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Journal of 104 (2015) 199e210

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Minimizing the increasing solid through strategy

* Qingbin Song, Jinhui , Xianlai

State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, 100084, China article info abstract

Article history: Increasing , booming economy, rapid and the rise in community living standards Received 19 January 2014 have significantly accelerated the solid waste generation in the world. Solid waste has become one of the Received in revised form global . Continuous depletion of natural finite is leading the globe to an 13 June 2014 uncertain future. To prevent further depletion of global resources, and a stra- Accepted 11 August 2014 tegic system would be required. One approach that has been suggested as a means of Available online 21 August 2014 addressing these concerns is that of the concepts of “Zero Waste”. However, transforming currently over- consuming activities into zero waste is still challenging. In this study, the challenges of solid waste Keywords: Solid waste (focusing on e-waste, food waste and ), zero waste practices, and zero Zero waste practices waste strategy were discussed to analyze the challenges and opportunities to transform traditional waste Waste management management toward zero waste vision. “Zero Waste” is a good solution to minimizing the increasing Zero waste strategy solid waste. However, in order to minimize the solid waste, there are still more endeavors need to be Challenges and opportunities done in future. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction This large amount of waste has also created a huge for the authority to manage waste in a more sustainable manner Increasing population, booming economy, rapid urbanization (Shekdar, 2009; and , 2010). Solid waste management and the rise in community living standards have greatly accelerated becomes necessary and relevant when the structure of the society the solid waste generation in the world, especially in developing changes from agricultural with low-density and widespread pop- countries (Minghua et al., 2009; Guerrero et al., 2013). Solid waste ulation to urban, high-density population. Furthermore, industri- has become one of the global environmental issues (Seng et al., alization has introduced a large number of products which 2010; Sharholy et al., 2007). Waste is the symbol of inefficiency of cannot, or can only very slowly, decompose or digest. Hence, certain any modern society and a representation of misallocated resources. industrial products contain substances which, due to low degrad- The global solid waste volume is estimated about 11 billion tons per ability or even toxic characteristics, may build up in nature to levels year (using 2.5ton trucks can turn 300 circles around the equator) representing a threat to humanity's future use of the natural re- in 2011, and per capita solid waste generation is approximately 1.74 sources e that is, drinking water, agricultural , air and so on tons/year in the world. On the other hand, along with the large solid (Desmond, 2006; Menikpura et al., 2012; Troschinetz and Mihelcic, waste generation, an enormous amount of natural resources are 2009). Waste management systems have not received as much depleted everyday due to the high demand for new product de- attention in the planning process as other sectors like water or mand (Menikpura et al., 2013; Plaganyi et al., 2013). Globally, 120- . Therefore, many gaps of waste management can be 130 billion tons of natural resources are consumed every year and observed in current planning. Global and its various produce around 3.4 to 4 billion tons of effects on human life drive current society toward more sustain- (Giljum et al., 2008; Chalmin and Gaillochet, 2009). Creation of any ability. Depletion of finite global resources also forces us to consider waste depletes natural resources, uses energy and water, places and product . One person's trash, the saying pressure on land, pollutes the environment and, finally, creates an goes, is another person's treasure (Johnson et al., 2009; Boudreau additional economic cost for managing the waste. et al., 2008). In recent years, one approach that has been sug- gested as a means of addressing these concerns is that of the con- cepts of “Zero Waste” (Bartl, 2011; Phillips et al., 2011). Zero waste is a philosophy that encourages the redesign of resource's life cycles so

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ86 (0)1062794143; fax: þ86 (0)1062772048. that all products are recycledhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reused E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Li). (Zaman, 2014; Zaman and Lehmann, 2011; Young et al., 2010). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.08.027 0959-6526/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 200 Q. Song et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 104 (2015) 199e210

No trash is sent to landfills and incinerators. The process recom- 2. The challenge of solid waste mended is one similar to the way that resources are reused in nature. 2.1. Industrial waste The term “zero waste” was first used by Dr. Paul Palmer in 1973 for recovering resources from chemicals (Palmer, 2004). In a zero 2.1.1. Industrial waste generation waste system, material flow is circular, which means the same Industrial waste is generated by industrial activity, such as that materials are used again and again until the optimum level of of factories, mills and mines. It is still often a significant portion of consumption. No materials are wasted or underused in circular solid waste. In 2011, the global generation was about 9.2 billion tons system (Murphy and Pincetl, 2013; Mason et al., 2003; Colon and (including ) (See Table 1), and per capita in- Fawcett, 2006). Therefore, at the end of their lives products are dustrial waste is approximately 1.74 tons/year in the world. As reused, repaired, sold or redistributed within the system. If or shown in Table 1, more than 50% was generated in and the repairs are not possible, they can be recycled or recovered from the Pacific, especially in China (3.2 billion tons in 2011) (Frost and waste stream and used as inputs, substituting the demand for the Sullivan, 2012; et al., 2010). extraction of natural resources. Fig. 1 shows the symbolic material As is indicated in Fig. 2, industrial waste in developing countries flow of a circular waste system, where the end-of-life product or (such as China) has a fast increasing trend in the foreseeable future, output waste are treated as resources and used as inputs in the while for the developed countries, industrial waste generation is metabolism process (Curran and Williams, 2012; Matete and Trois, tending to stability or will decrease slowly (such as in Spain) (NBSC, 2008). Zero waste represents a shift from the traditional industrial 2013; Frost and Sullivan, 2012). In addition, comparing with the model in which are considered the norm, to integrated developed countries (more than 90% collection rate), many devel- systems in which everything has its use. It advocates an industrial oping countries remain at lower collection and rate transformation, whereby minimize the load they (China 67% in 2010; India less than 50% in 2010). Thus, the devel- impose on the natural resource and learn to do more with what the oping countries are facing with more challenges from industrial Earth produces. From Fig.1, it can also be known that the zero waste waste. concept include the “3R rule”d“Reduce, Reuse, Recycling”, which have been considered to be a base of environmental awareness and a way of promoting ecological balance through conscious behavior 2.1.2. Environmental concerns and choices. It is generally accepted that these patterns of behavior Regarding the industrial waste (especially for ), and consumer choices will to savings in materials and energy and transboundary movement commonly attracts which will benefit the environment. more attention due to their potential threats on environment and The concepts of ‘Zero Waste’ have been implemented in a human . number of countries (e.g. South , New Zealand, China, India), Illegal dumping is a persistent problem because it threatens provinces or states (Nova Scotia, California), as well as a range of human health and the environment, imposes significant costs on companies (e.g. DuPont, Fuji Xerox and Toyota) (Greyson, 2007; communities, and has an adverse effect on public welfare (Lega Matete and Trois, 2008). But how to transform our existing situ- et al., 2012; Penelope et al., 2010). Illegal dumping often attracts ation into zero waste, and how to measure the performance of a more illegal dumping. Due to large generation of industrial waste, zero waste city are the prime questions. This study focuses on not all the waste can be collected and treated, therefore enormous industrial waste, electrical and (e-waste), food industrial waste was illegally dumped, especially in the developing waste and packaging waste to analyze the challenges and oppor- countries (Chartsbin, 2013). tunities, achieving a shift from traditional waste management to Industrial waste producers are continuously faced with the zero waste. problem of disposing of their waste and must choose from a number of different disposal and treatment options. Increasingly, they are choosing to export the waste to other countries (most are developing countries) ( et al., 2012; Kojima et al., 2013). It is very difficult to estimate how much hazardous waste is exported every year. The transboundary movement not only refers to the waste export, but also means environmental pollution transfer from the developed countries to developing countries. This is because most developing countries often own poor waste recycling and treatment facilities, and most waste was treated in the informal recycling sectors or directly dumped into the surrounding envi- ronment (Salihoglu, 2010; Thomas and Fannin, 2011). Some serious environmental events occurred due to the illegal dumping and transboundary movement. In 2011, a chemical in- dustrial company in Yunnan Province illegally dumped 5222.38 tons chromium slag (Peoples, 2011). In 2006, a ship registered in Panama, the Probo Koala, chartered by the Dutch-based oil and commodity shipping company Trafigura Beheer BV, offloaded at the Ivorian port of Abidjan (Maantay and McLafferty, 2011). The reasons, why illegal dumping and transboundary move- ment happened, mainly associated with the potential economic benefits (Havocscope, 2013), e.g., the cost to a European company to properly dispose of toxic waste can cost around $1000 per ton, if illegally dumping the materials, the cost would be about $2.50 for Fig. 1. Linear and cyclical resource flows. one ton; The cost to legally incinerate trash in the Netherlands is 4 Q. Song et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 104 (2015) 199e210 201

Table 1 The generation amount of industrial waste in 2011(million tons).

Items Americas Africa and Middle East Asia Pacific Global

Generated 1933.19 914.7 921.24 5357.46 9176.68 Collected 1531.71 765.8 270.91 3346.02 5914.50 Key countries Germany, UK, France, US, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Saudi Arabia, China, , India, e Russia, Bulgaria Chile and Columbia United Arab Emirates, South Korea, Australia Egypt and Tunisia

times more expensive than to smuggle it to China for illegal that the UK is the dominant European exporting country, followed dumping. by France and Germany () (Torretta et al., 2013). Certain regions have become centres for informal electronic waste 2.2. E-waste recycling areas, the most prominent in Asia and in Africa, as shown in Fig. 3. Informal electronic waste recycling has also been reported 2.2.1. E-waste generation in: Qingyuan, Guiyu, Fengjiang, Zhejiang province, Guangdong E-waste is a term used to cover all types of electrical and elec- Province, China; Manila, Philippines; Bangalore, Chennai, India; tronic equipment (EEE) that has or could enter the waste stream. In Seoul, South Korea; New Territories, Hong ; and HaiPhong city, the last ten years, e-waste has become one of the world's fastest Dong Mai and Bui Dau, Vietnam (Sthiannopkao, 2013). Generally, growing waste streams (In EU, historically, WEEE increases by the e-waste export market is quite diverse, ranging from small 16e28% every five years, which is three times faster than average family-based networks to large and well-organized trading firms. annual municipal solid waste generation) (Huisman, 2010; Zeng Table 3 shows us the transboundary movement of e-waste from et al., 2013). In 2011, the global e-waste is estimated that global January 2006 to October 2008 in , which indicated that e-waste generation is growing by about 40 million tons a year Japan and US were the main exporting countries. As we know, no e- (about 0.63 kg/year*capita, EU: 16e18 kg/year*capita) (Song et al., waste imported from other countries were treated, therefore it can 2013; Wang et al., 2013). The e-waste generations in the selected be known Hong Kong has become one important transfer center of countries are shown in Table 2 (Pariatamby and Victor, 2013; e-waste transboundary. Terazono et al., 2006). Workers and local residents are exposed to toxic chemicals through inhalation, dust ingestion, dermal exposure and oral 2.2.2. Problems and concerns of e-waste intake. Inhalation and dust ingestion impose a range of potential Electronics are complex devices which are made of a wide va- occupational hazards including silicosis (Grant et al., 2013; Qu et al., riety of material constituents. These unwanted electronic products 2007). Overall, human health from e-waste include breathing are made up of , , glass and other materials and ad- difficulties, respiratory irritation, coughing, choking, pneumonitis, ditives, of which some are toxic. If they are improperly recycled, tremors, neuropsychiatric problems, convulsions, coma and even toxic substances, such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and death (Samarasekera, 2005; Wang et al., 2011). dibenzofurans (dioxins; PCDD/Fs), flame retardants, and heavy In recent years, the media and environmental group shave metals (e.g. lead, , arsenic, cadmium, selenium, and hex- regularly exposed the smuggling and dumping of e-waste from the avalent chromium) can be released and could cause serious envi- developed countries to developing countries. The illegal trade is ronmental pollution ( et al., 2011; Lundgren, 2012). primarily driven by profit, with a multimillion dollar turnover. The majority of electronic equipment is sold in developed According to the US EPA, it costs 10 times more to recycle a CRT countries, such as the United States, Japan, Australia, and Europe, monitor in the United States than it would to illegally ship the and it is estimated that between 50% and 80% of e-waste collected monitor on the black market to Ghana, due to lower labor cost and for recycling in the United States is shipped to less developed environmental cost (USEPA, 2011; et al., 2013). The lack of countries (Kahhat et al., 2008; Namias, 2013). It has also been found reliable data on illegal waste activity is recognized to be a problem

Fig. 2. Industrial waste generation trends. 202 Q. Song et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 104 (2015) 199e210

Table 2 Table 3 E-waste generation in the selected countries. Transboundary movement of e-waste between 2006.1 and 2008.10.

Country Total E-waste generated (tons/year) Year Exporting countries No. of convictions Waste types

Global 40,000,000 2011 Japan 31 Batteries and Cathode ray tubes Switzerland 66,042 2003 US 26 Batteries and Cathode ray tubes Germany 1,100,000 2005 Canada 14 Batteries and Cathode ray tubes United Kingdom 1,200,000 2010 Korea 10 Batteries and Cathode ray tubes USA 3,160,000 2008 Ghana 7 Batteries and Cathode ray tubes 14,036 2003 United Arab Emirates 6 Batteries and Cathode ray tubes Thailand 60,000 2003 Other places 44 Batteries and Cathode ray tubes Denmark 118,000 1997 Source: Press Release of Hong Kong Government news Canada 67,000 2005 China 2,300,000 2008 India 380,000 2011 Philippines 58,000 2010 The per capita food loss in Europe and North-America is 60,000 e 280e300 kg/year. In Sub-Saharan Africa and South/Southeast Asia, it is only 120e170 kg/year. Per capita food wasted in Consumption phase in Europe and North-America is 95e115 kg/year, while this figure in sub-Saharan Africa and South/Southeast Asia is only as the most common methods of illegal export are to disguise 6e11 kg/year (Gustavsson et al., 2011; FAOSTAT, 2010). “second-hand goods”, mislabel and mix waste with Food losses in industrialized countries are as high as in devel- legitimate consignment (Ogunseitan, 2013). Another primary oping countries, but in developing countries more than 40% of the driver of this trade is that e-waste contains valuable components, is food losses occur at post-harvest and processing levels, while in easy to source and relatively cheap to ship, and the of being industrialized countries, more than 40% of the food losses occur at caught is generally low. retail and consumer levels (Gunders, 2012; Kantor et al., 1997), such as north American (talbe 4). Food waste at consumer level in industrialized countries (222 million ton) is almost as high as the 2.3. Food waste total net food production in sub-Saharan Africa (230 million ton).

2.3.1. Food waste generation 2.3.2. Environmental impacts Food waste is food material that is discarded or unable to be Food lost after harvest and food wasted along the distribution used. Food lost takes place in the five stages: Agricultural produc- and consumption chain, or food waste, has a dual negative envi- tion, Postharvest handling and storage, Processing, Distribution and ronmental impact: Land, Water, Climate change, and biodiversity Consumption. Within the global context of increasingly scarce (Lundie and Peters, 2005; Collins and Fairchild, 2007). natural resources, more than one-third of the food produced today is not eaten, which is about 1.3 billion tons per year (Gustavsson et al., 2011; Hall et al., 2009). Overall, on a per-capita basis, much 2.3.2.1. Land. , without allowing fields to lie more food is wasted in the industrialized world than in developing fallow and replenish, diminishes oil fertility. Not using roughly one- countries. third of the food produced globally means that soil is unnecessarily

Fig. 3. Global e-waste export. Q. Song et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 104 (2015) 199e210 203 pressured. Decreased soil quality to further use of synthetic production of non-renewable resources. The non-biodegradable inputs that cause pollution and eventually, loss of arable land. In plastics packaging waste have been associated with a visual 2007, almost 1.4 billion hectares of land were used to produce food dilemma called “White Pollution” in China. There is also a lack of not consumed. This represents a surface larger than Canada and environmental awareness amongst the citizens contributing to the India together. adverse impact caused by materials; the materials are thrown away resulting in foam everywhere, unaware of the 2.3.2.2. Water. already uses 70 percent of the global effect on their city's image and more importantly their environ- freshwater withdrawal and any increased production will likely ment (GTE, 2010; SHG, 2008). mean more water use. Water will be a key constraint to global se- curity and when food is wasted, the water is squandered. In 2007, 2.4.2.2. Excessive packaging. Extravagant packaging has become so the global blue water footprint for the agricultural production of prevalent in developed countries that unwrapping three layers of food waste was about 250 km3; 3.6 times the blue water footprint plastic and to eat a piece of chocolate is a regular practice (Ji, of total USA consumption. In terms of volume, it represents almost 2013; , 2013). While product packaging may seem trivial, it 3 times the volume of Lake , or the annual water discharge actually has immense impact across the supply chain. Resource and of the Volga River (FAOSTAT, 2013). wastage problems relating to packaging are significant given the vast quantities of products that are over dressed for no other rea- 2.3.2.3. Climate change. Food and agriculture systems heavily sons than to please the eye. Excessive packaging necessitates more depend on fossil-fuel energy. Petroleum is used in almost every materials, more resources to manufacture, so entailing more costs; aspect of food production, from creating fertilizers, to mechanized over packaged products incur a hefty toll on the environment as planting and harvesting, irrigation, cooling and transportation. product packaging is usually discarded quickly, ending up in Furthermore, when food is discarded in a landfill and decomposes landfills. Naturally excessive packaging are physically larger and anaerobically, it yields methane emissions, a more than 25times heavier which place greater burden on logistics, thus incurring as potent as at trapping heat. In 2007, the global higher financial and environment costs. , excluding change, of food waste has been estimated at 3.3 G tons of CO2eq. This amount is more than twice 3. Zero waste practices of solid waste the total GHG emissions of all USA road transportation in 2010 (Takase et al., 2005; FAOSTAT, 2013). Food is the primary source of As shown in the above, it can be known that we are facing with landfill gas and the largest component of materials sent to landfills. the large challenges of solid waste. In a world with finite resources, In USA, landfill gas is responsible for 17 percent of USA methane achieving a state of Zero-waste may eventually become an imper- emissions. ative due to the great environmental in future. At present, some good zero waste practices has been put forward and imple- 2.3.2.4. Biodiversity. The food not eaten is one of several factors mented through the , companies, individual, and the waste that contribute to through habitat change, over- reycling industry (GAIA, 2013). The studies are meant to exploitation, pollution and climate change. inspire these cities, companies, individual, and the waste reycling industry to further their own zero waste efforts and the other or- ➢ Prompted in part by global food production inefficiency, 9.7 ganizations and individuals to develop the new zero waste in- million hectares are deforested annually to grow food; this vestment and implementation plans. represents 74 percent of total annual (FAOSTAT, 2013). 3.1. Zero waste cities ➢ Food waste contributes to agricultural expansion into wild areas and increased fishing efforts that unduly overexploit forest and 3.1.1. Adelaide, Australia marine habitats. This results in loss of wildlife, including Adelaide is the capital city of South Australia and comprises 19 mammals, birds, fishes and amphibians. Up to 70 percent of all local council areas. A total of 1,089,728 inhabitants live in an fish caught by certain types of trawling is discarded. 841.5 km2 (UN-HABITAT, 2010). Adelaide City Council (ACC) is responsible for waste management in Adelaide. Zero Waste 2.4. Packaging waste SA (ZWSA) is a South Australian state government organization established by legislation called Zero Waste SA Act (2004). ZWSA 2.4.1. Packaging waste generation enables people to improve their recycling and waste avoidance Packaging waste means all the abandoned products made of any practices at home, work, and industry (ZWSA, 2011). materials to be used for the containment, protection, handling, In the context of waste management systems, Adelaide has a delivery and presentation of goods (Marsh and Bugusu, 2007). As high percentage of systems compared to other estimated, the global packaging waste volume is about 420million capital cities in Australia. deposit legislation was adopted tons (about 40 kg/year*capita; China: 12 kg/year*capita; EU in 1977; therefore, recycling of different packing containers has 27:161 kg/year*capita in 2011 (Li et al., 2013; et al., 2013). been practiced for more than three decades. Zero Waste SA is Packaging waste mainly includes paper and board (40%), glass working to achieve a zero waste area in South Australia (Zaman, (20%), plastics (19%), (15%), and (6%) (Huang et al., 2013). 2007). 3.1.2. San Francisco 2.4.2. Environmental impacts San Francisco has established itself as a global leader in waste 2.4.2.1. Plastics packaging waste pollution. A large amount of plastic management. The city has achieved 77% waste diversion, the packaging waste currently going in to the landfills, and these - highest in the United States, with a three pronged approach: terials break down very slowly, thus creating a significant waste enacting strong waste reduction legislation, partnering with a like- disposal impact in the Landfills. This results some environmental minded waste management company to innovate new programs, problems: an increase in landfill burdens; an increase in toxic and working to create a culture of recycling and composting emissions to the environment; an increase in the use and through incentives and outreach (Zaman and Lehmann, 2013). 204 Q. Song et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 104 (2015) 199e210

3.2. Companies 3.3.2. Community action, Taiwan, China The island of Taiwan faced a waste crisis in the 1980s because of Regarding zero waste, the first most important element is to lack of space to expand its landfill capacity. When the government reduce the generation of waste, which not only eliminates the turned to large-scale , the community's fierce opposi- problem but also reduces the use of resources, energy, water, etc. tion not only stopped the construction of dozens of burners, but also drove the government to adopt goals and programs for waste 3.2.1. Coca-Cola Company prevention and recycling (Allen, 2012b). These programs and pol- Packaging is a great example of where some good work has been icies were so effective that the volume of waste decreased signifi- done. Companies are using new materials and new technologies to cantly even while both population and gross domestic product provide the same protection with less material and therefore less increased. Its waste diversion rate was about 48.82%, and the waste (Coca-Cola Company, 2013). Coca Cola reports that they have spending on waste management per capita was $25.40 per year. done many beneficial works, such as: However, the government, by maintaining both pro-incinerator and waste prevention policies, has capped the potential of waste ➢ Trimming the weight of their 20-ounce PET plastic by prevention strategies because large investments in incineration more than 25%; drain resources that could otherwise be used to improve and ➢ Shaving 30% from the weight of their 12-ounce ; expand them. ➢ Lightening their 8-ounce by more than 50%. 3.3.3. Waste pickers, Pune, India And better yet, in their 2011/2012, Coca Cola reported saving Over the last 20 years, Pune's waste pickers have created a $180 million from reducing their packaging. remarkable transformation in their city's municipal waste man- agement system and in their own lives. These informal sector col- 3.2.2. Subaru US lectors of recyclable materials formed a union to protect their rights Subaru US has done a great job at their Lafayette site in Indiana, and bring dignity to their work (Tangri, 2012). The union has been and Subaru reports that they are recycling or reusing 95% of their so successful that it has allowed them to implement door-to-door waste, through the following practices. collection, source separation, and separate treatment for organics, all while improving livelihoods and working condi- ➢ -laden slag left over from welding is collected and ship- tions. Nowadays, the waste pickers' own cooperative is pioneering a ped to Spain for recycling. wider-reaching and more rigorous zero waste program. Avoided ➢ Styrofoam forms encasing delicate engine parts are returned to costs to city were about $2.8 million per year Table 4. Japan for the next round of deliveries. ➢ Even small protective plastic caps are collected in bins to be 3.4. E-waste recycling melted down to make something else.

As mentioned above, e-waste are made up of plastics, metals, glasses, other materials and additives, as shown in Table 5. At the 3.2.3. DuPont same time, the e-waste recycling processes exist the potential In 2012, the DuPont Building Innovations carried out environmental and human health effects. “Zero Landfill” and was able to find ways to recycle many of the Though e-waste recycling belongs to the end of life stage, it need materials from the Corian site (DuPont, 2012): to solve the issues from the pespective of the whole life cycles. Firstly, in order to recycling the e-waste more efficient, the eco- ➢ sheet & trim e ground back into 1st grade or ground into design and new technologies should be adopted to simplify and rock; normalize the structure of e-products; Secondly, new environment ➢ Carrier film e recycled into glue; friendly materials should be applied to reduce utilization of the ➢ Metal e melted down and recast; hazardous materials in the new e-products, which can decrease the ➢ Banding e melted and recast into same; potential environmental and human health risk. e.g. the Directive ➢ Pallets e repaired and repurposed; on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in ➢ Scrap wood e ground into animal bedding; Electrical and Electronic Equipment (RoHS), whose aim is to reduce ➢ Paper & Cardboard e recycled back into same. the use of hazardous substances, such as lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), and pol- 3.3. Individual ybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), in electrical and electronic products. Thirdly, is also a good way to realize the 3.3.1. Door-to-door collection program, Hernani, Spain zero waste strategy. For source reduction of e-waste, the reuse of The regional waste management consortium in Spain's Gipuz- old products are very important. The reuse extends the lifecyle of e- koa Province, faced with a nearly full and fill in 2002, proposed products, and reduce the e-waste generation, which is very helpful building two new incinerators (Allen, 2012a). The waste generation was about 0.86 kg/capita/day. Citizens strongly opposed the in- cinerators and prevented one from being built. Although the sec- Table 4 ond is now under construction, Hernani and two other small cities Food losses in . in the region have established an ambitious program of door-to- Phases Grain Seafood Fruits & Meat Milk door collection of source-separated waste, including organics, products vegetables which has been enthusiastically embraced by residents. The fi Production 2% 11% 20% 3% 3% amount of waste going to the land ll has been reduced by 80 Postharvest handling 2% 0.5% 3% 2% 0.25% percent, and waste diversion rate was 79%. Public spending per and storage capita in solid waste management was US $115 per year With new Processing, 10% 5% 1% 4% 0.5% political leader ship opposed to incineration, door-to-door collec- Distribution 2% 9.5% 12% 4% 0.25% Consumption 27% 33% 28% 12% 17% tion is poised to expand throughout the region. Q. Song et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 104 (2015) 199e210 205

Table 5 However, these practices are very limited, and there was still no the Main components of typical e-products (% wt). effective ways to establish the zero waste system. Styles Plastic Aluminum Copper Glass Others

PC(CRT monitor) 23 14 7 21 30 5 4. Zero waste strategy of solid waste Air conditioner 11 7 17 55 0 10 TV set 23 2 3 10 57 5 There is no straightforward path for a solution to current waste < Refrigerator 40 3 4 50 13 problems. On one hand, the consumption of resources has been Washing machine 36 3 4 53 <14 increasing over time and hence, the generation of waste has also been rising (Section 2). On the other hand, cities, companies and other organizations want to realize zero waste goal despite for realizing the zero waste. In China, when the e-products are continuous increasing per capita waste creation. Therefore, without abondoned, the residents often send these old ones to their rela- a comprehensive and strategic roadmap, the zero waste goals may tives, which often have relatively poor economic conditions. In not be achieved in the desired timeframe. Here, we summarized the addition, the products that can't work will be repaired in the zero waste to put forward the four requirements for second-hand shop, and then are sold to the consumers. Finally, realizing the zero waste strategy: zero waste roadmap, zero waste most of the e-waste can be recycled as the renewable resources, principles and indexes, zero waste key strategies, and the waste and Fig. 4 presented the e-waste recycling processes in China. management hierarchy. Comparing with the mechanical treatment in the developed countries, using more mannual dismantling processes in China can 4.1. The road of zero waste reach to a higher resource utilization rate. In the formal enterprises of China, the waste diversion rate was more than 95%, and only Zero waste can represent an economical alternative to waste small part waste was processed for Incineration and Landfill. systems, where new resources are continually required to replenish Through the perspectives of the whole life cycle and utilization wasted raw materials. It can also represent an environmental of eco-design, new technologies, new materials, high-efficient alternative to waste since waste represents a significant amount of reycling technologies, and suitable laws and legislations, e-waste pollution in the world. Zero waste concepts describe very nice and recycling in the world, especially the China, was marching toward ideal image of environment and resource utilization. However, the realizing the zero waste strategy. pursuit of zero waste for an organization or community can be Zero waste practices have been explored to provide some extremely challenging. Regardless, the social, economic and envi- precious experiences for realizing the of waste ronmental benefits of zero waste provide tremendous returns if management by governments, companies and individuals. you can do the work in a clear and cohesive manner.

Fig. 4. E-waste recycling processes. 206 Q. Song et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 104 (2015) 199e210

In the world, there was no consistent and standard road to There are many ways to measure the waste management systems realize the goal of zero waste. The Zero Waste Alliance (ZWA) has in a city. Decision makers and waste experts use various indicators worked with a wide variety of organizations and communities to such as the per capita generation rate, collection rate and recycling help them successfully develop and implement zero waste initia- rate to measure the performance of the waste management sys- tives (ZWA, 2013). While each of these engagements was unique, tems. In the last decade, the waste diversion rate has been used as ranging from specific products to entire cities, the process follows a an important indicator to measure the performance of a city. consistent path, shown in Fig. 5. Though not all the organizations or Recent on the environmental performance of cities has communities can realize the zero waste through the 8 steps, it been initiated by Siemens through a project called Green City Index provides a systematic approach for these organizations who want (Siemens, 2012). The Green City Index measures and rates the envi- to establish the zero waste. ronmental performance of cities from Asia, Europe, Africa and North America. In the study, Siemens considers around 8 different envi- 4.2. Zero waste principles and index ronmental indicators including , CO2,en- ergy, buildings, , waste and land use, water, air quality. For ‘Zero waste’ is one of the most visionary concepts for solving example, the European Green City Indexevaluates 16 quantitative and waste problems. When zero waste is linked with the specific cities 14 qualitative indicators. In Europe, leads the Index, with or companies, we often want to know whether a city or company the neighboring Nordic cities of and Oslo close behind. reaches the zero waste, therefore, how to evaluate the process will Waste diversion from landfill has been widely accepted by the become very important. governments, waste authorities and city corporations. The diver- sion rate can be defined as the percentage of total waste that is 4.2.1. Zero waste principles diverted from disposal at permitted landfills and transformation Fig. 2 shows that how to evaluate if the organizations, especially facilities such as incineration, and instead is directed to reduction, for the business companies, achieve the zero waste. These Zero reuse, recycling and composting programs (CalRecycle, 2012). The Waste Principles in Fig. 6 will be the basis for evaluating the waste diversion rate can be formulated as in Equation (1). commitment of companies to achieve Zero Waste. The detail of the principles can be obtained as reported by ZWIA, 2013. These Weight of recyclables Principles will also enable workers, investors, customers, suppliers, Diversion rate ¼ Weight of þ Weight of recyclables policymakers and the public in general to better evaluate the resource efficiency of companies (ZWIA, 2013). 100% (1) 4.2.2. Zero waste index Recently, most researches on zero waste mainly focused on the whereas: Recyclables ¼ waste that is reused, recycled, composted city zero waste. Many studies have been conducted on urban or digested; Garage ¼ waste that is landfilled or incinerated. metabolism. Researchers worked on different contexts to under- Considering that the waste diversion rate does not indicate the stand such as material flow, energy flow, and etc. virgin material replacement efficiency of the waste management

Fig. 5. The road map to zero waste. Q. Song et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 104 (2015) 199e210 207

Fig. 6. Zero waste principles.

system, which is very critical in conservation of global natural re- 4.3. The management strategies of zero waste sources, Zaman and Lehmann (2013) proposes a ‘zero waste index’ (ZWI) as a new tool to measure waste management performance. For the products, from the extraction of raw materials to final The zero waste index is a tool to measure the potentiality of virgin disposal, there are many approaches, methods, tools and principles materials to be offset by zero waste management systems. The zero that have been used to tackle different problems in the field of solid waste index can be formulated as in Equation (2). waste and resource efficiency. The key strategies identified for applying zero waste in solid waste management will mainly P include four levels, as shown in Fig. 7. nWMSi SFi The first level is the design processes before the , ZWI ¼ 1P (2) n and the methods of energy and environmental analysis can be used 1GWS to characterize the first level, which mainly refers to eco-design, whereas: WHSi ¼ amount of waste managed by system i (i ¼ 1, 2, 3 new technologies, life cycle assessment (LCA), closed-loop supply … n ¼ amount of waste avoided, recycled, etc); SFi ¼ Substitution chain management, and . These strategies will factor for different waste management systems based on their reduce the usage of materials (especially the hazardous materials) virgin material replacement efficiency; GWS ¼ Total amount of and energy, optimize the product function, and clearly define the waste generated (tons of all waste streams). responsibility of producers.

Fig. 7. Zero waste systems. 208 Q. Song et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 104 (2015) 199e210

➢ Eco-designdddesigning waste out of the system is acknowl- When the solid waste was generated from industrial, commercial, edged to be of particular importance to achieving real im- and agricultural operations, and community activities, there provements in waste reduction across the system (Li et al., will be several measures to be used to treat and disposal these waste. 2014). The waste management hierarchy is a nationally and interna- ➢ Use of new technologiesddinnovative technologies in new tionally accepted guide for prioritizing waste management prac- products and industrial processes can have powerful environ- tices with the objective of achieving optimal environmental mental as well as economic impacts. outcomes and resource utilization. It sets out the preferred order of ➢ LCAddit is now accepted that obtaining the true environ- waste management practices, from most to least preferred (waste mental impact of products requires measuring the impacts prevention, reuse, recycling, composting, incineration and final across the whole physical life cycle from raw materials through landfill) (Zeng et al., 2010, 2012). The waste management hierarchy production and use phases to end of life, and that consideration is one of the guiding principles of the Zero Waste, which has been in this way can lead to more sustainable patterns of production regarded in South Australia's Waste Strategy 2011e2015 as a key and consumption. Carbon footprint measurement has also been element for guiding waste management practices in South identified as being important with the future increase in use of Australia (Zero waste SA, 2013). carbon targets and budgets in Europe. Waste preventiondoften called source reductiondmeans ➢ Closed-loop supply chain managementddincorporating reducing waste by not producing it. Examples of waste prevention reverse logistics to close the loop and optimize the flows of would include purchasing durable, -lasting goods and seeking materials, products and wastes in the procurement, distribution products and packaging that are as free of toxic substances as and recycling functions. possible. It can be as simple as switching from disposable to reus- ➢ Product stewardshipddextended producer responsibility able products, or as complex as redesigning a product to use fewer (EPR) and particularly individual producer responsibility (IPR), raw materials or to last longer. Because waste prevention actually are regarded as important tools to enforce producers to take full avoids waste generation, it is the most preferred waste manage- responsibility for their products, especially at their end of life. ment activity. To reuse is to use an item again after it has been used. Reuse requires less energy than recycling, although designs which The second level refers to the manufacturing processes, and are both adaptable and durable are essential to its success. Other mainly includes the clean production strategydda way of factors, such as the consumer desire for ‘newness’, can conspire designing products and manufacturing processes in harmony with against reuse. Recycling is a process to change materials (waste) natural ecological cycles. It is intended to minimize waste and into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful materials, emissions and maximize product output. By analyzing the flow of reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy us- materials and energy in a company, one tries to identify options to age, reduce (from incineration) and minimize waste and emissions out of industrial processes through (from landfilling). For the waste disposal, the , incineration source reduction strategies. and landfill will be used, with a less preferred hierarchy. The third levels (sale and use stage) refers to the eco-labeling In order to effectively address the zero waste for solid waste, and environmental awareness strategies. Without proper envi- there needs to be a move beyond recycling into the largely un- ronmental awareness, it would not be possible to achieve zero charted territory of the higher end of the hierarchy, to reuse, reduce waste goals. As the current trend of consumption is unsustainable and prevention, with a particular emphasis on eco-efficiency (the and cannot be continued for ever, it is important to understand the same or greater utility from less material input). reality and act accordingly. Indeed, 25% of the reduction in emis- sions will have to come from behavioral change. Eco-label pro- 4.5. Discussion grams are certification programs in which a product, process, or management system is certified to meet specific environmental Zero Waste strategy is a sound business tool that, when inte- criteria as established by an assessment body, which can lead the grated into business processes, provides an easy to understand consumers to buy the environmentally friendly products. Manu- stretch goal that can lead to innovative ways to identify, prevent facturers wishing to achieve certification to an eco-label program and reduce wastes of all kinds. It strongly supports sustainability by may enjoy marketing advantages because the certification posi- protecting the environment, reducing costs and producing addi- tively differentiates their products as environmentally sound. tional jobs in the management and handling of wastes back into the The fourth level is the end of life stage, and the most important industrial cycle. Zero Waste strategy may be applied to businesses, for this level is to establish an effective environmental management communities, industrial sectors, schools and homes. systemddplans, schedules, implements and monitors, those ac- Zero waste not only refers to the mentioned environmental, and tivities, including material recovery, , aimed at technological aspect, but also includes socio-economic and political improving environmental performance. It is a problem identifica- aspects, and have many stakeholders. All these aspects are inter- tion and problem solving tool that provides organizations with a related and dynamic in nature. Therefore, waste management sys- method to systematically manage their environmental activities, tems create a complex cluster of different aspects, and functions of products and services and helps to achieve their environmental this complex cluster are also dynamic and interdependent. Global obligations and performance goals. climate change and its various effects on human life drive current For the mentioned strategies, there were no obvious limits society toward a more sustainable one. Depletion of finite global during the four levels, e.g. the LCA method can be also used in the resources forces us to consider resource and product stewardship. manufacturing, recycling and disposal phase; and EPR also refers to Therefore, ‘zero waste’ management is a holistic view of preventing the recovery and treatment of the abandoned product. and managing waste and resources from the sustainable perspective. The strategies (Section 4.3) developed for recycling or managing 4.4. Solid waste management hierarchy waste should be affordable in the socio-economic context, regula- tory or manageable in the socio-political context, applicable in the In the above contents, more attention focused on how one policy and technological context, effective or efficient in the context companies or one city can achieve zero waste. Here, we will consider of economy and technology, and finally all these aspects should be how the generated solid waste can be easier to realize the zero waste. directly related to environmental sustainability. The established Q. Song et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 104 (2015) 199e210 209 zero waste should be a sound strategy, which can be easily un- hierarchy, to reuse, reduce and prevention, with a particular derstood by engaged people, save money from economic aspect, emphasis on eco-efficiency. promote the waste prevention through the redesign, reuse and Though many zero practices and zero waste approaches have repair process, improve the waste recovery using the recycling and existed in the current world, zero waste management includes composting, and finally lead to conservation of resources and en- socio-economic, political, environmental, and technological aspects ergy. In the effective zero waste system, it also can create jobs in and has many stakeholders. Zero waste is a very complex system, return logistics and reprocessing activities. and there are still mountains of works need to done in future. In In fact, the real “zero waste” (all discarded materials are order to minimize the solid waste to zero waste, it needs all of designed to become resources for others to use) cannot be realized people together to act to reduce, reuse, and recycling them for in the real world. First, it has the limits of thermodynamics, which getting rid of waste from our land. Zero waste is indeed a desirable state that totally closed cycles are not possible, losses are bound to goal. However, although a path towards zero waste may already occur if energy resources are limited. Second, a complete recycling have been forged, there is still a long road ahead of us. society would also mean that all products we use contain recycled materials. Since many of today's wastes contain substances of the Acknowledgments past, some not even legally accepted today, recycling must elimi- nate these hazardous substances in order to protect men and the The work was financially supported by the National Nature environment. The primary goal of zero waste focuses more on how Science Foundation of China (20131351422), China Postdoctoral to guide people in changing their lifestyles and practices to emulate Science Foundation (2013M540966), and a special fund of the State sustainable natural cycles, where more discarded materials are Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution designed to become resources for others to use. Control (11Z02ESPCT). Solid waste contain many categories, such as industrial waste, e- waste, MSW, packaging waste, food waste, and etc. However, the References current researches pay more attention on MSW, which only ac- counts for less than 20% of the solid waste. 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