MUSLIM WOMEN:

BETWEEN CULTURE AND

by

Hanadi Alotaibi

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of

The Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

Florida Atlantic University

Boca Raton, Florida

May 2016

Copyright 2016 by Hanadi Alotaibi

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It was not possible to complete this research paper without the help and the support from everyone, including my parents, my professors, and my husband.

I first would like to express my sincere gratitude to my adviser, Dr. Patricia

Darlington, of the School of Communication and Multimedia Studies at Florida Atlantic

University. Dr. Darlington kept her door open any time I needed help or had a question about my research progress. My special thanks for her support, her patience, her motivation and her knowledge. Second, I would like to thank my committee members,

Dr. Susan Reilly and Dr. Nannetta Uwechue, for their guidance, feedback, patience, motivation, and immense knowledge.

Third, I would like to thank my husband who patiently supported me during writing the thesis, who understood how hard the work was, and who helped me deal with stress.

Finally, I would thank my parents who supported me my entire life, who taught me to reach my goals, and who taught me that education is the key to success in life.

iv ABSTRACT

Author: Hanadi Alotaibi

Title: Muslim Women: Between Culture and Feminism

Thesis Advisor: Dr. Patricia Darlington

Degree: Master of Arts

Year: 2016

Women’s rights in became a major subject after the third in the United States. When feminism spread globally, many Islamic scholars connected it to Islam. is a term that takes most of its ideologies from the two primary sources of Islam – the and the . This qualitative research explained the bias directed towards women in Islam by using objective reasoning through examples as well as by encompassing any misinterpretation of views regarding women’s rights in Islam. The method used was a content analysis. The findings were that Islam is a feminist religion. While Islam provides Muslim women with full rights,

U.S. and Saudi Arabian cultures have impeded Islamic feminism. Lastly, the U.S. feminism started as a movement by women to empower women. However, Islamic feminism first focused on the rights of all human beings, then concentrated on women in

Islam.

v MUSLIM WOMEN:

BETWEEN CULTURE AND FEMINISM

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1!

Operationalization of Terms ...... 5!

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8!

The Origins of the Term Feminism ...... 8!

The Western Brief History and the Definitions of the Term “Feminism” ...... 9!

“Islamic Feminism” ...... 13!

Islam and Islamic Law ...... 14!

Arab Culture and U.S. Culture ...... 15!

Feminism from an Islamic Perspective ...... 18!

Summary ...... 20!

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY ...... 22!

CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION ...... 25!

Islamic Perspective of Women Rights ...... 25!

The Differences between Equality and Justice ...... 25!

Both Sexes Are Equal When Created ...... 27!

Worship, Dignity, and Honor ...... 28!

The Right to Live ...... 30!

The Right to Be Educated ...... 31!

The Rights in Marriage and Family ...... 32

vi The Right to Work ...... 34

The Right to Participate Publicly and Politically ...... 35!

The Right to Own Property ...... 36!

U.S. Feminists’ Misinterpretations of Women’s Stature in Islam ...... 37!

Cultural Perspective of Muslim Women Rights in the United States and ...... 43

The Relationship between Islamic and U.S. Feminism ...... 45!

CHAPTER 5. LIMITATIONS ...... 47!

CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION ...... 49!

REFERENCES ...... 52!

vii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

There are many misconceptions about Islam. One of them concentrates the statue and rights of women in Islam. As many people describe it, especially in U.S. culture, the religion of Islam discriminates against women. The story of Aminah Assilmi, a radical feminist, is an example to show how U.S. culture views Islam. Aminah Assilmi was born in Oklahoma. She earned degrees in education, communication, and broadcasting, and was known for lecturing about women living under Islamic laws (tobygeral, 2011). In

1977, Aminah did intensive research on religions (tobygeral, 2011) and after her , she converted to Islam. When she told her family, one of her relatives tried to kill her; others thought that she needed mental help. They did not believe that educated women could be converted to Islam. Her husband left her. She was asked by the judge to choose between her two children and her new religion (Islam On Demand, 2011). Her family’s reaction reflects how most Westerners view Islam. There are many similar stories about how people who convert to Islam from are treated. The recent documentary Islam In Women (Muslim ForEver, 2015) has shown that a significant number of individuals, approximately 70%, who convert to Islam in the

United States are female. The question of why those women are choosing to lose their rights and become involved in a religion such as Islam remains relevant today.

Scholars became interested in studying the motivations behind Western women converting to Islam (Muslim ForEver, 2015). U.S. citizens believe that the United States is a democratic country where women have more rights than any other women around the

1 world (tobygeral, 2011). Women’s rights in the United States have been connected to the term feminism, yet today people around the world have adapted the term feminism and connected it with their culture and their style of life such as Islamic feminism. Since the

U.S. feminist movements have given women their full rights, what could be the reasons that drive U.S. women to convert to Islam?

If one looks at Muslim women in U.S. culture, it is obvious they have the same rights accorded to all women in the United States. However, as the U.S. media discusses the issue, Muslim women who live in Saudi Arabia do not have any rights. In a news article on CNN titled “Don’t celebrate Saudi voting move,” Tucker (2015) discussed women’s right in Saudi Arabia. She illustrated that Saudi Arabian women are prohibited from driving a car or from leaving the house without a male relative. Many articles in

Western news media concentrate on those two points (Mohammed & Smith-Spark, 2013;

Tucker, 2015). In fact, most writers have connected that behavior to Islamic concepts, forgetting that Saudi Arabia has its own culture and can interpret the concepts differently

(, Mahmood, Moel, Hudson, & Leathers, 2008). A study at the University of Iowa analyzed the influential relationship between culture and feminism from Muslim women’s perspectives. One of the Muslim participants in this study explained the relationship between Islam and . She stated that Islam gives women and men the same equal rights, but the culture is “getting in the way of religion” (Ali et al., 2008, p. 43). Arab culture seems to have an enormous influence on women’s rights and power, as Darlington and Mulvaney (2003) have stated in the book Women Power and Ethnicity.

After 9/11 and the recent Paris attacks in November 2015, are facing severe discrimination and profiling, which is portrayed in Western media, and in many

2 cases promotes negative propaganda. By living in a Western society, one may question what Saudi Arabian students face and how do women who live in Saudi Arabia seemingly does not have any rights?

The purpose of this qualitative research was to explain the bias directed towards women in Islam by using objective reasoning through examples as well as encompassing any misinterpretation of views regarding the women rights in Islam. By studying this thesis, a reader will have a clear idea of the distinction between Islamic feminism and

U.S. feminism. This current study provides the reader with the answers to the following questions:

• What does feminism mean and who is a feminist?

• Is there a difference between U.S. and Islamic feminism and U.S. and Saudi

Arabian culture?

• How is feminism determined by culture and how is it related to Islam?

• How does the Arab culture influence women’s rights?

• What does Islam say about women rights?

• Finally, can Muslim women be feminists?

The study was built around three distinctive hypotheses. Each one of them has a link to the others in considering two essential points of this research: the influence of cultures on feminist practices, and the possibility of calling Islam a feminist religion.

Based on the finding of the study “A Qualitative Investigation of Muslim and Christian

Women’s View of Religion and Feminism in their Lives,” Muslim participants found it a challenge to determine their culture from their religion and vice versa (Ali et al., 2008), which leads to hypothesis 1:

3 H1. Muslims cannot separate their religion from their culture. However, they can separate their culture from their religion.

Many scholars have described Islamic feminism as a division of Western feminism (Davids, 2015). However, there has not been much discussion about the difference between their goals or their early beginning stages. Accordingly, hypothesis 2 states:

H2. There are differences between the Islamic notion of feminism and the U.S. feminist tradition. Although the U.S. idea of feminism has come to encompass the principle of equality for both men and women, it started as a movement for and by women. In contrast, Islamic feminism began as a model of equality for all people, but presently concentrates on women’s rights or equality.

Many arguments have taken place concerning feminism and Islam, starting with whether Muslims women need feminism. This argument exists because of the confusion on calling Islam a feminist religion. Some people agree that Islam as a religion is feminism (Ali et al., 2008). In light of this, the third hypothesis posits:

H3. Islam as a religion calls for feminism and can be called a feminist religion.

This was a qualitative research study designed to be explanatory research. The method used was a content analysis. The secondary textual analysis included the analyses of journals articles, documentaries, debates, and books related to feminism,

Islam, and cultural perspectives of Muslim women rights in Saudi Arabia and the United

States.

The first chapter is the introduction, which contains research questions, hypotheses, definitions of the terms used, and the purpose of the study. The second

4 chapter is the literature review, focusing on defining Western and Islamic feminism; U.S. and Saudi Arabian culture; and Islam-Shari’ah Law, Quran, and the Sunnah. The third chapter is the methodology section, which explains the method of the study and the data sources used in the study; this is followed by the research findings. The discussion is categorized into four separated sections. The first one focuses on Islamic perspective of

Muslim women’s rights. The second section addresses the common misunderstanding or misinterpretations of Muslim women’s rights within Islamic concepts from a U.S. feminist perspective. The third section concentrates on the cultural perspective of Muslim women’s rights. Finally, the last section explains the relationship between Islamic and

U.S. feminism. The fourth chapter describes limitations to the findings of the analysis and suggestions for further studies in the field of Islamic feminism and the world’s understanding of it. The final chapter is the conclusion.

Operationalization of Terms

For this study, four significant terms are defined. The terms are feminism, feminist, culture, and Islam.

Feminism. In “Muslim Women: Between Culture and Feminism,” the term feminism is defined as “an attitude, a frame of mind that highlighted the role of gender in understanding the organization of society” (Cooke, 2000, p. ix). Feminism is not simply a political movement, but a word or action that speaks for people’s rights, especially women’s rights.

Feminist. A feminist is a person, female or male, who thinks, speaks, and acts to change the expectations of women’s roles and responsibilities in life. In short, a feminist

5 is the person who speaks for the equality between sexes in a and within education, family, and business.

Culture. Scholars have defined culture based on their field of study (Spencer-

Oatey, 2012). Culture in this thesis refers to the marks such as beliefs, religions, customs, manners, traditions, and the behavior of different societies that distinguish groups of people. For example, Saudi Arabian culture refers to the Saudis’ way of living. It also is what Saudis believe and think about their community, their religion, their boundaries, their successes, and their taboos (Haram).

Islam. Islam is the religion that calls for submission, surrender, and being docile to one God (). This behavior is optional, not forced. Islam is a religion of the

Muhammad – peace be upon him – from Allah. Islam is a life system and laws that consume all behavior in life.

Muhammed – peace be upon him – is one of the messengers that God has sent to all people; his message extends to all others before him, including Adam, Noah, Ibrahim,

Moses, Jesus, etc. Muslims are the people who believe in Islam as their only religion.

They believe in the existence of one God (Allah). They also believe in Muhammed – peace be upon him – as a messenger of Islam. Muslims take all of their actions in life by considering what is taboo (Haram) in Islam and what is not. However, part of their culture is affected by Islamic rules, while the rest is cultural traditions. In brief,

Muslims are the people who worship one God (Allah) and follow what the Quran and the

Sunnah of the prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – have told them.

The Quran is the holy book of Islam. It is the word of God. It contains 30 parts and 114 (sections). Each Surah discusses different topics that matter to people’s

6 lives. The Sunnah is any “words, deeds, descriptions, or reports on the prophet

Muhammad ‘peace be upon him. It is “the second fundamental source of Islamic law consists of Prophet Muhammad’s lifetime sayings, deeds, and tacit approvals on different aspects of life” (Baderin, p.187, 2009). Some of the Sunnah is a description of what the

Quran has said; others are what the prophet Muhammed – peace be upon him – encourages people to believe based on Islamic precepts.

All of these terms were examined in this thesis. The study is valuable because the topic of women’s rights has an enormous impact in many societies and strongly commands media attention today. The confirmation bias that correlates Islam to oppression (concerning women’s rights) has a great significance in U.S. culture. The study also provides the reader with an understanding of different societies regarding

Islam, as well as its core definition and its view of focusing on women. In short, it will help to clear up misconceived notions toward Muslim women rights. This paper attempts to fill the gap on the literature review by observing what may be missing in the research. In addition, it addressed different perspectives in order to solidify final interpretations and provide opportunities for new research about the concept of Islamic feminism.

7 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Research has shown that Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world (Read

& Bartkowski, 2000). It is spreading expeditiously. However, the majority of individuals who have converted to Islam are women. This introduces the question as to why Western nations view Islam as an oppressive religion against women. This study also examined if there is a relationship between feminism and Islam. The word feminism can be defined in many different ways. The dictionary definition is “a theory and/or movement concerned with advancing the position of women through such means as achievement of political, legal, or economic rights equal to those granted men” (Offen, 1988). Some writers have said it originated in European politics; other have connected it to the Civil Rights

Movement in the United States in the 1960s. A few researchers have speculated that feminism originated in France early in the late 1880s. Feminism has been defined a number of ways that are related to various historical movements.

The Origins of the Term Feminism

The term feminism first was used in France in the late 1880s by Auclert in her journal La Citoynne (Badran, 2009). Here, she used to the term to criticize the power of men and to illustrate women’s rights during the French Revolution. The term feminism was soon adopted by English writers and speakers in Britain and the United States in

1910. Feminism later was defined by Arabic speakers in in the early 1920s as

‘Nissiyya’ (women). In the 20th century, the term feminism began to become a global

8 term. Many writers around the world write about it and give it a new interpretation each time (Badran, 2009).

The Western Brief History and the Definitions of the Term “Feminism”

The questions, What is feminism? Who is a feminist?, began to appear in almost every society in the first decades of the 20th century. The English-Western origin of the word feminism goes back to 1910 (Batur-VanderLippe & Badran, 1996). Scholars since have described feminism as a movement in three separate waves that influenced each other through history.

The waves in the United States started in the late 19th to 20th century. Many reasons influenced the first movement of feminism: Women were not allowed to vote nor own properties and could not hold work in the same workplaces as men. The first wave meant to give women the right to vote as citizens of the United States. Some sources called the first wave “women’s suffrage.” It began with the Seneca Falls Convention in

New York in 1848 (Kroløkke & Sørensen, 2006). During this movement, 300 men and women were led by activist Elizabeth Cady, who outlined the movement and emphasized its primary goals, among them giving women the right to vote. After a long struggle, women were given their right to vote in the 1920s in the United States. However, this movement concentrated on “White, middle-class, well-educated women” (Kroløkke &

Sørensen, 2006, p. 3). During the first wave, many arguments were made, including whether women should speak in public, whether they should have the same right to vote as males, and whether the only appropriate work for women was being housewives.

African American women were blocked from voting by law, which scholars have called

“difference first-wave feminism” (Kroløkke & Sørensen, 2006, p. 5).

9 The second wave of feminism started in the 1960s, and was a continuation of the

Civil Rights Movement. This second wave called for “‘equal opportunities feminism’ or

‘equity feminism,‘ … characterized by the lack of distinction between sex and gender”

(Kroløkke & Sørensen, 2006, p. 6). This wave included race, class, and gender oppression, integrating those issues and for solutions to them. It was a movement that examined the social construction of sexual discrimination (Kroløkke & Sørensen, 2006).

Others have viewed the second wave differently. During World War II, women were forced to handle jobs that were not typical for them. As a result, women realized they were capable of handling those jobs. As Friedman, Metelerkamp, and Posel (1987) illustrated, one of the primary goals of the second movement was to give women the same opportunity as men in the workplace. To that end, other scholars have viewed the second wave as an examination of gender discrimination based on culture structures. For example, from a cultural view, women’s roles are connected to the house while men handle the outside work. Culture is a changeable concept and, as a result, people need to understand how to shape their culture to end this discrimination. Women were viewed as objects by their culture; therefore, they wanted to end the sexist stereotypes. Cultural feminism is a movement that describes how modern societies reward masculine behaviors and discourage feminine ones. What feminists want is for society to value feminine behavior as masculine behavior is valued (Turnier, Conover, & Lowery, 1995).

The third wave started in the 1990s, and is the wave that gave feminism its new meaning. It focused on freeing women from the feminine stereotypes and letting women receive equal treatments. Researchers differed on which kind of feminism would fit better with the third wave. Scholars such as Turnier et al. (1995) saw cultural feminism

10 ideology as the best category; both the feminist waves and cultural feminism agreed on giving women their equality by changing the system of society and the traditional ideologies of family and female responsibilities. In fact, the third movement had a broader message than the first and second waves. It is also the wave that got worldwide attention and spread the feminist term globally. This wave illustrates the issues that relate to the “, trafficking, body surgery, self-mutilation, and the overall

‘pornofication’ of the media” (Kroløkke & Sørensen, 2006, p. 17). This wave has added a new perspective of women equality in the United States and globally as well.

All three waves inspired each other. During the second wave, feminism became an academic discipline of women studies, which examines equal gender rights. The question of “What does feminism mean?” has gotten the attention from different fields of studies. Numerous scholars started to present definitions of feminism based on their views of the movements. Ghobadzadeh (2010) promoted “Feminism, which rejects all forms of discrimination, promotes the notion that women are entitled to enjoy human dignity equally with men and to have equal opportunity to live their chosen lives” (p.

301).

Additionally, Engineer (2010), an Indian reformist-writer, has defined feminism as a movement to “empower” a “and to consider her full human being and not mere second sex” (p. 1). In contrast, others have presented feminism as a strategy for women to recognize their rights and to call for changes and to improve their lives. Hatem

(2013), a professor of political science at Howard University, illustrated his definition as

“analytical and critical tools that can be used to enhance women’s

11 understanding/consciousness of themselves and their relations with other important national, regional and international groups of men and women” (p. 92).

Who can be considered a feminist? is a relevant question that frequently manifests when talking about feminism. The term feminist refers to a person who supports feminist ideologies. A feminist has been defined as a person “advocating social, political, legal, and economic rights for women equal to those of men” (“Feminist,” 2016a). Most scholars have given a new definition of the word, defined as one who understands women’s rights and fights for them as well as understanding and supporting men’s rights

(Islam On Demand, 2013). Moghissi (2011), in her journal article “Islamic Feminism

Revisited,” stated that feminists are those women who have been active regarding gender issues and who struggle to fight for “ gender equity, dignity, and basic human rights” (p.

79). Many scholars such as Cooke (2000) in “Women Claim Islam” have connected the term feminist to women who think and do something about women’s desires publicly or privately. Unlike Moghissi (2011) and Cooke (2000), many others have decided to call anyone either male or female a feminist, but with specific conditions such as struggling and fighting for gender equality in all aspects of life. The Oxford Dictionary defines a feminist as “A person who supports feminism” (“Feminist,” 2016b). Considering the

Oxford definition, Foss and Griffin (1992) explained the qualifications to call someone a feminist. From their point of view, feminism means equality; therefore, a feminist is anyone who embraces the meaning of feminism in their actions (Foss & Griffin, 1992, p.

2). Furthermore, announcing someone as a feminist has changed over time based on the age of women. A study has shown that older women tend to call themselves feminists more than younger women (Peltola, Milkie, & Presser, 2004).

12 “Islamic Feminism”

The first appearance of the term “Islamic feminism” was in the 1990s when feminism started to become a global debate. Many famous Iranian scholars such as Mir-

Hosseini (2011) applied the term Islamic feminism in Zanan, a women’s journal in

Teheran. In addition, the Saudi Arabian scholar, Yamani, in 1996 her book “Feminism and Islam” uses the term Islamic feminism. In , scholar Gole (1997) used the term in her book, The Forbidden Modern, to illustrate the new feminist paradigm emerging.

The use of the phrase Islamic feminism did not stop with Arab countries, but also reached

South Africa. Since feminism has become a global concern, the Middle Eastern countries have called it “Global Umma” (Badran, 2009). Today, “the geographic area of Islamic

Feminism has expanded to include North America, a number of Asian, African, Arab and

European countries” (Grami, 2015, p. 102). Indeed, the term feminism has been used not only by Muslims scholars who live in Islamic countries but also by scholars around the world, such as Pakistani-American Barlas (1995) and (1999), an African

American (Badran,2009).

Badran (2009) stated that Islamic feminism has become a global phenomenon that has spread around the world from the West to the East. There is no limitation on the growth of Islamic feminism. However, Badran pointed out an essential concept in the study of Islamic feminism. He stated that it is essential to “do Qur’anic interpretation and closely read other Islamic religious texts” (Badran, 2009, p. 245) in order to define

Islamic feminism. In addition, he explained that those Islamic religious texts are written in Arabic, therefore, understanding the language is essential.

13 McDonald (1998) stated that there is not a particular definition of Islam feminism, while others have stated that Islamic feminism could be defined differently based on the understanding of the and its original source, the Qur’an. Muhammad

Kaosar Ahmed (2015), associate professor at International Islamic University

Chittagong, stated that “ Islamic feminism is speaking for justice to women as Islam stands for” (p. 2), which leads to the new argument. Later in his article, he added that

Islamic feminism “is an idea of awareness preaching that men and women have equal rights based on re-reading the Quran, re-examining the religious texts and telling people to practice it” (p. 2). Similar to Ahmed, Badran (2009) in Feminism in Islam and Mir-

Hosseini (2011) in her article “Beyond ‘Islam’ vs. ‘Feminism’” have the same idea in defining Islamic feminism. Mir-Hosseini explained the connection between Islam and feminism by stating “Both Islam and feminism are contested concepts that mean different things to different people and in different contexts” ( p. 1).

Islam and Islamic Law

Islam is the second largest religion in the world after Christianity, and has become the second most recognized religion in the United States (Esposito, 2002). Islam is a

“spiritual system” that has “general principles or values” (Rehan, 2013, p. 36). It is a monotheistic faith revealed to Muhammed Ibn Abdullah, the prophet of Islam. He was born in , Saudi Arabia, in the year 570 AD. At the age of 40, he started to receive revelations from Allah encouraging him to lead the people to the new religion, which is

Islam. Islam is the youngest religion in the world. Muslims are the people who take

Islam as their religion or worship the same god Allah as “Lord of all Being.” Muslims believe in the messenger Muhammed – peace upon him – as one of the messengers of

14 Mosses, Jesus, and Ibrahim. (Esposito, 2002). Rehan (2013) has defined Islam as “not just a religion but also a complete course of life” (p. 36). Muslims take most of their daily routines from their religion. Having that said, the holy book of Qur’an and the of

Muhammed – peace upon him – the Sunnah are the primary sources for Muslims to take their judgments in all aspects of life. The Qur’an is the word of God revealed to the prophet Muhammad – peace upon him – and the Sunnah is any words, deeds, descriptions, or reports on the prophet Muhammad ‘peace be upon him.

Islamic law is one of the major legal systems in the world (Baderin, 2009). This system is called Shari’ah Law. Shari’ah means “right path.” Baderin (2009), a professor of law at the School of Oriental and African Studies, stated that Shari’ah law is a complete law system; Muslims can not bring or add any legal action into Shari’ah law.

Under this law, all of life experiences are discussed, starting from how to greet people to mourning the dead. Islamic law ‘Shari’ah law’ has two sources: The Qur’an and the

Sunnah. According to the Pew Research Center (2015), most Muslims countries apply

Shari’ah law in conjunction with other systems. However, Saudi Arabia uses Shari’ah law as the only law that functions for all citizens (Lugo, Cooperman, Bell, O’Connell, &

Stencel, 2013).

Arab Culture and U.S. Culture

Many scholars have agreed that the term culture is difficult to define. In 1952, scholars in the field of anthropology made a list of 164 definitions of culture (Spencer-

Oatey, 2012). The term culture has been defined as the identity of a group of people who can identify themselves as from another group of people with. It also is any attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people, yet they are different for

15 individuals, and it is communicated from one generation to the next (Baccelli, Jacquet,

Mans, & Rodolakis, 2012). It is the distinguished mark that makes people different in their daily routines. Spencer-Oatey (2012) defined culture as a “set of basic assumptions and values, orientations to life, beliefs, policies, procedures and behavioral conventions that are shared by a group of people, and that influence (but do not determine) each member’s behavior and his/her interpretations of the ‘meaning’ of other people’s behavior” (p. 3).

Most social science researchers agree that culture is the way people live their lives without questioning their behaviors in that particular group (Spencer-Oatey, 2012).

Culture is something that can be learned and passed on from each generation; it is what controls the social environment. Spencer-Oatey noted that culture can affect people’s interpretations of behavior by people who have the same culture. On the other hand,

Golley (2004) agreed with the same point and illustrated how that interpretation could be within the same culture or between two cultures. Golley stated Arab women could be interpreted differently by Western culture: “Arab women conjures up heavily veiled, secluded women, whose lives consist of little more than their homes, their children, and the other females in the ‘’ or immediate kinship circle” (p. 522).

Each group of people has a set of patterns that shape their culture. Arab culture can be defined as the culture of the Middle East. have been defined as people who speak the Arabic language and those who live in countries located in the Middle East and

North Africa (“Arab,” 2015). These countries include Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain, United

Arab Emirates, , , Saudi Arabia, , , , , Palestine,

Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Tunisia, , , and Mauritania.

16 Salzman (2007), a professor of anthropology at McGill University, in his article

“Arab Culture and Postcolonial Theory,” sees Arab culture as similar to all cultures that take into consideration men and women in society. Salzman described Arab culture as “a force in human action, a sculptor of society, a major influence on human events” (p. 837).

Later in his article, he added it is the way that people can judge other behaviors. Arab culture can be mixed with ; however, Islamic culture is more localized about the rules that Muslims must follow. Not all Arabs can be considered Muslims, and not all Muslims are Arabs.

Many studies have distinguished the differences between Arab and Western culture. Westerners are people who live in the West or who reside toward the West including Europe and the United States (“Westerner,” 2016). Zaharna (1995), in her description of the differences between Arab and Western culture, noted an important point about language. People in Western culture are speaking English as their first language. On the other hand, people in the Arab culture speak Arabic, which the language of the Qur’an. Each culture has its characteristics. There any many differences between the Western and Arab culture. Zaharna (1995), an assistance professor at The

American University School of Communication, stated the different areas of both cultures. According to Zaharna, Western culture is low-context culture, which means it is direct and to the point. It is also the ‘doing’ culture, where people care about their achievements more than anything. This point emphasizes the individualism of Western culture. On the other hand, Arab culture is a collectivism. People tend to care about their family and their friends. Arabs highly value the honor of the family, which make it harder for them to enter taboo areas. For example, some families in Arab countries may literally

17 kill their daughters if they bring shame to the family (Pew Research Center, 2015).

However, if one looks at the two primary sources of Islam – the Qur’an and the Sunnah – one will not find anything saying to kill these women. This is one example showing how feminism is determined by culture, and the relationship of feminism and Islam.

Since religion is a significant cultural concept, one could say that Islamic culture could be part of Arab culture if those Arabs were Muslims. It also can be said that the

Islamic culture could be part of Western culture if Westerners were Muslims (Esposito,

2002).

Feminism from an Islamic Perspective

It is interesting to examine how Arabs interpret feminism in their lives and give it meaning. It is difficult for Arabs to separate feminism from Qur’anic concepts, especially

Arabs in those countries that base all their laws on Islamic principles, such as Saudi

Arabia. However, in places like , Turkey, Egypt, and Tunisia, the people are able to define feminism based on their own culture and their lifestyle because they have a set of laws that is not based on Shari’ah law. Indeed, the definitions of feminism from an

Islamic perspective do not appear to be different than Western feminism. Many scholars define Islamic feminism as a branch of Western feminism, although Islamic feminism draws on the Qur’anic concepts (Ahmed, 2015).

Many arguments have developed such as whether Muslim women need to learn feminism and practice it in their daily lives. Another argument is regarding Islam’s call for feminism, which has been discussed by Golley (2004) in his article “Is Feminism relevant to Arab women?” Golley claimed that feminism is “not alien to Arab culture” (p.

521). Feminism in Arab culture began when the culture became influenced by Western

18 culture. As a result, Arab women needed to have a positive change in their life as much as all women anywhere else. However, many did not explain the existence of feminism in the Qur’an and the Sunnah.

A major difference between Islamic feminism and Western feminism is that

Islamic feminism is grounded on Islamic concepts. However, both ideologies share the idea of giving women equality in a private and a public sphere as well as giving women their rights politically, educationally, economically, and socially. Another difference is that Arab culture has adopted Islamic feminism. It is an “adaptation of Western ideals, values and ways of life by Arab culture” (Golley, 2004, p. 529). In short, Islamic feminism began as a result of the Westernization between both cultures (Golley, 2004).

Rehan (2013), a professor in the Islamic Department at Fatima Jinnah Women

University, , answered the question regarding what Islam says about women’s rights. Rehan has defined Islam as a complete life course for all beings, which led to

Islam giving women as well as men their rights in all aspect of life, and used statements from the Qur’an to prove her arguments: “Islam’s concepts of human rights is based on the idea of human dignity and equality of mankind (Al-Qur’an, 17:70)” (p. 37). Islam gives not just women but also men their rights even before the Universal Declaration of

Human Rights did in 1948. She added that human rights from an Islamic perspective comes from the creator himself; on the other hand, Western human rights comes from other individuals. Rehan asks the reader to choose which one makes more sense.

The relationship between being a Muslim and a feminist is another debate that can be explained in “A Qualitative Investigation of Muslim and Christian Women’s Views of

Religion and Feminism in Their Lives,” a study of feminism and Islam by Ali et al.

19 (2008). In their work, they illustrated that it is “typical for Muslim women to report that their religion supported feminism” (Ali et al., 2008, p. 43). This was affirmed by Laila, a

Muslim woman who participated in the study, who spoke about feminism in Islam and said that it is a very feminist religion. Since a large number of the participants in the study agreed that their religion is a feminist one, they found it logical to call themselves feminists.

Summary

This literature review supported the three hypotheses in this qualitative research.

Regarding the first hypothesis, many inquiries have explained the difficulties for Muslims in separating their religion from their culture. Indeed, other researchers have emphasized the possibility of separating Arab culture from Islam since the term Arab pertains to different groups; not all Arabs are considered Muslims. A Muslim is a person who practices Islam as a religion; meanwhile, the term Arab is a nationality. In fact, Arabs are the people who live in countries located in the Middle East and North Africa. As Salzman

(2007) emphasized in his article “Arab Culture and Postcolonial Theory,” Arab culture could contain Islamic aspects, but it still a culture by itself.

The second hypothesis in this study concentrated on the beginnings of Western and Islamic feminism. Western feminism started as a movement to empower women in the United States. From that moment, many scholars such as Ghobadzadeh (2010) have defined Western feminism: “Feminism, which rejects all forms of discrimination, promotes the notion that women are entitled to enjoy human dignity equally with men and to have equal opportunity to live their chosen lives” (p. 301). In short, Western feminism commences by discussing women’s rights in the United States. However,

20 today, Western feminism has changed from a movement for and by women to include male rights as well.

On the other hand, when the term feminism became a global term, many scholars defined it according to their perspective, which is influenced by their culture. Many scholars have admitted the challenges of giving one definition of Islamic feminism because of the different perspectives that are attached to the term. Islamic feminists argue that Islamic feminism began with all people having rights, and after the feminist movement, the concentration shifted from both sexes to looking at women specifically.

The third supported hypothesis centered on calling Islam a feminist religion. The

Muslim participants in the Ali et al. (2008) study emphasized their religion is a feminist one, and that it calls for the rights of all human beings. In addition, Rehan (2013) defined

Islam as “not a religion but also a complete course of life” (p. 36). By examining Rehan’s definition of Islam, one can say that Islam considers all rights in life and, therefore,

Muslims can be called feminists. According to Rehan, since Islam confers numerous rights, it can be described as “the best charter of human’s rights” (p. 37).

In summary, the literature review has supported the three hypotheses in this study.

The following chapters provide further confirmation in more detail.

21 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

The literature review deliberated the practices of feminism from three perspectives.: cultural, Islamic, feminist. The major argument in this paper explained the cause and effect relationship between Islam, Saudi Arabian culture, U.S. culture, and feminism on Muslim women’s lives.

The purpose of this chapter is to address the methodology used to answer the research questions. This section begins by addressing the various variables within the study as well as the relationship between them. Then, the concentration is shifted to the data collection and the sample of the study as well as to the analysis strategies.

There were three primary variables subdivided into branches: feminist, cultural, and Islamic perceptions. The first variable was feminism, Western and Islamic. The second one was culture, Saudi Arabian, and U.S. Finally, the last variable was Islam.

These variables have an influence on the systems of each other. Islam has influenced feminism, inducing Islamic feminism. On the other hand, both cultures are influencing the feminist practices of Muslim women.

The study was a qualitative research since the study investigated the phenomena rather than analyzing numeric data. The research design also was explanatory since it explained the cause and effect relationship between the variables and how they combined and interacted with one another. Moreover, this study was a content analysis, specifically textual analysis, since that is the best method to explain the relationship between the variables. A textual secondary analysis of research, documentaries, debates, and books

22 was conducted, with data associated with the feminist, Islamic, and cultural perspectives of women in Islam.

The data of the study were collected through social science journals and secondary scholarly research. The English language books used were What Everyone

Needs to Know About Islam” (Esposito, 2002), Women, Power and Ethnicity (Darlington

& Mulvaney, 2003), Women Claim Islam (Cooke, 2000), and Women Between Islam and

Western Society (Khan, 2011). In addition, the author translated two books from Arabic to English: The Fair Differentiation Between Men and Women in Islam (Mahmoud

Ahmed al-Dossari, 2009) and The Liberation of Women in Islam (Abdel-Hamid

Muhammed Abu Shuqa, 1999). The study also focused on interrupting the meaning of

Islamic feminism through the Holy Quran “Interpretation of the meaning of The Nobal

Quran” translated to English by Sahih International, as well as through the books

Al’Bukhari’s Sahih (Al’Bukhari, 2007), Sunan Abi dawud (Dawud, 2008), Sunan Ibn

Majah (Bin Yazeed & Al-qazwini, 2007), and Riyad as-Salihin (An-Nawawi, n.d.), which are collections of the prophet Muhammed’s – peace upon him – traditions and

Hadiths.

Moreover, the study contained several news articles and documentaries about women in Islam; for example, Women’s Rights in Islam Explained (Ismail, 2014), Islam in Women (Muslim ForEver, 2015), and Rights of Muslim Women and Their Potential

For Impact (Islam on Demand, 2013). In addition, some of the data collected were from a debate between two female scholars, Assilmi and Scroggins (tobygeral, 2011), representing Islam and women’s rights. !

23 The collected data were categorized into four groupings based on the author’s perspective on the subject matter. The first category was the focus on the influence of

Western feminism. The second category was the explanations of Islamic feminism and its existence. In the third and the fourth category, the data were divided based on the culture which is either Arab culture or U.S. culture. The sample for this study were Muslim women who live either in the United States or Saudi Arabia. The reason in choosing these two countries is each country fits under a different form of feminism and culture, while, at the same time, both countries have a significant Muslim population.

24 CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the concept of equality and justice among human beings from Islamic, cultural, and feminist perspectives. For the Islamic perspective, the study analyzed the interpretation of the Quran and the Sunnah as well as secondary research.

The holy book of Quran speaks to all human beings, male and female. Therefore, this was the starting point for this analysis to examine the feminist perspective of human beings in general through an Islamic scope.

The first part of this chapter focuses on the language of the Quran and the Sunnah, and then exemplifies women’s rights in different aspects of life, such as family and marriage, education, business, and politics. The second part of this chapter is an illustration of common misinterpretations toward Muslim women’s rights. The third section is the feminist perspective of women in Islam. Finally, the last part concentrates on the cultural viewpoints of Muslim women’s rights, focusing on Arab and U.S. culture.

Islamic Perspective of Women Rights

The Islamic perspective of feminism ideology was examined first in the analysis of the language of Quran and Sunnah.

The Differences between Equality and Justice

The analysis began by defining the ideals of feminism, which is equality throughout the Islamic perspective. Islam was revealed in the Arabic language, and the word equality (Al-mosawa) in Arabic has a different meaning than justice (Aladel).

Therefore, many Islamic scholars have defined Islam as the religion of justices that

25 considers equality concepts (Al-Dossari, 2009, p. 21). Al-Dossari (2009), a professor of

Islamic studies, discussed the definitions of justice and equality as Islam states them. He articulated that equality (Al-mosawa) means to view and evaluate everything with the same eyes and perspective. Indeed, the inequality comes when one does not view things with the same eyes. Islam is a religion of justice, which treats equals with equality and differentiate between the dispersed (Al-Dossari, 2009, p. 21). In the Quran, the word equality and its opposite occur in several situations. However, there is no comparison between male and female. For instance, in the ayah (verse) “not equal are the living and the dead” (Quran, Fatir, 22); the concept used the word equal to define that there is a difference between the dead and the living ones – they are not equal. Al-Dosari described equality as the view of both genders as one gender with no differences – sociological, biological, or even physical (p. 20).

In his book, Fair Differentiation Between Men and Women in Islam, Al-Dosari

(2009) identified the term justice (Al-Adel) from an Islamic perspective. Justice means to put women with women and men with men and then treat them as all others in the same category. There are many statements in the Quran stating the ideology of being just to everyone. For example: “Indeed, Allah orders justice and good conduct and giving to relatives” (Quran, An-nahel, 90). It is evident that God has ordered people to be just in life to each other and to themselves as well. Islam is a religion of justice that governs justly among all human beings and governs equality among a male society or a female society. Al-Dossari pointed out Islam is calling for equal justice for all God’s creatures

(p. 22). Emphasizing what Al-Dossari discussed, Rehan (2013) described Islam as the first religion in history that presents complete, whole notions of human rights. She wrote

26 that Islamic law contains rights in political, ethical, social, and logical situations as well as rights in all aspects of life.

Both Sexes Are Equal When Created

The Quran states that that all persons are created from dust. Many different ayahs in the Quran explain the creation of all human beings:

We created you from dust, then from a sperm-drop, then from a clinging clot, and

then from a lump of flesh, formed and unformed - that We may show you. And

We settle in the wombs whom We will for a specified term, then We bring you

out as a child, and then [We develop you] that you may reach your [time of]

maturity. (Al-Haj, 5)

This ayah is directed to all creatures of God. Al-Dossari (2009) said that Quran shows that there is no difference in the early stages of composition for all humans. The second example of the Quran is in Surah Al-Mu’minun:

We create individuals from an extract of clay, Then We placed him as a sperm-

drop in a firm lodging, and Then We made the sperm-drop into a clinging clot,

and We made the clot into a lump [of flesh], and We made [from] the lump,

bones, and We covered the bones with flesh; then We developed him into another

creation. So blessed is Allah, the best of creators. (Al-Mu’minun, 12-14)

Al-Dosari (2009) utilized this ayah as an example to indicate that there are no differences between the sexes in the origin of their creation (p. 75). In addition, the prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – emphasized this in his Sunnah when he said:

“Women are the twin halves of men” (Ibn Dawud, Book 1: Hadith 236 ). Women and men in Islam are considered human beings who have been created in an equal matter.

27 Worship, Dignity, and Honor

Since God has created people from the same dust, he requires the same amount of worship, dignity, and honor. The Quran states that all of God creatures gain the same honor and dignity in life whether they are females of males; the ayah says: “We have certainly honored the children of Adam and carried them on the land and sea and provided for them of the good things and preferred them over much of what We have created” (Al-Isra, 70). In this ayah, God speaks about all of Adam’s children regarding his honoring them. He does not honor only male and not female, but, instead, he mentions both male and female as Adam’s children. This ayah states the establishment of an integrated human society. Islam admires people more than any others in creatures on earth. The relationship in the previous verse occurs among children of Adam – women and men – and the trees, animals, earth, sea, etc. In addition, the Quran states both sexes will have the same reward from God:

The Muslim men and Muslim women, the believing men and believing women,

the obedient men and obedient women, the truthful men and truthful women, the

patient men and patient women, the humble men and humble women, the

charitable men and charitable women, the fasting men and fasting women, the

men who guard their private parts and the women who do so, and the men who

remember Allah often and the women who do so - for them Allah has prepared

forgiveness and a great reward. (Al-Ahzab, 35)

This ayah shows that both genders are required to have the same behavior and attitude in life. In addition, it confirms that all men and women who behave the same will have the same forgiveness from God and be rewarded equally. The language in the Quran

28 always speaks to men and women in an identical way. If one examines the language of the Quran in order to find inequality between sexes, Islamic scholars have illustrated that there is nothing in Islam stating men and women are unequal in their responsibility or their creation as well as their final rewards from God (Al-Dossari, 2009, p. 30).

Islam recognizes the psychological, biological, and physical differences between sexes; however, acknowledging those differences does not mean that they are unequal in life, according to Al-Dossari (2009) and Assilmi (tobygeral, 2011, November 11).

Examples showing that Islam does consider those differences are that, while both sexes are required to worship God, have the same amount of responsibilities, get the same punishment for crimes, and have the same chance to get to heaven, women can take a break from their responsibilities during their . God, who created them, knows that their bodies are experiencing physiological and psychological changes.

Therefore, he relieves them from the responsibility to worship. Women during their menstruation do not have to pray or even fast. Al-Dosari (2009) gave an illustration to understand how Islam considers the natural differences between everything in the earth; he said that if a fish flies it will die and if a bird swims it will die because of the challenge to their physical qualities (p. 30). Islam considers each human creature and gives each human her/his rights. Assilmi (tyobgeral, 2011), in a debate about the roles and the status of women in Islam, stated that if people followed Islam regarding women’s rights, the feminist movement would not be necessary.

In Islam, from day one, women earn their rights in all aspects of life, more than what the feminist movement advocates (Al-Fawzan, 2015, para. 2). The literature review illustrated that the first feminist movement concentrated on giving women the right to

29 vote. The second movement was meant to give women the same opportunities in the workplace. The third wave discussed women’s rights within the social structure. The feminist movement in the United States strived to give women their rights in voting, in the workplace, and within cultural structures. In Islam, the right to live, the right to own property, rights in marriage, the right to seek an education, the right to work, the right to speak and participate in public, and, finally, the right to participate in politics were introduced more than 1,400 years ago (Rehan, 2013).

The Right to Live

Islam was first to give women the right to live. Before Islam, people were extremely dejected about the birth of a , which reflected the status of women in pre-

Islamic time. Female infanticide was highly prevalent among people. Indeed, if a man was expecting a child, he despaired until he was told it was a boy. Then he became joyous and jubilant about his child’s sex. In contract, if the child born was a girl, he would bury her alive because were connected to shame (Al-Dossari, 2009, p. 69).

Before Islam, women throughout history were viewed as someone without dignity, someone who could be sold, someone to bring joy to men. In Islam, female infanticide is prohibited. The Quran states:

When one of them is informed of [the birth of] a female, his face becomes dark,

and he suppresses grief, He hides himself from the people because of the ill of

which he has been informed. Should he keep it in humiliation or bury it in the

ground? Unquestionably, evil is what they decide. (Al-Nahl, 58-59)

Islam describes these actions as evil ones. It also empowers those girls who were buried alive to judge their parents on the day of Judgment by asking their parents what

30 gave them the right to kill them: “When the girl [who was] buried alive is asked, For what sin she was killed” (Al-Takwir, 8-9). Indeed, the prophet Muhammed – peace be upon him – stressed the rewards of raising girls when he said: “Whoever supports two girls till they attain maturity, he and I will come on the like this.”

Then he joined his fingers to illustrate this coming together. (Al-Nawawi, Book 1: Hadith

267).

Islam stresses the importance of women and how much women can be the reason one gets to heaven or the reason how one is judged by God on the Day of Judgment. In short, Islam teaches people to recognize a woman’s rights to live and to feel the pleasure of having a daughter, because raising daughters from an Islamic perspective is considered a key to heaven. As prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – stated: “He who is involved in bringing up daughters, and he is benevolent towards them, they would become protection for him against Hell-fire” (Al-Nawawi, Book 1: Hadith 268).

The Right to Be Educated

Islam does not stop with honoring the birth of a girl, but also continues to address such women’s rights as the right to seek knowledge and be an educated woman. The first word in the Quran is “READ- !"#$.” It is encouraging all people to learn how to read. The prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – said, “Allah makes the way to easy for her/his who treads the path in search of knowledge” (Al-Nawawi, Book 13: Hadith

1381). This hadith shows that all Muslim men or women are required to seek knowledge.

As the prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – revealed “Seeking knowledge if a duty upon every Muslim” (Ibn Majah, Book 1: Hadith 224). Another fact that demonstrates that Islam is calling for education and knowledge and that it is not limited to one gender

31 is that women in the prophet’s time were teachers. Aishah, the Prophet’s , was a teacher to well-known men and friends of the Prophet. They came to her asking for more information about their religion. Additionally, Islamic history has marked Aishah as the most intelligent woman; she reported about 2,210 traditions of the prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – along with an explanation for each tradition. She was well known for her ability to memorize (Khan, 2011, p. 160).

Khan (2011), in her book Women Between Islam and Western Society, gave various examples of Muslim women’s role in spreading knowledge. She stated that the academic activities of women during the first era of Islam mostly were related to Sunnah

“Hadith” and explaining the religion to others. For example, Khan illustrated the story of two of the famous Islamic scholars. The first one is Bukhari, who wrote the “most authentic source of Hadith learning” (Khan, 2011, p. 155), was educated by his and his sister. Another example is the education of the famous Islamic scholar, Imam ibn

Jauzi, who received his education from his aunt (Khan, 2011, p.156). These examples show the importance of having a woman in the family.

The Rights in Marriage and Family

The family has a deep meaning in Islam. Both parents are required to look out for their family in every accessible way (Abu Shuqa, 1999, p. 128). Family in Islam is a social unit that needs an organizer or supervisor, as described by Khan (2011, p. 175).

Assilmi (tobygeral, 2011, November 11) stated that the family in Islam is a traditional one. Therefore, parents may choose a spouse for either the son or the daughter because, since the parents raised their child, they are the best ones to know who is the best person to with their daughter and treat her well. However, Islam does not say parents can force

32 their daughter to marry whomever they chose; instead, both parties must agree to the marriage. The prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – said, “A matron should not be given in marriage except after consulting her” (Al’Bukhari, Book 67: Hadith 72). In

Islam, Muslim women have the right to agree to a marriage.

Marriage in Islam is a “firm contract” as described in the Quran as the “spelling out of the rights and responsibilities which bind a man and a woman together in a vital partnership” (Khan, 2011, p. 141). Prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – said:

“Beware, your women have rights over you, and you have rights over your women” (Ibn

Majah, Book 9: Hadith 1851). Each partner in a marriage has rights.

Women have rights even in the type of treatment they should get from their husband, who is supposed to treat his wife well, with respect and dignity, and to take care of her financially, according to Assilmi (tobygeral, 2011, November 11). Those rights came from Islam and Shari’ah law. The Quran states “Live with them on a footing of kindness and equity” (Al- Nisa, 19).

In addition, women get the honor of being a mother. Islam considers the pain and the safety that women get while they are pregnant and admires the heavy responsibilities of raising a child. As a result, receive more honors than men regarding this particular concern. According to Abu Hurayrah, a Hadith reporter, a man once came to prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – and asked of him:

‘Who among people is the most deserving of my fine treatment?’

‘Your mother.’ replied the Prophet.

‘Who is next?’ asked the man.

‘Your mother.’ said the Prophet.

33 ‘Who comes next?’ the man asked again.

‘Your mother,’ replied again the Prophet.

‘Who is after that?’ insisted the man.

‘Your father,’ said the prophet. (Al-Nawawee, Book 1: Hadith 316)

Women, as mothers, are the most honorable human beings in Islam (Khan, 2011).

Islam does not forget the essence of women is to build a perfect society, which gives her full respect by her husband, her kids, her parents, and her society. Everyone in a Muslim woman’s life is responsible for her rights.

The Right to Work

Muslim women have played remarkable roles, not just in raising their children and building the community, but also in the field of business. The prophet Muhammed’s

– peace upon him – wife Khadijah was a business woman, and the Prophet himself helped her to grow her business. Muslim women have worked in different fields: agriculture, grazing, education, nursing, and medicine. For example, the first nurse in

Islam was Rufaida Al-Aslamia. Prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – built her a tent so that patients could come to her. Also, the prophet himself used to visit and ask the patients about their conditions (Abu Shuqa, 1999, p. 172). While women have the right to be in business in diverse fields and are capable of doing the work, the question remains:

Do Muslim women get paid the same amount as men?

In Islam, nowhere is it said that women and men should not have equal pay; instead, all workers should get paid as soon as they finish their work. Prophet

Muhammed – peace upon him – said, “Pay the worker his/her wage before his/her sweat dries” (Ibn Majah, Book 16, Hadith 2443). No specific sex is included in this statement.

34 The right for women to participate in a public gathering and to give an opinion is considered in Islam as well (Khan, 2011). Several instances in Islam illustrate the freedom of expression for women. Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Caliph, was known as a strong character to face and challenge. However, in a gathering where Umar stated an issue that happened in the society that time, a woman stood up and asked Umar: “O chief of Faithful, is the Book of God ‘the Qur’an’ to be followed or what you have to say?” Umar replied it is the Quran that is followed. Then the woman explained what the

Quran says regarding the issue. Finally, Umar said, “A woman got it right yet Umar got it wrong.” Umar recognized the woman’s knowledge, took her public statement into consideration, and corrected himself in front of a group of men and women, illustrating how a Muslim woman’s voice was heard publicly. Muslin women have the right to discuss community issues and to state their opinions as well (Khan, 2011, p. 143).

The Right to Participate Publicly and Politically

Not only do Muslim women participate in public but they also engage in political matters. The Quran and prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – clearly explained the circumstances of voting (bai’ah is the election of a leader). There are two different meanings of the word voting in the Arabic language. It is either to make promises or to vote for someone to lead a group of people. In Islam, both meanings arise in different situations (Abu Shuqa, 1999, p. 88). The pledging meaning appears in the Quran: “O

Prophet, when the believing women come to you pledging to you … then accept their pledge and ask forgiveness for them from Allah. Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and

Merciful” (Al-Mumtahanah, 12) This ayah states that women made promises to prophet

35 Muhammed– peace upon him; he had to listen to them and to accept them by order from

God.

In addition, the voting meaning was applied in a situation when prophet

Muhammed – peace upon him – asked his people to vote for him to lead the group. Two women voted for him: Asma Amro and Nasiba Kab Al Ansari. In the 600s, these women were the first women to vote in the world (Abu Shuqa, 1999, p. 89).

Another example showing that women were included in politics was the first

Muslim woman minister in the world. Her name was Al-Shifa Abdullah bin Udai

Almkzumia and during al-Khattab’s succession, Umar, the Caliph, appointed her as the minister of the market; her job was to handle the calculation system on the market. The system that control the market. Many examples like Al-Shifa are mentioned in the Quran, including the Queen of Sheba. An entire page in the Quran describes her intellect in leading her folk (Abu Sheqa, 1999, p. 104).

The Right to Own Property

Muslim women rights are not restricted to education, work, marriage, business, and politics; they also have the right to own property, including full rights to buy and sell.

Even if a Muslim woman is married, her husband does not have the right to ask her for any financial assistance; instead, he is required to support her 100% even if she is wealthy. In addition, he does not have any right to ask her about her financial gain from her properties or what she has purchased. In addition, Shari’ah law emphasizes that both genders in Islam have the right to own property. The Quran says, “For men is a share of what they have earned, and for women is a share of what they have earned" (Al-Nisa,

32).

36 Islam considers the biological differences between men and women, but at the same time treats both sexes in an equal way. Khan (2011) said, “Man and woman in the eyes of Islam are not the duplicates of one another, but the complement (p. 141). Both sexes share in the responsibility and complement each other in keeping society growing; in raising their children; in spreading happiness in their house; in seeking knowledge; and in participating legally, politically, economically, and socially in society.

Islam, as described by Rehan (2013), is complete way of life. It is the best system that gives both genders their fair rights, with justice for all. Rehan emphasized that Islam

“confers numerous of rights in mankind in religious, moral, legal, economic, social and political fields of life” (p. 37). She also insisted that Islamic rights are different than any other rights granted by a king or by parliaments. Islamic rights are “permanent, sacrosanct, and inviolable” (Rehan, 2013, p. 38). In fact, Muslim women have had their rights from day one of Islam and will continue to have their rights forever (Rehan, 2013).

U.S. Feminists’ Misinterpretations of Women’s Stature in Islam

The misinterpretations by feminists in the United States begs the question of whether Islamic feminism exists. These feminists have argued that Islam requires men to be women’s superiors. Also, the issue of polygamy is another point that has confused feminists in the United States. In addition, these feminists have questioned the way

Muslim women dress and view the () as oppression against women (tobygeral,

2011). This study took all of three arguments in consideration and examined them from an Islamic perspective.

The first argument, that in Islam men are women’s superiors, comes from an ayah in the Quran:

37 Men are in charge of women by [right of] what Allah has given one over the other

and what they spend [for maintenance] from their wealth. So righteous women are

devoutly obedient, guarding in [the husband’s] absence what Allah would have

them guard. But those [] from whom you fear arrogance - [first] advise

them; [then if they persist], forsake them in bed; and [finally], strike them. But if

they obey you [once more], seek no means against them. Indeed, Allah is ever

Exalted and Grand. (Al-Nisa, 34)

Feminists in the United States have made a case about two points in this ayah.

The initial one is the idea of men are masters of women. In the Arabic language, this ayah contains the word “Qawwam,” which translated into English means “maintainer.”

“Qw’im” in Arabic is the description of anyone “who is responsible for or take care of a thing or a person” (Khan, 2011, p. 31). God has described men as “Qawwamon” because, by Shari’ah law, men are 100% financially responsible for their family. A man is in charge of his wife and his children’s needs. Assilmi (Islam on Demand, 2011) explained the word “Qawwam” by saying that men man have financial responsibility for the women, whereas women do not have any financial liability for men. Taken in the context of the word maintainer, this explains the description of men in Islam.

The second point of contention in this ayah for feminists in the United States is the idea to “strike” the wives. From a Westerner’s point of view, it is an illustration of discrimination against Muslim women. Assilmi (Islam on Demand, 2011) stated that this ayah came to limit what men can do to women. Before this ayah, a number of men used to beat their wives to death, and there were no consequences as a result of these actions.

38 From an Islamic perspective, this ayah outlines steps to deal with women who create difficulty in the lives of their children and their husband. The ayah advises men who deal with this type of women first to advise them: to tell the wife that this life is short, there is no need to be arguing about things that are temporary, and everyone fights in this life. In other words, conflicts between husband and wife exist in every marriage, so it is important to deal with them together.

Assilmi (Islam on Demand, 2011) said that after step one if the woman does not listen and change her attitude, the second step is to “forsake them in bed.” For example, if the man usually sleeps facing his wife, he could sleep with his back to her to show he is irritated. If one examines other relationships, one finds this is a natural way for couples to express their irritation with each other.

If a woman does not change after step two, then step three follows, which is to

“strike them.” However, the Sunnah provides a more detailed explanation of this step.

The meaning in this case is not harming the woman and beating her until her teeth are broken, or distorting her face, or breaking her bones, or causing her to be disabled.

Prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – explained that if a man reaches stage three with his wife, he should use a “Siwak,” a thinner, lighter toothbrush, and not strike her on any place on her body that would leave a mark; however, it is better not to reach this stage.

Indeed, prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – did not raise his hand to any woman or any child. In fact, a man came to the prophet and asked him how should we approach our wives and how should we leave them? The prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – replied: “Approach your tilth when or how you will, give her (your wife) food when you take food, clothe when you clothe yourself, do not revile her face, and do not beat her”.

39 (Abi Dawud, Book 11, Hadith 2138). In addition, the Prophet emphasized the no beating idea in another hadith when he ordered men to “Give them food what you have for yourself, and clothe them by which you clothe yourself, and do not beat them, and do not revile them”!(Abi Dawud, Book 12: Hadith 99). This ayah has been interpreted incorrectly, not only by Westerners but also by some Muslims males as well.

The idea of polygamy is another major cause of consternation to Western feminists (Mashhour, 2005). Polygamy, as stated in the Quran, comes from the verse:

And if you fear that you will not deal justly with the orphan girls, then marry

those that please you of [other] women, two or three or four. But if you fear that

you will not be just, then [marry only] one or those your right hand possesses.

That is more suitable that you may not incline [to injustice]. (Al-Nisa, 3)

This verse was revealed to the prophet Muhammed – peace upon him – for two reasons. The first one was to prohibit marriage to an unlimited numbers of wives as pre-

Islamic society used to do. As a result, the number of wives was limited to a maximum of four (Mashhour, 2005, p. 568). The verse also was revealed to solve the social problem that happened during the battle of Uhud, where there was “a large number of male

Muslim casualties, thus increasing the number of widows and orphans” (Mashhour, 2005, p. 569) whose protection was required by Islam. As a result, this verse was a solution; it was meant to “protect the widows and children of the martyrs” (Mashhour, 2005, p. 569).

Khan (2011) emphasized that polygamy “was designed as a practical strategy to solve a particular problem” (p. 191).

Islam does allow polygamy, but only with some conditions and in particular circumstances (Khan, 2011, p.191). The husband is responsible for supporting his wives

40 and the children for each wife financially (Islam on Demand, 2011). Also, the husband must treat his wives equally and with justice; therefore, if he is afraid that he would not be able to do so, he may prefer to marry only one. Prophet Muhammed – peace upon him

– stated: “When a man has two wives and he is inclined to one of them, he will come on the Day of resurrection with a side hanging down” (Abi Dawud, Book 11, Hadith 2128).

This hadith demonstrates the consequences of injustices and inequality between wives.

Polygamy in Islam is for those men who can give “fair treatment to more than one wife”

(Khan, 2011, p. 192). In addition, women can agree whether to enter into a polygamous relationship; they cannot be forced and should take their full rights as the first wife

(Khan, 2011, p. 188).

The third issue that feminists in the United States take issue with, and the most common one, is the veil in Islam. How Muslim women dress from a Western feminist perspective is a “is a symbol of that ‘threat’” (Chakraborti & Zempi, 2012, p. 270). It is also “signifies a dehumanization of women” (Chakraborti & Zempi, 2012, p. 275).

Feminists in the United States argue that Muslim women should not cover their head; they should be equal to men who, in Islam, are not required to cover their head

(Chakraborti & Zempi, 2012). However, from an Islamic perspective, Muslim women view it as an illustration of Muslim women rights within Islam. “Islam accords equal rights to men and women by offering them the choice for autonomous decision-making”.

(Chakraborti & Zempi, 2012, p. 275). It is their rights to wear what present their identities, and their gender differences. It is a “God ordained solution to the apparent disparities in men’s and women’s sexual appetites” (Read & Bartkowski, 2000, p. 399).

41 In the Quran, the two verses that explain the veil and why women need it are:

And tell the believing women to reduce [some] of their vision and guard their

private parts and not expose their adornment except that which [necessarily]

appears thereof and to wrap [a portion of] their headcovers over their chests and

not expose their adornment except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands'

fathers, their sons, their husbands’ sons, ...). (Al-Nur, 24:31)

O Prophet, tell your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers to

bring down over themselves [part] of their outer garments. That is more suitable

that they will be known and not be abused. And ever is Allah Forgiving and

Merciful. (Al-Ahzab, 33:59)

These two verses advise women to cover their attractive parts to avoid sexual harassment and to protect their feelings. Wearing the veil is seen as a protection to families in Islam; if a man has a sexual relationship with a woman and the woman gets pregnant, it would be difficult for the woman. Therefore, Muslim women are “deemed responsible for the management of men’s sexuality” (Read & Bartkowski, 2000, p. 399).

In short, the veil is a protection for women from sexual contact as well as a way to identify a woman as a Muslim. In addition, it is a symbol to show that the woman who wears the veil is a woman with enormous strengths; she will not lie; she will not cheat; she will be the best employee, the best adviser, the best consular, the best friend, and the best mother. In short, the veil is a symbol of a Muslim’s characteristics, according to

Assilmi (Islam On Demand, 2013). The right to wear the veil is not the only right for women in Islam; they also have rights in marriage, the right to work, the right to be educated, and the right to participate in politics and the public sphere (Chakraborti &

42 Zempi, 2012). However, cultural practices have impeded the practices of Muslim women rights (Ali et al., 2008).

Cultural Perspective of Muslim Women Rights

in the United States and Saudi Arabia

Assilmi (tobygeral, 2011, November 11), in the debate about the role of women in

Islam stated: “We have a lot of cultural ideas that have polluted our practice of Islam.”.

Then she added that the problem with Muslims is that they have placed their culture over the Quran and Sunnah. Many scholars have emphasized that Islamic feminism does exist within Islam, but people need to reread and relearn their religion (Badran, 2009). In a cultural study by Ali et al. (2008), Muslim participants emphasized that their religion,

Islam, has an enormous influence on their culture and that “culture tends to skew religion’s view of women and women’s role” (p. 43). Khadija, a Muslim participant in the study, posited that many Muslims relate their behavior and beliefs to Islam, but, in reality, their actions are because of Arab culture. In addition, another participant,

Maleeha, stated that Arab culture gives a little freedom but their religion, Islam, gives women the freedom in many places (Ali et al., 2008).

After using three different ways to get women their rights, society in the United

States still is challenging the inequalities between men and females in many positions, starting in the workplace: “an average woman employed in a full-time job earned third of the salary paid to a man with a similar job” (Khan, 2011, p. 65). On the other hand, Al-

Fawzan (2015) illustrated that in Saudi Arabia women’s and men’s wages are equal. Not only that, but women are guaranteed their salary and their job when they are pregnant, as it is their right in Islam. There are no differences in payment to a worker, whether a

43 woman or a man. Wages are one example showing Muslim women’s rights can be affected by culture. Muslim women who live in the United States get paid less than men; on the other hand, women who live in Saudi Arabia are paid equally.

There are, however, some Islamic rights that are influenced by cultural practices in Saudi Arabia; for example, the issue of women driving. After reading the Quran and examining the Sunnah, there is no statement prohibiting women from driving, nor is it found in Shar’ah law. However, the Saudi Arabian culture does prohibit women from driving. This practice is driven by the notion that Muslim males are responsible for their wife, their daughters, or any relative girl (Al-Fawzan, 2015).

In term of the influence of culture on feminism, both cultures in the United States and in Saudi Arabia have some cultural influences on women rights. But the question is:

Does feminism affect both cultures?

Women in the United States claim to have their full rights as a result of the feminist movement (Khan, 2011). Khan (2011) explained the consequences of those movements, stating that the feminist movement wants to have absolute equality between men and women, forgetting that there is a natural difference between the two sexes.

Feminists explain that the equal status of women is to bring them out of their home and stand face to face with men (p. 48). Those full equalities between men and females have negative consequences in US culture (p. 48).

Khan (2011) explained the consequences of the feminist movements. In the

United States, the meaning of family has changed, and the number of divorces has increased. Another effect is that the relationship between parents and their children does not have the same value; each year “about 300 children kill either their father or mother”

44 (Khan, 2011, p. 54). Research by Khan suggests that there is a positive correlation between parental negligence and rising violent behavior in children (Khan, 2011).

The consequences of the feminist movement in Saudi Arabia are both negative and positive. On the negative side, some Muslims have adapted feminist ideologies and neglected the religious and cultural principles for which they stand. One positive effect is that because of the feminist movement, many Muslims have become aware of their religious and cultural principles (Al-Fawzan, 2015). Ahmed (2015) explained that the effect of the feminist movement on Muslims can be illustrated by increased Muslim awareness that men and women have equal rights, which has them “re-reading the Quran, re-examining the religious texts and telling people to practice it” (p. 2).

In short, there is an influential relationship between culture and feminism. Culture has a large impact on feminism in both cultures. On the other hand, the feminist movement has influenced the cultural perspective of women’s status in both countries.

The Relationship between Islamic and U.S. Feminism

There is a substantial relationship between Islamic feminists and feminists in the

United States. Ahmed (2015) stated that Western feminism resulted in Islamic feminism.

Although Islamic feminism is a branch of Western feminism, Islamic feminism draws on

Quranic concepts (Ahmed, 2015). Ahmed explained how this relationship exists from a cultural point of view, saying that feminism in Arab culture began when the Arab culture was influenced by U.S. culture.

Culture is a fluid concept that can be changed and learned from generations.

However, Islam is not changeable. In fact, it is “not just a religion but also a complete course of life” (Rehan, 2013, p. 37), and human rights in Islam are bestowed by the

45 Creator of all human beings. It is “permanent, sacrosanct and inviolable” (Rehan, 2013, p. 38). Unlike Islamic feminism, in feminism in the United States, rights for women came from another human, which means they are changeable and can be temporary.

Another significant distinction between Islamic feminism and feminism in the

United States is that Islamic feminism is grounded on Islamic concepts. Ahmed (2015) stated that “Islamic feminism is speaking for justice to women as Islam stands for” (p. 2).

While both types of feminism share the idea of giving women their rights, after examining Muslim women’s rights in Islam and feminist rights in the United States,

Islam has given women their rights in all aspects of life: in a private and a public sphere as well as politically, educationally, economically, and socially.

Islamic feminism has taken women rights from Quranic concepts, and the Quran speaks of the rights of all human beings. Salzman (2007), a professor of anthropology at

McGill University, in his article “Arab Culture and Postcolonial Theory” stated that

Islam gave not only women but also men their rights long before the Universal

Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.

The final difference is the beginning steps of both . Islamic feminism comes from Quran, and the Quran states all genders have rights. Consequently, Islamic feminists takes the focus from all human beings to women in particular. On the other hand, feminism in the United States began as a movement for women and by women.

Both Islamic feminism and feminism in the United States contribute toward addressing women’s rights. However, they differ in several areas, such as their stability and justice, their beginnings, and, finally, their origins.

46 CHAPTER 5. LIMITATIONS

The study was meant to add additional information about the relationship between feminism and Islam by examining U.S. feminist ideologies throughout Islamic primary sources. This study fits into the literature review under the examination of he relationship of Islam with feminist philosophies.

Although the study achieved its goal, there were some limitations with the findings. The method of collecting the data was the first restriction because it did not include interviews or surveys, but relied on the secondary analysis of documents that already had been established on the subject. In addition, the data were limited to one perspective, which is the U.S. feminist perspective. Also, many feminist scholars do not take into account the consequence of language differences. In the Arabic language there are some words that do not have the same meaning when translated to English. For example, the words equality and justice have different interpretations from an Islamic perspective and within Islamic sources. However, from a U.S. feminist perspective, those two words lead to a similar meaning, which is giving people equality. In fact, in defining and applying Islamic feminism, scholars must “do Qur'anic interpretation and closely read other Islamic religious texts” (Badran, 2009, p. 245) Those texts were originally written in Arabic; therefore, understanding the language is essential (Badran,

2009).

Another point is that the significant difference between both cultures is not illustrated sufficiently by many U.S. feminist writers. It seems that U.S. culture is

47 concentrated on the idea that it is better than any other cultures (Zaharna, 1995).

However, when discussing a term like Islamic feminism and how its application in Arab culture, writers must recognize that Arab culture is vastly different than U.S. culture.

This does not mean that Arab culture is wrong or right, but that it is a different culture for different people with completely different views.

Another point to be taken into consideration is the idea of generalization. When taking about Arab culture, it encompasses a broad spectrum of culture, and there are many countries that share that culture. These countries include Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain,

United Arab Emirates, Iraq, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon,

Palestine, Egypt, Sudan, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Mauritania. Each country, however, also has its own distinct culture, which explains the conflict in defining Islamic feminism. Therefore when referring to Arab culture, one needs to specify a particular culture; for example, Saudi Arabian culture.

In short, the language differences and the cultural variations should be considered more describing a term such as Islamic feminism, which exists within specific culture.

48 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION

Nowadays, Muslim women’s rights in Islam are in the media spotlight. However, many misconceptions exist when talking about Islam, especially the stature of women in

Islam. The ideologies of the third feminist movement in the United States have become a global concern. Many scholars have adapted the term feminism and applied it in their culture and in their system. Islamic feminism has received the most attention by scholars because it presents an opposite picture than what U.S. feminists tend to believe about

Muslim women’s rights.

From an Islamic perspective, Muslim women have had their rights from day one of Islam, more than 1,400 years ago. The relationship between feminism and Islam is not an incomprehensible idea. Islam has “highlighted the role of gender in understanding the organization of society” (Cooke, 2000, p. ix) as feminism in the United States has done.

By doing an analysis of Islamic primary sources – the Quran and Sunnah, it became evident that women in Islam have rights socially, politically, economically, educationally, and more. In order to call someone a feminist, he/she should be speaking and acting toward giving people their rights to live an equal life. Islam is a course of life; it emphasizes what rights everyone should have in all life aspects. Consequently, Islam is a feminist religion and Muslims who follow the Quran and Sunnah are feminists.

However, cultures have impeded this feminist religion. Even though Saudi Arabia is the country that follows the religion, culture still steps in the way of religion.

49 It is interesting to point to the law in both countries - Saudi Arabia and United

States. In Saudi Arabia, the law is Sahri’ah law and there is less discussion on women’s rights. On the other hand, in the U.S. the law is the Constitution and women rights are the most discussed topic. Do the origins of those laws affect feminism and its practices?

There are several arguments regarding definitions of Islamic feminism and its existence. The first focuses on how Muslim scholars define Islamic feminism. The influence of culture plays an enormous role in accepting the idea of feminism. The issue appears to be that Islam calls for feminism, yet the Islamic culture impedes Islamic feminism. In addition, Muslims find it challenging to separate their religion from their culture, although doing so is possible.

Another way to understand Islamic feminism is in the origin of both types of feminism. Islamic feminism takes its ideologies from the Quran and the Sunnah, which grants all individuals rights. However, the feminist movement in the United States, which started as a movement by women to empower women, has influenced Islamic feminism in focusing on women’s rights in Islam.

The study explained how Islam can be a feminist religion and how culture can impede Islam feminism. In spite of this, feminists in the United States still argue that

Islam is an oppressed religion; therefore, Islamic feminism is an ambiguous term. Their arguments are built on three major misinterpretations of Islamic principles: the

Qwamma, polygamy, and the veil. This study gave an explanation of those misunderstandings from an Islamic perspective.

Moreover, the study suggests new research directions to study this issue further.

The first one is the idea of colonialism. The question is: Does colonialism in Arab

50 countries have an influence in defining and practicing feminism? Another direction to take this study further is the idea of generalization and the media coverage of women’s rights within Islamic countries. Not all Arabs can be considered Muslims, and not all

Muslims are Arabs (Salzman, 2007). Media coverage usually connects any behavior done by any Muslim as behavior done by all Arabs. The question is: Has media coverage led to the misinterpretation of feminism by both culture?

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