in this tradition,the dance is embedded within the music. mechanism for possession. But the ritual occasion has become Forthis reason, we offerhere a capsuleview of Afro-Americanset "masked,"reinterpreted so extensivelythat the traditionalEuro- danceand dancesuites (that is, what in Euro-Americanterms might pean elements of the dance seem predominant to the casual be called "themusic for set dances and dance suites"),in orderto observer. encouragetheir recognitionand systematicstudy. On other WestIndian islands, dance suites and set dances are The Dance Suite in the Circum- also associatedwith the spiritsof ancestors,as on ,where the reelis dancedprior to a wedding to ask for the ancestralspirits' The island of St. Luciais one of the best documentedNew World consent,and the quadrilledanced at a healingrite is associatedwith areas for the continuing presence of set dances such as the African ancestors;7 or on Carriacou, where libations may be quadrille,bele, and mazurka.10The quadrillewas probablyfirst in- poured for ancestorsduring a quadrilledance (reelengage); and on troducedthere in the early 1800'sby the French,or at least by the Tobago,where the spiritsare invokedduring the reeldance.8 (The English after they took control in 1814.Quadrilles - more than - Tobagoreel is performedmainly by people of Kongodescent and other adaptedEuropean dances requireconsiderable learning is said to be similarto the danseKongo of .) and rehearsal,both to dance and to play.The performanceof the The best exampleof the transformationof set dances and dance dances thus requiresa kind of planning and orderdifferent from suites into popularculture is theiruse in the creationof in the other dances done on St. Lucia, and a system of values are at- United States,through the slow mutationof the quadrille/cotillion tached to quadrilleswhich contrastswith those associatedwith from music for social dancing to a purely abstractmusical form. other local dances. The St. Luciankwadril is understoodas essen- Sometimes,even wherethese dancesseem in otherrespects similar tiallyEuropean, as associatedwith economicand socialpower, as to theirEuropean antecedents, they at least differin setting, as on something inheritedfrom the plantocracywhich can now be par- St. Croixin the VirginIslands, where quadrilleis danced in the ticipated in and controlled. In this respect, kwadrilsare to local streets instead of indoors.9 dances what standardlanguages are to creole languages. DanceResearch Journal 20/1 (Summer1988) 29 ContemporarySt. Luciankwadrils are made up of five dances, of Jamaicanquadrille music are included on JohnCrow Say ... four of them strictlyprescribed, the fifth a round dance of choice. (Folkways4228), where the instrumentationis harmonica,wooden The orchestra,at least during the early 1900'swas composed of a trumpet and cassava grater;Black Music of TwoWorlds (Folkways violin, tambourineand chakchak(maracas), but is currentlymade 4602), a fife and drumband; and Bongo,Backra & Coollie:Jamaican up of violin, banjo,cuatro (a small ten-stringguitar), guitar, man- Roots,Vol. 2 (Folkways4232), where a fife, guitar,and banjo play dolin, and chakchak.No callersare used. Despite the dance'siden- most of the figuresof a set. (In earlieryears Jamaican bands might tificationwith Europe,St. Lucianshave made considerableadap- also be made up of combinationsof one to three fifes, two tam- tations.Kwadrils are more complex in structurethan the European bourines,big drum, grater,triangle, horse jawbone,and possibly quadrille,often have improvisedmelodies, are accompaniedby violins, accordionor concertina.At the end of the 19thcentury the percussioninstruments, use off-beatphrasing, and often involve most popularpart of the quadrillewas the fifthdance, an apparent- singing.1 ly local form, possibly similarto .19)The mentowas a local In Martiniqueand formalEuropean dances such development,a looser,hotter form, with certainparallels to Trinida- as the mazurka,the waltz, and the polka exist in both ruraland dian calypso,but also having elements of Europeanand localfolk urbanareas, all of them having undergoneconsiderable creoliza- tunes withinit. Recordedexamples include Mento: Jamaican Calypsos tion in the last 100years or so. The quadrilleremains especially im- 1950(Ethnic Cassettes KA 5), a collectionof commercialrecordings; portantin Guadeloupe, where beneficialsocieties hold balakadri "MangoTime" on CaribbeanIsland Music (Nonesuch H-72047); (quadrilleballs) for fund raising and social activity.12Festival de "Wheeland Turn"on BlackMusic of TwoWorlds (Folkways 4602); Quadrille(Debs HDD 512)is a commercialrecording of such a folk "YouTell a Lie"on Fromthe GrassRoots of ; and TheRoots of quadrille from Guadeloupe.13 It documents two sets of four (Lyrichord LLST 7314). Jamaican quadrille and mentoare figures, the dance directionsprovided by a rhythmic,monotone directforerunners of skaand reggae,and echoes of the older forms chant from a commandeurover a of accordion,hand drum, persistentin contemporaryJamaican , most strik- triangleand maracas,a group which sounds remarkablysimilar ingly on the Wailers's" Quadrille" and more recently on to a zydecoband from rural black .14 Yet, it oddly does not Yellowman's"Skank Quadrille" (Galong Galong Galong!, Green- includethe "fifth"figure of each set (whichmay actuallybe a sixth, sleeves GREL87) with his updated "calls." seventh, or eighthfigure), the concludingdance of which is always Similarto the dances of Jamaicaare those found in the Virgin of local originand is in this case usually a .)It appearsthat Islands (such as "SevenStep" [to fife, banjoand maracas],whose thoughout the Caribbeanthe last dance of a set is typicallya local rhythmgets freeras it proceeds, and "FourthFigure of Lanceros" form. Whether this indicates the chronologicalorder of the ap- [bothon CaribbeanDances, Folkways 6840]); pearanceof each dance in the culture(as Marie-CelineLafontaine ("Reel,"on An IslandCarnival, Nonesuch ExplorerSeries 72090, or suggests'5),or is anotherillustration of the Afro-Americanperfor- on Vastindien,Caprice CAP 2004: 1-2); Carriacou ("Gwa Bele," The mance style of turning "European"performances into "Afro- BigDrum Dance of Carriacou, Folkways 4011, "First Figure" (lancer's American"ones as they progress, remains to be seen. dance)and "SecondFigure Waltz" on TheBig Drum and Other Ritual In neighboringMartinique a bewilderingvariety of European- andSocial Music of Carriacou,Folkways 34002); and , derived dance suites exist, including the quadrille,belair, or bele where quadrillesand otherEuropean dances areaccompanied by (with eight figures), haut taille, cotillion, and the rejane.16One of variouscombinations of guitar,fife, trumpet, accordion,musical the urban developments of this kind of music in Martiniqueare saw, maracas,and drums (althoughit is said that aroundthe turn orchestrassuch as Malavoi(Malavoi, Musique des Antilles 4710), of the century singers were the only source of melody).20 with its six-piecestring ensemble and two rhythmplayers. This is Musicof the Bahamas,Vol. 3: InstrumentalMusic from the Bahamas certainlyau courant quadrille, with phrasingdrawn from the Cuban Island(Folkways 3846) provides quadrillemelodies by severalin- (music played by string,flute, and timbalesorchestras) and strumentalcombinations, including one with two trumpets,man- bebopish chords. But theirquick changes of tempo and melodies dolin and drums that is suggestive of the early - within single songs suggest miniaturizeddance suites, and in fact inspiredKing Oliver-Louis Armstrong jazz recordings ('s on "QuadrilleC" they switch back and forth from a lively dance CreoleJazz Band, Milestone 47017). tempo to slow, baroque-likeensemble playing,while a jazz violin In Panama - where many English-speaking West Indians solo surfaces in between. Again, though it is too soon to say for migratedfor work on the Canalin the early 1900's- the quadrille sure,single songs with changingmelodies and rhythmsoften seem has continuedto be important,with annualdance exhibitions and to be reduced versions of older dance suites. club competitions. Quadrille,by Eric Garciay sus 5 Progresivos ForHaiti, the musicof the oldercontredanse tradition can be heard (SallyRuthRecords SR 1004)preserves a five-part"Quadrille" and on MayaDeren's recording of "BalLi Chaise Pou Moin" (Meringues a five-part "Caledonia"(a mid-nineteenth century European andFolk Ballads of Haiti, LyrichordLLST 7340), a piece played for quadrilleinnovation) by a band of tenor saxophone,clarinet, two the dance called the .It can also be sampled within a guitars,bass and drums. The polyphony of tenor and clarinetis more recentbig band setting on Nemours JeanBaptiste's Musical reminiscent of both early New Orleans jazz and Martiniquais Tourof Haiti (Ansonia ALP 1280),complete with accordion. . In Jamaica,the quadrille(pronounced 'katreel' or 'kachriil'- a In EnglishCreole-speaking the bruckdownis a quadrille- linguisticcreolization also suggesting 'scotchreel') is danced and derived set dance, similarto the Jamaicanbruckins, and seman- playedin virtuallyall of the parishes,but with differentemphases. tically if not choreographicallyrelated to the U.S. "breakdown." Fiveor six figures areused in the set, and may include European- "Bruckdown-BelizeStyle" by JesusAcosta and The Professionals, deriveddances, steps, and figuressuch as the waltz, polka, schot- FromBelize With Love (Contemporary Electronic Systems CES 7805), tische, vaspian,mazurka, jig, chasse, balance,and promenade,as has four dances (Degagez['degag']J, Action, Ou pas Bensoiw,and La well as local dances such as mentoor shay-shay,especially as the Lancha[lancers']) threaded together by percussioninterludes with last dance in the set.17 Two basic forms of quadrille are distin- rhythms suggestive of Martiniquais cadencedrumming. guished in Jamaica: the ballroom (or European type) and the In the contradanzaarrived by way of the French planters and "camp"style, with two facing lines of dancers; but various combi- slaves from Haiti who, following the 1791 slave rebellion, settled nations of the two appear in different parts of the island.'8 Samples in Oriente Province, especially in the cities of Santiago de Cuba and 30 Dance ResearchJournal 20/1 (Summer 1988) Guantanamo.The slaves'Tumba-Francesca societies of these cities tredansesdirected by a caller who improvises calls, the &ossaire,belin developeddrum-accompanied versions of these Frenchdances call- (a polka variant), and katpas(pas de quatre).These dances continue ed cocoye,mason, babril, catd and juba.21 A masoncan be heard on to exist alongside older African musical forms of dance and - Antologiade la MusicaAfrocubana, Vol. VII: Tumba Francesca (Areito music.24 A contrast in the opposite direction the non-creolized - LD-3606). is provided by set dance music from Quebec. In rural , In the middle of the 19thcentury other Europeandance forms like rural Quebec - areas at least culturally much closer to the ur- such as the cuadrillosand the lancerosentered urban Cuban socie- ban sources for the spread of French "country" dances - the fid- ty, and along with the evolved ,a quick-paced double- dle was initially the central instrument, eventually to be replaced theme form, they were the basis for creolizationinto the ,or by the accordion. habanera,in the mid-1800's.The danzbnwas a furtherdevelopment Dance Suites Among Afro-Americans in the United States of the same dance in the late 1800's,a three-musical-themecouple In 19th United States the most common ballroom dance, similarin form and development to ragtimeof the early century quite dance form was the cotillion of five or six dances in different meters same in New Orleans.22The danzonbecame especially period and The American sets also newer round associatedwith charangaorchestras; by the 1940'sa mambosection tempos. incorporated dances such as the the and the schottische. Further was addedto the end. Sincethe cha-chadeveloped out of the mambo, waltz, polka, variations in the suite form to include the Lancers and both these dances ultimatelybelong to the contradanzafamily. developed In other areasunder the influence of Cubanmusic, even Dutch Caledonia quadrilles.25 Dance orchestras of the 19th century were often called social orchestras or and were com- Curacao,drums are important,and the Cubandanza seems to be quadrille bands, of two violins second often as a cello a reinforcinginfluence ("Eranita Malu"is an exampleon Tumba posed (the doubling caller), for the bass and or These Cuarta& Ka'i,Original Music OMC 202). By contrast,in another part, clarinets, flutes, comets, harp piano. orchestras used which allowed them to or area, Venezuelanstring band music uses no expand Spanish-speaking contract in size to a trio or or sometimes to switch from drums, but neverthelessshows its relationshipto traditionalcon- (down duet) to brass. A ball in New in 1859consisted tredanse.(Hear "Las Viejas" and "LaTremenda," examples of polka strings typical Hampshire of 17 2 contradances and 4 other dance and merenguederived from the Venezuelandance cycle, on Maria quadrilles, multiple forms.26 Rodriguez,Songs From Venezuela, World Circuit WC 001.) Freedmen and urban slaves are attested to attended for- In Brazil, the quadrilhacontinues as a regional dance, and is having mal balls at which dance suites were the central form of activi- especiallyperformed on the FestaJunina (mid-summer day), mostly how and these dances became is in the Northeast (Istoe QuadrilhaCampeiro KCL 62033). And in ty.27 Just important widespread shown the fact that the ex-slaves who were back to coastalSuriname the setidance is a multi-partform paralleling the by repatriated Liberia in 1820 took the with and when contredanse,but using English and Americanmelodies. beginning quadrille them; became the elite of that made it into Quadrilles and other ballroom-derivedset dances are by no they ruling country, they of a national dance. It continued to be at least means merelysurvivals of Europeanculture in the WestIndies and something popular well into the 1950's.28 South America. They remain vital in their own right and also before the of there were a considerable affectthe developmentof popular music in the New World.The Long emergence number of Afro-American orchestra directors and at 1984LP Ye7Tle(GD 0202), by Pierre-EdouardDecimus and Jacob work on dance music. The social dance orchestra of Desvarieux(the leadersof the disco-zoukband from Guadeloupe, outstanding its time was that of black Francis Kassav'),includes "KavalieO Dam,"which opens with the title Philadelphian Johnson (1792-1844), horn dance and of chanted,the traditionalcall for gentlemen to get theirpartners, and violinist, player, caller, arranger, then moves a of dances as songs, concert works and dance suites such as "La Sonnambula through catalog (includingclogging); Number Two" and It: InstrumentalDance Music if this message of pan-nationalquadrillia weren't clear enough, a Quadrile (Come Trip New World NW The of his or- U.S.-typecountry fiddle enters to churn up a hoedown. All this, 1780's-1920's, Records, 293). quality chestra and the freshness of his music led to national and Euro- againsta drum-machinebeat and wordsin FrenchCreole. Similar- tours. Richard a of Johnson's ly, Jamaicanrapper Sister Carol's "Wild Thing," from the end of the pean Walm, contemporary, spoke fame and to into new soundtrackrecording of JonathanDemme's film SomethingWild ability reshape songs quadrilles: (1985),joins a reggaebeat with U.S. countrybanjo and fiddle:near In fine, he is the leaderof the band at all balls, publicand private; the end Sister Carolcries out, "schottische!"23 sole directorof all seranades . .. inventor-generalof cotillions;to Musical creolization (the fusion of two or more historically which add, a remarkabletaste in distortinga sentimental,simple, and beautiful into a or unrelatedforms) is nicely illustratedin contrastto the WestIndies , reel, jig, country-dance.29 by the case of the Seychelles, an archipelagoof islands in the In addition to turning songs into dances, Johnson's orchestra wrote Indian Ocean northeast of Madagascar,first colonized by the original songs into his quadrilles for the orchestra to sing, a bold Frenchin 1770-1796and laterby the Englishin 1796-1976.Slaves from innovation recognized in the title of his famous "VoiceQuadrille," the Malagasyand EastAfrica were used as laborersin the develop- (19th CenturyAmerican Ballroom Music, Nonesuch H-71313).30 ment of the spice industry.Here, in these islands whose Creole Johnson was the most internationally known black of language, architecture,dress, and people make them seem as if his time, but in the early to middle-1800Ysa number of others - J.W. they wereWest Indians on the wrong side of Africa,the localdance Postlewaite, Jemes Hemmenway, Basile Bares, and N. Clark Smith, is the kamtole,a suite of countrydances that datefrom contact with to name a few - were leading composers of dance music in cities the Europeancontredanse in the late 1700's.Their first local con- such as Boston, New Orleans, St. Louis, New York, and Phila- tredansesfeature two violins, a mandolin, a triangle, and drum. delphia.3' The published cotillions and quadrilles of these com- - Later, other dances were added to form suites the polka, the posers were multi-sectioned, multi-strained dances in various schottische,and the one-step;and the accordion,banjo and guitar forms, including the 5-part rondo (ABACA); they were typically were added to the orchestra. Finally, English, Scots and Irish folk in 2/4 or 6/8 itme; they changed key with each new section; and melodies were included, entering the Seychelles when the English they were written in a variety of rhythms. (Yeteverything we know introduced the quadrille. Today the kamtolesuite can include the about Afro-American musical performance style tells us that this waltz, schottische, mazurka, polka, "jazz" (one-step), four con- music was played with greaterflexibility and rhythmic subtlety than Dance ResearchJournal 20/1 (Summer 1988) 31 the notationof sheet music can suggest.) Even the round dances cians.38 Evenwhere fiddle melodies mayhave been purelyEuro- - - the waltz, polka, etc. written by these composers could be pean-derived,fiddles were often played "African"style: for exam- complexand suite-like.The "RescuePolka Mazurka" (1869) for ex- ple, a secondplayer - a straw-beater- was sometimesused to add ample, alternatespolka and mazurkarhythms. (Compare with the rhythmto the melody,as in this 1882description of a cotilliondance Cuban "new"[c. 1898]danzon's two sections of 32 measures, the following a corn-shuckingin Georgia: firstin 2/4 and the second in Whatwas was 6/8.) being developed Theperformer provides himself with a pairof strawsabout a form of and eighteen capable absorbingfolk, popular classical and inches in length, and stout enough to standa good smartblow ... molding them to new functions. A similarform with equallysyn- These strawsare used afterthe mannerof drum-sticks,that portion thesizing powerwas to resurfacewith new rhythmicinventions at of the fiddle-stringsbetween the fiddler'sbow and his left hand ser- the end of the nineteenth century with the black composers of ving as a drum. One of the first sounds which you hear on ap- ragtime.As Floydand Reisserput it, we can see "anunbroken line proachingthe dancingparty is the tumtee turn of the straws,and after of development from the music of the early black composers of the dance begins, when the shuffling of feet destroys the other sounds of the fiddle, this noise can still be heard.39 social dance ... to the beginnings of notated ragtime."32 Meanwhile,folk and ruralversions of set dancesand dancesuites When the stringedinstrument was as largeas the bass, however, were flourishing in 19th-centuryAmerica. The ex-slaves inter- it was struck by sticks. (Hear drummer Ray Bauduc and bassist Bob viewed by the WPAin the 1930'sshow that the dances most often Haggarton the Bob Crosby'sband's 1939recording, "Big Noise rememberedfrom slavery days were contradances,square dances, FromWinnetka" (Bob Crosby, Suddenly It's 1939, Giants of JazzGOJ the cotillion, the waltz, and the quadrille(though the individual 1032.)This practiceis of Kongoorigin, similarto the ti-bwasticks steps remembered for these dances seem to be strictly Afro- on the side of drums in Guadeloupe, or the caj6nero(in Peru)on - American juba, buck dancing and the like).33Various descen- the stringsof the guitar.(For examples of Kongodrumming itself dants of these dances persist today, and two states have been in the New World,hear jubaon RitualDrums of Haiti, Lyrichord especiallywell served by recordedsurveys: for Virginia,there are LLST7279, and Tamborde Crioula,FUNARTE, Rio CDFB 012, from squaredances, reels, breakdownsand buck dances played on ac- Brazil.) cordions,banjos, fiddles, harmonicas,and guitaron VirginiaTradi- The dance calls, too, were different from their European counter- tions:Non- Secular Black Music, Blue Ridge InstituteBRI-001; parts: more than mere directions, they took the shape of rhymed and forNorth Carolina, reels and buckdanceson guitar,banjo, and "raps,"adding rhythmic subtlety and humor that helped spirit both fiddle are on Eight-HandSets & Holy Steps,Crossroads C-101. the dancers and band alike.40 Willis James quotes one "caller-out" In Black French areas the earliest instrumental music was this way: mazurkasand contredanses two and played by accordion, violins, If you like the way she look or two violins.34The secondblack creole bastrinque(triangle) justby Hand the lady your pocketbook. musicianto makerecords can be heardQn Amade Ardoin (Old Timey Swing her fancy, 124), but the three-minutetime limit of the 78 rpm recordkeeps Come to the middle, us from seeing the complexorganization of these tunes as part of But be careful,don't bust the fiddle.41 a dance (and reinforcesour own cycle paradoxically contemporary (The best parallel in another is in the ideas about the of genre cadence-counting provincial brevity popularmusic). Pops Foster, military: Afro-American drill sargeants introduced both the New Orleansbass his careerin small melody player(who began string and syncopated rhythm into the pattern and permanently altered groups), recallsplaying for black and white Frenchaudiences in the "ONE-two-three-four" call which had dominated Western the c. 1906: country militarymarching for centuries.The same could be said for the in- They liked their musicvery fast and they dancedto it. Some of the fluenceof blackcheerleaders on audiencesfor American athletics.) numbers they liked were "Lizardon the Rail"/"Red, Oh Red," Black square dance- and reel-calling are part of the Afro-American "ChickenReel/' and 'TigerRag". They had a guy who calledfigures dance-instruction song tradition which extends from "Ballin' the for them. Firstyou'd play eight barsof a tune, then stop. Then the Jack"to "The Twist" and beyond (songs which tell the dancers what announcer would get up and call, "get your partners."When to do next), and which is at least partly rooted in the older tradi- everybodygot theirpartners, he'd blow a whistleand the bandwould tion in whichAfrican master drummers and directdancers.42 start The signal playingagain. announcerwould callfigures like, "Ladies It was LafcadioHearn who in 1876observed the black roustabouts Cross,Gent's Promenade"and all thatstuff. You'd three Right, play on the riverfront of Cincinnati a to the "Devil's fast numbersthen takeit down to a waltz, a slow blues, or a schot- dancing quadrille tische.35 Dream" (accompanied by fiddle, banjo, and bass), gradually trans- forming it into a Virginia reel, and then changing it again, this time Thoughthis musicis usuallyidentified with Anglo-Americanfid- to a "juba dance" done to a shout-like call-and-response song.43 dle traditions,travellers' accounts of music in cities all acrossthe Again, there is the sense that these European dance forms were - - country Richmond, Wheeling, Baltimore, Charleston men- flexible and open to transformation and improvisation, at least tion blackfiddlers playing and callingreels forwhite and blackau- within the performancesof Afro-Americans.It seems odd, then, diences.36And Afro-Americaninfluences on fiddlingare obvious that many writerson ragtimeand early jazz underplaytheir im- even on the earliestrecordings we have of this music. Speakingof portance.Certainly the oldest jazz musicans recalledplaying for the syncretismof Britishand Africanmusical practices within the quadrille and set dances around 1900:Johnny St. Cyr in New southern Piedmont and Appalachianfiddle traditions,Alan Jab- Orleans, WilberSweatman in St. Louis, and PerryBradford in bour says: Atlanta, for instance.44The mother of New Orleans clarinetist Especiallynotable is the way syncopationsat the very heartof the George Lewis recalleddance music of the 1880'sthis way: musicof the AmericanSouth arenot simplysuperimposed, but ac- At a dance,before the quadrilletime - they'dgive abouttwo or three builtinto the The which divides tually bowingpatterns. pattern... quadrillesa night - but beforethe quadrillecame, they would play eight sixteenthsinto groupsof 3-3-2is fundamentalhere and in the a waltz, you'dhave to waltzaround the floor.Lancers and varieties, of other fiddlers the bowing throughout South.37 that'sin quadrille,and 'balance,balance' that'sin quadrilletoo.45 The fiddle was extraordinarily popular among slave musi- 's orchestra played four or five sets a night, c. 1897,

32 Dance ResearchJournal 20/1 (Summer 1988) and left" ... "Grab each consisting of a mazurka, a waltz, a schottische, a polka, a two- ... "Turnaround" ... "Ladiesright gentlemen . . . "Break ... "Makea strut"... "Cowsto step, then ending with a quadrille and a march.6By 1910these sets your partner" away" the front, bulls back"... had changed to include a two-step, slow drag, ragtime one-step, stay When he called "Doyour stuff"or "Ladiesto the front,"they did and the fox-trot. But the quadrille still remained for the midnight theirpersonal dances. The catwalk, for instance, was developedfrom centerpiece.47 the cotillion,but it was also part of the set dances. Most of the older New Orleans also remember play- set dances and dance suites well after the turn of the century. ing These people were fromSouth Carolinaand Georgiawhere the modern musician's use of the word 'sets' for of (The jazz groups cotillionwas popular- and the "Charleston"was an offspringof pieces in live performance probably derives from these older dance that. It was a dance figurelike the "Balmoral."A lot of my music is forms.) noted that there were certain dance halls where based on set, cotillionand othersouthern country dance steps and we could only play mazurkas, quadrilles, polkas, and schot- rhythms."56 tisches.48 After 1910 sets were changed to comprise a two-step, a ...... slow drag, a ragtime one-step, and a fox-trot, but the quadrille re- I heardgood piano fromall partsof the South and West,but I never mained the climax of the evening.49And those who remember Bud- heardreal ragtime until we cameto New York.Most East Coast play- dy Bolden, the cornetist usually given credit for being the first im- ing was basedon cotilliondance tunes, stomps,drags and set dances like "MuleWalk "Gut and the "CarolinaShout" portant jazz musician, say that he first played in a string band with my Blues," Stomp," and "Balmoral". were all tunes.57 cornet and/or clarinet (similar to the Cuban charangafrancesca, c. They country The dances did at the Casino were wild and comical 1898), his group "might play a schottische and follow that with a they Jungles - the more and the morebreaks, the better.These Charleston variety, 'a long thing made up of waltzes and all kinds of time;' " pose people and the othersoutherners had justcome to New York.They they played "no ragtime, 'except in the quadrilles or late at were countrypeople and they felt homesick. When they got tired (Nick La Rocca, the for the Dix- night'."50 trumpet player Original of two-stepsand schottishes(which they dancedwith a lot of spiel- ieland the first band to record also with Jazz Band, jazz, played ing), They'dyell: "Let'sgo backhome!" . . . "Let'sdo a set!" ... or of his career string groups of the same type for the first three years "Now put us in the alley!"I did my "MuleWalk" or "GutStomp" [1905-08].51) for these countrydances.56 These multi-strain, dances were ideal forms for the multi-rhythm At a contest in Harbor, New in 1914, Johnson of Under to find new melodies piano Egg Jersey development early jazz. pressure first heard other dance suites for which were the basis for to set a of musicians altered conventional piano against variety rhythms, various jazz forms: patterns and improvised new ones. The New Orleans pianist Ar- Therewas a therewho etc.From mand said "The was a dance, limited pianist playedquadrilles, sets, rags, Hug quadrille proper usually I first heard the Texasor bass. The to a certain social but the bands it to their him, walking boogiewoogie strata, Uptown changed was a cotillion forwhich a lot of musicwas com- own Roll Morton in his of Boogiewoogie step style."52Jelly Library Congress recordings posed.59 described and illustrated just how it was changed in his account Johnson's of the shout with the is also of how "" came into being: equation quadrille impor- tant. It has usually been assumed that the shout was a strictly ... "TigerRag" happened to be transformedfrom an old quadrille religious dance derived from Africa, in which a circle of dancers thatwas in manydifferent tempos, and I'Uno doubtgive you an idea shuffle counterclockwise around one or two dancers while others of how it went. This was the introduction that meaning everyone time and around the of the room, the was to their it be five minutes' keep sing edges point being supposed get partners... may lapse to on But Johnson was clear on the secular between the time, an' of course, they'dstart it over and that bring possession. very again, function of the dance as he knew it in was the first of it... then the next strainwould be the waltz late-nineteenth century New part New strain... Also, they'dhave anotherstrain... mazookatime... that Brunswick, Jersey: was that... thirdstrain, an' that was in a differen'tempo ... a two- The Northerntowns had a hold-overof the old Southerncustoms. fourtime... of course,they had anotherone, ... now Ill show you I'dwake up as a child and hear an old-fashionedring-shout going how it was transformed... I also named it. It came from the way on downstairs.Somebody would be playinga guitaror jew's-harp that I played it by 'makin'the tiger' on my elbow.53 or maybea mandolin,and the dancingwent to "TheSpider and the Bed-BugHad a Good Time"or "Susie".They danced aroundin a French writer Robert Goffin the (The jazz recognized "TigerRag" shuffle and then they would shove a man or a woman out into the as the second dance of a quadrille he had heard as a child in center and clap hands.60 Belgium.54 And others have recognized phrases borrowed from But it was equally clear that these shouts could serve religious func- "London Bridge is Falling Down" and the "National Emblem tions. Willie "The Lion" Smith said, "Shouts are stride - March," with second chorus riffs which the alto piano along parody part when P. and Fats and I would a shout in German brass James get romp-down go- bands.55) that was like the The New York and James P. Johnson said that set ing, playing rocky, just Baptist people sing.61 composer pianist shout was a diffused in or dances and dance suites were the basis for a number of com- ring widely form, present country city, jazz wherever Sanctified or Holiness churches were to be In fact his own "Carolina Shout" was a certainly positions. ragtime arrange- found. And as it seems to have acted as a reservoir for a varie- ment of a set dance dock workers from the such, preferred by originally of African features.62 Its use as a secular form Charleston, South Carolina area: ty performance style as well as a sacred one is not well documented, but fits patterns My motherwas fromVirginia and somewherein her blood was an of functions seen in the West Indies.63 - multiple instinctfor doing countryand set dances what were called "real It was Roll Morton who carried these set forms to their "CarolinaShout" and CarolinaBalmoral" Jelly ['reel'?]shoutings" My in more than other musi- are real southern set or dances. I think the "Carolina greatest heights jazz. Perhaps any jazz square Morton was concerned with balance in the Balmoral"was the most spiriteddance in the South. I find I have cian, structure, melody, and of his His works for his Red Hot a strongfeeling for these dancesthat goes way back- and I haven't rhythm compositions. Pep- found anyone else with it yet. pers like "Black Bottom Stomp," and "Grandpa's Spells" were One of the men would callthe figuresand they'ddance their own wonders of contrasted texture and form, multi-thematic works in style of squaredances. The calls were... "Joinhands" ... "Sashay" which even repetitions of a theme were varied in instrumentation,

Dance ResearchJournal 20/1 (Summer 1988) 33 rhythm, and dynamics. As he showed with "TigerRag," Morton Some writers on the history of ragtime have attempted to borrowedfrom the forms of ragtimeand quadrillein orderto set minimize the influence of dance suites and set dances, primarily up sectional contrastswithin his song form. This he did not do on the basis of very limitednotions of what these danceswere like mechanically,but so creativelythat GuntherSchuller suggests that and how they were recombined. Edward A. Berlin67andEric he often reached a level of formalcomplexity which was close to Thacker,68for instance,both mention the limited possibilitiesfor or even beyond that of the rondo. building rags on 2/4, 3/4, and 6/8 meters. But there is reason to Morton'smelodies were also quite often borrowedfrom a wide believethat these formswere moreflexible and syncreticthan has varietyof sources:the blues, ragtime,Creole folk songs, marches, been thought.Dancer Sidney Easton from Savannah, for example, operatic arias, Mexican pop songs, Cuban sones, music hall said that "thecolored people used a four-four,not a six-eighttem- melodies, and of courseFrench quadrille tunes. Butthis wholesale po, four couples at a time, with lots of solo work and improvised appropriationwas not a result of a lack of originality.First, there breaksby each dancerputting together steps of his own"69in their was alreadya patternof melodic borrowingwithin the quadrille set dances. Certainly, and JamesP. Johnson seem tradition."Quadrilles consumed melodies at a fearfulrate;' accord- to have made an effortto show how the transformationsin these ing to early Americanpopular music scholar ThorntonHagert, formsoccurred. In any case, thereis no particularreason to see the "andit was common practiceto make the music up out of bits of evolutionarysequence of dance suite-to-ragtime-to-jazzas rigid- popular songs or snatches from opera arias."64As a result, the ly unilinearas it has been portrayed.Until very recentlyat least, quadrilleform was often the means for joiningtogether otherwise jazz was a music for dancing. And in New Orleans,brass bands musicallyincongruous materials, or forusing musicin unorthodox are still playing multi-thematicmusical compositions in second- ways.65 But Morton's intention was to "jazz" up these tunes, not line rhythm, not just as an evolutionarystep towards another merelyarrange them in new settings.A certaindegree of familiarity musical development, but as a thriving, ongoing traditionof its with the originalmelodies was requiredso thatthe variationswould own. be understood and appreciated.Besides, as Mortonput it, "Jazz Nor have we seen the end of the quadrille'sinfluence on jazz. is a style that can be applied to any type of tune."66 DennisCharles - drummerwith avant-gardistssuch as CecilTaylor As has oftenbeen pointed out, Morton'sgreatest work appeared and Steve Lacy - was born and raised in St. Croix, the Virgin on recordjust at the point when the fashion in music was chang- Islands within a family which performedWest Indian quadrille ing fromthe multi-strained,complex form to the 32-barpop song. music. Asked about his unique approachto playing the cymbal, The biggestnames in jazz were now improvisingon these simpler he said: forms, and, with certain exceptions, jazz was to be reduced to WhatI try to do is ... yearsago in the WestIndies these guys used theme-solo-themefor many years to come. Mortonresisted the to and had a who The is the but it cost him an audience. He was the last in a play they guy playedtriangle. triangle trend, perhaps kind of beat I try to get, ting-a-lingting-a-ling, it's the same 3 beats line of a 19thcentury tradition of composerswho workedin forms you play on the cymbal,but it's that feeling I try to capture.70 built on the contrastof themes and their variations.

NOTES

1. Wewish to acknowledgethe help given us by JohnForrest and by the 12. Some of the most excitingwork on Afro-Americandance outside of anonymous refereesfor DanceResearch Journal. the United States is being done by the West Indian anthropologist 2. Forthe Europeanbackground of set dancesand dance suites, see Jean Marie-CelineLafontaine. Cf. her "Musiqueet societe aux Antilles." MichelGuilcher, La Contredanse et les renouvellments dela dansefrancaise. PresenceAfricaine no. 121-122(1982): 72-108; "Le Carnaval de ' 'autre'" (Paris:Ecole Practique des Hautes-Etudeset Mouton,1969) and Philip LesTemps Modeme no. 441-442(April-May, 1983): 2126-2173; and Alors J.S.Richardson, The Social Dances of theNineteenth Century in England machere, moi ... (Paris:Editions Caribeennes, 1987). (London:Herbert Jenkins, 1960). 13. Twoother examples of completequadrilles from Marie-Galante - an 3. JayD. Dobbin, TheJombee Dance of Montserrat: A Studyof TranceRitual islandwhich is partof Guadeloupe- areon LaMusique a Marie-Galante, in theWest Indies Columbus, Ohio: Ohio StateUniversity Press, 1986). Societe d'histoirede la Guadeloupe ATP82-1. And an exampleof a 4. Compareto bambualaand babalao,as well as to the Gaelicdrum, the mazurkafrom Martilnique can be foundon CaribbeanDances (Folkways bodhran. 6840),where the notes to the recordsuggest that the muchaccelerated 5. JohnC. Messenger,"Montserrat: The Most DistinctivelyIrish Settle- mazurkaof the FrenchWest Indies is a prototypeof the biguine. ment in the New World,"Ethnicity 2 (1975):298-299. 14. Hear,for instance,Fremont Fontenot's "Contredanse" with accordion 6. Dobbin, pp. 136-37.Dobbin also providesan exceptionallyvivid and and triangleon Zodoco:Louisiana Creole Music, Rounder 6009, or "Con- complete presentationof a dance he witnessed (pp. 60-96). tredanse& Shoefly Swing"on LouisianaCreole Music, Folkways 2622. 7. MelvilleJ. Herskovits, Trinidad Village (New York:Knopf, 1947), pp. 88, 15. "Musiqueet societe aux Antilles,"pp. 101-105. 160-62;Andrew Pearse, 'Aspects of Changein CaribbeanFolk Music," 16. Cf. JacquelineRosemain, La Musique dans la societeAntillaise 1635-1902 Journalof the InternationalFolk Music Council Vol. 8 (1955):31-32. (Paris:Editions LHarmattan, 1986; Maurice Jallier and YollenLossen, 8. Pearse,pp. 31-32;Donald R. Hill,Notes to TheBig Drum and Other Ritual Musiqueaux Antilles: Mizik boo kay (Paris: Edition Caribbeennes, 1985). and SocialMusic of Carriacou,Folkways 34002; Molly Ahye. Golden 17. Fora descriptionof a set dance in the Maroonarea of Jamaica,see Heritage:The Dance in Trinidadand Tobago (Trinidad: Heritage Cultures, KatherineDunham, Journey to Accompong (New York: Henry Holt, 1946), 1978),p. 99. pp. 22-27. 9. TheOriginal Quadrille Saint Croix Cultural Dance, (U.S. VirginIslands: 18. CherylRyman, 'The JamaicanHeritage in Dance:Developing a Tradi- no publisher,no date [c. 1982]),p. 4. tionalTypology." Jamaican Journal no. 44 (n.d.): 11,13.Ryman is a prin- 10. JocelyneGuilbault, 'A St. LucianKwadril Evening," Latin American Music cipal dancerwith the NationalDance TheatreCompany of Jamaica, Review6 (1985):31-57 This discussionis indebtedto Guilbault'sexten- and she has developeda corevocabulary of dancemoves for the Com- sive research. panythat includes quadrille patterns. Cf. RexNettleford, Dance Jamaica: 11. VeryLittle St. Lucianfolk music is availableon record,but a sample CulturalDefinition and Artistic Discovery (New York:Grove Press, 1985), of masouc(mazurka) played on violin, cuatroand shak-shakappears on p. 181. An IslandCarnival, Nonesuch ExplorerSeries 72090and also on the 19. WalterJekyll, ed., JamaicanSong and Story (New York: Dover, 1966 [1906]), Swedish LP Vastindien,Caprice CAP 2004:1-2. pp. 216-17.Jekyll includes words and music to 79 quadrillesongs.

34 Dance ResearchJournal 20/1 (Summer 1988) 20. NorrisStubbs, "MajorMusical Forms in the Bahamas'"in ThirdWorld 44. St. Cyris quotedin "AsI Remember:Johnny St. Cyr,"Jazz Journal Vol. Group:Bahamas Independence Issue, 1973 (Bahamas Printing and Litho 19,no. 9 (September,1966): 7; Sweatmanand Bradfordin Marshalland Co., 1973),pp. 101-102,as quoted by BasilC. Hedrickand JeanetteE. JeanSteams. JazzDance (New York:Macmillan, 1968), p. 23. Stephens, In theDays of Yesterday and in theDays of Today:An Overview 45. TomBethell, GeorgeLewis: A Jazzmanfrom New Orleans(Berkeley and of BahamianFolkmusic, Research Records No. 8, UniversityMuseum, Los Angeles: Universityof CaliforniaPress, 1977),p. 21. SouthernIllinois Universityat Carbondale,1976, p. 32. 46. European-deriveddances such as the mazurkaand the schottischehad 21. LisaLekis, Folk Dances of LatinAmerica. (New York:Scarecrow Press, becomethoroughly nativized and regionalized by the late1800s. In light 1958),p. 226. of this, it is interestingthat John Storm Roberts seems to thinkof them 22. John Santos, Linernotes to TheCuban Danzon, Folkways 4066. as "Latininfluences" in TheLatin Tinge (New York:Oxford University 23. This cry occursonly on the recording,not on the film soundtrack. Press, 1979),pp. 31-37. 24. Linernotes to Seychelles:Danses et RomancesdAncienne France, Ocora 47. SamuelB. Charters,Jazz: New Orleans 1885-1963, revised edition (New 558534. York:Oak Publications,1963), p. 18. 25. ThorntonHagert, liner notes to Comeand TripIt: InstrumentalDance 48. BabyDodds, TheBaby Dodds Story as Toldto LarryGara (Los Angeles: Music1780's-1920's, New WorldRecords NW 293;Charles Hamm, Music ContemporaryPress, 1959),p. 10. in the New World(New York:W.W. Norton, 1983),pp. 297-306. 49. Charters,p. 18. 26. Notes to HomespunAmerica: Marches, Waltzes, Polkas and Serenades of the 50. LouisJones, quoted in DonaldM. Marquis,In Searchof Buddy Bolden: Manchester[New Hampshire] Coret Band... andManchester Quadrille FirstMan of Jazz (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1978), Orchestra,Vox Records, SVBX 5309. p. 107;see alsoBeatrice Alcom, quotedon p. 94;and CharlieLove's and 27 See, for example,Eyre Crowe, WithThackeray in America(New York: HarrisonBarnes's interviews (" 'BuddyBolden was a TallMan . .' ") Scribner'sSons), 1893,pp. 147-148,and the New Orleanssources referred on TheMusic of New Orleans, Vol. IV: The Birth of Jazz (Folkways 2464). to in W. BlackNew 1860-1880 John Blassingame, Orleans, (Chicago: 51. H.O.Brunn, The Story of the Original Jazz Band (Baton Rouge: of University ChicagoPress, 1973),pp. 145-146. LouisianaState UniversityPress, 1960),p. 9. Off 28. John Collins, E.T.Mensah: King of Highlife.(London: the Record 52. Marquis,p. 101. 34. Press, 1986),p. 53. Transcribedin RexHarris, Jazz, second edition (London: Penguin Books, 29. RichardWalm TheHermit in Americaon a Visitto (PeterAtall, Esq.), 1953),pp. 66-67. America. as Eileen TheMusic (Philadelphia,1819, quotedby Southern, 54. RobertGoffin, Jazzfrom Congo to Swing (London:Musicians Press, BlackAmericans York: of (New Norton, 1971),p. 113. 1946),p. 19. in 30. This was long beforea parallelmusical development 1920'sCuba: 55. WilfridMellers, Musicin a New FoundLand (New York:Alfred A. the danzonete- fromthe Afro-Cubanson - added voices borrowing Knopf, 1965),p. 289. to the cherangaorchestra (cf. John Santos' notes to TheCuban Dan- 56. TomDavin, "Conversations with James P Johnson"The Jazz Review Vol. zon, Folkways4066). 2, no. 5 (une, 1959):15-16. See alsoWalter "One-Leg Shadow" Gould's 31. Samuel and Marsha "SocialDance Music of Black Floyd,Jr. J.Reisser, commentthat "OldMan Sam Moorewas raggingthe quadrillesand in the Nineteenth and the of Classic Composers Century Emergence schottischesbefore I was born ... He was born way beforethe [Civil] TheBlack in MusicVol. No. 2 Ragtime," Perspective 8, (Fall,1980): 161-194; war."Blesh and Jannis,They All PlayedRagtime, p. 190.One contem- Samuel A. "ABlack in St. Floyd,Jr., Composer Nineteenth-Century poraryobserver also drew attentionto the squaredance qualitiesof Louis'"Nineteenth Music4 Century (November,1980): 151-167; Eileen The BigApple, a populardance of the 1930's,which was said to have Southern. TheMusic BlackAmericans York: of (New Norton, 1971),p. originatedin Columbia,South Carolina (Kyle Crichton, "Peel That Ap- CharlesD. "BlackMusic in New Orleans:A HistoricalOver- - 114; Jerde, ple the Storyof the 'BigApple' " in RobertS. Gold, JazzTalk, p. 18. BlackMusic Research Newsletter Vol. no. 1 6. view," 9, (Spring, 1987): 57 TomDavin, p. 170. 32. Floydand Reisser,p. 175. 58. Davin, "ConversationsWith James P. Johnson," Jazz Review, Vol. 2, no. 33. RobertB. "BlackInstrumental Music Traditions in the Ex-Slave Winans, 6 (July,1959), p. 12. Narratives,"Black Music Research NewsletterVol. no. 2 4. 5, (Spring,1982): 59. Davin, p. 13. 34. Ann Allen Music:A a Vol. 1 Savoy,Cajun Reflectionof People, (Eunice, 60. Blesh and Janis,They All PlayedRagtime, p. 190. Louisiana:Bluebird 304-05.The secondviolin was also Press,1984), pp. 61. Blesh and Janis,p. 188.In 'splay, "JoeTurner's Come calleda attentionto its functionin this music. bastrinque,calling rhythmic and Gone,"an after-dinnersecular ring shout at a Pittsburghroom- 35. The NewOrleans as Toldto TomStod- AutobiographyofPops Foster, Jazzman ing house turns into a possession ritual. dard and Los of California (Berkeley Angeles: University Press, 1971), 62. See MarshallSteams, TheStory of Jazz (New York:Oxford 7-8. University pp. Press, 1953),p. 13,on the importanceof the formfor 36. Southern: as well as Dena Tunesand preservingstyle. Winans; Epstein,Sinful SterlingStuckey provides the best overviewof the evidence for the of Illinois and Black (Urbana:University Press) LynneFauley Emery, presence of the ring shout in the United States and in WestAfrica. Dance Alto: NationalPress (Palo Books, 1972). 63. Theremay also be reasonto see an EastCoast tradition at workhere, 37. AlanJabbour, liner notes to TheHammons Family, p. 25. See also Robert one with rootsin the coastalareas of NorthernFlorida and South and Cantwell, Breakdown and of Bluegrass (Urbana Chicago:University North Carolina,and extending (by migration)to Washington,D.C., IllinoisPress, 1984),passim. Wilmington,Delaware, Philadelphia, New Jerseyand New York.Shar- 38. SlaveCulture: Nationalist andthe Foundations SterlingStuckey, Theory ing the characteristicsof 3-3-2additive rhythm, shiftingmeters, etc., BlackAmerica, York:Oxford of (New UniversityPress, 1987),pp. 20-22; this traditionproduced the Broadwayinfluences of JamesP. Johnson Winans, 3. p. and EubieBlake (Baltimore), the pop musicof JerryLieber (Baltimore), 39. David C. Barrow, "A Jr., GeorgiaCorn-Shucking," Century Magazine the gospel musicof Philadelphia,North Jersey and New YorkCity, the XXIV, 878. (1882): bebopof Dizzy Gillespie(South Carolina) and TheloniusMonk (North 40. Barrow, 878. p. Carolina), and the avant-gardeplaying of John Coltrane (North 41. Willis "TheRomance of the James. NegroFolk Cry in America,"Phylon Carolina.) 16 18. (1950): 64. Hagert,p. 1. 42. HearOtis of "The where his vocal Redding'srecording Hucklebuck," 65. "Quadrille,"The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. 15, set in the midst of the as the part, melody playedby MemphisHorns, p. 491. Examplesinclude the BolognaQuadrilles (based on Rossini's cuts across the beat like an African drum. talking Stabatmater), Chabrier's Souvenirs de Munich (basedon themes from 43. LafcadioHearn, "LeveeLife," in An American Vol. 1 Miscellany, (New Tristanund Isolde),and Faureand Messager's Souvenirsde York:Albert Dunham describesa Bayreuth Mordell,ed., Dodd, Mead, 1924). (based on themes from TheRing). Maroonset dance that follows a similar of Jamaican pattern Europe- 66. As quotedin Schuller,p. 139.Schuller's work was an invaluablesource to-Africastyle change throughthe progressionof the dances. for these commentson Morton.

Dance ResearchJournal 20/1 (Summer 1988) 35 67. Edward A. Berlin, Ragtime:A Musical and Cultural History. (Berkeley: 69. Stears and Stearns, p. 23. University of California Press, 1980), pp. 118-119. 70. "Dennis Charles," interviewed by Ludwig Van Trikt, CadenceVol. 13, 68. EricThacker, "RagtimeRoots," Jazz & Blues ol. 3, no. 8 (November 1973): no. 10 (October, 1987): 6. 6.

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36 Dance ResearchJournal 20/1 (Summer 1988)