Water Quality in the Americas Risks and Opportunities WATER QUALITY in the AMERICAS | RISKS and OPPORTUNITIES 1

LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | RIESGOS Y OPORTUNIDADES 1 Water Quality in the Americas Risks and Opportunities WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 1

Water Quality in the Americas Risks and Opportunities 2 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

The Inter-American Network of Academies of Sciences IANAS IANAS is a regional network of Academies of Sciences created to support cooperation to strengthen science and technology as tools for advancing research and development, prosperity and equity in the Americas. IANAS is regional member of the Inter Academy Partnership (IAP).

IANAS Water Program of IANAS Co-Chairs: Juan Asenjo and Jeremy McNeil Co-Chairs: Katherine Vammen (Nicaragua), Directora Ejecutiva: Adriana de la Cruz Molina Co-Chair Honorarios: José

Editorial Committee Henry Vaux (USA). SpanishTundisi (Brasil) proofreading and Blanca Jiménez (México).

Gabriel Roldán (Colombia), Jose Tundisi (Brazil), Blanca Jiménez and authors of the chapters. (Mexico), Katherine Vammen (Nicaragua), Henry Vaux (USA), Ma. Areli Montes Suárez Ernesto González (Venezuela) with the collaboration of Miguel Doria Translation of UNESCO-IHP for Latin America and the Caribbean. Book Coordination Suzanne D. Stephens Katherine Vammen, Heny Vaux and Adriana de la Cruz Molina. Editorial Design Reviewers Committee Víctor Daniel Moreno Alanís

Administrative Support Gabriel Roldán (Colombia), Katherine Vammen (Nicaragua), Henry Vaux (USA), Ernesto González (Venezuela), Ricardo Izurieta (Ecuador), José Fábrega (Panama) and Pablo Pastén González (Chile). Alejandra Muñoz Buenrostro

We are grateful for the reviews by the National Committees and Focal Points of the International Hydrological Program, as well as the Members of CODIA who responded to the request for revision of the chapters of this publication.

- - Printed by The Inter-American Network of Academies of Sciences (IANAS-IAP) Calle Cipreses s/n, Km 23.5 de la Carret - era Federal México-Cuernavaca, 14400 Tlalpan, Ciudad de México, México and the United Nations Educational, Scientif ic and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France, con oficina UNESCO en Monte video, Edificio Mercosur, Luis Pereira 1992, 2o piso, casilla de correo 859, 11200 Montevideo, Uruguay. © IANAS 2019 ISBN: 978-607-8379-33-0 Printed in México

Open Access under the Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licens es/by-sa/3.0/igo/). For the printed and electronic book the present license applies exclusively to the text content of the publication. For the use of any material not clearly identified as belonging to IANAS, IAP or UNESCO prior permission shall be requested from: [email protected]. The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression

territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The ideas and of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IANAS, IAP, UNESCO or CODIA concerning the legal status of any country,

or CODIA and do not commit the Organization. opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of IANAS-IAP, UNESCO

This publication has been printed on ecological paper (FSC Certification): one part of the fibers is from recycled materi in order to contribute to the conservation of water resources. al and the other from forests exploited in a sustainable manner. Moreover, this paper is chlorine free (ECF Certification) WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 3

Water Quality in the Americas Risks and Opportunities 4 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES Academies and scientific organizations affiliated to IANAS

Argentina Robert Williams, President Academia Nacional de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales de Argentina www.ancefn.org.ar

Juan Tirao, President Academia Nacional de Ciencias www.anc-argentina.org.ar/es/

Brazil Luiz Davidovich, President Academia Brasileira de Ciências www.abc.org.br

Bolivia Gonzalo Taboada López, President Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia www.aciencias.org.bo

Canada Chad Gaffield, President The Royal Society of Canada : The Academies of Arts, Humanities and Sciences of Canada https://rsc-src.ca/en/

Caribbean Winston Mellowes, President Caribbean Academy of Sciences www.caswi.org

Chile María Cecilia Hidalgo Tapia, President Academia Chilena de Ciencias www.academia-ciencias.cl

Colombia Enrique Forero, President Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales www.accefyn.org.co

Costa Rica Pedro León Azofeita, President Academia Nacional de Ciencias Costa Rica www.anc.cr

Cuba Luis Velázquez Pérez, President Academia de Ciencias de Cuba www.academiaciencias.cu WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 5

Ecuador Washington Benítez, President Academia de Ciencias del Ecuador www.academiadecienciasecuador.org

Dominican Republic Luis Scheker Ortiz, President Academia de Ciencias de la República Dominicana www.academiadecienciasrd.org

Guatemala María del Carmen Samayoa, President Academia de Ciencias Médicas, Físicas y Naturales de Guatemala www.interacademies.net/Academies/ByRegion/LatinAmericaCarribbean/Guatemala/

Honduras Mario Lanza, President Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Honduras www.guspepper.net/academia.htm

Mexico José Luis Morán López, President Academia Mexicana de Ciencias www.amc.unam.mx

Nicaragua María Luisa Acosta, President Academia de Ciencias de Nicaragua www.cienciasdenicaragua.org

Panama Martín Candanedo, President Asociación Panameña para el Avance de la Ciencia www.apanac.org.edu.pa

Peru Gustavo González, President Academia Nacional de Ciencias del Perú www.ancperu.org

United States of America Marcia McNutt, President The US-National Academy of Sciences www.nasonline.org

Uruguay Rafael Radi, President Academia Nacional de Ciencias de la República Oriental del Uruguay www.anciu.org.uy

Venezuela Gioconda San-Blas, President Academia de Ciencias Físicas, Matemáticas y Naturales de Venezuela www.acfiman.org.ve 6 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Contents

Foreword 10

A General Overview of Water Quality in the Americas 12

Important Aspects related to Water Quality Water and Society. The multidimensionality of water quality 20 María Luisa Torregrosa, Daniela de las Mercedes Arellano Acosta and Karina Kloster

Water and Health 27 Martín Forde, Ricardo Izurieta, Banu Ôrmeci, Mercedes Arellano and Kerry Mitchell

Biological Monitoring of Water Quality in the Americas 37 Ernesto González and Gabriel Roldán

Use of New Methodologies in Monitoring and Zoning Water Bodies in Argentina 51 César Luis García, Carlos Catalini and Carlos Marcelo Garcíae

On the subject of water quality in the Americas: Argentinas 57 Coordinators: Raúl A. Lopardo and Luis E. Higa. Authors: Emilio J Lentini, José María Regueira, Melina Tobías and Raúl A. Lopardo

Drinking Water Quality in Bolivia 77 Coordinador: Fernando Urquidi. Authors: Carlos D. España Vásquez and Fernando Urquidi

Water Quality In Brazil 104 Coordinators: José Tundisi y Carlos Bicudo. Authors: Adalberto Luís Val, Carlos E. de M. Bicudo, Denise de C. Bicudo, Diego Guimarães Florencio Fernando Rosado Spilki, Ina de Souza Nogueira, Ivanildo Hespanhol, José Almir Cirilo, José Galizia Tundisi, Pedro Val, Ricardo Hirata, Sandra Maria Feliciano de Oliveira e Azevedo, Silvio Crestana and Virginia S.T. Ciminelli.

Past, Present and Future Challenges to Management of Freshwater Quality in Canada 129 D. W. Schindler WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 7

Special Chapter 149 Water Quality and Alternative Energy Nexus in the Americas Kwame Emmanuel y Anthony Clayton. With the special contribution of Julián Despradel, Judith Franco, José María Rincón-Martínez, Diana Marcela Durán-Hernández, Melio Sáenz y Felipe Cisneros, Claudio Wheelock, Julio López de la Fuente, Erick Sandoval, Juan Rodríguez, Roberto Castello Tió and Mireya R. Goldwasser

Water Quality in Chile: Progress, Challenges and Perspectives 161 Coordinator: Pablo Pastén. Authors: Pablo Pastén, Alejandra Vega, Paula Guerra, Jaime Pizarro and Katherine Lizama

Water Quality in Colombia 192 Coordinator: Gabriel Roldán-Pérez. Authors: Gabriel Roldán-Pérez, Claudia Patricia Campuzano Ochoa, Diego Alejandro Chalarca, Francisco José Molina Pérez, Diana Catalina Rodríguez Loaiza, Carlos Augusto Benjumea- Hoyos, Silvia Lucía Villabona-González and María Isabel Ríos-Pulgarín.

Water Quality in Costa Rica 228 Coordinator: Hugo G. Hidalgo. Authors: Hugo G. Hidalgo, Monika Springer, Yamileth Astorga, Eddy Gómez, Ingrid Vargas and Édgar Meléndez

Water Quality in Cuba 255 Coordinator: Joaquín B. Gutiérrez Díaz. Authors: Joaquín B. Gutiérrez Díaz and Jorge Mario García Fernández

Water Quality in the Dominican Republic 271 Coordinator: Eleuterio Martínez. Authors: Eleuterio Martínez, Roberto Castillo Tió, Luis Reyes Tatis, Pedro de León and Luis Salcedo

Water Quality in Ecuador 303 Coordinator: Ricardo Izurieta. Authors: Ricardo Izurieta, Arturo Campaña, Juan Calles, Edmundo Estévez and Tatiana Ochoa

Water Quality in the Americas: El Salvador 326 Julio César Quiñónez Basagoitia 8 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Water Quality in the Americas: Caribbean-Grenada 355 Coordinator: Martin S. Forde. Authors: Kerry Mitchell, Martin S. Forde and Allan Neptune

Water Quality in Guatemala 268 Coordinator: Manuel Basterrechea. Authors: Manuel Basterrechea, Margaret Dix, Sharon van Tuylen, Ángela Méndez, Ligia Díaz, Pablo Mayorga and Norma Gil

Water Quality in Honduras 386 Coordinator: Marco Antonio Blair. Authors: Marco Antonio Blair, Pedro Ortiz, Mirna Argueta and Luis Romero

Water Quality in Mexico 408 Coordinators: Arsenio González Reynoso, Blanca Jiménez Cisneros, Jorge Eugenio Barrios Reynoso y Maria Luisa Torregrosa y Armentia. Authors: Adriana Carolina Flores-Díaz, Alma Chávez Mejía, Anne M. Hansen, Arsenio González Reynoso, Beatriz Casasola, Blanca Jiménez Cisneros, Blanca Lucía Prado Pano, Brenda Rodríguez Herrera, Daniel Murillo Licea, Erick D. Gutiérrez López, Fabiola Garduño, Gabriela Cabestany Ruiz, Ignacio González Mora, Itzkuauhtli Zamora Sáenz, Jorge Eugenio Barrios Reynoso, José Antonio Barrios Pérez, José Joel Carrillo Rivera, Juan Carlos Durán Álvarez, Juana Amalia Salgado López, Leopoldo G. Mendoza Espinosa, Lorenzo Gómez Morín, María Aurora Armienta Hernández, María del Pilar Saldaña Fabela, Mariana Zareth Nava-López, Marisa Mazari-Hiriart, María Luisa Torregrosa y Armentia, María Teresa Orta Ledezma Velásquez, Marinhe Concepción Rosas Rodríguez, Miguel Palmas Tenorios, Miguel A. Córdova Rodríguez, Miriam G. Ramos-Escobedo, Porfirio Hernández H, Ramón Pérez Gil Salcido, Ricardo Sandoval Minero, Robert Hunter Manson, Ronal Sawyer G., Sergio S. Ruiz-Córdova and Sofía Esperanza Garrido Hoyos

Special Chapter 432 Gender, Women and the Quality of Water Organized and edited by Frances Henry. Authors: Milena Cabrera Maldonado, Neela Badrie, Mónica Moraes R., María Eugenia García, Christina Villamar, Banu Örmeci and Dayra Álvarez

The Challenges of Protecting Water Quality in Nicaragua 454 Coordinator: Katherine Vammen. Authors: Katherine Vammen, Elizabeth Peña, Indiana García, Erick Sandoval, Mario Jiménez, Ivania Andrea Cornejo, Thelma Salvatierra, María José Zamorio, Claudio Wheelock, Analy Baltodano and Romer Altamirano WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 9

Water Quality in Panama 487 Coordinator: José R. Fábrega. Authors: José Fábrega, Elsa Flores, Manuel Zárate, Miroslava Morán, Denise Delvalle, Argentina Ying, Marilyn Diéguez, Euclides Deago and Kathia Broce

Peru: the double challenge of water quality and water security 516 Coordinator: Nicole Bernex. Authors: Nicole Bernex, James Apaéstegui, Betty Chung, María Luisa Castro de Esparza, José Bauer, Raúl Espinoza, César Vidal, Pablo Tsukayama, Martín Cabello-Vílchez and Katiusca Yakabi

Water Quality and its Management in the United States of America 542 Henry Vaux, Jr.

Water Quality in Uruguay: Current status and challenges 562 Coordinators: Jimena Alonso, Federico Quintans, Javier Taks and Daniel Conde. Authors: Jimena Alonso, Federico Quintans, Javier Taks, Daniel Conde, Guillermo Chalar, Sylvia Bonilla, Rafael Arocena, Signe Haakonsson, Luis Aubriot, Guillermo Goyenola, Pablo Muniz, Analía Marrero, Marisa Hutton, Natalia Venturini, Ana Laura Pita, Karen Iglesias, Mariana Ríos, Natalia Zaldúa, Franco Teixeira de Mello, Alvaro Soutullo, Gabriela Eguren, Matías Victoria, Fernando López Tort, Leticia Maya, Matías Castells, María José Benitez, Andrés Lizasoain, Estefany Bertoni, Viviana Bortagaray, Matías Salvo, Rodney Colina, Karina Azuriz, Natalia Castagnet, Victoria Evia, Ana Fernández, Ximena Lagos, Laura Marrero, Fernanda Milans, Matías Piaggio, Nicolás Rezzano, Julieta López, Lorena Rodríguez, Saúl Garat, Margarita Pintos, Alejandro Iriburo, Beatriz Brena and Hernán Méndez

Water Quality in Venezuela 600 Coordinator: Ernesto J. González. Authors: Ernesto José González Rivas, Eduardo Buroz Castillo, Rafael Lairet Centeno, María Virginia Najul, Henry Blanco, Rebeca Sánchez, Jorge Paolini, Ramón Montero, Haymara Álvarez, Simón Astiz, Carlos Espinosa Jiménez, Vecellio Focà, Miguel Ángel Cabeza Díaz, Silvana Vielma Angarita, Lucas Riestra, Antonio Machado-Allison and Pedro R. García Montero 10 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Foreword

This volume is the product of a collaborative effort between the Water Committee of the InterAmerican Network of Academies of Science (IANAS) and the International Hydrology -

AmericasProgram ofentitled UNESCO. Diagnosis It is the of Waterlatest ofin thethree Americas publications resulting from this ongoing col waterslaboration. entitled Earlier Urban efforts Water: include Challenges a comprehensive in the Americas overview of the water resources of the , published in 2013 and a study of urban managers, scholars and the public throughout the Americas, published and globally. in 2015. There All theseis every works rea- sonhave to been expect published that this in collaboration both English will and continue Spanish andto make build them on its widely successful available past into the water fu-

in bringing this volume and its predecessors to fruition and look forward to the continued successture. The of editors the collaboration. of this volume are grateful for the support of their colleagues from UNESCO In the present book, focused on the problems and management of Water Quality, there

- has been close collaboration with the Regional Bureau for Sciences in Latin America and the Caribbean of UNESCO in Montevideo, specifically with the International Hydrological Pro gram for Latin America and the Caribbean (IHP-LAC) and the IHP Regional Hydrologist for LAC, Dr. Miguel de Franco Doria. It is important to mention that a series of meetings were- held to support the preparation, organization and publication of this book: the IANAS Water- edProgram by the andCentro UNESCO de Ciencias in Irvine, y Tecnología California de(USA, Antioquia September (Center 2015, of Water Science Quality and technology in the Amer of icas Workshop); the International Water Fair in November 2016 in Medellín, Colombia host-

Antioquia) and the Colombian Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences; the Meet ing of the Water Program in Ottawa hosted by the Royal Society of Canada, The Academies of Arts, Humanities and Sciences of Canada and Carlton University (August, 2017); Sharing Water: From Local to Global focusing on Water Quality in the Americas (Ipatinga, Brazil,- February, 2018) hosted by UNESCO-IHP; the World Water Forum, Brasilia, the Presentation of Urban Waters Challenges in the Americas (March, 2018) supported by the Brazilian Acad- emy of Sciences and the UNESCO Latin America-Caribbean Regional Training Workshop on EmergingWe would Pollutants like to inacknowledge Water Resources the support organized from by the the Conferencia UNESCO-IHP de InternationalDirectores del Initia Agua (Spanishtive on Water acronym-CODIA), Quality (IIWQ) which in Campinas, is active Brazil,in promoting in December, the dissemination 2018. of technical, sci- - tion, particularly as regards the production of various promotional materials linked to this publication.entific, social and environmental knowledge in water resources for supporting this publica

https://www.ianas.org/index.php/books/ianas-publications IANAS provides free public access to these publications in: WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 11 12 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

A General Overview of Water Quality in the Americas

Co-Chairs of the IANAS Water Program Katherine Vammen (Nicaragua) and Henry Vaux (USA)

Water resources are a key component supporting and strengthening sustainable development in the American hemisphere and globally. “Water Quality in the Americas: Risks and Opportunities” - - pects of water science, brings togetherproduced a this unified assessment effort by from the Academies the perspective of Sciences of the fromAcademies 21 coun of tries of the Americas. A team of 148 authors from all 21 countries, experts in different as- gestions for better management. The book provides an overview of surface and groundwa- terScience, quality with and the impacts objective on humanof analyzing consumption, specific problems agriculture of andwater ecosystem quality and services offering in eachsug country, thereby creating a hemisphere-wide picture of the current status and future challenges for the quality of essential water resources. This overview will facilitate the creation of new management concepts and the introduction of best practices in our diverse hemisphere. The book considers areas of abundance and scarcity of water resources, ranging from temperate to tropical conditions and puts water resource development in the context of the great diversity of economic and social development in the Americas. It deals with the different impacts of industrial and human activity in both urban and rural areas, problems involved in potable water and wastewater treatment, and in particular, each country´s institutional and professional capacities to improve water governance. In the beginning, management concepts were focused more on water balance in the

impacts that affect water quality, and in turn the availability of the resource, for different usesdifferent leading watersheds; to problems but oftoday, water availability security for is theclearly human being population influenced and by for anthropogenic ecosystems. The restoration of water quality involves many aspects from the protection of watersheds at all levels to assuring improved environmental laws and their enforcement, all aimed at reducing risks and vulnerability to assure water security. Science has a key role in developing evidence-based recommendations to assure water quality leading to better policies and their timely implementation. It is imperative to improve the management of water resourc- - source conditions of each country as they address their particular water quality problems. es throughout the Americas and to improve and better adapt governance to the specific re- allel to changes in human activities, population growth, urbanization, industrialization and progressiveGlobally, shifts the deterioration in land use. Pollutants of water quality are continuously has gone through more complex a process and of can change be direct par-

- systemly related services. to human Water health quality and deteriorationsignificant impacts is due on to thehuman environment. impacts, whichThis results began inwith an fecalincrease and inorganic costs forcontamination treatment for at purificationa time when of water water treatment and wastewaters was extremely and affects limited eco in

the 1800s and was followed by an increase in metal pollution with special characteristics WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 13

of bioaccumulation in aquatic ecosystems into the all marine environments of the world” and covers - put of nutrients into receiving waterbodies, eutro- phication1900s. Beginning processes in the were 1960s observed with the throughout increasing the in biotaan “area due of to seven the diversity million squareof water kilometers” types together (see continent, which eventually reached levels causing withChapter seasonal on Brazil). variation The throughout adaptation ofthe the evolution aquatic- cyanobacteria blooms resulting in cyanotoxin re- ary process has produced a unique combination of lease into the water of lakes and reservoirs. From biodiversity. Human impacts on the water quality of the Amazon basin are threatening water quality and lakes in South America, public concern was grow- biodiversity due mainly to certain mining activities, theing, Greatand theLakes rapid of North proliferation America toof reservoirs algal blooms and urban impact and changes in land use (see Chapter - - tersheds in the region is, in many cases, similar or idwas developments increasingly subjectin chemical to studies. methods (Tundisi, and equip 2015;- worse.Brazil for Targeting more details. the Amazon The situation basin when in other there waare ment”Schindler, (see 1977). chapter “These on Canada)studies wereand theseaided advancby rap- worse cases-in North and South America-could be es were quickly adopted by research teams looking misinterpreted to identify and solve water pollution throughout There are new emerging risks for water qual- the Americas, from the north of Canada to South ity that need special attention and are the subject America. - It became increasingly clear after some decades taminants are present in surface and groundwa- of studies that both point and non-point sources terof evaluationsources which in someoriginate chapters. from drugs, Emergent cosmetics, con - antibiotics, hormones, nanomaterials and other in- es (e.g. factories, sewage outfalls) without adequate puts which present new threats to human health, wasteare important treatment causes were ofcausing pollution: eutrophication; (1) point sourc and biodiversity and ecosystems. These need closer analyses in the near future. Certain industrial min- were the sources of the input of phosphorus, nitro- ing extraction methods initiated in the last decades gen(2) non-point and other agrochemicalsources and run into off major from waterbodies. agriculture such as sand tar mining and fracking in vulnerable Organic chemicals became widely used in agricul- areas are producing new risks for water resources ture. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), herbi- that could have consequences for water quality and cides and insecticides and the increase of uncon- therefore for human health. trolled use of fertilizers became a major source of pollution in water resources, surface- and ground- - water. Changes in land use, which promoted defor- ter sourcesGlobal climate which werechange once also perennial has multiple now effects suffer estation for expansion of agriculture and livestock fromon water drought quality. periods Extreme leading events to a greater mean that concen wa- production, also created widespread sedimentation tration of pollutants with consequences for aquat- - coastal lagoons. All these processes affected water quantity in some areas has meant the use of the into surface waters: lakes, reservoirs, rivers and sameic biota water and sourcepublic waterfor both supplies. water withdrawalsInsufficient wa for in quality of ecosystems which support water re- human consumption and irrigation and at the same ter for human consumption and led to a “reduction time for waste disposal (see Chapter on Canada). Additionally, the integrity of key zones of protection - forsources water and bodies maintain such their as riparian quality” zones, (Tundisi, wetlands 2015). tities of sedimentation and extreme events such as and others such as the extremely delicate areas of hurricanesOn the other tend hand, to floodingdestroy bringshydrological in large systems quan recharge for groundwater and pristine sources of due to massive deforestation and extreme changes hydrological systems was compromised. (sedimentation and siltation) in river and lake ba- The American continent has many special areas of global importance for climate and great hydro- nutrients which are weakly bound in sediments cansins bedrastically released affectinginto the waterflow regimes. in these Metalsevents. and In- - creases in the temperature of surface waters have logical significance. One feature, the Amazon River, stands out as it flows for “6,992km and discharg es close to 20% of all the freshwater that reaches already caused an intensification of cyanobacterial 14 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

blooms as these species adapt rapidly to higher wait relatively easy to enforce regulatory standards. ter temperatures and dominate the biodiversity of Non-point source pollution includes run-off from phytoplankton in the aquatic ecosystems. Climate watershed lands that have been eroded or other-

example, mercury can be released to downstream agricultural lands that contains the residues of ag- warming also influences metal contamination, for- riculturalwise heavily chemicals modified including or denuded; fertilizers run-off and pesti from- mafrost environments (for example in Canada, cides; run-off and particularly storm water run-off watersand warming after forest can also fires lead or disappearanceto reconcentration of per of from urban landscapes that contains all manner of contaminants). chemicals including hydrocarbons and sediment.

intended to contribute to a greater understanding Agricultural Chemicals. Agricultural chemicals – of currentThis volume threats of andWater impacts Quality to in water the Americas resources. is The analyses therein are summarized in the follow- control both because the chemicals themselves may ing sections. bemainly damaging fertilizers to the and environment pesticides –or arehuman difficult health to and are frequently not evaluated prior to commercial release. In addition, decisions relating to how Water Quality Problems much of a chemical to apply tend to be decentral- of the Americas ized and there is a tendency to apply more than is needed with the result that the quantities of chemicals in the run-off can be even greater than if the Eutrophication - Virtually every country in the Americas experienc- ricultural lands has been implicated as the cause of quantities applied were optimal. Run-off from ag- waterways and water bodies. Frequently, the eu- phication is especially severe. trophicationes some degree in question of artificial is characterized eutrophication as cultural in its “dead zones” found in waters where cultural eutro eutrophication meaning that the phenomena is ar- Cyanobacterial Blooms and Toxins. A particularly in- sidious manifestation of eutrophication involves cy- waters that are discharged by agricultural and in- anobacteria, which are photosynthesizing bacteria, dustrialtificially activitiesestablished rather by an than excess occurring of nutrients exclusively in the found naturally in terrestrial and aquatic habitats from natural sources. The results are varied and include algal blooms that are sometimes toxic and de- extreme levels of eutrophication and featuring spe- plete dissolved oxygen. Cultural eutrophication can around the world. Under conditions that include render the water unsuitable for drinking and other blooms release toxins that are dangerous to ani- purposes and destabilize the aquatic ecosystem in mals,cific strains some forms of cyanobacteria, of plant life theand associatedhumans. These algal question. Such destabilization frequently results in toxins have been known to cause death in humans. algal blooms with the subsequent release of toxins The potential for such blooms exists throughout the - Americas and is one extreme of the sort of contam- house gas production in water reservoirs should ination that severe cultural eutrophication can lead alsoand explosivebe noted. growth of unwanted species. Green to.

Non-point source pollution. Chemical Contamination though not always, caused by non-point source pol- The number of chemicals with the potential to con- lution, which by itself creates Eutrophication vexing water is quality often, taminate waterways and water bodies is almost problems in virtually every country of the Ameri- limitless. Contamination of water with chemicals is cas. Non-point source pollution involves pollutants ubiquitous and is found throughout the Americas in varying degrees of severity. to regulate directly because it is impossible to iden- that originate from diffuse sources that are difficult- Emerging Contaminants. New chemicals emerge every day in the agricultural, industrial and technol- tify points of origin. By contrast, point source pollu tion emanates from an identifiable location making WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 15

ogy sectors. Although these products are intended Salinization. All naturally occurring waters contain to offer solutions to various problems, many appear some salts. When water is evaporated, or trans- soon afterwards in waterways and water bodies as pired in the case of agriculture, the salts remain. In well as on the land. This appearance occurs before irrigated agriculture, some salinization is evitable much is known about their health and environmen- and unless it is attended to it will ultimately reduce tal impacts. No country in the Americas currently the productivity of the soils in question ending with has the capacity to evaluate emerging contaminants a total loss of soil productivity. The remedy is to either before or after their release into the environ- leach periodically the salts from the root zone. This ment. The ultimate implications of this situation are requires water in addition to that necessary to sup- totally unknown but it is clear that the prospects for port the crop. In arid regions throughout the Ameri- dangerous and even deadly waterborne health im- cas salinization of agricultural lands is a threat. The pacts rise with each passing day. waters to counteract salinization through leaching may not be available in arid and semi-arid regions. Toxic Chemicals. The lack of capacity to evaluate Sea water intrusion, which occurs when coastal emerging new contaminants means that the in- and near coastal aquifers are overdrawn, is anoth- ability to discriminate between toxic and non-tox- er form of water quality degradation. This is dealt ic chemicals increases the threat to human health with in the section on groundwater below. and well-being. There is particular concern about - the fact that newly emerging chemicals or their me- equate disposal of urban solid waste and untreat- tabolites may react with chemicals already in the ed industrialContamination residue due in togarbage Urban dumps Waste. can The lead inad to environment to produce toxins that are even more contamination of groundwater due to leaching pro- dangerous than the original chemical. In addition, - the failure to evaluate the impacts of discharging ate this process, transmitting various substances toxic chemicals into water means that the potential harmfulcesses. Rain to human and the health, humidity including of residues carcinogenic acceler long-term impacts are poorly understood or not and toxic substances. understood at all. The resources needed to assess the long-term implications of chemicals that may Mining and Other Industrial Wastes. Mining and other not be immediately toxic are simply not available in industrial wastes pose high risks to water quality most of the countries of the Americas. because of the concentration of metallic and other compounds which can be mobilized by precipi- Acid Rain. It is well established that emissions from tation and water transport through the soil. These the combustion of fossil fuels released into the at- wastes can be particularly vexing to manage be- mosphere can cause increases -and perhaps sig- cause sources are sometimes diffuse – as with acid

Increasing the acidity of precipitation has adverse the ownership of them. In countries with devel- effectsnificant on increases aquatic –habitats in the acidityand may of precipitation.result in bio- opedmine economies,drainage – andsuch it wastes is often are difficult typically to identifycleaned logical destabilization of those habitats. Acid rain up at very high cost. Countries with less robust economies will rarely be able to defray the costs of through destruction of protective paints and oth- clean-up. can also cause significant damage in urban areas acidic rain are often felt at locations that are remote Natural Contamination. Natural contamination also fromer coatings. the places Significantly, where the the causative impacts emissions of increasing oc- creates threats to water quality. Among the most cur. This means that the emitting party frequently has no incentive to ameliorate the offending dis- and arsenic. These contaminants are usually found charges. This problem is more pronounced in re- inprominent soils and ofrocks the contaminantsand are mobilized are fluorides,through rainfall boron gions of the Americas that rely exclusively on the and other weathering events. Fluorides are ubiqui- burning of fossil fuels with a high sulphur content tous in the soil and water environment and are rel- and the generation of NOx (Nitrogen Oxides) for atively harmless at low concentrations. However, production of electricity and other commodities. they can be toxic at higher concentrations even in 16 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

shed lands and waterways can lead to excessive and at higher concentrations can be toxic to plants mobilization of sediments and accelerated rates includingnature. Boron crop is plants. typically Arsenic present is intoxic soil to and humans water - and body burdens of arsenic are cumulative so even ment can destroy aquatic habitats, shorten the life the ingestion of water with low arsenic concentra- of sediment transport. Excessive amounts of sedi would otherwise be available to store water and renderof dams the by prematurelywater unsuitable filling for reservoir some uses. space Indis that- managetions over because time can they have typically significant come toxic from impacts. diffuse criminate land conversion as with the development Natural contaminations of all sorts are difficult to of agricultural lands, clear cutting and modifying such as volcanic origins. sources and from specific geological formations, can all lead to excessive sedimentation. Activities Biological and other non- thatland surfaceincrease in the ways rate that of increase sedimentation water flow occur runoff on Chemical Contaminants lands throughout the Americas with the result that Microbes and other biological contaminants are sediment mobilization and transport will increase well known. There are other contaminants that and cause degradation of surface water quality. may or may not have biological properties that pose threats to water quality. Microbial contamination. in the provision of potable water supplies, micro- Invasive Species. The advent of transportation tech- bial contamination continuesIn spite to ofthreaten significant the gainsqual- nology resulted in an ever more tightly linked globe. In such circumstances it was almost inevitable that mismanagement of watershed lands threatens the organisms could move from the accustomed habi- qualitativeity of many integrity of these of water supplies. from Modification those lands. The and tats where they had evolved to more distant hab- absence of well-functioning and operated treat- itats that they could colonize. The more distant ment facilities and the failure to maintain and re- habitats lacked the predators and/or environmen- new existing facilities increases the possibilities for tal conditions that had tended to keep population microbial contamination. No country in the Ameri- numbers stable in the original habitat. The result cas is free of concerns about eliminating microbial was frequently a population explosion in the new contamination of potable water supplies although habitat that continued until it could no longer be the situation is worse in some countries than oth- supported, and the population numbers crashed. considered in monitoring programs. This situation also invite the invasion of other species for a vari- deterioratesers. Both bacterial further and due viral to exposure pollution to need untreated to be Modified landscapes and aquatic environments liquid urban waste and agriculture. damage to the environmental integrity of an aquat- icety habitat of reasons. affecting Invasive trophic species levels can in the do ecosystem,significant Adequate sanitation. Many countries in the Ameri- leading in some cases to the extinction of import- cas have made impressive gains in the provision of sanitation service over the past decades. This has devoted to the management of invasive species to entailed the construction of wastewater treatment counteractant species. the Significant substantial resources damage have that already they can been in- facilities and the development of a cadre of workers - who can operate them. Still many countries of the ronmental changes suggests that invasive species Americas are behind in the coverage of sanitation willflict. appearThe advent throughout of global the warming Americas and (and other the envi rest in urban areas and when existent lack adequate of the globe) with increasing frequency and atten- - dant increases in the cost of control. Such invasion ing bodies and therefore cause further pollution to will affect aquatic habitats. treatment before the effluents enter into receiv problem, even in countries where total coverage is Sedimentation. Sedimentation is a natural process reasonablyimportant waterbodies. high. Maintenance Rural sanitationand renewal remains of sani a- of wearing down the landscape and transporting the material. However, mismanagement of waterover time because of high cost and popular apathy. tation facilities may become a significant problem WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 17

Groundwater The importance of groundwater as a potential material discharged as waste to the environment source of supply and the management of it to pro- is approximately equal to the mass of material that tect both available quantities and good quality has enters into production processes. This means that been largely neglected throughout the Americas. It there are only two ways in which the volume of polis not widely appreciated that it is almost always cheaper to protect groundwater quality than it is to - lutants can be reduced: 1) reduce the throughput- ticedor 2) torecycle one degree and reuse or another the materials throughout that theare hemibeing- thatclean most it up contaminantsafter it has been come contaminated. from diffuse Ground sourc- sphere,discharged but intothe scale the environment. of recycling programs Recycling needs is prac to eswater and quality that contamination protection is made moves difficult underground by the fact at be increased. Similarly, it is important to note that waste sinks – water, air and land – are interconnect- monitor. In general, groundwater quality must be ed so that a reduction of quality in one sink implies manageddifferent ratesindirectly which by are specifying difficult aand set expensiveof best man to- an increase in quality in the others. Programs that agement practices to govern activities that are un- - dertaken in recharge areas. A well-designed set of ed States – simply move the wastes around and fail practices will minimize or eliminate the possibility toare acknowledge sink specific the– such fact as that some sinks of thoseare essential, in the Unit yet of contaminants from reaching the aquifer in ques- largely absent throughout the Americas. tion. Well-head protection programs are especially important inasmuch as contaminants can reach Monitoring No pollution management program can be suc- down wells. cessfully mounted without some information on the Agroundwater special problem almost occurs instantaneous where coastal if they aqui flow- the state and quality of the aquatic environment. A fers are overdrafted (more is extracted than re- charged) and the level of the water table drops. water quality. In spite of this fact the level of moni- When that level falls below sea level, sea water may toringminimum in virtually of data isevery needed country about of water the Americas flows and is intrude into the aquifer. Progressive salinization of inadequate. Where data is inadequate the manage- the aquifer then results if remedial actions are not ment problem becomes one of managing risk and taken. The obvious remedy is to eliminate the over- draft and allow the water table to recover. Other monitoring as well as research to determine the methods of hydrologic manipulation, which require riskuncertainty. associated Risk with management different pollutants. also requires Monitor some- additional water supplies have been employed suc- ing and data generation must usually be undertaken by the central government because of the inter- remedy, but it is very costly. cessfully. Artificial desalination is another potential collectiondependency and of watersanalyses flowing lack political between appeal States and Managing Water Quality thereforeProvinces. are The usually difficulty inadequate is that to programs the task at of hand. data in the Americas No country in the Americas is totally successful in Research Programs developed countries as well as those that are de- upon the science of water quality. As economic and managingveloping. The water ingredients quality. This of a findingsuccessful includes manage the- populationEffective management growth proceed, programs the water should quality be basedman- ment program are well known and are summarized agement problem becomes more extensive and below. - search in order to understand both the nature of the Recycling and Reuse problemmore complicated. and appropriate This requires measures more to scientific combat reit.

investment is inadequate in virtually every country The Principle of Materials Balance, derived from the Research programs require public investment. Such Law of Conservation of Mass, holds that the mass of 18 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

The Dimensions of Water Quality: Society, Health, Women, Energy and Monitoring of the Americas. At stake is the cost and effective- As water quality depends on human activities and ness of existing and future programs of pollution directly acts on human health, this book contains management and abatement. A robust program of research has the advantage of keeping scientists in - contact with their colleagues throughout the hemi- subchapters dealing with these important aspects: above,“Water in and order Society: to understand The Multidimensions the state of ofwater Wa other countries is available to all. qualityter Quality” in the and different “Water andresources Health”. and As itsmentioned levels it sphere so that scientific knowledge generated in is essential to develop improved monitoring pro- Policy Making and Governance grams. Two subchapters on special monitoring as- Programs of effective pollution management require explicit statements of policy goals and poli- - cies and rules for achieving those goals. Thus, for giespects in have monitoring been included: and zoning “Biological plans forMonitoring waterbod of- example, the statement of goals needs to enumer- ies”Water which Quality give and examples “Application of important of new components methodolo ate whether the pollution control strategy will en- and methodologies for future monitoring programs. tail direct government controls, a more indirect in- The importance of the role of women in secur- centive based system or some mixture of the two. ing water quality in the home and in industry and It is important to recognize that merely develop- agriculture, is a topic which is not always dealt with - and therefore the Women in Science program of vised to select the level of the standard and solve - theing aproblems standard of is compliance not sufficient. and Policies enforcement. must be Com de- prehensive pollution control policies will normally IANAS, which is also in line with the priority of UN ESCO related to gender equality, have contributed- based incentives such as tradable pollution per- a special feature chapter “Gender, Women and the have components covering: 1) education; 2) price Caribbean,Quality of Water” which dealingdemonstrate with experiencesthe importance in sev of enforcement mechanisms. watereral developing quality and countries the treatment of Latin of America wastewaters and the in mits:Managing 3) a system water of standards quality also and requires 4) a hierarchy an effec of- the lives of women. tive array of institutions to establish the policies, - monitor the results and enforce the resultant stan- ies in most countries represented in IANAS to de- dards and policies. Institutions include laws, public termineThe Energywhether Program there has carried been progress out small on stud the agencies, appropriate policies and appropriate en- use of renewable energy in assuring water quality. forcement mechanisms. Strong institutions that are - - ture chapter which illustrate some examples in the sources, are an essential part of any effective pollu- Americas.These findings have been presented in a special fea tionreliable, control and programs, with adequate yet they human are largelyand financial absent re in the Americas. Referencias Sustainable Development Goal 6: Target 6.3 Water Quality - - itation in lakes. Science gal waste disposal and hazardous chemical mate- Schindler, D.W. (1977). Evolution of phosphorus lim Targetrials with 6.3 dealsa special with mention reducing to contamination, cutting untreated ille 195, pp. 260-262. - wastewater by half and increasing recycling and Tundisi, J.G.; Matsumuro-Tundisi, T.; Ciminelli, V.S. & Barbosa, F.A. (2015). Water availability, wa challenges and includes some examples of efforts to ter quality water governance: the future ahead.- promotesafe reuse. reuse Each especially country chapterefforts indeals countries with these with Hydrological Sciences and Water Security: IAHSPast, less abundance of water. Publ.Present and Future. (Proceedings of the 11th Ko vacs Colloquium, Paris, Francia, June 2014). 366, 2015. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 19

Important Aspects Related to Water Quality 20 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Water and Society The multidimensionality of water quality

María Luisa Torregrosa (Mexico), Daniela de las Mercedes Arellano Acosta (Cuba) and Karina Kloster (Mexico)

Introduction

Addressing problems related to water quality in the region is not an easy task. Despite the

many efforts made by various governments since the 1970s, the delay of many countries in- mousexpanding heterogeneity water and in sanitation the forms ofservices access toin water.sufficient There quantity is still aand large quality, sector particularly of the popula in- tionthe peri-urban located in marginaland rural and communities, peri-urban remains. areas that Particularly access water in Latin through America, tanker there trucks, is enor low- cost plastic carboys from nearby unsafe sources, among others, all of which are unreliable 1 without mentioning the risks to which the rural population is subject due to the high degree of contamination of sources due to problems of eutrophicationregarding water or quality other types(Jiménez, of pollution 2009), that are increased by the absence of drainage and

countries,the forms ofin finaladdition disposal to those of gray derived water from and the sewage. lack of investment to maintain and improve infrastructure.In urban settlements, Many cities this still finallack drainagedisposal isand a sanitationproblem that systems, persists and in when Latin they American do exist, they are often either not operated correctly or never begin operating.

- dustriesLikewise, -particularly the absence extractive or limitation industries-, of regulatory and agriculture, frameworks which and has their had applicationmajor conse in- quencesterms of forsanitation the water persists, quality together of our countries. with the final disposal of wastewater from cities, in Another important obstacle to improving the water quality of many of our countries is the delay in or, at worst, absence of reliable data indicating the current quality. Data on sanitation services often only refer to the sewage disposed through sewerage services without -

contaminatedconsidering its sources treatment, and thathigh of rates gray of water waterborne and its safediseases final indisposal the population. in the receiving bod ies. This has significant consequences and an incidence that is reflected in the amount of connected to networks or obtained by other means, has led people to resort to the purchase of bottled These water, deficiencies which inis unregulatedthe quality of and the for water which supplied there is to no the certainty population, about whether the quality it is -

that it distributes (Pacheco-Vega, 2017). Alternatively, they purchase home water purifica tion systems, which increases the cost of this resource by 30 or 50% over the official price, 1. Independent studies undertaken by academic institutions reveal that, although a high percentage of water is - ence of microorganisms and chlorine residues ( Jiménez et al., 2002). chlorinated, of the water received in homes, only 30% of the cases meet the requirements established for the pres WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 21

which is generally assumed by the more disadvan- Box 1 taged sectors of the population or, failing that, they Access to water in quantity and quality for all sectors pay the health costs of being unable to purify water. of society can only be achieved by adopting an inte- - grated, multidimensional approach in which the pro- - vision of water and sanitation services is organized Looking at these results, we should ask our ter quality in our countries? What do we need to through a wide array of institutional, formal and in- selves: Why is it so difficult to obtain good wa achieve this? What are the crucial factors for reduc- formal arrangements , which take into account the - various characteristics and local conditions. lationship between water and sanitation services anding the the water availability and sanitation of water deficit?and technologies, What is the eco re- nomic status, legal framework, institutional capacity and water policies? There are multiple formal and informal water that provide it and confront it with the unilateral supply strategies that have proven to be success- institutional construction of what is considered wa- ful in both developed and developing countries, ter and its quality. ranging from state or municipal public manage- This leads us to consider issues that could shed ment, public-private participation and cooperative - models to community management, among others lationship between water and society , the forms of waterlight on governance the difficulties and thethis power implies, relations such as embed the re- et al et al ded in them. (Torregrosa and Jiménez 2009:348, Hukka and Kat- ko,water 2009, and Pietilä sanitation, ., 2009,the problems Muradian we face., 2013). are evenIn the more case complexof the final and disposal often transcend of gray and the black pos- How do we conceive the relationship sibilities of being resolved at the community level. between water and society? with wastewater removal at the community level One of the ways in which the relationship between butThere very have few been of coping significant with experiences and solving of sanitation working water and society has been conceived is through the idea of governance. The idea would be that a good This suggests that the problem of water quality water government would pay for the existence of liesproblems. in the Thismultiplicity is reflected of factors in water that quality. determine it. institutions that make it possible to guarantee wa- We are used to addressing water-related problems - in a fragmented way, from different specialties or itants, based on the idea that governance is pro- videdter in sufficientby the way quantity policies and regulate quality and for coordinate all inhab water quality is complex and multidimensional. In the management of natural, economic and social thisfields respect, of experience. they are But not solving only economic, problems technolog related to- resources and, on this basis, assuming the propos- ical or institutional issues. It is important to explore 2 - other rarely considered aspects, which may be af- - fecting the obtainment of better water quality. alistrative made bysystems UNESCO that that are operating“water governance and directly is de or This also raises the question or institutional is- indirectlyfined by the affect political, the use, social, development economic and and manage admin- ment of water resources, as well as the distribution ways of understanding, seeing and solving prob- of water supply services at various levels of society” lemssues Whyrelated is itto so water difficult and to sanitation interact with and differentto make these differences part of public policy? One way to approach the issue may be from the transparency,(Global Water predictabilityPartnership, 2003). and receptivity, The following as nec is a- perspective of the social nature of water, which essaryreflection conditions on inclusion, for good responsibility, governance participation, and an effec- would give us the possibility of thinking about the quality of water produced socially from the culture, knowledge, practices, ideas, meanings and values com/Titan/Titanokeanos.html 2. http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/nile and www.theoi. 22 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

tive relationship between water and society, rarely 1.4 Transparency Transparency is one of the principles of effective In- 1.observed Necessary in Latin conditions America today. for water stitutions should work openly. They should use lan- governance guagegovernance, that is asunderstandable shown in the andfollowing accessible, quote: so that“ the general public has more confidence in complex 1.1 Inclusion institutions. In addition to being open, good gover- A review of the contents of the Hague Ministerial nance requires that all policy decisions be transpar- Declaration held at the beginning of this century ent, so that both those who are directly involved and wisely those who are not can easily follow the steps taken governing water in order to ensure good governance, in policy design. This is particularly important as reso(2000) as to referred involve theto this public aspect and andensure called that for the “ inter- gards financial transactions” (Alcocer et al ests of all stakeholder groups are included in water For these transactions, transparency is vital, since resource management”. it contributes to overcoming the challenge societies., 1988). This rules out any initiative establishing bor- face for dealing with corruption. One cannot ignore ders for the guarantee of water service in quantity the fact that transparency is built on the basis of the and quality, among those living in marginal areas, indigenous communities or suburban areas and residing in neighborhoods or any other type of prop- 1.5free Predictability flow of information. - mation about all the scenarios linked to water re- 1.2erty Responsibility owned by more affluent social sectors. sourceHaving management,representative, constitutes reliable and the sufficient basis for infor con- Water resource management entails responsibili- ducting the analyses (technical economic, cost/ ties for society as a whole, which must be included in the principles and legal bases on which this predict, at the temporal and spatial level, how and management is based. This responsibility includes whenbenefits, the budgetary competent and institutions financial, will etc.) have required the nec to- the prevention of pollution by all social actors, and and investments related to the storage, protection system adopted. The responsibility associated with andessary distribution financial resourcesof these resources, to undertake as wellthe worksas for effectiveaspects related water governanceto the financial demands sustainability that the of roles the their treatment at the stage when they become residual. Without justifying those governments whose One good practice worth highlighting, estab- interestof these inactors sustainable be defined. water resource management lished in Cuba and validated by the work undertak- is only evident in their discourse in electoral pro- - cesses and campaigns, there is generally a limited tion (twice a year) of inland water quality, through perception of individual responsibilities in terms of aen network over the thatpast 50has years, a number is the systematicof stations observa totaling the management and protection of water resources. these stations classify as basic (generating descrip- 1.3 Participation tive,between long-term 2 400 informationand 3 500. Seventy-five on the most per important cent of Water resource management is carried out on the basis of the interests and participation of society as correspond to control and monitoring stations, a whole, regardless of the social strata of its mem- mostlywaterbodies associated in the with country), surface while waters, the otherincluding 25% bers. Accordingly, governments at all levels must residual discharge. develop an inclusive approach during the formu- The inventory of polluting sources of inland wa- lation and implementation of policies related to ters, which serves as a tool for the surveillance and these resources. In terms of effective water gover- control of their quality and the exercise of the re- nance, participation is developed on the basis of sponsibility that concerns the state in terms of the social mobilization and the ability to exercise this sustainable management of this resource, has iden- constructively.

tified 2 260 main polluting sources of inland waters. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 23

This information, based on real data, serves as Box 2 input for the adoption of the policies to be imple- The notion of the hydrosocial cycle is constructed in op- mented in the short, medium and long terms, so position to the conventional use of the water cycle, which that the institutions responsible for these actions “continues eternally with or without human activity”, and can complete them with the corresponding respon- points to a static and reified notion of this cycle as Maid- sibility. In fact, predictability is an effective ally of ment (1993) points out (Linton, 2010:231 ). In the opposite responsibility. direction, the water cycle “proposes a science whose field is defined between the hydrological and the social and is 1.6. Receptivity therefore presented as a means of producing critical knowledge about the social nature of water,” says Maidment (Lar- heavily on the effectiveness of the mechanisms in- simont and Grosso, 2014:8). stitutionsReceptivity have in waterfor receiving resource information management from relies the lowest levels at which they provide water of the appropriate quality. An effective information system is built on the foundations of social mobilization and freedom of expression for its social appropriation. - On the basis of the previous elements, we think fersfirst to characteristic its deterritorialization, assumes that3 in water other underwords, any its that the problem of water quality, like many others on spatialcircumstance delocalization; can be reduced and lastly, to H2O; it warns the second us about re the agendas of the governments of several countries its dematerialization, in other words, the fact that in the region, emerges when each of these points is the conquest of water through its abstraction and evaluated and it becomes clear that although ideas technical control has destroyed the relationship on water governance assume the desirable image of water management, the way they operate in practice particular territories. is far from ideal. The way water governance occurs specificIn short, social from groups this had perspective, -or have-, what with the water mod inis based on power relations that subordinate the de- ern construction of water ignores is its social na- cision-making power of some to the detriment of ture, and as a result, it deprives society of the abili- political agendas that do not necessarily correspond ty to think of itself as a producer of water and of its to the ideals of inclusion. In this respect, the func- quality. tioning of society can be said to pose obstacles to the Accordingly, the starting point for the discus- achievement of good water governance. sion is repeated, emphasizing that the nature of water is based on the ways society produces water 2. Alienation as an inhibiting mechanism through its practices, knowledge, ideas, meanings, of good governance values and the potentials it confers on it. Separating - society from these ideas entails creating alienation tion of water refers to a social order that decides on from the social nature of water and, therefore, the itsAccording meanings, to Linton, the uses (2010) of water,the hegemonic institutions, construc laws political subordination of the majority of the pop- and the authorities responsible for managing it, as ulation. In this respect, the power factor becomes well as the techniques and distribution of the ben- crucial to understanding the governance of water and the future of the institutions that exercise its how were we taught to produce the idea of water management. asefits an derived abstraction, from aits compound allocation. of In hydrogen his text, he and asks: ox- and encourage discussions that will answer the central point highlighted by the author points is questionThese related are the toarguments the water that - society allow uslink. to reflectThese thatygen one synthesized of the main in characteristics the chemical formula of modern H20? wa A- arguments lead to the second question we formulated, explained below. ter is its simplicity and its simplification. - 3. Also valid for islands, although the territorial dimension is re- ing anyLinton (inland) lists threewater mainand of characteristics being anywhere. of The the duced to municipalities and provinces or their equivalent. modern idea of water: its universality, the fact of be 24 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

How we achieve water quality with this diversity - gles for water access and control, and exclusion and er becomes central and therefore the conception access mechanisms are expressed in institutions, Atof the this hydrosocial point in the cycle reflection, of critical the aspectgeography of pow ex- through factors such as hydraulic works, legisla- pressed in the development of political ecology be- tion, institutions, practices and symbolic meanings comes extremely important. A central premise of

is that the circulation of water is both a social and cycle,(Larsimont not only and the Grosso, relationships 2014:8). activatedWhen we for speak its ac of- physicalpolitical ecology,process. asAccordingly, noted by Swyngedouw the idea of circula(2004),- cesswater but flows, also wethe referrelationships to the complete involved hydrosocialin the uses,

It is important to note that the natural resourc- tion invites us to understand how flows of water, esquality existing and in ways ecosystems in which are its finalthe sustenance disposal occurs. of life capital and power are materially linked (Larsimont and that water guarantees the services of ecosys- withinand Grosso, the physical 2014:7) environment (atmosphere, sur- tems, while man is the main user of the goods (and Thus, in addition to examining how water flows services) they provide. These interrelationships de- considers how water is manipulated, used and con- termine the inseparability between water, sustain- centratedface, subsoil, by biomass),social stakeholders, the “hydrosocial” how the cycle strug also- able socioeconomic development and life systems.

Figure 1. Sustainable Development Goals 2030 The essence of the Sustainable Development Goals until 2030 approved by the United Nations (December, 2015), is evidence of the transversality and social nature of water. None of these objectives can be met unless, “water availability and sustainable management and sanitation for all are guaranteed”. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 25

Accordingly, it is necessary to become aware From the above, we can therefore derive what we initially recognized, namely that access to water that schematizes the occurrence of water in na- in quantity and quality for all sectors of society can turethat must from abe scientific perceived perspective, as a hydrosocial the water cycle, cycle giv- only be achieved by destroying the epistemic obsta- - cles imposed by the various disciplinary perspec- ior of each of the components of that cycle. In this tives and instead adopting an integrated, multidi- respect,en the significant becoming impact aware societyof the social has on construction the behav mensional approach, built on the reappropriation of water quality is a determining factor for creating of the knowledge and powers of the citizens with better institutional models that enable good water whom water governance is organized. governance.

A global look forward: United Nations References Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) until 2030 Water-related problems facing society require glob- Alcocer, D.J., E. Kato, E. Robles y G. Vilaclara (1988). ContaminaciónEstudio preliminar Ambiental del efecto del dragado sobre of their multiple aspects is the solution. el estado trófico del Lago Viejo de Chapultepec.- al answers:Actions problemsat the local are level global have and exceeded the integration the lim- 4 43–56. - its of ecosystems,4 and that level has created global Armienta,nic-bearing M.A.; rocks L.K. Ongley;in groundwater R. Rodríguez; pollution G. Vil at consequences. Accordingly, the change in society’s Zimapanlaseñor; H.Valley, Mangoy Mexico. (2002). Environmental The role ofGeology arse actions and attitudes towards these problems must be conceptualized and addressed at all levels, be- - ginning with the local level, but always with a view 42:433–438. towards the global level. Budds, J (2012). La demanda, evaluación y asig Figure 1 - nación del aguaRevista en Geografía el contexto Norte de escasez:Grande, No. un análisis del ciclo hidrosocial del valle del río La perspective ofattempts water and to outline its transversality how the 17 SDGswith relo- Ligua, Chile. - callate and to SDGglobal 6 concerningscales. water. It show the social 52: 167-184. Comisión Nacional del Agua (CONAGUA) (2011). Es Situacióntadísticas del subsectoragua en México. agua potable, México, alcantarilCONAGUA- According to Sandoval Minero (2017), this- Comisiónlado y saneamiento. Nacional del Agua (CONAGUA) (2013). forms,means organizationthat the effort and to achieve governance. SDGs In must this be respect, much - thegreater achievement in terms ofof financialthe water terms, target institutional entails the re- sessment of the potential México: for CONAGUA arsenic leaching duction of poverty, the improvement in food and Carrillo, A. and Drever, J. (1998). Environmental as- health of the population, regular school attendance ifornia Sur, México. Geofísica Internacional, by children, the reduction of domestic burdens that into groundwater from mine wastes in Baja Cal mainly affect women, labor productivity, the reduc- 37, tion of social inequality, the sustainability of cities, 35-39. as well as the care of marine and inland aquatic Carrillo-Rivera,action between J.J., groundwaterCardona, A., Huizar-Alvarez,and other compo R.,- - nentsGraniel-Castro, of the environment E. (2008). Response in Mexico. of the Environ inter- - mental Geology, ityecosystems access. (Sandoval Minero, 2017:129). Lastly, in - tegrated water management influences water qual 55, 303-319. Escolero, O.; S. Kralisch, S.E. Martínez, M. Perev 4. Human water management has not only jeopardized the abil- deochtchikova las fuentes (2016). de abastecimiento Diagnóstico de y análisisagua pota de- ity to create a sustainable water cycle, but also endangers water los factores que influyen en la vulnerabilidad for the different forms of life that also depend on it (Pacheco-Ve- ble a la Ciudad de México. Boletín de la Sociedad ga, 2017). Geológica Mexicana

, Vol. 68 N° 3 pp. 409‒427. 26 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Sistemas complejos.

García, R. (2006). Barcelona: Muradian R., B. Nath, A. Jafar and L. Doménech- Gedisa tion(2009). in Water The South and Sanitation Asian Experience: Services (WSS) Financial In- Global Water Partnership (2003). Tec Background- Arrangements for Facilitating Local Participa Text No.7, Peter Rogers and Alan W. Hall Water and Sanitation Hukka, J.J. & T. Katko (2009). ComplementaryWater and ParaSani- Services.terventions Public in Poor Policy Urban and Areas-Management. Lessons from- digmstation ofServices. Water andPublic Sanitation Policy and Services: Management. Lessons Bangladesh and Nepal. from the Finnish Expirience. What’s EarthWater - encan, Boletín UK. Earthcan, UK. Integrated Urban Wa- Peña, A. (2011). Introducción al libro Jiménez,ter Management B. (2009) Management in Arid and Semi-arid of Water inRegions Mex 74. México: El Colegio de Hidalgo. - aroundico City, the in World.Mays, L. (ed.) Pietiläperience. P., M. J. Water Gunnarsdóttir, and Sanitation P Hjorth Services. and S. Balslev Public Policy(2009). and Decentralized Management. Services: The Nordic Ex los nuevos conceptosParis: híbridos UNESCO. para abordar las Social power and the urban- Larsimont, R. y Grosso, V. (2014).Cardinalis Aproximación a ization of water: flows of Earthcan, power. UK. - Swyngedouw, E. (2004). problemáticas híbridas. , Revista del Oxford: OxfordAGUA. Córdoba,Departamento Argentina de Geografía, Año 2, No. 2, Facul AgendaUniversity ciudadana Press. de ciencia, tecnología e inno- tad de FilosofíaWhat y Humanidades, is Water? A history Universidad of a mod de- Torregrosa,vación. M.L. (Coordinadora) (2013). ern abstraction. - Linton, J. (2010). México: CONACYT, AMC, UNAM. University of Vancouver. Cana Torregrosa,Mexico. Water M.L & and B. Jiménez Sanitation (2009). Services. Faxcing Public the da: British Columbia Press. - PolicyUniversal and Management. Access of Water and Sanitation in Meerganzdouw al Von debate Medeazza, sobre G.los (2006) recursos Flujos hídricos de agua, en flujos de poder. La aportación de ErikDoc. Swynge Anal. Earthcan, UK. Geogr. Latinoamérica y en el Estado Español. 47: 127-139. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 27

Water and Health

Martín Forde (Grenada), Ricardo Izurieta (Ecuador), Banu Ôrmeci (Canadá), Mercedes Arellano (Cuba) y Kerry Mitchell (Grenada)

Introduction

The link between water and human health is immutable. Water not only is essential for life,

ourbut healthmore immediately, and wellbeing. for good health and well-being. Given that over 60% of the human body is water, readily having it in sufficient quantities and quality is fundamental both for

cleanWhen water the and United sanitation Nations worldwide. launched The the philosophyfirst International that all Drinking-Waterpeoples, regardless Supply of their and socio-economicSanitation Decade status, (1981 have – 1990) a basic in 1977, right its to purpose drinking-water was to bring both attention in quantities and supportand quality for equal to their basic needs was recognized and adopted. In the sentinel conference held to

elucidate primary health care factors held in Almaty (formerly Alma-Ata), Kazakhstan, 1978,- the need for an adequate supply of safe water and basic sanitation was specified. - In 2000, the United Nations codified political commitments aimed at tackling major de velopment issues faced by the developing world within a fixed period of time into 8 Mil- lennium Development Goals (MDGs). While many of these MDGs can either be directly or indirectly linked to water supply and sanitation issues, Goal 7 on environmental sustain ability, and in particular Target 10, declared the goal that by 2015 to halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. In 2015, the affordableUN launched drinking the Sustainable water Development Goals (SDGs), also known as Global Goals, which againThe declared continued, as one sustained of its goals focus (Goal on providing#6) that all safe humans drinking by 2030 water have to accessall was to reiterated safe and

water-basedby the UN Secretary-General plan are to make António a global Guterres call to action at the for launch water, of sanitation the International and hygiene¬¬–or Decade for WASH¬–andAction 2018-2028, to put in a New greater York, focus on World on water-related Water Day, March sustainable 22, 2018. development Prime goals goals of this and latest integrated management of water resources over the next ten years.

be related to child mortality, maternal health, hunger, and several notable diseases such as The UN’s SDG Water Goal has both a direct and indirect impact on human health as it can-

infectiousmalaria, dengue diseases fever that and plague others. the The developing former United world Nationsuntil we Secretary-General have also won the Kofi battle A. An for safenan declareddrinking-water, that “we sanitation shall not andfinally basic defeat health AIDS, care.” tuberculosis, malaria, or any of the other

Martin Forde [email protected] Doctor en Ciencias, Universidad de San Jorge. Ricardo Izurieta [email protected] Depart- ment of Global Health, University of South Florida (USF); Colegio de Medicina, Universidad San Francisco de Quito (USFQ), Banu Ôrmeci [email protected] Profesora Titular y Cátedra Jarislowsky en Agua y Salud, Departamento de Ingeniería Civil y Ambiental de la Uni- versidad de Carleton, Ottawa ON, Canadá. Mercedes Arellano [email protected] Investigadora Auxiliar, Comisión del Agua (CA); Academia de Ciencias de Cuba (ACC); Agencia de Medio Ambiente, Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología y Medio Ambiente (CITMA). Mitchell kmitche3@ sgu.edu Doctor en Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de San Jorge. 28 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Around the world, millions are deprived on ade- ural processes and/or anthropological sources. quate drinking water supplies and/or are forced to consume potentially unsafe water which ultimate- that are used in manufacturing and commercial ly adversely impacts on their health and wellbeing. There are more than 100,000 registered chemicals The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates - - iesproducts of water. (Schwarzman As a result, several and Wilson, regulatory 2009), agencies many haveof which established ultimately limits find theiras to wayshow tomuch natural of these bod Further,that 1.1 billion as a consequence people lack of access having to to sufficient consume wa- contaminants can be in potable water (Table 1). ter suppliesof poor qualityand 2.6 billionand inadequate lack adequate quantity, sanitation. WHO Chemical contaminants can be categorized as reports that annually millions of deaths¬––especial- carcinogenic, genotoxic, and mutagenic based on ly among children––are associated with water-re- their effect on human health. Carcinogenic contam- lated diseases and infections (e.g. water-borne and inants cause cells to become cancerous and induce vector-borne). Additionally, inadequate and poor - water quality supplies also affect crops production nants cause changes to the structure of the genet- and can lead to food contamination when untreat- icthe material growth of of cells. cancerous Mutagenic cells. contaminants Genotoxic contami induce ed wastewater in used for irrigation, ultimately im- permanent and heritable changes to the genetic pacting on the nutritional status of populations. material, and carcinogenic and genotoxic chemi- The problems of poor drinking water quality cals are usually mutagenic as well. At low concen- are not limited to only developing countries but are tration levels, it might take an extended period of also experienced in several developed countries. time ranging from several years to several decades For example, although many developed countries after exposure to these toxic contaminants before have made substantial improvements in their drinking water treatment systems, emergent pathogens Acute health effects, which can be seen within a few have caused major water-borne outbreaks among days,the first can signs also of occur these ifchronic the chemical health effects contaminant appear. concentration levels are very high. States reported the largest document waterborne Naturally occurring contaminants are typically outbreakthe populations which theyhappened serve. Inin AprilMilwaukee 1993, the city, United Wis- released from geological formations and are typically found in higher concentrations in groundwater compared to surface waters. Natural chemical consin (Dore 2015). In a more recent review of the- contaminants are mainly inorganic in origin and water supply system in the U.S., an investigation of- - 680,000 water quality and monitoring violations re trates and nitrites, and radionuclides. Arsenic has arecorded exposed by the to Environmental potentially unsafe Protection water. Agency re beeninclude shown arsenic, to cause fluoride, skin, iron lung, and bladder, manganese, and liver ni vealed that as many as 63 million persons in the U.S. cancers, hyperkeratosis and peripheral vascular disease in humans, and is a major cause of concern Water contaminants and health in the Indian sub-continent, South America and

The water that humans consume needs to be clean - and free of both chemical and microbial contami- Far East (Fawell and Nieuwenhuijsen, 2003). High nants. The adverse health effects that can arise by concentrations of fluoride can lead to skeletal de drinking contaminated water range from acute formity and dental fluorosis and is also a cause of health effects such as acute gastrointestinal dis- significant morbidity in the Indian sub-continent, eases to long-term outcomes such as cancer and atAfrica, lower and concentrations Far East (Fawell cause and discoloration, Nieuwenhuijsen, taste physical and neurological developmental delays in and2003). turbidity Manganese issues. and Several iron, abundant epidemiological in many studsoils,- children. ies have linked manganese to adverse neurological effects after long exposures to high concentrations, Chemical contaminants however, this is currently debated as there are also Chemical contaminants can be found in water sup- - plies as a result of their introduction through nat- tween manganese in drinking water and neurolog- studies which showed no significant correlation be WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 29

- levels, emerging contaminants have been shown globinemia mainly in infants, commonly referred to have adverse impacts on aquatic life and human toical as effects blue baby(WHO, syndrome, 2017a). Nitrites where cause the nitrite methemo converts hemoglobin to methemoglobin and limits ox- Other sources of emerging contaminants in- ygen transport. Nitrate and nitrite have been linked cludehealth agricultural (Sumpter and activities Johnson, through 2005). the use of her- to esophagus, stomach, bladder and colon cancers bicides and pesticides, which are carried by surface runoff to water bodies. Mining activities and indus- radioactive isotopes in the environment, and their trial waste are the main sources of heavy metals (IARC, 2010). Radionuclides are naturally occurring (e.g., Cr, Ni, Cu, Pb, Hg) and their toxic health effects a decay product of radium, and among the radionu- - clides,presence it is varies the most from important location to one location. and is Radonsuspect is- ganic compounds, heavy metals do not go through biologicalon humans or have chemical been degradation,well-documented. and their Unlike toxici or- odorless, colorless gas that can enter the indoor liv- ty, bioavailability, and transport in the environment inged ofspaces causing from lung water cancer taps (EPA, and showering.2010). Radon Ninety is an are determined by the oxidation/reduction, precip- percent of the exposure to radon in drinking water itation and adsorption reactions. There are well-es- has been reported to be through inhalation and not tablished limits for the concentrations of heavy metals in drinking water (Table 1). Naturally occurring organic chemicals may also High concentrations of lead in drinking wa- threateningestion water (UNSCEAR, quality, 2000). although there are relatively ter due to leaching of lead from plumbing and wa- few of these contaminants compared to the natural- ter distributions systems remains a major public ly occurring inorganic chemical contaminants. The health issue around the world. In the recent water main naturally occurring organic contaminant in surface waters is microcystin, which is a toxin produced by cyanobacteria and can pose a major threat concentrationslead contamination in their case drinking in Flint, water Michigan, with USA,at least in to the quality and safety of drinking and recreation- aApril quarter 2014, of consumers the houses experiencedsampled exceeding very high the leadfed- al waters during algal blooms. Algal blooms are - primarily driven by nitrogen and phosphorus pollution, and their frequency, intensity, and duration leaderal limitto a doublingof 15 ppb of and the some infants water and sampleschildren meawith have increased in recent years due to the increased elevatedsuring as blood high aslead 13,200 levels ppb (Hanna-Attisha (Lazarus, 2016). et This al., discharges of wastewaters into surface water bodies, as well as due to the effects of climate change. In Chemical disinfectants used during water treat- ment2015). processes can also lead to the formation of - chlorinated, iodinated, and nitrogenized disinfec- 2014, 400,000 people were without usable wateret al in., Toledo, Ohio, after an algal bloom in Lake Erie, gen contaminantserated high levels to water of toxins resources in water is (Benedictmuch worse in bladdertion byproducts cancer at (DBPs). concentrations Trihalomethanes lower than (THM), what developing2017). The threat countries from where naturally there occurring is limited organic to no haswhich been are establishedchlorinated inDBPs, regulations have been (Villanueva linked with et wastewater treatment. al Anthropological sources of water contaminants Current regulations are currently structured to include sewage and industrial wastewater dis- ., 2004). charges, agricultural activities, mining operations, based targets. This approach, however, is not very accidental spills and illegal dumps, as well as chem- realisticfocus on individualfor emerging chemicals contaminants and specific given health- that icals from water treatment and distribution sys- these tend to be present at very low concentrations tems. Domestic and industrial wastewaters are the in water and persons are exposed to not one but a main sources of emerging contaminants, such as mixture of these chemicals for very long periods of endocrine disrupting compounds, pharmaceuticals, time. There are major knowledge gaps in assessing and personal care products, which exist in parts per the health impacts of chronic exposure to multiple trillion (ppt) to parts per billion (ppb) levels in sur- chemicals and understanding what interactions oc- - face waters. Even at these minute concentration cur (WHO, 2017b). At present, there is no agreed-up 30 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

on risk assessment and management methodology al -

Although., 2010), it with is expected Europe that reporting the occurrence 136 similar of outwa- assessmentfor chemical of mixtures. chemical The mixtures European based Commission on several ter-bornebreaks during viral the outbreak period should2000-2007 be more(ENHIS, frequent 2009). parameters(EU, 2012) has including recommended their chemical prioritizing characteris the risk- in middle and low-income countries, the absence tics, prevalence, adverse health effects at the typical of resources and the techniques to detect viral con- exposure levels, persistence and bioaccumulation taminants in water in these countries explains the potential, and threshold concentrations. The WHO apparent dearth of such reports. For centuries, Vibrio cholera has caused lethal epidemics with thousands of deaths all around the forGuidelines nitrate/nitrite for the Drinkingand THMs Water and Qualitystipulates (WHO, the world. Although great advances have been made in need2017a) to currently consider recommends the mixtures an ofadditive pesticides approach that the area of improving water sanitation, low and lim- have similar structures and modes of action, such ited resources in many countries, many times exac- as atrazine and simazine. Considering the very large number of chemical contaminants, the complexity of their chemistries erbated by ongoing conflicts means that many are still being killed by this pathogen (Izurieta, 2006). studying their effects on humans and environment, pathogenicThree of the bacteria. six Escherichia Other bacteria coli strains such (0127, as Salmo 0148,- theand needinteractions, for high-tech the difficulties but high-cost in measuring treatment sysand- nellaand 0157) spp., are Shigella of major spp., importance and Campylobacter as waterborne spp. tems for their removal, the most effective approach have also been the causal pathogen in many waterin managing chemical contaminants is to protect borne outbreaks. drinking water sources, minimize or eliminate all Of increasing concern is the emergence of sources of pollution and switch to less harmful new pathogenic bacteria which can be transmit- chemical substitutes when possible. ted through water. Helicobacter pylori, the necessary element in the pathogenesis of gastric cancer, Biological contaminants has been found in drinking water, as well as oth- Water and food are the two main routes of exposure er pathogens like Mycobacterium Avium Complex for various gastrointestinal microorganisms whose (MAC) and Aeromonas hydrophyla. Standard labo- reservoirs are humans, animals and/or the envi- ratory methods need to be updated in order to in- ronment. All segments of the human population are susceptible to water-borne pathogens, however, the methods to detect viable but non-cultivable bacte- very young, elderly and immunosuppressed suffer troduce alternative bio-molecular and fluorescence disproportionately the most severe consequences. The HIV/AIDS epidemic has brought to the fore Microbial water contaminants can be broken theria inpathogenicity water (Cabral, of 2010).parasites like Cryptosporidium - spp. among the immunosuppressed, the young and teria, Protozoa, Metazoan (helminths), and Algae the elderly. Toxigenic cyanobacteria have also been (downTable into 2). theVirus following can infect major all groups:living organisms Viruses, Bac in- associated with eutrophication and massive human cluding bacteria, plants, animals, and humans. The - most important viruses from a water contamina- creasing concern, even the long sought-after goal of - and animal intoxications (Tundisi,Dracunculus 1998). And media of in- nesis) by substantial improvements in improving tion perspective are as follows: Rotaviruses, Astro- theeradicating safety of the drinking Guinea water worm may ( be slipping away viruses.virus, Norovirus, These viruses Hepatitis are primarilyA, Hepatitis transmitted E, Coxsackie, by due to the emergence of canine reservoirs (Cairn- contaminatedEnterovirus, Polioviruses, water via the Adenoviruses, fecal-oral route. and Echo While most human viral infections are asymp- - tomatic or produce mild symptoms, moderate to cross, 2002). severe clinical cases can occur during outbreaks. of antibioticsMost recently, in food-producing the emergence animals of Antibiotic has led Rethe WHOsistant to Microorganism recommend that (ARM) farmers due toand the the heavy food use inet dustry stop using antibiotics routinely to promote The United Sates reported 64 water-borne viral outbreaks during the period 1971-2006 (Craun WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 31

Table 1. Regulatory limits for chemicals in drinking water

et al., 2014.

Source: De Villanueva 32 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

growth and prevent disease in healthy animals stances which have been generated from different - - ments and technology transfer for water manage- tin(WHO, resistant 2017c). E coli Preliminary studies carried out in- mentprocess. in developing By and large, countries however, has not adequate occurred. invest The Ecuador have revealed a 71.2% prevalence of colis- high demographic growth experienced in most de- sistant E coli in fecesand of 65.9% chickens prevalence and pigs, of and extend that veloping countries has served to further exacerbate theseed-spectrum high prevalences beta-lactamases were (ESBL)associated producing with there this problem. In many developing countries, river use of antibiotics in pig and chicken feeding formu- and lakes which serve as the primary sources for drinking water are heavily polluted due to the wan- of the disposal of animal bio solids into water bod- ton and indiscriminate disposal of domestic and in- ies,las. these Given feces that are there being are discharged currently no in restrictionsstream, riv- dustrial wastes. These practices persist in part due ers and lakes. Therefore, it is plausible that highly to the lack of legal regulations and/or political un- - willingness to enforce laws and regulations that are already on the books. poorARMs health are already outcomes present when in consumed raw waters by humans. of Ecua dor (Izurieta and Yamamoto, 2018) which can led to pollution of key drinking water sources is usually In countries with limited financial resources the Influence of Economic Conditions along ditches built close to the houses, the unavail- associated with the drainage of gray water flowing on water quality and health ability of daily collection of solid wastes and the effects of wastes lixiviates. These problems are caused Terrestrial waters can be considered as being part by the lack of sewerage systems, waste treatment of productive processes, generating costs that are internationally recognized water quality standards. of these processes. This is why water management stationsIt is welland waterknown purification and widely plantsdisseminated which meet that (protectionincluded in theincluded) financial is consideredbalance (income, in the economcharges)- in many tropical countries rainwater accumulates ic context. in soil depressions, vessels without covers or dis- The current economic dimensions of water carded tires, thus becoming larvae repositories for management had their origin at the end of past mosquitos such as the Aedes aegypti, the transmitter of the dengue disease. viewed water as just one component in several pro- Investments made to protect a population’s ductioncentury. processes. Basically, However, economists other have economists traditionally have - noted that water is fundamentally a different type resourcesdrinking water due to can the lead reduction to many of water-relatedsocial benefits dis in- - cluding a saving of scarce public sector´s financial allof resource.a factor of Aguilera-Klink social, economic (1995) and pointsenvironmental out that Domestic Product in the African continent as a con- “water is more than a production factor. It is over eases. According to the World Bank, losses in Gross-

cohesion.” Aguilera- Klink (2001) later stated that sequenceIt is thus of the recommended malaria (2003) that exceeded developing 12,000 coun mil- eco-social“water can resource.” be seen from different perspectives: trieslion dollars evaluate (Larbi possible Bouguerra, solutions 2007). and ways to sup- as aThe production economy element, has a direct as financialimpact on issue several and wa as- ply water with the required quality, despite the fact ter-related aspects, such as its quality, and therefor that the problems mentioned above are not solved on its uses. When water quality is low, water-related diseases and illness appears. solution in a short time. The political will of govern- - mentsand financial is important. limitations It is donecessary not allow to toquantify give them the sources and requisite technologies to mitigate the costs, to establish priorities to give access to this impactsMost of developed industrial development. countries have These financial countries re natural resource on the basis of social inclusion, also have developed the necessary legal instru- prioritizing the most vulnerable communities who ments and regulations which establish permissible limits for disposal of waste water and polluting sub- this way societies will be more likely attain human have to least material and financial resources. In WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 33

Table 2 Most important water-borne human pathogens Agent Disease Reservoir Humans, Animals Astrovirus Humans Rotaviruses Gastroenteritis Norovirus Humans Gastroenteritis and Acute Respiratory Infection Hepatitis A Hepatitis Humans Gastroenteritis Hepatitis Humans, Animals

Hepatitis E Coxsackie viruses and mouth disease, meningitis, cardiac infection, and peripheral Humans Viral Gastroenteritis, Upper Acuteneuropathy Respiratory Infection, hand, foot,

and mouth disease, cardiac infection, meningitis and peripheral Humans Gastroenteritis and Upper Acuteneuropathy Respiratory Infection, hand, foot, Enterovirus Polioviruses Poliomyelitis Humans Adenoviruses Humans

Gastroenteritis and Acute Respiratory Infection Humans hepatitis Gastroenteritis, Acute Respiratory Infection, meningitis, and CampylobacterEchoviruses spp. Humans, Animals Escherichia coli Humans, Animals Gastroenteritis Helicobacter pylori Humans Gastroenteritis Legionella spp. Pneumonia, gastroenteritis Aquatic Gastritis, Gastric cancer Leptospira spp. Mild fever with rash or Hemorrhagic fever Aquatic, Soil, Animals Salmonella spp. Humans, Animals Bacterial Shigella spp. Gastroenteritis Vibrio cholera Aquatic (estuaries) Gastroenteritis Yersinia enterocolítica Gastroenteritis with watery diarrhea Criptosporidium spp. Chronic diarrhea Humans, Animals Gastroenteritis Giardia duodenalis Abdominal pain Humans, Animals Protozoan Entamoeba Humans Dysentery, Hepatic abscess histolytica Balantidium coli Humans, Animals Schistosoma spp Humans, Aquatic Metazoan Dracunculus Humans, Animals, Intestinal,Painful papule Hepatic in the and skin, Urinary gastroenteritis infections medinensis Aquatic Algae Cianobacterias Intoxication Aquatic habitats that are inclusive, secure, resilient and sus- drinking water to meet daily needs can have seri- those living within a specific region. A lack of safe- tainable, in harmony with the United Nations SDG lion persons around on every continent at least one #11 by the year 2030. monthous health out consequences.of every year doesWorldwide, not have over adequate 2.8 bil Water scarcity and health safe drinking water to consume. The problem of inadequate safe drinking water supplies is predicted to get worse over the foreseeable future due to pop- available water resources to meet the demands of ulation growth, increased demands especially from Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient, readily 34 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

the agricultural sector, and climate change. the population. This, in turn, severely limits the opportunities and time women and children have to has both immediate and distal impacts on human engage in other socially productive activities such healthInsufficient and wellbeing. water suppliesIt is estimated to meet that daily humans needs as small business enterprises, localized garden require a minimum daily water intake that ranges farming, and schooling. - These estimates, however, increase in warmer cli- est user of freshwater resources. The additional mates,from 1.8 higher to 5 liters levels per ofcapita physical per day activity (Gleick and 1996). for demandsBy far, this the sectoragricultural will place sector on is watercurrently resourc larg- sensitive sub-population such as pregnant and lac- es is predicted to further increase with population tating women. Thus, the WHO recommends a mini- - - bandry and crop irrigation techniques, and anthro- quirements of most people under most conditions. pogenicallygrowth, the continueddriven climate use ofchanges. inefficient animal hus mum of 7.5 liters per capita per day to meet the re The International Water Management Institute hygiene. If persons are required to walk farther Sufficient water is essential for proper human for water collection, they then may not collect suf- they(IWMI) predict projects that thatunless nearly the issue 1 billion of water people scarci may- than 1 kilometer or spend more than 30 minutes tynot is have appropriately access to addresseswater by the today, year many 2025. countries Further, will soon face a series of impossible decisions when ficient water for proper hygiene (Gleick 1996). As a- choices have to made on how to reduce the amount ter-washed”result, some havediseases observed due to that inadequate many “waterborne” quantities of water used in agriculture that is demanding ofdiseases water being may beavailable more accuratelyfor necessary labeled human as activ “wa- more of it and transferring it to other competing ities such as washing hands, food preparation, laun- users in the industrial and domestic sectors. There is therefore an urgent need for meaningful investments to be made today in water supply systems so dry, and washing cooking utensils (Bradley 1977). as to ensure adequate supplies of high quality waare children.Each year, Further, the WHO many estimates more suffer that debilitating about 2.2 ter is delivered to all, and this need must be clear- andmillion chronic persons health die problems. from diarrhea Diarrheal of which and 90%oth- ly articulated and acknowledged in all public health er diseases caused or worsened by water scarcity policies. have also been linked to other adverse health conditions such as malnutrition, decreased food intake, impaired nutrient absorption, and compromised Conclusions et al In addition to providing adequate supplies of water immuneParticularly systems in (Rice developing . 2000; countries, Stephenson as a result 1999; ofUN water 2003). scarcity, many are forced to drink poor increasing attention will need to be directed at en- quality water from untreated sources such are lo- suringas of 2017 that to the all 7.5quality billion of inhabitantsthis water is of high this enough planet, cal streams or rivers, which are contaminated ei- to guarantee human health and wellbeing. This ther chemically, microbial or both. Additionally, inadequate water supplies mean that sewage does need to be allocated to not only building new wa- termeans treatment significant and distribution and consistent systems, resources but also will toof health-related problems and can exacerbate the wards their maintenance and upkeep as they wear spreadnot easily of vector-borneflow, which then diseases creates such its ownas malaria. sequelae Water scarcity impacts human health in oth- Protection Agency estimates that local water sys- er ways. For example, fetching water from distant and age over time. In the U.S, their Environmental- sites, a task that is usually borne solely by women qualitytems will to needbe consumed. to invest USD 384 billion in the com on already malnourished women and children. Ad- ing decadesIt is well to established ensure that that the improving water is of a sufficient commu- and children, places additionally calorific burdens nity’s water supply, hygiene and sanitation leads to time and effort from these vulnerable segments of measurable improvements in health. For example, ditionally, this necessary task exacts significant WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 35

the WHO has found that the incidence of diarrhea with clean water. 507–528. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00077-09.Vol. 23, No.- can be reduced by 26% simply by providing persons 3. 0893-8512/10/$12.00doi:10.1128/CMR.00077- 09 http://aquaticpath.phhp.ufl.edu/waterbiolo- increasingIt is estimated anthropogenic that out polluting of the 35,000activities, Km³ only to mentgy/handouts2011/outbreaks-craun2010.pdf and Conservation, Springer Water, Spring - 50,000 Km³ fresh water globally available, due to- Doreer MH.International (2015). Global Publishing Drinking Switzerland, Water Manage DOI en that clean water is essential to good health, pro- abouttecting one-third this diminishing can be used and for threatened human needs. resource Giv will require concerted efforts by governments and 10.1007/978-3-319-11032-5_2Outbreaks of waterborne other policy makers who manage and oversee the Europeandiseases. Environment and Health Information use of this precious resource. System (ENHIS) (2009). Fact sheet no. 1.1, December 2009 z Code:- RPG1_WatSan_E1. http://www.euro.who.int/__- References data/assets/pdf_file/0009/96885/1.1.-Out breaks-of-waterborne-diseases-EDITED_layToxicity and assess- mentout_V03.pdf of chemical mixtures. económico, social y ambiental. El Campo European Union (EU) (2012). - Aguilera-Klink, F. (1995). El agua como activo Brussels: EU.http:// 132,- ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/en nas15–27. cuestiones ignoradas mucho antes del Nue- vironmental_risks/docs/scher_o_155.pdfWater In- Aguilera-Klink, F. (2001). Economía del agua: algu Gleick,ternational P. H. (1996). Basic water requirements for Año 1000, Año 2000. Dos milenios en la his- human activities: Meeting basic needs. toriavo Milenio. de España. En: Robot, L., Baldeón, J. y Villares, R. 21(2), 83–92. (2001). et al - Hanna-Attisha, Mona; LaChance, Jenny; Sadler, lance for WaterborneMadrid: Disease Nuevo Outbreaks Milenio. Asso- Richard Casey; Champney Schnepp, Allison Benedict KM, Reses H, Vigar M, . (2017). Surveil (2015). Elevated Blood Lead Levels in Children- Morb Mortal Wkly Rep (MMWR) 2017; sponse.Associated American with the Journal Flint Drinking of Public Water Health. Crisis: ciated with Drinking Water - The United States, A Spatial Analysis of Risk and Public Health Re 2013–2014. A Death Foretold in the Times106 of 66:1216–1221. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/ Cholera(2): 283–290. (Presentation). Institute for the Study mmwr.mm6644a3 - Izurieta R. (2006). Bradley,ry, M. D.& Mara,(1977). D.D. Health eds.) aspects Wastes ofand water Health supplies in Hot of South Florida. Climates.in tropical countries. In: (Feachem, R.G., McGar of Latin America and the Caribbean, University- sults about the prevalence of colistin resistant Chichester, UK: John Wiley and Sons.- Izurieta R & Yamamoto Y. (2018).E coli Preliminary in swine and re alpp. Pathogens 3–17. and Water. International Journal - Cabral,of Environmental JPS. (2010). WaterResearch Microbiology. and Public BacteriHealth. ument,and ESBL March. producing resistant poultry farming in Ecuador. Non-published doc - 2010;7(10):3657-3703. doi:10.3390/ijerph7103657. LarbiEl Bouguerra,agua y la salud, Mohamed (2007). Las batallas por Cairncross S, Muller R, ZagariaClinical N. (2002).Microbiolo Dra- el agua. Por un bien común de la humanidad. En: gycunculiasis Reviews. (Guinea Worm Disease) and the In Flint, Michigan,cap. 9, app. crisis 170 over y 172. lead Madrid: levels Eradication Initiative. inEditorial tap water. Popular. 2002;15(2):223-246. doi:10.1128/ Lazarus, O. CMR.15.2.223-246.2002.et al - ichigan-crisis-over-lead-levels-tap-water Public Radio International. https:// Craun GF, Brunkard JM, Yoder JS, Roberts VA, Roy www.pri.org/stories/2016-01-07/flint-m SL . (2010). CausesClinical of Microbiology Outbreaks Associat Reviews. ed with Drinking Water in the United States Mac Kenzie WR, Hoxie NJ,et al Proctor ME, Gradus MS,- from 1971 to 2006. Blair KA, Peterson DE, Kazmierczak JJ, Addiss American Society of Microbiology. July 2010, p. DG, Fox KR, Rose JB, . (1994). A massive out 36 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

break in Milwaukee of cryptosporidium infec- Goals. tion transmitted through the public water supply. N Engl J Med. Villanueva, Human C.M., SettlementsCantor, K.P., Programme.Cordier, S., Jaakkola, London: - Earthscan. et al - nutrition as an underlying 1994 Jul 21;331(3):161-7. cause of childhood Ricedeaths AL, Sacro associated L, Hyder with A, infection Black RE diseases (2000). in Mal de- analysis.J.J., King, EpidemiologyW.D. Lynch, C.F. . (2004). Disinfec veloping countries. Bulletin of the World Health Villanueva,tion by productsC. M., Kogevinas, and bladder M., Cordier, cancer: S., a Temple pooled- Organization , 15:367-367.et al - exposure and health consequences of chemicals ence for chemicals 2000: policy.8: 1207-1221 Science ton, M. R., Vermuelen, R. . (2014). Assessing Schwarzman M.R. & Wilson, M.P. (2009). New sci- and research needs. Environmental Health Per- ure. Journal of Nutrition , 326:1065-66. inspectives, drinking water: Current state of knowledge Stephenson CB. Burden of infection on growth fail Chemi- 1999: 129(2S Suppl) cal mixtures 122 in (3), source 213-221. water and drinking water. 534S-538S. World Health Organization (WHO) (2017a). SumpterOther J.Issues P. & Johnson, Concerning A. C. Trace (2005). Organics Lessons in from the Endocrine Disruption andEnvironmental Their Application Science to& publications/chemical-mixtures-in-water/en/Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. ISBN 978-92-4- Technology, 151237-4. www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/WHO Aquatic Environment. guidelines on use of medically important anti- 39 (12), 4321-4332. Worldmicrobials Health in Organization food-producing (WHO) animals. (2017b). TundisiAmerica. J.G., Int. O. J. Rocha, Water T.Resour. Matsumura-Tundisi, Dev., B. Braga (1998). Reservoir management in South Geneva:- Water 14and (1998), Sanita pp.- WHO; 2017 http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/- tion141-155, in the 10.1080/07900629849367 World’s Cities: Local Action for Global handle/10665/258970/9789241550130-eng.pdf;j United Nations (UN) (2003). sessionid=BCED73094DF5752A2E3DB6BB672B 7F19?sequence=1 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 37

Biological Monitoring of Water Quality in the Americas

Ernesto González (Venezuela) and Gabriel Roldán (Colombia)

The determination of water quality is often based on the evaluation of its physical (temperature, color, turbidity, transparency, total dissolved solids, suspended solids, color), chemical (conductivity, pH, alkalinity, acidity, hardness, dissolved oxygen, oxygen demand, nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations, chlorides, heavy metals, biocides, among others) and microbiological characteristics (presence of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, helminths and pro-

- tertozoa, quality among has other changed considerations) from a physical (WHO, and 2017). chemical Although approach these toparameters one integrating are accurate, all the they provide partial, specific information. Accordingly, in recent years, the concept of wa

studiedcomponents through of the the ecosystem use of biological, (Roldán hydromorphological & Ramírez, 2008). In and fact, physico-chemical the European Parliament indicators asFramework a measure Guideline of the quality COM-97 of aquatic has proposed ecosystems. establishing the ecological status of the system The physical and chemical parameters useful for the evaluation of water quality are determined by the presence of both organic and inorganic compounds, which may be in suspended or dissolved form. Some of these compounds are toxic to the ecosystem, while oth-

Aquatic ecosystems maintain an enormous diversity of organisms, as a result of which impactsers serve such as nutrients as pollution for organisms induce changes (Eletta in& Adekola,the structure 2005). of communities, the biological function of aquatic systems and the body itself, affecting their life cycle, growth and its re- et al - vide information on physical and chemical changes in water, since over time they reveal productive condition (Vázquez Silva ., 2006). For this reason, some organisms can pro functional system in which there is a cyclical exchange of matter and energy between living changes in the composition of the community (Laws, 1981). Thus, an aquatic ecosystem is a and play complementary roles in the evaluation of natural and polluted waters. organisms and the abiotic environment. Biology and chemistry are therefore closely related that there are groups of species whose presence in the ecosystem depends on the degree Levels of impact can vary from one aquatic ecosystem to another, and it has been found a very broad range of tolerance to the environmental conditions that occur in the habitat, dependingand type of largely impact on and the contaminants degree of contamination (Tabash, 1988). at Inthe each site. region, It is also some possible organisms to identify have

et al speciesdegradation that orare a thecombination first to disappear of these twodue factors,to the increase as a result in alterationsof which accurate caused knowledge by human activitiesmust be obtained (Vázquez of Silva the intolerant., 2006), species either found because in eachof the region. inadequate water quality, habitat For an organism to be considered a good indicator of water quality, it must be found in

an ecosystem with specific characteristics and its population must have a higher or slightly similar percentage to the rest of the organisms with which it shares the same habitat (Roldán

Ernesto José& Ramírez, González Rivas2008). [email protected] It has therefore been possible Universidad to identify Central de groups Venezuela of (UCV),Facultadorganisms thatde Ciencias, can be Instituto de Biología Experimental. Punto Nacional Focal del Programa de Aguas de IANAS. Roldán-Pérez [email protected] Miembro de Número y Director de Publicaciones, AcademiaColombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Medellín, Antioquia. 38 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

used as biological indicators of environmental im- - pacts that affect the water quality of different eco- al changes produced by eutrophication is the dom- systems, such as bacteria, periphyton, phytoplank- inancewater qualityof the main(Quirós, community 2004). Among of primary the structur pelagic ton, macrophytes, benthic macroinvertebrates and producers of lakes and reservoirs, phytoplankton, et al - by cyanobacteria. logical information produced by these bioindicator fishorganisms (Vázquez does Silva not replace., 2006). physicochemical Although the anal bio- and analysis of algae indicators provides a rapid as- ysis, it can lower costs, which is why these studies sessmentBellinger of trophic & Sigee status (2010) and state possible that the contamina detection- are important for monitoring water quality (Chap- tion by human activities of freshwater bodies. They therefore present what the indicator species of the In the countries on the American continent, trophic state would be in mid-summer in temperate thereman, 1996).are numerous experiences related to the use lakes (Table 1). of organisms to determine water quality, mainly The predominance of cyanobacteria in many in surface sources. This chapter seeks to provide a mesotrophic and eutrophic lakes and reservoirs modest overview of the experiences in the Ameri- - can continent in cases related to the proliferation lar nitrogen (in the form of dissolved gas). At that of certain groups of phytoplankton in lakes and res- time,can be nitrogen explained is usually by their the ability nutrient to limiting fix molecu pri- ervoirs according to their degree of eutrophication mary productivity and cyanobacteria would have and the use of macroinvertebrates as bioindicators competitive advantages in this situation (Pizzolón, of river water quality. lakes and reservoirs with high concentrations of nutrients1996). The can dominance also be explained of cyanobacteria by their inhigh these ca- Eutrophication and phytoplankton pacity to absorb dissolved carbon dioxide, even at very low concentrations. High pH values (basic) - also encourage the development of cyanobacteria, ents, mainly in phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N), due to their capacity to transform bicarbonate and producesExcessive changes enrichment in the with structure surface and water function nutri- carbonate ions into carbon dioxide. In fact, cyano- ing of aquatic ecosystems and the deterioration of bacteria are the only microalgae that develop im-

Table 1. Phytoplankton species indicative of trophic status in temperate lakes in mid-summer Type of lake Algae Indicators Diatoms: Cyclotella comensis, Rhizosolenia spp. Oligotrophic Green algae: Staurodesmus spp. Diatoms: Tabellaria flocculosa Chrysophites: Dynobrion divergens, Mallomonas caudata Mesotrophic Green algae: Sphaerocystis schroeteri, Dyctiosphaerium elegans, Cosmarium spp., Staurastrum spp. Dinoflagellates: Ceratium hirundinella Cyanobacteria: Gomphosphaeria spp. Diatoms: Aulacoseira spp., Stephanodiscus rotula Eutrophic Green algae: Eudorina spp., Pandorina morum, Volvox spp. Cyanobacteria: Anabaena spp., Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, Microcystis aeruginosa Diatoms: Stephanodiscus hantzschii Hipereutrophic Green algae: Scenedesmus spp., Ankistrodesmus spp., Pediastrum spp. Cyanobacteria: Aphanocapsa spp., Aphanothece spp., Synechococcus spp.

Source: Adapted from Bellinger & Sigee, 2010 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 39

Table 2. Algae distribution by trophic state in lakes in the western region of Canada Type of lake Algae Indicators Diatoms: Asterionella formosa, Melosira islandica, Tabellaria fenestrata, Tabellaria flocculosa, Oligotrophic Fragilaria capucina, Stephanodiscus niagarae, Staurastrum spp., Melosira granulata Chrysophites: Dynobrion divergens Diatoms: Fragilaria crotonensis Green algae: Pediastrum boryanum, Pediastrum duplex Mesotrophic Dinoflagellates: Ceratium hirundinella Cyanobacteria: Coelosphaerium naegelianum, Anabaena spp., Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, Microcystis aeruginosa Eutrophic Cyanobacteria: Microcystis flos-aquae

Source: Adapted from Rawson, 1956. portant biomasses in naturally alkaline and saline Macroinvertebrates as water environments. Another type of factor involved in its quality bioindicators predominance is the low consumption rate by zooplankton, either because they are unappetizing, or Aquatic macroinvertebrates are organisms that live because they mechanically interfere with the pro- at the bottom of rivers and lakes, attached to aquat- cess of their consumption, or because zooplankton stop feeding when there are toxic strains of cyanobacteria in the environment. ic vegetation, trunks and submerged rocks (Roldán, are1988). called Their macroinvertebrates, populations are mainly since composedthey can be of - flatworms, insects, mollusks and crustaceans. They ers Accordingsuch as Thunmark, to Bellinger Nygaard & Sigee and (2010),Stockner in thede- - velopedmid-20th trophic century, status between indexes 1945 byand using 1972, largeresearch tax- seen with the naked eye and range in size from 0,5 onomic groups that were considered typical of qualitymm to approximatelyof aquatic ecosystems, 5,0 mm. Since evaluation the composi meth- oligotrophic (particularly desmids, a group of green odstion ofbased macroinvertebrate on these organisms communities have been reflects widely the algae) or eutrophic conditions (chlorococcal, cy- used for several decades as an integral part of wa- anobacterial, euglenoid). Although these indices provide useful information, they tend to lack en- American countries have been the leaders in this vironmental resolution, since many kinds of algae ter quality monitoring. European Union and Northet prove to be heterogeneous, containing typical lake al species, both oligotrophic and eutrophic. The im- permittedfield (Gaufin an &awareness Tarzwell, of1952; the Hynes, ecological 1959; status Resh of provement of sampling methods and the increase in their., 1995). rivers Studies and lakes, based which on this have methodology served as the have ba- taxonomic resolution enabled the development of sis for developing plans for their unexpected recov- indices based on indicator species separated from taxonomic groups. In the Americas, there have been experiences in ofery each in the country, past 20 this years. evaluation can be undertaken the use of phytoplankton groups and species for the withBased various on levels the knowledge of accuracy. of Thus, the aquatic for example, fauna determination of the trophic status and quality of - a list of dominant trophic status indicators for lakes edGermany, the Saprobic which method, has had which a longer requires tradition the iniden the- insurface the western waters. region, In Canada, shown Rawson in Table (1956) 2. Thispublished list is knowledge of its aquatic flora and fauna, has adopt

Other examples of studies of eutrophication and tification of organisms up to the species level for dominancebased on 25 ofyears phytoplankton of observations. groups in the Ameri- Netherlandsits application. and Other Ireland, countries, have adopted such as evaluation Belgium, cas are shown in Table 3. systemsFrance, Great based Britain, on the level Italy, of Portugal, orders, families Denmark, and the in 40 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Table 3. Examples of eutrophization and dominance of phytoplankton groups in the Americas Country Eutrophication and phytoplankton References

Pardo et al. Alcocer &et Lugo al. (1995), Díaz- Mexico particularly Anabaena spp., Microcystis aeruginosa, Oscillatoria et al. (1998), Quiroz Replacementspp. and Lyngbya of green spp. inalgae various and diatomseutrophicated by cyanobacteria, lakes. etCastelán al. (2004), Bravo-et al. (2010),Inclán entre (2008), otros. Oliva Martínez (2008), López-López conditions. Guatemala Prevalence of cyanobacteria in Lake Amatitlán due to eutrophic Lyngbya Basterrechea (1987) et al. (2010) of the change in land use and increase in nutrient concentration. Blooms of the species complex on Lake Atitlán, as a result Rejmánková Jones et al. et al. Costa Rica phytoplankton community dominated by green algae, some The mesotrophic Arenal Reservoir contains a varied diatoms and the Microcystis spp. cyanobacterium. (1993), Umaña (1999) Colombia Tominé) have a predominance of cyanobacteria, especially of the generaReservoirs Anabaena with more spp. signsand Oscillatoria of eutrophication spp. (El Peñol, Prado and Roldán (2002) Positive responses (increase) in the cyanobacterial families Bolivia Oscillatoriaceae and Nostocaceae to enrichment with nutrients and Fontúrbel & Castaño-Piña (2011)

Microcystis spp. and Anabaena spp. cyanobacteria blooms in the pH increase in Lake Titicaca. reservoirs in the State of São Paulo, with severe eutrophication due to industrial and agricultural waste. Tundisi (1988) Brazil Predominance of toxic cyanobacteria, particularly the Planktothrix agardhii (drought period) and Microcystis aeruginosa (rainy Chellappa et al. (2001)

period) species in the Armando Ribeiro Gonçalves reservoir (Rio Phosphorus is the main determinant of phytoplankton biomass Grande do Norte). et al. Argentina in more than 100 Argentine reservoirs, and the increase in the frequency of cyanobacterial blooms in eutrophic lakes. Quirós (1991, 2000), Quirós The rise in nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations has led to (2006) an increase in phytoplankton biomass and the dominance of et al. (2003), Chile cyanobacteria, generally with Anabaena spp., Microcystis spp. and CamposMühlhauser et al. & Vila (1987), Parra Oscillatoria spp. blooms. Almanza-Marroquín(1989), Parra et al. (2005, 2007), The process of eutrophication in large reservoirs (Salto (2016) & Chalar (2003), Chalar et al. growth of phytoplankton, with a predominance of diatoms and Chalar & Conde (2000), De León Grande, Bonete, Baygorria and Palmar) has led to an intense Uruguay cyanobacteria. Predominance of cyanobacteria throughout the year and a marked (2002), Chalar (2006, 2009) increase in the frequency and duration of microalgae blooms, particularly of Microcystis aeruginosa RAP-AL (2010) in the Laguna del Sauce. Reservoirs can be divided into three groups. Group 1: reservoirs with low concentrations of P (<20μg/L) and dominated by Venezuela ammoniumgreen algae. ratio,Groups with 2 and high 3: residence reservoirs times with ofmoderate its waters to andhigh aconcentrations predominance of of P cyanobacteria, (>20μg/L). In groupwhereas 2 there in group is a low3, there nitrate/ is a higher nitrate/ammonium ratio, short residence times of González & Quirós (2011) its waters and phytoplankton is dominated by taxa other than cyanobacteria. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 41

some cases genera. Its effectiveness has been prov- The saprobic approach. The term saprobic, used - to refer to the capacity of certain organisms to sessment,” in addition to the fact that it provides a live in certain levels of pollution, was coined in considerableen in a high percentagereduction in for costs “Rapid and time Ecosystem (De Pauw as - saprobicGermany zone, by Kolkwitz with predominantly & Marsson (1908, reductive 1909). & Hawkes, 1993; Roldán, 2003). processes,They defined b) threemesosaphobic levels of saprobity:zone, partially a) poly re- Current state of knowledge of aquatic ductive with predominantly oxidative processes macroinvertebrates in the Americas and c) oligosaphobic zone, with exclusively oxidative processes. The use of aquatic organisms as bioindicators of the The diversity approach. This includes three main quality of aquatic ecosystems began in the Amer- uniformity and abundance, to describe the com- developed biological methods to evaluate the eco- munity’scomponents response of natural to environmental communities: quality. richness, A logicalicas in conditions the mid-20th of century.currents Patrickin North (1949, America, 1950) natural community is characterized by having - a great diversity of species and a low number of individuals per species, or a low number of while Gaufin & Tarzwell (1952) proposed macroin- species and many individuals per species. This vertebrates as pollution indicators and Hynes (1959,et situation is observed in nature in places such as al1963) proposed macroinvertebrates as water quali the depths of large lakes and the sea, very high methods,ty indicators. using In Marylandmacroinvertebrates (United States), as bioindica Resh - mountains and extreme temperatures. Water tors,. (1995) assessing developed habitat rapid conditions water quality and assessment predicting pollution produces a similar situation, causing the expected fauna at a given site. certain very sensitive communities to disap- Table 4 shows examples of the use of bioindi- pear and other more resistant communities to increase in number. in Colombia. The biotic approach. This approach includes cation in Latin America, based on pioneering work the essential aspects of saprobity, combining a quantitative measure of species diversity with Use of aquatic macroinvertebrates qualitative information on the ecological sensi- as water quality indicators tivity of taxa of individuals in a simple numeri- Aquatic macroinvertebrates are regarded as the - best water quality indicators because they are tweencal expression. pollution Beck intolerant (1955) and proposed tolerant the species; biotic abundant, widely distributed and easy to collect. index in the United States based on the ratio be conditions of their habitat. They are relatively easy values range between 0 and 10. They are mostly sedentary and therefore reflect the- The BMWP method mental variations, provide information to integrate cumulativeto identify, reflect effects, the have effects long of short-termlife cycles environ (weeks and/or months), can be recognized at a glance and - be cultivated in the laboratory, respond quickly to pleThe method Biological to assessMonitoring water Working quality usingParty macroin(BMWP)- environmental stressors and vary very little genet- vertebrateswas established as bioindicators. in England in The1970 reasons as a quick, for simthis - were mainly economic, and linked to the time tak- tebrate communities display different responses to en to undertake the assessment. The method only ically (Roldán, 1999, 2003). Moreover, macroinver- requires reaching the family level and the data is es three main approaches to assess the response of qualitative (presence or absence). The score rang- macroinvertebratepollution. Accordingly, communities Metcalf (1989) to pollution. distinguish These - ferent groups to organic contamination. The most es from 1 to 10 according to the tolerance of the dif include: the saprobic, diversity and biotic method. 42 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Table 4. Examples of work on aquatic macroinvertebrates and bioindication in Latin America Country Works on aquatic macroinvertebrates and bioindication References

et al. Start of bioindication in Latin America. The first works were Roldán (1973); Pérez & based on codes developed by researchers from the USA and Colombia Publication of the Guide for the Study of Aquatic Roldán (1978) Europe. Macroinvertebrates of the Department of Antioquia, which served as the basis for the beginning of knowledge on Roldán (1988) Publication of the book Diversity, conservation and use of macroinvertebrate communities in Latin America. Central America freshwater macroinvertebrates of Mexico, Central America, Alonso et al. (2014) Colombia, Cuba and Puerto Rico. Publication of a complete series of works on El Salvador Sermeño Chicas et al. (2010) macroinvertebrates. Costa Rica Springer et al. (2010) Publication of guide to macroinvertebrates as biological water Publication of the first macroinvertebrates code Nicaragua Salvatierra (2012) tributaries. quality indicators in the Gil González River and the main Guatemala Publication of status of aquatic macroinvertebrates

Honduras Reyes (2013) macroinvertebrates Publication of code for the identification of freshwater García & Jiménez (2006) Dominican Republic Presentation of report on the final sampling of Proposal of protocol for the ecological quality of the Andean Pérez (2015) Ecuador macroinvertebrates from the Ebano Verde region. Acosta et al.

Publication of studies on macroinvertebrates in Cajamarca (2009) Peru rivers (CERA) and its use in two basins in Ecuador and Peru. Paredes et al. (2004) and the Amazon. Characterization of ecosystem services of wetlands, taking Paraguay et al. (2012) aquatic macroinvertebrates into account. Publication of a guide entitled Diagnosis of pollution in surface Espinosa Panama Cornejo et al. (2017) streams of Panama using freshwater macroinvertebrates.

Puerto Rico et al. (2013) Use of methodology to evaluate water quality using the Publication of book on benthic macroinvertebrates of South Gutiérrez-Fonseca BMWP-Cub. America. Argentina Publication of macroinvertebrate guidelines as water quality Domínguez & Fernández (2009) indicators. Rocha (2004) Several experiences in the use of macroinvertebrates to Venezuela determine water quality and draw up indexes of the biotic SegniniRincón (1995),et al. Rivera & integrity of rivers in various regions of the country. Marrero (1995), Segnini (2003),et al. (2009), Echevarría & Marrero (2012), Barrios Publication of technical guide for the evaluation of waterbody Bolivia Valencia(2015), entre (2014) otros conditions using aquatic macroinvertebrates.

Brazil Publication of a book on the ecology of aquatic insects.

Chile NessimianCarvacho (2012) y Carvalho (1998) Publication of study on aquatic macro-vertebrates in riparian Uruguay Study of the aquatic macroinvertebrates of the Limari basin. Morelli & Verdi (2014) vegetation. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 43

sensitive families such as Perlidae and Oligoneu- On the basis of the knowledge that currently exists in Colombia about the different groups of macroin- - vertebrates up to the family level, he proposes to riidae receive a score of 10. On the etother al hand, the summost of pollution-tolerant the scores of all ones,families for providesexample, theTubifici total dae, receive a score of 1.0 (Armitage ., 1983). The presentsuse the BMWP/Col the families method, and their as assessmenta first approach accord to- ingevaluating to their mountaindegree of adaptation aquatic ecosystems. to the various Table wa 5- BMWP score. et al., Bioindication in Colombia dates back to the 1970s with publications in Medellín (Roldán onter thequalities. basis of Each their region, experiences in both (Zamora Colombia & Sarria,and in undertook1973) constituting a physicochemical the first experiences and biological in study Latin Latin America, has made its own score assessments ofAmerica. the same Subsequently, river, using macroinvertebratesMatthias & Moreno as (1983) wa- et al 2001, Sánchez-Herrera, 2005, Zúñiga, 2009, Springer - the taxonomy,., 2010). ecology and bioindication of water nah.ter quality Zúñiga indicators.et al Bohórquez & Acuña (1984) qualityThe is information not the same available in all groups in Latin of macroinverAmerica on- undertook the first studies for the Bogotá savan - . (1993)et al adapted this method for eroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera than the oth- some of the basins in Valle del Cauca. Reinoso- ertebrates. taxa. It More is also information important isto availableexpand the on studyEphem of (1999) and Reinoso . (2008) conducted a study- annelids, mollusks and diptera, especially of the sessof the the Combeima quality of River epicontinental in the Department waters in ofColom Toli- Chironomidae family. It is necessary to advance ma. Zamora (2000) adapted the BMWP index to as the association of immature states and their corre- - sponding winged forms, as well as between males bia. Roldánet al (2001) used this methodology for the and females, in order to achieve a rigorous taxo- Piedras Blancas basin in the Department of Antio quia. Riss . (2002) establish biondication values- - forbia thethrough Bogotá the Savannah. use of aquatic Roldán macroinvertebrates. (2003) adapted the temsnomic and determination. large rivers. It is important to define a BMWP system to evaluate water quality in Colom unified methodology for the study of lentic ecosys

Table 5. Scores of aquatic macroinvertebrate families for the BMWP/Col index Families Scores

10 Anomalopsychidae, Atriplectididae, Blepharoceridae, Calamoceratidae, Ptilodactylidae, Chordodidae, Gomphidae, Hidridae, Lampyridae, Lymnessiidae, Odontoceridae, Oligoneuriidae, Perlidae, Polythoridae, Psephenidae. Philopotamidae, Polycentropodidae, Xiphocentronidae. Ampullariidae, Dytiscidae, Ephemeridae, Euthyplociidae, Gyrinidae, Hydrobiosidae, Leptophlebiidae, 9 Pseudothelpusidae, Saldidae, Simuliidae, Veliidae. Gerridae, Hebridae, Helicopsychidae, Hydrobiidae, Leptoceridae, Lestidae, Palaemonidae, Pleidae, 8 7 Baetidae, Caenidae, Calopterygidae, Coenagrionidae, Corixidae, Dixidae, Dryopidae, Glossosomatidae, Hyalellidae, Hydroptilidae, Hydropsychidae, Leptohyphidae, Naucoridae, Notonectidae, Planariidae, Psychodidae, Scirtidae. Staphylinidae. Aeshnidae, Ancylidae, Corydalidae, Elmidae, Libellulidae, Limnichidae, Lutrochidae, Megapodagrionidae, Sialidae, 6 Thiaridae. Belostomatidae, Gelastocoridae, Hydropsychidae, Mesoveliidae, Nepidae, Planorbiidae, Pyralidae, Tabanidae, 5 4 Hydrometridae, Noteridae. Chrysomelidae, Stratiomyidae, Haliplidae, Empididae, Dolicopodidae, Sphaeridae, Lymnaeidae, Hydraenidae, 3 Culicidae, Chironomidae, Muscidae, Sciomyzidae. 2 Ceratopogonidae, Glossiphoniidae, Cyclobdellidae, Hydrophilidae, Physidae, Tipulidae. 1

Tubificidae Source: Roldán, 2003. 44 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

Immature forms of the entomofauna have a One of the problems in the use of bioindication good potential as bioindicators, as well as being to measure water quality is the indiscriminate use of a diverse, abundant community with a broad alti- biotic indices, in both lysic and lentic water ecosys- tudinal distribution in water ecosystems. For ex- tems. These ecosystems have different hydrological ample, in Colombia, the genus Anacroneuria (Ple- and ecological characteristics and a biota adapted to the particular conditions of each of these environ- greatest sensitivity to habitat degradation and the coptera: Perlidae), was one of the groups with the although there are some adaptations of this biologi- calments. parameter The BMWP at the index regional is extremely level, to ensure popular the and, va- enrichment of the residualLachlania organic load(Ologineurii (Roldán,- lidity of its application, it is important to take into dae),2003, Zúñiga,Haplohyphes 2010). The most sensitiveMayobaetis genera of, account the type of water bodies where it is used AndesiopsEphemeroptera includeAtopophlebia and Thraulodes (Zúñiga et al (Leptohyphidae),Camelobaetidius , Baetodes (Baetidae)Leptohyphes and Tricorythodes - Final considerations., 1993; Zamora, 2000, Roldán, 2003). (Leptobhlebiidae),hyphidae) have a whilelarge environmental spectrum (Baetidae), et al (Lepto Determining water quality can easily integrate tra- - ditional biochemical indicators, the information (Zamora,era of the 1996,order ZúñigaTrichoptera .,are 1997, Triplectides Roldán, 2003,- corresponding to the biotic components of ecosys- toceridae),Zúñiga & Cardona, Rhyacopsyche 2009). (Hydroptiliidae), The most sensitive Chimara gen tems, which provides a more holistic vision of the (Philopotamidae), Marilia (Odontoceridae) (Lepand response to the impacts on them. Phylloicus (Calamoceratidae). The genera Leptone- As has been seen, in the case of eutrophication, ma (Hydropsychidae) and Atanatolica - as in numerous studies on the temperate zones, in dae) have a broad scope, with adaptations to eco- the Americas it has also been recorded that the in- systems with incipient degradation (Zúñiga (Leptoceri et al., crease in nutrient concentrations, mainly of phos- et al phorus, leads to greater biomass of phytoplankton et al 1993, Zamora, et1996, al Ballesteros ., 1997, Roldán, most cases, the dominant cyanobacterial species 2003, Guevaraet al . , 2007a, b, Zúñiga & Cardona correspondand a predominance to the genera of cyanobacteria.Microcystis spp., Likewise, Anabaena in 2009, Forero ., 2013, Forero & Reinoso, 2013, spp. and Planktothrix spp., with the risk that many of Vásquez ., 2013, 2014). their species have toxic strains, which turn them into Standardization of work protocols potential health risks, particularly if the waterbodies are used to supply water for human consumption. In the case of the use of aquatic macroinver- standardization of sampling protocols, with an em- tebrates for bioindication, information on the tax- phasisIn Latin on America, large rivers it isand necessary lentic water to workbodies, on such the onomy and ecology of some of the entomological as wetlands or large lakes. This homogenization of groups with the greatest diversity, abundance and - biomass remains limited. This situation applies to tory analysis and the use of indices is essential to the Diptera, Odonata and Hemiptera orders, taxa achievingfield work consistent, protocols, comparable counting organisms, results and labora data which could provide valuable information from the et al - point of view of bioindication, especially for lentic environments, where their abundance and diversi- bases (Roldán ., 2016). In this respect, in Colom ty is usually greater than that which occurs in the generalbia, Rueda-Delgado information (2002) on the published various study the Manual methods of ecosystems of running water. On the other hand, forMethods the most in Limnology, important inbiota which in aquatic he compiled environ the- molluscs and annelids, whose abundance and bio- ments. The Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and mass are very high in contaminated environments - and enriched with organic matter, lack more de- rently developing a methodology for evaluating wa- tailed taxonomic information, leading to general- terEnvironmental quality for Colombia Studies of through Colombia the (IDEAM) use of aquatic is cur izations and misinterpretations about their poten- macroinvertebrates as bioindicators. tial as water quality bioindicators. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 45

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ga, A., M. El Souki y B. Herrera (eds.). XXI Con 25: 61-70. greso Venezolano de Entomología. Maracaibo:- Vásquez-Ramos, J.M.; Guevara, G. y Reinoso-Flórez, Sociedad Venezolana de Entomología, 40 pp. - enG. (2014).cuencas Factores con bosque ambientales seco tropical asociados (Tolima, con Co la- Sermeño Chicas, J.M.; Serrano Cervantes, L.; Spring lombia).preferencia Revista de hábitatde Biología de larvas Tropical, de tricópteros er, M.; Paniagua Cienfuegos, M.R.; Pérez, D.; Ri- vas Flores, A.W.; Menjivar Rosa, R.A.; Bonilla de 62: 21-40. Torres, D.L.; Carranza Estrada, F.A.; Flores Ten Vázquez Silva, G.; Castro Mejía, G.; González Mora, I.;- sos, J.M.; González, C.; Gutiérrez Fonseca, P.E.;- minarPérez Rodríguez,la calidad del R. agua.y Castro ContactoS Barrera, 60 T. (2006). Hernández Martínez, M.A.; Monterrosa Urías, Bioindicadores como herramientas para deter A.J. y Arias de Linares, A.Y. (2010). Determi : 41-48. 50 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

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Ginebra: grama Editorial de la Universidad del Valle, Cali, comunidadesWHO. 541 pp. de macroinvertebrados dulcea- ecologíaColombia: del 303-310. orden Plecoptera (Insecta) en Co- Zamora,cuícolas H. en (1996). el Departamento Aspectos bioecológicos del Cauca. Unicau de las- Zúñiga,lombia, M. delcon C.énfasis (2010). en Diversidad, Anacroneuria distribución (Perlidae). y ca Ciencia, Momentos de Cien- cia, para la evaluación 1: 1-11. biológica de la calidad de las Universidad de la Amazonía. - Zamora,aguas H.epicontinentales (2000). Adaptación en Colombia. del índice Unicauca BMWP 7(2): 101-112. Ciencia, Zúñiga,Environmental M. del C. & Flow:Cardona, Concepts, W. (2009). Experiences Water qual and Challenges.ity and environmental flow bioindicators. En: 4: 47-59. Zamora, H. (2002). Análisis biogeográfico de los Cali, Colombia: Del Valle University.- Revistamacroinvertebrados de la Asociación acuáticos Colombiana epicontinentales de Ciencias dicadorespp. 167-198. ambientales de calidad de agua en la Biológicas,(MAE) en el Departamento del Cauca, Colombia. Zúñiga, M. del C.; Rojas, A.M.Revista y Caicedo, de la Asociación G. (1993). In de Ingenieros Sanitarios de Antioquia-AINSA, dos ecosistemas 14(1): 37-64.lóticos afectados por aguas re- cuenca del Río Cauca. Zamora,siduales H. yde Sarria, rallanderías H. (2001). de yucaCalidad mediante biológica la uti de- 13(2): 17-28. Zúñiga, M. del C.; Rojas, A.M. & Mosquera, S. (1997). aplicaciónlización de de sus los macroinvertebradosíndices de Shannon-Weaver acuáticos y Biological aspect of EphemeropteraEphemeroptera in rivers of como bioindicadores,Unicauca Ciencia, comparando además la andsouthwestern Plecoptera Colombiabiology, ecology (South and América). systematics. En: P. Landolt & M. Sartori (eds.). - BMWP. 6: 21-42. - Zúñiga, M. del C. (2009). Bioindicadores de calidad MTL, Mauron Tinguely y Lachat S.A., Switzer de agua y caudal ambiental: Caso del Río Melén land: 261-268. dez (Valle del Cauca, Colombia). En: J. Cantera, Y. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 51

Use of New Methodologies in Monitoring and Zoning Water Bodies in Argentina

César Luis García, Carlos Catalini and Carlos Marcelo García

In order to illustrate the use of new technologies, it was decided to take a real case that re-

cently took place in Argentina. During the month of April 2017, the city of Villa Carlos Paz,- nobacterialin the Province blooms of Córdoba, of the genus was Microcistysforced to declare spp. (Figure an Environmental 1). This problem, Emergency although due not to new the foradvanced this waterbody, state of eutrophication has achieved anof thealarming San Roque periodicity, Reservoir, which which implies caused a high outcrops potential or cya degree of danger for collective health.

solution (in the next few years), it is essential for the municipal government to at least monitor Givenand zone the therecurrent water mirrornature andof the its phenomenonmain tributaries and on the a regularimpossibility basis inof ordera short-term to zone the various recreational activities developed in it, in order to prevent health problems for both residents and tourists. In addition to being important for the tourist development of Villa Carlos Paz, one should recall that this reservoir is the main source of drinking wa-

inhabitants). ter ofAchieving the second the largestobjective population of developing in Argentina a system (thethat citywill ofmake Córdoba it possible with toover monitor 1,300,000 the state of proliferation of algae and create alerts for severe events that occur as a result, an -

•interdisciplinary Have information approach on the has status been ofproposed, the reservoir which and will its allow tributaries the creation by monitoring of an Experi the mental Monitoring and Remediation Laboratory that will make it possible to: - - quality and quantity of water from Lake San Roque and its tributaries, as well as adapt • Periodicallying methodologies zone the to identifytributaries the andsurface the coverreservoir of algae, based using on state satellite indicators images as and a toolUn formanned making Aerial quick Vehicles decisions (UAV). regarding their use for recreation or navigation. Issuance of early warnings in extreme cases. • Perform in-situ experimentation to evaluate the mitigation and remediation methods - tion alternatives and control bloom events, which are dangerous for society. suggested in the local system and determine the costs/benefits of the various mitiga

César Luis García CONICET, Córdoba, Argentina. Carlos Catalini Director of the Semi-Arid Region Center, INA, Argentina. Carlos Marcelo García. Director of CETA, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argentina. 52 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

a. Detection of algal blooms using remote sensors

It is possible to monitor algal blooms with biomass cesses that take place in waterbodies. This involves measurement, examining the species present. One measuring a property of an object of interest from of the indicators normally used is the concentra- a distance, such as a sensor on board a satellite or tion of chlorophyll-a. Peak values of the latter for , et al - -1. a UAV. Itan has oligotrophic been shown lake by are the approximately specialized literature 1 to 10 μg that 1-1 throughGermán remote . (2017)sensors, have using implemented images theobtained mon thewhereas temporal in a eutrophicand spatial lake, frequencies it can reach of 300 conven μg 1 - itoring of algal blooms in the San Roque Reservoir-

to report changes in the biomass of phytoplankton, through the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro especiallytional water during sampling bloom programs conditions, are when not sufficient the spa- topradiomenter of the atmosphere (MODIS) andsensor images on board of the theOperation TERRA- tial and temporal variability in the density of phyto- satellite, specifically the reflectance product at the plankton is particularly high. This is where remote sensing is a fundamental tool for complementing al Land Imager (OLI) sensor on board the Landsat traditional monitoring and understanding the pro- and8 satellite. measure The their authors intensity can observe(Figure 2various). bloom events during the spring-summer 2016-2017 season,

Figure 1. Entry of the San Antonio River into the body of the San Roque Reservoir, Villa Carlos Paz WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES 53

Figure 2. Calculation of NDVI for different dates in the San Roque Reservoir

et al., 2017.

Source: Germán b. Estimation of surface velocities with the LSPIV technique and using UAV video - national organizations represented by the Nation- vial or lentic, such as a reservoir or lagoon, makes it possibleThe presence to use of the tracers Particle in a Image waterbody, Velocimetry whether (PIV) flu procedure. However, because of considerations of al University of Córdoba and its Water Technology scale, this technique, commonly used in labora- Center (CETA) and the National Water Institute and theits Center diffuser for system the Semi-Arid installed Region in reducing (INA-CIRSA). the eutro- - phicationThe objective of the lake,was towhich evaluate causes the the efficiency prolifera of- tories combined with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles tion of algae in the water mirror. The system com- (UAV), makes it possible to use a similar method prises seven lines of pipes with small perforations, ology on surfaces with an approximate area of 5000 through which air is injected. They are placed in m², Anwhich example resulted of the in the use Large-Scale of a combination PIV technique of these the deepest zone, one meter away from the bot- techniquesor LSPIV-Large with Scale traditional Particle methodologiesImage Velocimetry. is the tom. One of the lines is placed in the direction of the monitoring of the air diffusers installed in the San gorge while the rest are directed towards the central area of the dike. the Municipality of Villa Carlos Paz, the Province of In theory, it is hoped to increase the circulation Roque Reservoir. Other participants included both- of water at the bottom of the lake by homogenizing the temperature, which is achieved by breaking the Córdoba through the Secretariat of Water Resourc es, the River Patrol and other agencies, as well as 54 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES

tracers thrown onto the water body to determine evident during the spring and summer months. thermalThe mechanism,stratification, the which only oneis considerably of its kind used more in Referencesthe flow lines. time that monitoring the effectiveness of the systemthe country, was proposed. was installed For this in reason, 2008. This technicians was the firstand - municipal and provincial civil servants were joined - Germán, A.; Ferral, A.; Romero Arijon, D.; and Ber - nasconi, I. (2017). Detección y caracterización de- by CETA personnel and those from the areas of Lim floraciones algales en el embalse SanAnales Roque de a multi-parametricnology and Water probes Quality, to Geomorphology, measure the dissolved togeth resúmenespartir de Sensores de XVI CONAGUA. Remotos. XXVI Congreso Na er with INA-CIRSA support personnel, who used cional del Agua. September 20 to 23. Volume I. 1st Edition. oxygen, as well as UAV to track the biodegradable Editorial Universitas. ISBN 978-987-4029-23-2 Figure 3. Monitoring the effectiveness of aeration diffusers in the San Roque Reservoir - LSPIV WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA 55

Argentina

Argentina, which faces a greater challenge regarding water quality than water shortage, must make a great effort to achieve 100% safe water coverage in the shortest possible time and significantly increase urban sanitation, including treatment prior to discharge into the receiving bodies. It is also necessary to increase controls to minimize the generation of industrial pollutants, reduce the use of harmful herbicides and promote agricultural reuse with treated residual liquids.

Potrerillos reservoir in Mendoza, Argentina © iStock 56 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA

On the subject of water quality in the Americas: Argentina

Luis E. Higa, Emilio J Lentini, José María Regueira, Melina Tobías and Raúl A. Lopardo

1. Introduction

1.1 General framework

In Argentina, the supply of surface water resources is estimated to have an average flow of thisapproximately would yield 26,000 an annual m³/s (INCyTH,amount of 1994, renewable Pochat, water 2005). resources Since the perpopulation person reportedof approxi in- the 2010 National Population, Household and Housing Census (INDEC, 2012) was 40,117,096,

mately 20,500 m³/inhabitant/year, much higher than the 1,700 m³/inhabitant/year adopted- as water stress or the Falkenmark Index” (White, 2012). However, this average availability does not accurately reflect the actual supply of sur face water in the country, since its geographic distributionet al is markedly unequal. Thus, 85% ofoccupy these the water remaining resources two are thirds, located with in thethe aridPlata zone Basin, representing whose surface half area the total is only area one (SDSy third- of the mainland area (INCyTH, 1994, Rodríguez ., 2008), while semi-arid and arid areas Moreover, in order to assess the actual availability, the very different population densi- PA, 2002).

perty in inhabitant the various than river the basins water muststress be limit. taken Accordingly, into account groundwater (INDEC, 2012). resources In this are respect, crucial key to Argentine provinces (such as Tucumán and Córdoba) have lower annual water availability In Argentina, the main consumption of water corresponds to irrigation, accounting for reducing this deficit, in the arid and semi-arid regions of the country, Table 1 shows the estimated val- nearly 70% of the total water extracted. The remainder is distributed among the other three- maincagno uses: et al human, livestock and industrial consumption. ues of the consumption of the water extracted in the country between 1993 and 1997 (Cal ., 2000).

Luis E. Higa. [email protected] National Institute of Water, Ezeiza. Emilio J Lentini. [email protected] Secretariat of Infrastructure and Water Policy. José María Regueira. [email protected] Secretariat of Infrastructure and Water Policy/Regional UTN Buenos Aires. Melina Tobías. [email protected] National Council of Scientific and Technical Research/ UBA Gino Germani Research Institute. Raúl A. Lopardo. [email protected] Chapter Coordinator. National Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences/UNLP. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA 57

Table 1. Water Extractions by use and source between 1993 and 1997 Surface water Ground water Total

Water uses 106 m3/year % of total 106 m3/year % of total 106 m3/year % of use water used water used compared to total extracted Irrigation

18,000 75 6,000 25 24,000 71 Municipal Livestock 1,000 34 2,000 66 3,000 9 Industrial 3,500 78 1,000 22 4,500 13 Total 24,0001,500 ---60 10,0001,000 ---40 34,0002,500 1007 et al

Source: Calcagno ., 2000.

The implementation of the National Water Plan clean, and the transportation and removal of excre- - at of Water Infrastructure and Policy (formerly the diseases are the third leading cause of death among (PNA), prepared in 2016 by the current1 Secretariis based ta. According to the WHO (WHO, 2015), diarrheal - them die annually due to diarrheal diseases result- terUndersecretariat for production, of ii) Waterensuring Resources), drinking water and the under 5s. It is estimated that over 340,000 of sewerage,on four central iii) adapting areas, namely: to climate i) guaranteeingextremes, and wa iv) - creating matter and energy from biomass will sure- lioning from children poor suffer sanitation, from stunting amounting or chronic to nearly malnu 1,000- tritionchildren to a the day. lack It also of water, attributes sanitation the fact and that hygiene. 161 mil ly1.2 modify Drinking these water proportions and sewerage(SIPH, 2017). annual deaths could have been prevented by im- provingAccording water, tosanitation the same and report, hygiene. in 2015, It also 842,000 notes and treatment) is crucial to the health of the population.Basic sanitation Around the (safe world, water the numberand excreta of people collection who - lack access to safely managed drinking water totals tosomiasis,that deficiencies trachoma in water, and helminthiases, sewerage and affecting hygiene contribute significantly to diseases such as schis- - Shortcomings2.1 billion, while in thosebasic withoutsanitation adequate claim the sanitation lives of more than 1.5 billion people a year. It should be not services amount to 4.5 billion (WHO/UNICEF, 2017).- perioded that agreedthese alarming by the countries figures are that updated signed WHO the Mil estimates for 2015, in other words,2 at the end of the overfrom fivewater-borne million people diseases. annually. Sixty perMoreover, cent of itdeaths is es The crucial importance of water and sewerage in timated that approximately 2.3 billion people suffer lennium Development Goals. diseases caused by the water they consume. - of childrenWater for under human 5 due consumption to parasitic isand not infectious only es- human development has been recognized by the UN- sential as drinking water, but also for personal hy- through Resolution 58/217, which declares the peri giene and food preparation. In addition, in the case od from 2005-2015 the International Decade for Ac of dwellings that have a sanitation system with a recognizedtion: "Water water for life”. and Moreover, sewerage on as July a human 28, 2010, right. at the connection to mains sewerage or septic tank dis- United Nations Plenary Session, Resolution 64/292, charge or cesspits, water is used for keeping toilets -

2. The MDGs were set at the Millennium Summit in 2010, orga things- the vital importance of both services was recognized nized by the United Nations Assembly, where -among other - 1. Through the Decree of the National Executive Power No. 174 of sources of the Nation was raised to the rank of Secretariat, and who lacked access to drinking water and basic sanitation or who March 2, 2018, the agency of the Undersecretariat of Water Re and by 2015, countries pledged to halve the proportion of people renamed as the Secretariat of Infrastructure and Water Policy. were unable to afford it. 58 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA

Figure 1. Drinking water coverage by type of source (2010)

3 6

Population (%) Population 12 12 5 5 4 1 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1

11 2001 2010 Type of source, by year

Public grid (running water) Borehole with motor pump Borehole with manual pump Well Transportation by cistern Rainwater, river, canal, stream or ditch

Source: INDEC (2010).

In Argentina, the latest census data available most vulnerable social sectors having the lowest - coverage levels. This can be seen when comparing - - (2010) show national water coverage by public net workComparing that reaches these 82% data of withthe population, those from andprevious sew the rest access of the to servicespopulation. of theWhereas population in sectors with with Un censuseserage coverage reveals that a continuous reaches 40%. increase in both ser- satisfied Basic Needs (UBN), compared to that of population, in the other social sectors it amounts to UBN, water from the network reaches 73% of the- vices, with significantly higher values for drinking erage service, where coverage values range from water than for sewerage (Bereciartúa, 2017). 85%. The same trend is observedFigure in the 3 case). of sew The estimates made by the SIPH for 2015 show In order to offset the shortage of services facing that 39.8 million people of the national total reside 31% to 56% (PNAPyS, 2017:22) ( - Althoughin urban areas,reliable 87% statistics of which regarding have access the tolevel water of signed a National Plan for Drinking Water and Sew- wastewaterthrough the treatment public network are as yet and unavailable, 58% to sewers. some eragethe country, (PNAPyS) in 2016, (in linethe Nationalwith the GovernmentNational Water de

coverage of water supplied by public network and thesources national estimate level thatshow it theis between current challenge15% and 20% facing of Plan), whose goals for 2023 include achieving 100% the collectedcountry in water terms (PNAPyS, of water 2017:10).and sanitation These expandata at- the country. In order to meet the objectives of the sion, a situation which, as shown in Figure 2, is ex- 75% coverage in sewers for the urban population of acerbated by disaggregating coverage in urban and Water and Sewerage was created within the Secre- rural areas. tariatplan, inof 2016Infrastructure the National and DirectorateWater Policy, of responsi Drinking- - ble for monitoring the goals and systematizing rele- erage disparity not only occurs in relation to the vant information on the sector (Figure 4). areaLikewise, (urban/rural), the data but presented also in relation show that to thethe typecov Actions that the Directorate has undertaken of service, with potable water coverage being con- during this period include the survey of the In- siderably larger than that of sewers. On the other dicators and Performance Indexes for Water and hand, accessibility to services is not distributed ho- Sewerage Providers, whose aim is to gather rele- mogeneously among society as a whole, with the vant information from the providers linked to the WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA 59

- 1.3 Water for irrigation tion and accounts or connections, facilities and sup- As regards water for irrigation, according to the identificationplies, production, of the consumption, provider, data management on the popula indicators (personnel, meters, unaccounted for water, the total area used for this purpose in the country etc., wastewater treatment, service quality, custom- National Agricultural Census 2002 (INDEC, 2002),- - cial statements). So far it has been possible to com- was 33,491,480 ha (approximately 19% of total ara pileer service the corresponding and economic information data (billing, on costs, nine offinan the provinceble land), with only the 1,355,601 largest ha irrigated of which area, were with actually a total leading companies in the country, which account irrigated (approximately 4%), Mendoza being the- - gated area in the country. tional level. of 267,889 ha, equivalent to 19.8% of the total irri for 54% of the total population, covered at the na

Figure 2. Drinking water coverage by type of source (2010)

4 43 34 31 25 26 20 20 15 16 12 Population (%) Population 2

11 2001 2010 Type of source, by year

To public grid To septic tank and cesspit Only to cesspit To hole, excavation in the ground, etc.

Source: INDEC (2010). Figure 3. Inhabitants with and without potable water and sewerage service in urban and rural areas (2015)

0 6 4

62 5 52 54

Agglomerates Rest of urban Urban subtotal Concentrated rural Scattered rural National coverage

Drinking water Sewer

Source : PNAPyS, 2017. 60 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA

- collective supply projects and private systems, used that the irrigated area in the country amounts ing groundwater. The plan thereby seeks to modify At present, (FAO-PROSAP, 2015), it is estimat the percentages of the type of water sources used, - toresponds 2.1 million to the hectares, humid regions,68% of wherewhich complemenis located in- aridtary andirrigation semi-arid is undertaken. regions. The remaining 32% cor groundsince 65% sources of the (National water for Water irrigation Policy isand currently Feder- As shown in the aforementioned Table 1, ap- obtained from surface sources, and only 35% from pressure on available water resources is expected - inal Directorate-SIPH,the future. 2018a). In other words, greater proximately 71% of the water extracted is used for One way to mitigate this situation - which irrigation. In 2014 (Aquastat, 2014), the percent should be evaluated - is to reuse treated household percentagesage of cultivated of water area sources was approximately used for irrigation 14.5%, wastewater for agricultural and forestry irriga- of which 5.8% (in 2011) was under irrigation. The tion (forestry) purposes. However, the positive impacts (use of nutrients and organic matter by crops, are:Since surface agriculture water (57.6%), is the groundwatermost important (17%) activi andwhich would reduce the use of chemical fertilizers) tymixed in the water country (25.4%). from an economic point of view, also entail potentially negative effects, such as the increase in salinity and toxicity in irrigation water, volumes of water are required for irrigation. As this the increase in harmful ions in the soil matrix, and requiresinvolving increasinglyextremely large intensive areas ofuse land, of agrochemi significant- the need for pathogen control in crops. cals (pesticides and fertilizers) to maximize yields, agricultural activity is one of the activities that produces the greatest impact on water resources. In this respect, the Guiding Principles of the- One should also mention the decision of the Na- Water Policy of the Argentine Republic (COHIFE, tional State through the Secretariat of Agriculture, 2003), in its Water and Environment section (Prin andciple the 11) reuse under of the water title provide of Water opportunities Conservation for and re- to design the National Irrigation Plan of Argentina Reuse, state the following: “Conservation practices- Livestock and Fisheries (Ministry of Agribusiness)- ment of irrigated agriculture throughout the coun- sharedsource savingamong thatthe multipleyield significant users of social, this resource. produc try.(PNR), The togoal promote is to double the fully the current sustainable irrigated develop area tive and environmental benefits, which must be- trial processes, the reduction of high consumption ofWater drinking recycling water, through the reuse the of modification wastewater offrom indus ur- to reach 4,000,000 hectares by 2030 and increase ban and industrial centers in other activities, and the efficiency of water use for irrigation through streamlining water consumption by the sector under irrigation, constitute concurrent lines of action Figure 4. Representativeness of the data in pursuit of the rational, sustainable use of this obtained by the Indicators Guide. May 2018 resource”. At present, the main experiences of treated wastewater reuse occur in the province of Mendo- za (Calcagno et al

., 2000), the only province with a- specific regulation -Resolution No. 400/2003- for the direct reuse of treated wastewater (General Ir rigation Department, 2003). The main treatment plants in that province are those of Campo Espejo useand stabilizationEl Paramillo, pond which systems. process nearly 80% of the domestic wastewater treated in the province. Both Representativeness Rest of country Approximately 140,000 m³/day (1.7 m³/s) are treated at the Campo Espejo treatment plant, which Source: DNAPyS (2018). are used to irrigate approximately 2,000 hectares WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA 61

through direct reuse (Fasciolo et al - 1. 4 Main causes of water quality problems Argentina has several problems related to the qual- ., 1998) and in ity of surface and groundwater. In the case of sur- directly irrigate more than 10,000 hectares through- face water, the main problems are associated with the Jocoli canal (Barbeito Anzorena, 2001). - the discharge of domestic and industrial wastewa- The El Paramillo treatment plantet treats al approxi- ter without proper treatment. The main pollutants cordingmately 91,000 to this m³/day information (1 m³/s), (Fasciolo used to water et al rough - ly 1,800 ha in the summer (Álvarezet al ., 2008). Ac nutrients, bacteria and other microorganisms, and the total irrigated area in the province of Mendoza., 1998, toxicfound organic are: biodegradable and inorganic organic substances. matter, In ground macro- Barbeito Anzorena, 2001, Álvarez ., 2008), taking- water, quality problems are mainly associated with tion through the direct reuse of treated wastewater. - (INDEC, 2007), less than 2% of that area uses irriga oride- or anthropogenic contaminants -nitrates, - faecalpollutants contaminants, of natural origin pesticides -mainly and arsenic various and toxflu- It should be noted that Resolution No. 400/2003 ic industrial sources (such as organochlorine sol- of the General Irrigation Department of the prov vents, hydrocarbons and phenolic compounds). determinesince of Mendoza, the irrigation chapter 12 methods of which allowedestablishes within the The main cases of anthropogenic pollution in Regulation of Special Restricted Crops Area (ACRE),- out slopes, furrows without drainage at the bottom, • Pollution in major basins close to highly popu- subsurfaceACRE (by plots irrigation, of land localized prepared irrigation) for sowing and with ex- the country are as follows: - pressly prohibits irrigation by sprinkling, pivots or lated urban centers, such as: Matanza Riachue - lo and Reconquista in Buenos Aires, Salí-Dulce plementaryother similar measures methods for that the project protection effluent of workers into the Sanin the Antonio province in of the Tucumán, province which of Córdoba also impacts (San (useatmosphere. of personal This protection Resolution elements) also provides and consumfor com- on Santiago del Estero (Río Hondo Dam) and ers through health education campaigns, restrict- • Contamination of aquifers with nitrates due to ing reuse to certain types of crops and only allow- Roque Dam). - ing them to be harvested four weeks after the last cause of inadequate excreta disposal, owing to irrigation. the lowinfiltration coverage of of nitrogenous the sewage compoundsnetwork, inten be- Although much more limited, there are also sive livestock farming (feedlots) and the inade- other experiences of reuse of treated wastewater in quate use of chemical fertilizers in agricultural other provinces, such as Chubut, Córdoba, Neuquén activities. • Contamination of groundwater with fuels, Argentina has very little experience of reusing caused by losses in storage tanks, as has hap- treatedand Río sewageNegro. sludge. The most important of these - is the production of compost in the treatment plant - ternationalpened in several Airport. points of the city of Buenos Ai • Surfaceres and waternear the contamination Ministro Pistarini has also - Ezeiza been reIn- in the tourist city of Bariloche, in the province of Río ported in the northeast and other parts of the SustainableNegro. The regulationsDevelopment that of applythe Nation are Resolution (current- country due to deforestation processes to in- No. 410/2018 of the Ministry of Environment and- crease arable land, which increases the speed of runoff and the dragging of surface material ly Secretariat of Environment and Sustainable De from the soil, causing its erosion and the great- andvelopment Appendix - SAyDS), I of the which National repeals Service Resolution of Health No. er contribution of solids to the waters. 97/2001 of the SAyDS and Resolution No. 264 / 2011 - These problems are compounded by the lack of and Agri-Food Quality (SENASA) of the Ministry - of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries of the Na- ter quality nationwide. This is due to the lack of a tilizers,tion (currently amendments, Ministry substrates, of Production conditioners, and Labor), pro- singleunified database official information that brings togethersources tomeasured monitor con wa- tectorsthrough and its raw“Regulation materials for in theArgentina”. registration of fer centrations of the necessary parameters (TON, re- 62 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA

active P, pH, conductivity and DO) in homogenous- ly distributed sites of Argentina. In this line, since Constitution established various guarantees for the inhabitants,On the otherrelating hand, to the Article environment 41 of the and National nat- Policy has complemented the activities of the Hy- - drological2018, the SecretariatNetwork by of incorporating Infrastructure the and measure Water- bility of the Nation to issue the standards that con- tainural theresources; minimum explaining budgets that,of protection, “It is the andresponsi of the nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, re- provinces, to issue those required to complement activement ofphosphorus, water quality pH, parameters: conductivity oxidizable and dissolved total them, without their altering local jurisdictions”. oxygen (National Water Policy and Federal Coordi- It should be noted that, to date, there is no national water law. Although several bills for national or federal water law have been submitted, they 1.nation-SIPH, 5 Objectives 2018b). and scope of the chapter have not found the necessary support for their The objectives of this chapter are to show the overall legal structure in Argentina for environmental issues in general and water resources in particular, Managementsanction and enacted.of Waters” Thus, was in enacted, December which 2002, estab Law- monitoring tools and databases related to water re- lishesNo. 25688, the creation, known as for the interjurisdictional “Regime of Environmental basins, of sources, and the main pollutants and their effects water basin committees. However, its regulation is on water and soil quality. still pending and it has received criticism because it would take precedence over provincial powers not delegated to the Nation. In any case, the technical 2. Water quality authorities groups in the national government are currently and governance - ter quality levels. 2.1 Legal framework workingThe mainon the organisms definition linkedof the environmentalto water resource wa - can and federal government, with the central gov- • Secretariat of Infrastructure and Water Policy Argentina Republic has a representative, republi- management at the national level are: - tive, legislative and judicial. In accordance with the principles,ernment being declarations divided into and threeguarantees branches: of the execu Na- the(SIPH) Interior, (Former Public Undersecretariat Works and Housing of Water Re tional Constitution, each province is governed by its • sources (SSRH), answerable to the Ministry of own Constitution. The national territory comprises the Federal Capital, established in the Autonomous • National Entity of Sewerage Water Works Development(ENOHSA) - • Secretariat of Environment and Sustainable tainCity ofall Buenos the power Aires not and delegated 23 provinces by (INDEC,this Constitu 2012).- • The Constitution states that “the provinces re • Federal Water Board (COHIFE) expressly reserved by special pacts at the time of • Federal Environment Board (COFEMA) tion to the Federal Government, which they have- Interprovincial Basin Organizations - Nationwide,International the Basin agency Organizations responsible for this maintheir incorporation”.of the natural resourcesArticle 124 existing of the constitution in its terri- sector is the Secretariat of Infrastructure and Wa- al reform of 1994 stipulated that “the original do ter Policy (SIPH) within the Ministry of the Inte- have the power to regulate the relations arising be- rior, Public Works and Housing. This entity is re- tweentory corresponds their use, defense to the and provinces", conservation. so that Due they to sponsible for intervening in the preparation and the above, when water resources are shared by sev- implementation of the national water policy and eral provinces, it is necessary to seek agreements the policy regarding public services for the supply - of drinking water and sewerage. As mentioned ear- - ly, the new DNAPyS operates within the SIPH. At the between the parties. This role is fulfilled by the Ba same time, the SIPH proposes the regulatory frame- publicas/rh-cuencas.php).sin Committees and the Interprovincial Basin Orga work for water resource management, as well as nizations (https://www.mininterior.gov.ar/obras- WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA 63

the organization and strengthening of the drinking With regard to regulations for wastewater re- water and sewerage sector, and links and coordi- use, including agricultural reuse, there is still no nates the action of other jurisdictions and agencies regulation in the country that establishes the min- in the provision and expansion of these services. imum budgets applicable to all jurisdictions. Al- though there are several projects under study in of an existing body, is responsible for organizing the National Congress, they have yet to obtain the andThe managing ENOHSA, the created implementation in 1995, as and a continuation instrumen- talization of infrastructure development programs - derived from the national policies for the sector, as necessary consensus for their approval. (Source: - http://www.hidricosargentina.gov.ar/politica_hid er national or international). rica.php?seccion=2020)2.2. Monitoring and database well as the financing allocated for the latter (wheth- In relation to the databases linked to water re- able Development is responsible for the National sources, within the scope of the SIPH, the Nation- The Secretariat of Environment and Sustain - ingDirectorate the compilation of Biodiversity of a list ofand wetlands Water andnationwide, Aquatic al Water Information System (SNIH) (https://www. Resources, whose main water-related tasks includ- Figure 5. Map of the main basin organizations guarding protected coastal areas, managing water in the country basinsdrawing and up water a glacier quality inventory data collection. (Law 26639), safe For its part, the Federal Water Council (CO- 1 13 through the signing of a protocol by the provinces HIFE) was formally constituted on March 27, 2003,- cionales.html). Its creation constituted a substan- 2 7 tialand stepthe nationtowards (http://www.cohife.org.ar/Dfunda integrated water resource man- 3 agement in the country. The first step has been the establishment of the “Guiding Principles of Water CharterPolicy” (COHIFE,and the minutes2003). Law of 26438extraordinary has ratified assem the- 14 Articles of Incorporation of COHIFE, its Organic 4 theblies highest 1 and 2 environmentalof the aforementioned authority Council. in the coun- The Federal Environment Board (COFEMA) is 5 6 ittry. comprises Formally representatives created in 1990 of (although the Secretariat the body of was only recognized by all the provinces in 1993), 11 provincial governments and the Autonomous City Environment and Sustainable Development, the 12 development of environmental policy among all 10 theof Buenos provinces, Aires. and Its to main establish task is and to coordinateupdate the therequired levels of environmental quality in the various environmental resources throughout the country, including water resources. - tional watersheds, there are various types of agen- Lastly, in relation to interprovincial and interna committees, authorities or working groups. Nation- cies responsible for their management: watershed wide, there are 16 main organizations. Source: COHIFE. 64 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA

mininterior.gov.ar/obras-publicas/rh-nac.php), has been created, whose objectives are to collect, process and store the data obtained by the Nation- province of Río Negro), Lácar lake, in San Martín de- tero.Los Andes With respect(in the province to the importance of Neuquén) of the and problem the Río Hondo reservoir, in the province of Santiago del Es whichal Hydrological record hydrological Network (RHN). and meteorological Currently, the RHNdata has 369 stations operated by third parties, most of drinkingin the aforementioned water for the cityreservoir of Córdoba, of the theSan secondRoque red-hidrologica.php). mostdam, sufficeimportant it to city say in that Argentina, it is the withmain more source than of (https://www.mininterior.gov.ar/obras-publicas/Currently, the National Water Institute (INA) is working with the SIPH to evaluate the possibility of adding water quality parameter measurements to 3.1.1.1,300,000 Cyanobacteria inhabitants. In recent years, Argentina has seen a series of toxi- - genic cyanobacterial blooms in various river sys- 110idizable of the nitrogen existing andstations, orthophosphate such as pH, phosphorus.temperature, specific conductivity, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, ox - tems, such as the rivers Uruguay, Paraná and Limay, Moreover, Resolution 249-E/2017 of the MAyDS- lasand Piedras the reservoirs Dam. Although of Salto Grande, Argentina Río lacksTercero, an Yain- (former Ministry of Environment and Sustainable formationciretá, San system Roque onDam, its impactLos Molinos on the Dam, health Paso of the de Development of the Nation, 2017. Actual Secretari- exposed populations, it is known that all cyano- at of Environment and Sustainable Development)- bacteria blooms should in principle be regarded as recently created the Federal Environmental Con potentially toxic and, therefore, as a public health trol Network and the National Network of Environ problem. which requires actions to minimize their mental Laboratories, which have the support of the negative effect on at-risk communities. Cyanobacte- United Nations Development Program (UNDP). ria or blue-green algae belong to the oldest organ- 3. Main problems impacting isms on the planet and share characteristics with water quality in the country other bacteria and eukaryotic algae, giving them unique qualities in terms of physiology, tolerance 3.1 Eutrophication - ing the water quality of Argentinian lakes and res- action,to extreme mainly conditions due to and the adaptive excessive flexibility. contribution Their Eutrophicationervoirs. In cases is of one concern of the at main the national problems level, affect the ofnatural nutrients development from sewage has been discharges modified into by humanfresh- phenomenon is mainly due to the discharge into water bodies, the increasing use of fertilizers and these water bodies of untreated or inadequately river endication. This phenomenon has also been treated domestic wastewater. The increase in bio- exacerbated by climate change, since the increase logical productivity in this type of water bodies cre- in the temperatures of the water bodies favors the ates problems in potabilization systems due to the development of the latter (cyanophytes) as a com- petitively successful group against the rest of the phytoplankton. The most frequent toxigenic cyano- theneed growth to use of larger cyanophytes doses ofincreases coagulant-flocculants, the risk due to bacteria usually produce several toxins which cause thereducing high concentrations the flow in filtering of microcystins systems. and Moreover, other neurological, hepatic, dermal and/or respiratory toxins produced by these organisms, making it even disorders in humans, both by ingestion, inhalation, and contact with water. There are several studies in

dammore reservoir difficult to in purifyVilla Carlos them. Paz, in the province of Paso de las Piedras Dam) have been detected in all Córdoba,Two important and the Paso case de examples las Piedras are damthe San reservoir Roque seasons,Argentina and where even microcystins during the winter (San Roque relatively Lake high and

Other examples include the effects on major waterin Bahía bodies Blanca, in inareas the provinceof great touristof Buenos importance. Aires. concentrationsNevertheless, were controlling observed drinking (Ruibal water Conti, sup AL,- plyGuerrero sources JM, to Regueira detect the JM, presence2005). of harmful cya-

For example: Nahuel Huapi lake, in Bariloche (in the WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA 65

nobacteria and their metabolites is not yet common Health Organization (WHO), in its Drinking Water practice in Argentina, and counting cyanobacteria Quality Guide (third edition), recommends a guide- and measuring toxin concentration in drinking water quality standards has yet to be mandated. - line value for arsenic of 0.01 mg/L, among other convened a group of specialists to organize knowl- reasons, because the International Agency for Re edge The on Ministrythe subject of Health and provide of the Nation the health (2017a) team has searchIn Argentina,on Cancer (IARC),as well which as in is partother of countries,the WHO, with access to information. chronicclassifies arsenic arsenic poisoning as a human is mainly carcinogen associated (Group with 1). the presence of this pollutant in relatively high concentrations in drinking water drawn from ground- 3.2 Natural contaminants water, its presence in these waters being mainly of In Argentina, the main pollutants of natural origin natural origin. The consumption of arsenic waters leads to var- mainly found in groundwater and boron in both surfaceare: arsenic, and groundwater. fluoride and Ofboron. these The three first pollutants, two are - the greatest emphasis will be placed on arsenic due cursious in manifestations an extensive region of Chronic centered Regional on the Endemic south- to its importance in the country. Hydroarsenicism (HACRE), which in Argentina oc-

3.2.1. Arsenic east of the province of Córdoba, extending to Bue nos Aires, Santa Fe, Santiago del Estero, San Luis, - Tucumán, La Pampa, Salta, Jujuy, Chaco and a few tryOn ofMay Health 22, 2007, of the the Nation) Secretariat and the of Ministry Health Policies, of Agri- years,other provinces.the disease In Argentina,has received the differentdisease was names, first Regulation and Relations (which is part of the Minis described in 1913 by Dr. Mario Goyenechea Over the culture, Livestock, Fisheries and Food (which is part proposed,until in 1944, since “HACRE” in this country and Argentinian the disease Regional has its of the Ministry of Economy and Production of the ownChronic characteristics, Endemic Hydroarsenicism which distinguish “HACREA” it from were sim- onNation) the physical, decided tochemical modify andarticles microbiological 982 and 983 ofchar the- ilar diseases in other endemic areas of the world, acteristicsArgentine Foodof drinking Code (Resolution water and MSyAScarbonated No 494/94) water, such as Mexico, Chile and Taiwan.

- clinical pathology, it is still at the stage of epidemi- through Joint Resolution 68/2007 and 196/2007.The ologicalAlthough evaluation it is a well in Argentina.defined and In well-described the Drinking aforementioned Joint Resolution established a con- Water Quality Guidelines, the WHO declared that centration of 0.01 mg / l as the new maximum value for arsenic, five times lower than the one valid un ...” in determining the carcinogenic risk of arsenic til then, which was 0.05 mg / l, establishing a term and“... there encourages may be localan overestimation studies to be conducted.of the real riskThe of five years for water suppliers to adapt to the new WHO recognizes that in order for countries to es- andlimit. Institutes That deadline of the expired Ministry in of May Health 2012. and the Sec- tablish their health priorities regarding drinking That year, the Secretariat of Policies, Regulation- water quality, they should take the following prior- retariat of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries is • - sued Joint Resolution N° 34/2012 and 50/2012 (B.O.- itiesly into safe account: water and maintain its acceptability to 02-16-12), extending the previous deadlines set until- deterEnsure consumers an adequate from supply consuming of microbiological potentially iesthe resultsfor the ofestablishment the study are ofavailable: sanitary “Hydroarseni criteria and less healthy water. prioritiescism and Basic in Argentina,” Sanitation the in Argentina terms of -which Basic Studwere • Control the main chemical pollutants recognized as causing adverse health effects. - • Manage other chemical contaminants. ning,drawn Public up within Investment the ambit and of Services. the Undersecretariat • The cost of modifying existing potabilization of WaterThe reason Resources why of the the Argentine Ministry ofhealth Federal authori Plan- plants required to be able to comply with such a stringent maximum value. ties promoted this modification was that the World 66 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA

• The cost of the operation and maintenance of new facilities. bodies of water in the Province of Salta, high boron • The time required make the necessary concentrationswater, is 260 μg/l. attributable In Argentina, to natural for certain geology surface have investments. - • The quality control system to ensure such low arsenic concentrations requires human re- andbeen its reported. main tributary This is the system case ofwith the aGuachipas prediction Riv of sources, analytical equipment and laboratory waterer (known quality as Lasparameters Conchas, with in its neural southern networks section) of facilities unavailable in most small and medium-sized populations. 3.2.3boron Fluoride concentrations of over 10 mg/l. Fluoride is normally present in natural conditions in groundwater. Fluoride is an essential element, workIn onthe hydroarsenicismmonth of March 2017,and basicthe call sanitation for tenders in from the point of view of human nutrition, since was launched for the "Contracting of consultancy- it is an essential trace element for the formation - of bones and teeth. Nevertheless, it is a highly tox- Argentina", Development Program of the Provinc ic element in which only the quantity of the doses es of the Great North: Drinking Water and Sanita establishmenttion Infrastructure of sanitary - BID 2776/OC-ARcriteria and prioritiesloans, aimed re- latedat consulting to hydroarsenicism, firms to work so on that basic studies studies would for thebe- consumed distinguishes beneficial from pernicious gin in the coming months. origin,benefits. resulting In Argentina, from themost Andean of the orogeny,water extracted rich in volcanicfrom the glasssubsoil and comes responsible from fine for sediments the high contentof wind 3.2.2 Boron The main natural sources of boron are a small num- - ber of borate (boron oxide) minerals, whose main orideof arsenic in groundwater and fluorine, samples among analyzed other elements, in the cen insurface and groundwater. The concentration of flu - et al na,deposits in addition of these to certainminerals boron are found silicate in minerals the United in tral zone of the province of Chaco ranges from 0.05 States (USA), Turkey, Chile, Bolivia and Argenti- towhich 4.2 mg/loccurs (Osicka a result of the., 2002). average The temperature National Food of ulations, presented in the National Food Code, a theCode area, establishes bearing in a maximummind the daily amount consumption for fluoride of China and Russia. According to the Argentine reg drinking water (Table 2). admissible for drinking water. maximum level of boron of 0.5 mg/l is considered 3.3. Agrochemicals the presence of boron in the northern area of Ar- In Argentina, the main economic activities are ag- Recent studies have increased knowledge of riculture and livestock raising. Argentina is the countries comprising the Pilcomayo river basin de- cidedgentina. to Inundertake 2006 and intensive2007, specialists and extensive from the moni three- and eleventh largest wheat producer. Accordingly, toring in the basin, on a monthly and six-monthly itworld’s makes thirdextremely largest intensive soybean, use fifthof agrochemicals, largest corn basis, respectively, agreeing on the analytical meth- particularly phytosanitary products. odologies and the monitoring points in order to The authority that approves and regulates this have reliable analytical data for its interpretation. type of substances is the National Service of Health Although the data generated by the monitoring carried out focus on heavy metals, high concentrations the Ministry of Agribusiness of the Nation, through of boron dissolved in water, of geological origin and Agri-Food Quality (SENASA), which is part ofwith maximum and minimum values of between mentary regulations. The literature (Mazzarel- - Resolution SAGPyA 350/1999 and other comple products according to the controlling organism, the 974 Theand maximum235 μg/l respectively level of boron were in observedwater intended (Cop chemicalla, 2016) showsgroup theof the classification active principle of phytosanitary and acute forpo, Jakominhuman consumption,and Delrieux, 2017).with conventional treat- toxicity (dangerousness). The national laws regu-

ment at the supply source, for the sample of filtered lating agrochemicals are: WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA 67

Table 2. Maximum amount of fluorides based on the average temperature of the area Average annual temperature Maximum annual temp Fluorine content limit Fluorine content limit

ºC ºC Lower (mg/l) Upper (mg/l)

10,0 12,0 0,9 1,7 12,1 14,6 0,8 1,5 14,7 17,6 0,8 1,3 17,7 21,4 0,7 1,2 21,5 26,2 0,7 1,0 26,3 32,6 0,6 0,8

• - Conversely, glyphosate and AMPA (amino methyl phosphonic acid), which is its main degradation meadowsNational Law and N° certain 18073/1969 livestock Prohibition species. of sub product, are mainly associated with the particulate • stances for the treatment of natural or artificial material dragged to surface waters by runoff and pesticide regime. sediments. • National Law N° 18796/1970 Modification of- ministrative limits of pesticide residues. National Law N° 20418/1973 Tolerance and ad to phytosanitaryLastly, in the Argentineproducts. Food Code (CAA 2012), 11 These laws mention pesticides that have been of theDespite 26 regulated the above, organic of compounds,the three most correspond widely banned nationally and internationally, such as organochlorine pesticides. It should be noted that, due - to the relative age of these regulations, there is an ob- uctsused obtained pesticides from in the degradation. country, only 2,4 D has a limit vious need to update them in order to incorporate of 100A keyμg/L. contribution This list also to failsthe studyto mention of pesticides the prod in

As mentioned earlier, since grain production in Argentina” undertaken by the Ombudsman and isthe the pesticides main economic currently activity used (INTA, in the 2015). country, agro- the country is “Children and Environmental Risk chemical products are widely used to increase pro- The study seeks to estimate the risk of con- taminationUNDP UNICEF from in 2010pesticides (DPN, 2010).for each department main chambers that market these products (CASA- or municipality in the country on the basis of the ductivity. In a survey carried out in 2013 by the two- construction of the Pesticide Pollution Index. The tosanitary products was established. The three methodology used takes into account the planted FE and CIAFA), a ranking of the 15 most used phy area of every crop in every department, the packag- and atrazine. Among them, glyphosate was by far es of agrochemicals used (herbicides, insecticides most commonly used ones were: glyphosate, 2,4 D- and fungicides), their application rates and toxicity, tal volume. the most widely used, accounting for 65% of the to The methodology for calculating the Pesticide Argentine soil, the leaching potential (the greater the measured through oral LD50 in rats. potential,According the greater to national the mobility)specialists decreases (INTA, 2015), as fol in- 3 de- Contamination Index (PCI) is a simplified version - of the Pesticide Contamination Risk indicator, cideslows: imazapir>in the country’s metribuzin> watersheds, atrazine> the glyphosate. compound veloped by the National Agricultural and Livestock thatRegarding has been mostthe frequency frequently of detected detection is atrazine,of pesti Management Program of INTA (Viglizzo, 2002). due to its intensive use (it is the third most wide- the aim of standardizing an agri-environmental system for mon- 3. INTA developed this indicator together with another 11, with ly used pesticide), mobility (potential for leaching) itoring plots of land. The original indicator also includes other and persistence. factors related to the persistence and mobility of the compounds. 68 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA

The data analysis shows that eleven depart- cals, are the main environmental problems associat- ments in the country have high to very high PCI (ac- ed with irrigation, mainly observed in the arid and semiarid regions of the country that account for two - thirds of its total surface. portantcounting to for note 19% that of totalthe departments PCI). At the insame these time, three 73 In addition to the characteristics of soils, sali- departments (14%) have an average PCI. It is im- nization can be caused by the composition of irri- lated PCI. The two departments with very high PCI gation water, the rate of application, the method of categories account for nearly 60% of the accumu- irrigation used and the water table level. ince of Mendoza. There, the large proportion of the In the arid and semi-arid regions under irriga- values are Guaymallén and Maipú, both in the prov- tion, the main soil deterioration is due to saliniza- tively) is crucial, since these are crops with an ex- tion, mainly because of the quality of the irrigation tremelyarea planted toxic pesticide with vegetables package. (13 Additionally, and 11% respec albeit water and the groundwater level. In contrast, in the it to a lessers extent, the presence of pip fruit trees humid/semi-humid regions of the country, soil af- also contributes to PCI. et al.,

fectation is attributed to sodification (Sánchez alsoThey make are the followedlargest contribution by Rawson to (San PCI, Juan)as in Poci and- relatively2016). It should low calcium be noted content that high with sodium respect content to so- Florencio Varela (Buenos Aires) where vegetables- in irrigation water or soil (sodification) and also the- - to and Santa Lucia (San Juan) and La Plata and Es reducedium are crop usually yield. the main causes of drainage defi althoughcobar (Buenos the presence Aires). of The potatoes same happens and soya in in Cór the ciencies, as infiltration decreases. Both phenomena doba Capital and Gral. Pueyrredón (Buenos Aires), that at the time, the total area irrigated in the coun- - Thirty years ago, INTA (INTA, 1986) reported tivationvalue of ofthe soybean index is exceeds also significant. that provided In the bycase veg of- etables,Rosario duealone, to the hightoxicity percentage contributed of area by theplanted cul informationtry was 15,391,188 was alsoha, 3.8% presented of which by wasprovince affected in the by with this oilseed. samesalinity study. and 3.6% suffered from poor drainage. This If we observe the districts in the middle catego- et al - the humid pampa, as well as in several departments gatedA recentarea in study Argentina by the affected same institution by these (Sánchezphenom- inry the(n=73), province we find of Chaco,that soybean where isthe the contribution main crop inof ., 2016) determined that the percentage of irri - Vegetables also play a key role in other parts of ena is 23.5%, 11.0% of which is located in the NOA toxicity by cotton is also significant. - region,Taking 28, 3%into in account the Cuyo the region, implementation 36% in the Patago of the - Nationalnia region Irrigation and 27% Plan, in the promoted Pampas and by the NEA Argentini regions.- nosthe BuenosAires Province Aires conurbation and in departments (Moreno, from Berazate other gui, Merlo and Marcos Paz), in Gral. Alvarado - Bue- - an Government in 2015, whose objective is to achieve provinces, such as Santa Fe Capital, El Carmen (Ju asfour a resultmillion of irrigated which soil hectares deterioration by the year will 2030 probably (NAP, juy), Lavalle (Corrientes), Colón (Córdoba), Chim 2016), the current irrigated area would be doubled, Martínbas (San and Juan), Tupungato Yerba (Mendoza). Buena (Tucumán), Leandro L. Alem and Cainguas (Misiones) and Junín, San increase3.5 Wastewater due to salinization and sodification. The volume of wastewater produced by the mu- Some departments in La Pampa also make a nicipal (urban and urban industry) and industrial significant contribution to the PCI of forage crops, sectors (outside cities) is unavailable because there as well as pip fruits in Gral. Roca (Río Negro) and are no centralized, updated databases recording Tunuyán (Mendoza), and citrus fruits in San Pedro - 3.4(Buenos Salinization Aires) and Yerba Buena (Tucumán). manent Sanitation Information Service), operated this type of information. The SPIDES database (Per the contamination of soil and water by agrochemi- Salinization and sodification of soils, together with by the National Entity of Water Works of Sanitation (ENOHSA), has not been available since 2005. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA 69

A preliminary estimate of the volume of munic- Figure 6. Resulting Pesticide Contamination Index ipal wastewater discharged into the sewerage networks can be made by considering that, according to the National Population, Household and Hous- ing Census of 2010, the population amounted to 40,117,096. A total of 48.8% of private homes had- a sewer drain, there were 11,317,507 private homes, 12,171,675 households in which number of inhabi tants per household was 3.3 inhabitants while 12.2%- of households shared housing (INDEC, 2012). By virtue of the above, adopting an average al andlocation used for is thedischarged country intoof 0.3 the m³/(inhab. sewage network), day) and thea reduction volume factorof wastewater of 0.8 (80% discharged of the water into supplied the net- cubicwork canmeters be estimatedper year). at approximately 1,596 x 10⁶ m³/yearAs mentioned (nearly one earlier, thousand information six hundred on the million vol- - pacity of municipal wastewater treatment plants andume oftreatment treated domestictechnologies effluents, used quantity is unavailable, and ca and there is no information on the status of existing facilities.

Information from 2000 indicates that only 10%- tionof the system total (Calcagno volume of et domestic al effluents collected IANASby the textsewerage (Dagnino systems Pastore was et treatedal by a purifica the percentage of this type .,of 2000). wastewater According treated to the at ., 2012), on that date, The National Directorate of Drinking Water Source: DPN (2010). andsewage Sewerage treatment (DNAPyS) plants was of the in theSIPH order is preparing of 12%. a survey of sewage treatment plants for populations - signing policies and investment plans in the waste- The second, financed by the loans in force through waterwith over treatment 10,000 sector inhabitants, that will with make the it possible aim of de to the ENOHSA and PBA executing units, consists of implementing the public works defined in the- local level and the adequate allocation of resourc- lyfirst being stage. carried out by the National Directorate of espromote at the efficiencynational level,in resource ensuring management the greatest at imthe- DrinkingThe purification Water and plantSanitation census includes that is facilities current pact and sustainability of investments and the protection of the environment and public health, thus The information collected was provided by the pro- vincialthat serve contact populations persons ofto overthe Secretariat 10,000 inhabitants. of Infra- this issue. structure and Water Policy (SIPH). To date there are fulfilling the goals established through the SDGs for Table 3. databaseThe project and subsequently comprises two undertaking stages: the a first,gener to- 358 records, as shown in be financed by the TC, will consist of preparing a The main treatmentFigure systems 7 shows identified the corre were:- spondingstabilization disaggregation. ponds (62%), activated sludge (16%) al sectoral diagnosis to define a National Plan for and filter beds (8%). the Rehabilitation of Wastewater Treatment Plants. 70 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA

There is very little information on the operating service (drinking water and sewerage), and thereby status of all the plants registered. Table 4 shows meet the new requirements of the service ladders the information obtained to date. The systematization of the information requested by the SIPH will make it possible to have greater proposed3.6 Enteropathogens by the SDGs. and opportunistic accuracy regarding the type of accessibility to each microorganisms in ambient water Another important element to be highlighted, within the pollution from untreated wastewater, con- Table 3. Registered treatment plants by cerns the presence of enteropathogens (primary province (as of May 2018) pathogens and opportunistic pathogens) -bacteria Province Plants and viruses- and free-living opportunistic microorganisms, which pose a risk to health human through exposure to recreational waters and beach sands. Buenos Aires 102 The Ministry of Health has invited a group of spe- Santa Fe San Luis 50 cialists to organize knowledge on the subject and Mendoza 35 Salta 16 healthsubmit risks,Guidelines due to for the the exposure Public Health of people Area to(MSN, en- 16 2017b), providing information about the potential Chaco teropathogenic organisms (primary pathogens and Entre Ríos 15 opportunistic pathogens) -bacteria and viruses- Córdoba 13 and free-living opportunistic microorganisms pres- 13 ent in freshwater and marine waters, through pri- Corrientes Río Negro 13 mary contact of the whole body and in recreational Neuquén 11 - Jujuy mersion, ingestion), as well as contact with beach 10 activities (as an extreme example: swimming, im Formosa sands in Argentina. 9 Misiones 9 8 Figure 7. Type of treatment at plants surveyed. Catamarca Tucumán 7 May 2018 (%) Santa Cruz 6 6 Chubut 4 16 6 2 2 5 La Pampa 4 Santiago del Estero 4 La Rioja 3 Source: DNAPyS (2018). Table 4. Status of Registered Sewerage Plants (as of May 2018) Status Plantas 62 Average Good 39 Poor 30 Activated sludge Lagoons N/A 28 Filter bed Compact plant S/D 1 Sedimentation Others Total 260 358 Source: DNAPyS (2018). Source: DNAPyS (2018). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA 71

3.7 Deforestation Forests provide valuable services such as ensuring mainly promoted by the advance of the agricultural frontier. This process has triggered major territori- thatthe regular occur as flow a result of water of treefelling. in rainy Whenareas, foresthelping cov toin conserving the natural and cultural assets asso- offset the destructive effects of floods and drought ciatedal conflicts with thatthese increased forests. the concern and interest er is lost, water flows more quickly into streams,- km² and includes areas of Northwest Argentina orateleaving and agricultural the population fields mustexposed invest to thein imported possible The Chaco Seco ecoregion has an area of 787,000 fertilizerserosion of orproductive cut down soils. more Thus, forest cropfields areas. deteri Deforestation is one of the main ecological semi-arid(62% of theand totalseasonal, ecoregion), with high Western temperatures Paraguay in problems humanity faces, since it causes the trans- summer(22%) and and Southeast low temperatures Bolivia (16%). in winter. The climate Precipi is- formation of forested territories as a result of man's actions. One of the main causes of deforestation is the advance of the agricultural frontier. This trans- andtation is concentrated amounts to 400in the annual summer mm period. in the The central pre- formation affects the natural dynamics of eco- dominantportion and natural 1000 vegetation mm in the is East open and forest. West ends, systems at different scales, both local and global, This region possesses high natural biodiversity directly and indirectly affecting water quality by incorporating sediments in riverbeds. In recent years, million people live in the Chaco Seco, where aborig- the advance of the agricultural frontier has replaced inalcoexisting and creole with communitiesvarious cultures. reside, Approximately mainly engag 7.5- large areas of native forest, with the Parque Ch- ing in a subsistence economy that includes family - farming, extensive grazing, hunting and gathering. liviana regions being the most affected. In addition toaqueño, agricultural Selva Misioneracrops, forest and plantations Selva Tucumano have also Bo - 4. Conclusions soyizationincreased theirprocess area did mainly not takein the place provinces in the ofprov En- This chapter has considered the main conclusions incetre Ríos, of Misiones, Corrientes where and deforestationMisiones. In Argentina, occurred latthe- and actions regarded as a priority for preserving er. Colonization occurred with the aim of populat- water resources (both in quantity and quality) and ing the province and consolidating the borders of improving the quality of life of the population. the country, initially through the exploitation of • The main sources of anthropogenic pollution, forest resources by selective felling and the cultiva- both surface and groundwater, are domestic tion of yerba mate. Moreover, the existence of large and industrial waste liquids and those pro- areas with high productivity for agricultural activ- duced by agricultural-livestock activity. ities, such as the Pampas region, delayed the devel- • The most important pollutants produced by opment of the latter in regions suitable for different - uses, such as the case of Misiones with a clear forest ganisms, macronutrients, pesticides and heavy metals.human activities are: organic matter, microor • The main pollutants of natural origin are arse- vocation (Guerrero Borges, 2012). - Recent studies have been carried out jointly by- are present in groundwater, and boron in sur- the Regional Analysis and Remote Sensing Labora- facenic, fluorideand groundwater. and boron. Arsenic and fluoride stitutetory (LART) of Agricultural of the Faculty Technology of Agronomy (INTA) of theand Uni the • Considering their health importance, observed versity of Buenos Aires (FAUBA), the National In concentrations and territorial extension, arse- with the aim of providing up-to-date, accessible and nic is the most important pollutant of the three. spatiallyAgro-forestry explicit Network information Chaco about Argentina the clearings (Redaf), that occurred in the Chaco ecoregion. The results of Taking into account these aspects, which are these studies show that deforestation rates in this highlighted and described in this chapter, the fol- region are among the highest in the world and are

lowing actions should be prioritized: 72 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA

• use of substances used as raw materials) and the • - minimization of water use in processes should erage,Achieve including 100% safe treatment water coverage. prior to discharge be promoted. intoSignificantly receiving increase bodies. These sewerage treatment network systems cov • According to the specialized national agency should include the treatment and disposal of - the generated sludge and, when appropriate, cient countries in the use of herbicides per ton the removal of nitrogen and/or phosphorus. of(INTA, grain 2015), produced Argentina (approximately is one of the one most tonne ineffi of • - grains per kilogram of herbicide, compared to

beWith implemented regard to in arsenic, such a theway studythat the on health “Hy of herbicides, without increasing productivity, authoritiesdroarsenicism have and the Basicnecessary Sanitation” information should to willseven negatively tons in the impact USA). the Using environment a larger amount in gen- be able to determine the maximum admissi- eral and water resources in particular. ble concentration of total arsenic in the water • In order to preserve surface and groundwater distributed by the network in the country for sources, it is necessary to leverage the nutri- a certain level of acceptable risk, and how this ents and organic matter present and use it as should progress to achieve the set limit. a disposal method, and to evaluate and pro- • As for the pollutants generated in industrial ac- mote irrigation (agricultural reuse) with treat- tivities, minimizing the generation of contami- ed wastewater. nants (for example, through the recovery and re-

5. Bibliographical References

República Argentina. - - Álvarez A., Fasciolo G., Barbazza C., Lorenzo F. and PrincipiosArgentina: Rectores CEPAL-Organi de la Política Balanza M.E. (2008). Impactos en el agua subter- Hídricazación de en las la Naciones República Unidas. Argentina. na).ránea Revista de un desistema la Facultad de efluentes de Ciencias para Agrarias.riego. El COHIFEConsejo (2003). Hídrico Federal. Sistema Paramillo (Lavalle, Mendoza, Argenti- Argentina:Predic- cional de Cuyo. ción de parámetros de calidad de agua mediante Vol. XL, N°2, YearSistema 2. Argentina: de Información Universidad sobre Na el Coppo,redes R., neuronales Jakomin, M., en and la Delrieux,cuenca del C. Río (2017). Pilcomayo Uso del Agua en la Agricultura y el Medio Rural de Argentina. Aquastatla FAO. (2000). Dagnino Pastore J.M. et al. - Argentina: PROIMCA-PRODECA. Argentina: OrganizaciónEstudio de las general Naciones del (2012). El estado de situ Unidascaso Campo para Espejola Alimentación del aglomerado y la Agricultura. Gran Mendo - ación de los recursos hídricos de Argentina:Diagnóstico la Barbeitoza - República Anzorena, Argentina. E. (2001). delcuestión agua endel las agua, Américas. en: Jiménez Cisneros, B. and NetworkGalizia Tundisi, of Academies J. (Coordinators), of Sciences (IANAS) and Los objetivosConvenio de IDRC desarrollo – OPS/ México: Interamerican sostenibleHEP/CEPIS. y el plan del agua en Argentina. Avan Niñez y Riesgo Ambiental en Argentina. Bereciartua,ces en materia P. (2017) de agua potable, saneamiento y Foro Consultivo Científico y Tecnológico, AC. - tratamiento de efluentes. - DPN (2010). Maiztegui, C. Delucchi, M. (coordinadores). Bue- de Infraestructura y Política Serie Hídrica. No 1 – AGUA PO nos Aires: Defensoría del Pueblo de la Nación / TABLE YCódigo SANEAMIENTO. Alimentario Argentina: Argentino. Secretaría Capítulo PNUD / Unicef Argentina / Organización Pana XII. Argentina. mericana de la Salud / Oficina Internacional del CAA (2012). Trabajo. 1st edition. Informe sobre la gestión del agua en la Fasciolo G., Meca M.I. and Vélez O. (1998). Uso de Calcagno A., Mendiburo N. and Gaviño Novillo M. efluentes domésticos para riego en zonas áridas. (2000). El Caso Mendoza. Argentina: AIDIS. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA 73

Desarrollo Institucional para la Inversión: Estudio del Potencial de Ampliación - FAO-PROSAPdel Riego (2015).en Argentina. Municipioados. Argentina. de Puerto Madryn (2006a). Ordenanza N° 6.301/2006. Reúso de efluentes cloacalesReúso de trateflu- Deforestación (UTF/ARG/017/ARG). y frag- entes cloacales tratados. Anexo I. Argentina. mentaciónArgentina: FAO.de la selva misionera: estrategias y Municipio de PuertoObjetivos Madryn de Desarrollo (2006b). del Milenio. Guerreroherramientas Borges, para V. (2012).el diseño del paisaje Caso de Rendición de Cuentas 2010. República Argentina. estudio Colonia Andresito. Master’s thesis in Ter- ODM (2010). - - jo Nacional de Coordinación de Políticas Socia- lesProyecto / Presidencia PNUD/ARG/04/046. de la Nación / Argentina: Programa Consede Na- ritorial Sciences.Balance Argentina: hídrico Universidadde la República Nacio Ar- gentina:nal de La MemoriaPlata. descriptiva. - INCyTH (1994). - ciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD). mano / Instituto Nacional de CienciaArgentina: y Técnica Sec OMS-UNICEF (2017). “Progress on drinking water, retaría de Recursos Naturales y Ambiente Hu- sanitationInforme and hygiene”. 2015 del PCM: On-line: datos https://goo. esenciales. ternacional (PHI). Organizacióngl/36nDXz Mundial de la Salud. Hídricas / UNESCOCenso Nacional / Programa Agropecuario Hidrológico 2002. In OMS (2015). - Total del país. Resultados definitivos. - INDEC (2007). ONU (2002a). Resolución aprobada por la Asam Buenos Ai- blea GeneralObjetivos 55/2. Organización de Desarrollo de del las Milenio. Naciones Ob- res: Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos. - Unidas. INDEC (2012). Censo Nacional de Población, Hoga ONU (2002b). res y Viviendas 2010. Censo del Bicentenario. Re lajetivo proporción 7: Garantizar de personas la sostenibilidad sin acceso delsostenible medio sultados definitivos.Documento Serie básico B N°2.para Vol. programa 1. Buenos de ambiente. Meta 7.C: Reducir a la mitad, para 2015,- riegoAires: y Instituto drenaje. Nacional de Estadística y Censos.- INTA (1986). al agua potable y a servicios básicos de sanea- Compiladores Disposición varios. D.N. Los Nº plaguicidas314/85. Ar miento. Organización de las Naciones Unidas. agregadosgentina. 94 alpp. suelo y su destino en el ambiente. ONU (2003). Resolución 58/217. Decenio Interna INTA (2015). cional para la Acción, “El agua, fuente de vida”, Residuos de productos fitosani- 2005–2015. Organización de las Naciones Unidas. tarios:Argentina: Criterios Ediciones regulatorios INTA. locales e internacio- ONU (2010). Resolución 64/292. El derecho humano Mazzarellanales. D. (2016). al agua y el saneamiento. 108a Sesión Plenaria, Argentina. 28 de julioObjetivos de 2010. Organización de Desarrollo de Sostenible, las Naciones 17 MinisterioSerie de Ambientede Informes y DesarrolloEspeciales ILSI,Sustentable Vol. IV. ObjetivosUnidas. para transformar nuestro mundo. Ob- - ONU (2017). rio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de la su gestión sostenible y el saneamiento para to- Nación.(2018). Resolución 410/2018. Argentina: Ministe jetivo 6: Garantizar la disponibilidad de agua y Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable - dos. OrganizaciónEvaluación de las de Naciones las concentraciones Unidas. de terio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de Osickafluoruro R, Agullo y arsénico N.S., Herreraen las aguas Ahuad subterráneas C.E., Giménez del la(2017). Nación. Resolución 249-E/2017. Argentina: Minis DomoM.C. (2002). Central de la Provincia del Chaco. Cianobac- - terias como determinantes ambientales de la Sa- ultad de Agroindustrias. Cátedra Ministeriolud. Argentina. de Salud de la Nación (2017a). de Química AnalíticaEntidades General. de gestión Chaco: UNNE,del agua Fac a - nivel de cuencas: experiencia de Argentina. Serie trices sanitarias para enteropatógenos y mi- Pochat V. (2005). - Ministeriocroorganismos de Salud oportunistas de la Nación en agua (2017b). ambiente. Direc - Argentina. Recursos Naturales e Infraestructura N°96. San tiago de Chile: CEPAL-Organización de las Na ciones Unidas. 74 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ARGENTINA

Informe Final. - Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio. sempeño para prestadores de Agua y Sanea- ProyectoConsejo PNUD/ARG/12/019 Nacional de Coordinación (2015). de Políticas SIPH (2017). Guía de Indicadores e índices de de Sociales / Presidencia de la Nación /Argentina: Programa Hídricos-Dirección Nacional de Agua Potable y Saneamiento.miento. Argentina: Subsecretaría de Recursos et al. Plan Nacional Federal Informe del país. Objetivos de Desar- de Nacioneslos Recursos Unidas Hídricos. para el Desarrollo (PNUD). - rollo Sostenible. Rodríguez A. (2008). SIPHNacional (2018a). de Política Hídrica y Coordinación Servicios. Buenos Aires: Ministe Federal. Meta 6.4. Argentina: Dirección rio de Planificación Federal, Inversión Pública y Informe País. Objetivos de Desarrollo - Sostenible. - Ruibal Conti AL, Guerrero JM, Regueira JM (2005). SIPHcional (2018b). de Política Hídrica y Coordinación Federal. Levelsdifferences of microcystins in the implementation in two Argentinean of safe levels. res Meta 6.3.2. Argentina: Dirección Na Environmentalervoirs used for Toxicology water supply and recreations: Plan Nacional del Agua et al. Evaluación de las áreas Subsecretaría de Recursos Hídricos de la Nación- bajo riego afectadas por salinidad, vol. 20, 263-269. y/o sodicidad (2017). . Argentina: SRHN. Sánchezen Argentina. R.M. (2016). Viglizzo, E. F., Pordomingo, A.J., Castro, M.G. y Lér Segundo Informe Nacional para la tora, F.A. (2002). La sustentabilidad ambiental ImplementaciónArgentina: de la Convención Ediciones de INTA. las Naciones del agro pampeano.Understanding Buenos water Aires: scarcity. INTA. ISBNDefi- SDSyPAUnidas (2002). de Lucha contra la Desertificación. Ar- nitions9789875210523 and measurements. - White C. (2012). Water Security, Glob gentina: Secretaría de Desarrollo Sustentable y al Water Forum. Política Ambiental de la República Argentina. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 75

Bolivia

The quality of drinking water in Bolivia varies greatly, as reflected in the six physiographic provinces in the country. Due to the considerable socio-economic and cultural differences, water quality is analyzed in three areas: urban, which refers to large cities, intermediate cities, and rural, with small, scattered villages and communities. The Authority for the Supervision and Social Control of Drinking Water and Basic Sanitation is the official inspection entity that enforces water quality rules and regulations. These are not always complied with, leading to limited results and varying drinking water quality.

Sajama National Park, with the Parinacota volcano and the Pomerape in the background, Bolivia, © iStock 76 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

Drinking Water Quality in Bolivia

Fernando Urquidi-Barrau and Carlos D. España Vásquez

Abstract

provinces in the country. At the same time, due to the considerable socio-economic and cul- The quality of drinking water in Bolivia varies greatly, as reflected in the six physiographic- ing to major cities (Central Axis), intermediate cities, and rural, with agricultural communi- tiestural and differences, small, scattered water quality populations. must also Drinking be analyzed water qualityin three is spheres: also closely urban, related correspond to local sanitation and the care and protection of water sources. There is a problematic - and unresolved - cycle with wastewater discharges and their treatment in all three areas. Providing quality water suitable for human consumption is one of the tasks of the government. The state faces the challenge of balancing the supply and demand of water resources, an especially critical challenge due to the overwhelming population increase of certain cities as a result of internal migration in the quest for better life prospects.

(AAPS) is the body that monitors the quality of water for human consumption and sewerage.The This Authority authority for states the Control that efforts and Social are being Control made of Drinkingto achieve Water the objective and Basic of Sanitation effective control of drinking water quality in the country through the enforcement of rules and regu-

lations. Unfortunately, they are not always fully enforced in practice. 1. Water availability in Bolivia

It is important to consider the enormous variation in water availability throughout the

but, due to its unequal distribution, there are many challenges both in regions where scar- country. According to the national average, there is an abundant availability of water flow - city is evident and in others where there are frequent floods in the rainy season. In fact, the four macro-basins in Bolivia show major differences in rainfall: whereas the Amazon Rain forest receives 1,814 mm/year, the Rio de la Plata Macro-basin receives 854 mm/year, the- esEndorheic challenges Rainfall for water has angovernance. average of 421 mm/year while the smallest of the four, the Pacific Macro-basin,These hydrological receives an conditions average of create just 59.1 a higher mm/year proportion (Urquidi, of 2015). surface Accordingly water use this for pos human consumption, although groundwater use for the same purpose has also increased. In any case, both surface and groundwater require periodic, sustained monitoring and mea-

Fernando Urquidi-Barrau [email protected] Chapter Coordinator. Ph.D., Geological Engineer, Member and Vice President of the National Academy of Bolivia. Focal Point of the IANAS Program for Bolivia. Carlos D. España Vásquez Dipl. Eng, Civil Engineer - Health Professor and Researcher at the Institute of Health and Environmental Engineering of the Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz - Bolivia. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 77

surement to control their quantity and, above all, - their quality to prevent possible negative effects on acteristics regarding the availability of the quantity the health of the population and the environment. andEach quality physiographic of water in theprovince sources has (data specific obtained char There is a growing consensus that the best way to guarantee water suitable for human consump- However, information on water quality is almost tion is the protection and control of water sources. non-existentfrom the Surface or unpublished. Water Balance of Bolivia, 1992). To prevent adjacent contamination points, attention should not only be paid to the point where the I. Physiographic Province of the extraction of surface or underground water is car- Western Andean Cordillera ried out, but also to protecting the micro-basin, the recharge area and the catchment area of the water km², covers a strip encompassing the entire bor- collection work (see Figure 1). derThis with province, Chile andwith part an ofapproximate the southern area border of 43,000 with In this context, the detection of possible con- Peru. It has desert climate conditions, meaning that tamination sources is more visible and evident it is the least populated area, with limited agricul- in surface waters, making it possible to take pre- tural development. It has an orographic difference ventive or corrective measures. Conversely, in the case of groundwater, contamination advances in- visibly and studies are required to determine its from 3,900 to over 4,500 meters above sea level - (masl), with annual precipitation of less than 200 ination processes require long-term actions that mm. It has a specific flow rate of 0 to 10 lt.s-1.Km-2. maysource even and force characteristics. a local source Likewise,of water supply decontam to be Figure 1. Map of normal precipitation and EPSA abandoned. areas by category water and sewerage and health sectors have seen the Inneed the to past protect five yearswater (2013-2018),resources and the health drinking by controlling the quality of drinking water and its sanitation, and wastewater quality, through adequate treatment oriented mainly towards the reuse of water for agricultural purposes. As can be seen in Figure 2 varied relief and an enormous diversity of eco-systems that have allowed the division, Bolivia ofhas large extremely areas - or physiographic provinces, with a specific hydrology and hydrogeology, which will be briefly analyzed below.From This west figure to east, also theseshows are the the nine areas departmen compris- tal capitals of Bolivia.

I.ing thePhysiographic physiographic Province provinces: of the Western Andean Cordillera II. Altiplano III. Physiographic Province of the Bolivian Cordillera IV. Physiographic Sub-AndeanProvince of theProvince Eastern Andean V. Plains VI. Physiographic Province of the Chaco - Benianas

Physiographic Province of the Brazilian Shield 78 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

Most of the inhabitants of this physiograph- - ic province are supplied with water through shal- sa. These astonishing natural features developed in low artesian wells dug or built in or around their severaltwo large, lacustrine spectacular episodes salt relatedflats: Uyuni to major and climate Coipa properties. Another source of water are the high altitude wetlands that store non-saline groundwater and are also used to feed and provide water to their changes that occurred from the Lower Pleistocene herds of camelids (llamas and alpacas). Water pol- to the Current Quaternary (Argollo & Mourguiart, lution is almost non-existent and limited to former 1995:360). mining works. km².The Annual province precipitation is approximately varies from 1,000 less km than long and 120 km wide, with an estimated area of 120,000 II. Physiographic Province North to South, as a result of which the climate beof the Bolivian Altiplano comes200 to 800more mm, arid with and a clear salinization downward more trend intense from This physiographic province is an intermontane, (Cardozo, A. et. al.

above sea level and between the two eastern and basin and cold air, masses2004). The from Altiplano the south, is subject which toin westernendorheic Andean basin Cordilleras.located at 3,680 The mainand 4,000 hydrological meters winterthe influence and part of warm of autumn air masses cause from cold thewaves Amazon with the condensation of the little humidity that exists. It - cacomponents, is a large freshwater Lake Titicaca, lake Poopó in the and North Uru Altiplano Uru, are - andconnected the other by two the Desaguaderoare saltwater River.lakes inLake the Titicasouth. tremelyhas a specific variable flow rateand ofhas 0 to clearly 10 lt.s-1.Km-2. differentiated They are complemented, at the southern end, by Water quality in the Bolivian Altiplano is ex Titicaca, there are no hydrological problems, except forproblems. the eutrophication For example, ofin algaethe North, in the thanks bay of to PunoLake - Figure 2. Map of physiographic zones of Bolivia water from that city and, to a lesser extent, in the (Peru), caused by effluent from untreated waste

riverssmaller are city unsuitable of Copacabana for human (Bolivia). consumption At the same be- causetime, theof their surface high waterscontent of of theheavy Bolivian metals Altiplano and nat-

uralThe contamination Northern Altiplano by arsenic is, and to borona certain (INTESCA, extent denselyAIC & CNR, populated; 1993). with many smaller towns and -

arecities also around important Lake Titicaca towns andin the along Central the roads Altipla be- notween with the several cities ofsmaller El Alto cities and Patacamaya.and many smaller, There less populated towns. Several mining camps and the capital city of Oruro supply their drinking water needs through groundwater. The Southern Al- tiplano is the least populated region of the coun-

mm/year of rainfall. Sometimes, it does not receive try, and the driest and most arid with less than 100

heavyany rain metal throughout content derivedthe year. from Lake tailings Poopó and has mine high tailingscontamination discarded of 25,000 many yearsmg/l ofago salinity by state and and a high private mining. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 79

III. Physiographic Province of Photograph 1a. Contamination from mining the Eastern Andean Cordillera waste in the town of Poopó This physiographic province consists of Andean meters above sea level and covers an approximate massifs with heights from 2,000 to more than 4,500 area of 240,000 Km². It has an annual rainfall of 500 province,to 2,000 mm as welland asa specific several flowlarge rate and ofmedium-sized 50 lt.s-1.Km- 2. Five departmental capitals are located in this- arecities. highly The traditionalcontaminated oxides by the and passive sulfides and mining mining in wastedustry fromis located tailings, in this tailings province and othersand surface left by flows the industry (see Photographs 1a and 1b).

AndeanA large Cordillera, percentage which of is the why Bolivian it has the population highest anthropiclive in the contamination. Physiographic However, Province ofriver the pollution Eastern is partly compounded by its rapid descent into the plains and high solar radiation due to the height. The main problem is that these waters are used untreated in irrigation projects involving agricultural plots of vegetables and legumes, as well as in the water supply consumed as drinking water in the small towns downstream. Photograph 1b. Showing visible contamination in the city of Potosí, towards the Cerro Rico de Potosí IV. Physiographic Sub-Andean Province

This is a strip with an approximate area of 120,000 Km² and an average width of 100 km between the Eastern Andean Cordillera and the Chaco Beniana Plain, with mountains ranging from 500 to 4,000 meters above sea level. It has between 500 and ranges3,000 mm from of mediocre rainfall per to good, year andand ait specificreceives flowwa- rate of 0 to 50 lt.s-1.Km-2. The quality of the water capitalter from Sucre the thaws and andvarious rains other from thelarge eastern and medi flank- um-sizedof the Central cities and located Eastern in this Andean province Cordillera. are supplied The with surface and groundwater of varying quality, although none of it is completely potable.

V. Physiographic Province of the Chaco - Benianas Plains - ous areas at a constant height of between 115 and 250 meters above sea level. The south sector is be This province has an approximate area of 462,000 tween 250 and 1,000 meters above sea level. Annual km² and can be divided into two sectors: the north, precipitation in the north sector varies from 1,600- with approximately 323,000 Km² and the south with- to 5,000 mm, and in the South sector from 600 to approximately 139,000 Km². The north sector has 1,500 mm, and is highly influenced by hot air mass almost flat orography with low altitude mountain es from the Amazon basin. The specific flow in the 80 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

for agriculture and the livestock industry. The exception is the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra, which north is from 10 to 50 lt.s-1.Km-2 and in the south has good groundwater suitable for drinking, de- afrom region 0 to of 10 worldwide lt.s-1.Km-2. interest, because it contains spite being hard water, that supplies a population the Thislargest province tropical is foresthome andto the the Bolivian greatest Amazon, biolog- of over one million inhabitants. ical diversity on earth. Hydrographically it covers Pollution in the north of the province is largely due to the complex environmental and social prob- sub-basins and micro-basins. the TheAmazon population Macro Basinof this in province Bolivia withdepends its basins, on ri- Deforestation in the upper and middle watershed parian water (without quality control) and rainfall haslems caused of the themiddle loss andof more lower than basins half theof Arroyo forest covBay.-

erosion, sedimentation and clogging of streams, af- fectinger of the the Arroyo quality Bay and springs. quantity This of has water facilitated available the Photograph 2. Typical clothes washing on to the population in the capital city of Cobija (Fun- the banks of the Beni River caused by the illegal exploitation of gold with the usedación of mercury,Natura Bolivia, which 2010).is found Contamination in rivers and is is also ex-

VI.tremely Physiographic difficult to Province prevent and of the eliminate. Brazilian Shield This large area covers the entire region of the

border with Brazil. It has an approximate area of 198,000 Km² and an orography ranging from 115 to 250 meters above sea level. Rainfall varies from the1,200 numerous to 1,700 mmriver per courses year thatand haveits specific problems flow due is tofrom the 0 pollution to 20 l. Its of limited the waters population of the rivers is supplied from the by cities and Andean population upstream. It has a high risk in terms of health, including malaria, yellow fever and other diseases caused by mosquito bites, as well as those related to ingestion. Photograph 3. Means of transport in the Mamoré river In the south of the province, the morphology consists of faulted blocks with gentle slopes. Hy- - cavaca Valley through which the Santa Cruz-Puer- drologically, this area is highly influenced by the Tu

to Suárez Railroad runs, and is home to the cities of San José de Chiquitos and Roboré (Precambrian Project, 1994).

2. Importance of water quality as a human right

- In July 2010, the United Nations General Assembly waterissued and Resolution sanitation, A/RES/64/292 emphasizing that officially both are recog es- nizing, for the first time ever, the human right to WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 81

sential and fundamental needs for the healthy sur- threat to the health of the population, and results in vival of mankind. At the same time, the Plurination- considerable rates of waterborne diseases with statistical under-recording. Despite this reality, cover- of the new Political Constitution, issued on Sep- age has improved and slowly increased in the past al State of Bolivia, Article“I. 16Everyone of the Second has the Chapter right to water and food”. “II. The State has the obligation to international assistance in the sector. guaranteetember 25, food2009, security states: through a healthy, adequate 15 yearsPolitical thanks and to social state factorsinvestments have contributedand important to and sufficient diet, for the entire population”. On the the weakening of institutions and drinking water basis of these two postulates, the state promotes service providers, as a result of which they fail to access to drinking water and its sanitation as an es- offer optimal drinking water supply service in the nine departments and, above, in areas with inter- However, the population of the Plurination- mediate cities and rural communities. It is import- sential right of Bolivians. ant to note that during this same period of time, drinking water, including its quality with bacte- - riologicalal State of safety,Bolivia particularly has not optimized in the ruralthe supply context. of izations with concessions to foreign private compa- Drinking water and sanitation coverage in the coun- niesBolivia and has the experienced almost immediate the failure return of to two the privat state try has steadily increased, but has not kept pace of these water supply and sanitation services in two with the growing demand. The quality of drinking water nationwide is low, even compared to the cur- Paz. However, in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, the second rent South American context. mostmajor important departmental city in capitals: the country, Cochabamba the distribution and La The low coverage and/or lack of sewerage and and private sanitation system is run by a private co- wastewater treatment plants means that waste- operative with relative success, compared with the water is discharged into waterbodies with surface systems in other capital and medium-sized cities. - The overriding national concern continues to be the supply of water required for various uses, flows. This is reflected in the presence of contam while overlooking the quality of the latter. In rural inated water in almost all cities and most Bolivian rural towns. This great deficiency is a permanent

Figura 3. Evaluación global del suministro de agua y saneamiento

Agricultural Industrial Domestic 100

0 Peru Chile Cuba Brazil Bolivia Mexico Canada Colombia Argentina Costa Rica Costa Venezuela The World Guatemala The Americas United States South America Dominican Rep. Developed countries Developed Developing countries Developing

Fuente: Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assesment. Report 2012 82 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

areas, the greatest use of water is for agriculture 3. Entities responsible for the drinking (see Figure 3), particularly irrigation (see Table water and sanitation sector 1). However, this use fails to consider the quality or the degree of contamination of the water, focusing The responsibility and formulation of policies for solely on its chemical condition, in other words, en- the water and sanitation sector corresponds to the suring that it is not salt water (chlorinated and/or - sulfated-sodic). For agriculture, surface water from rivers, lagoons and lakes is used. •Ministry of Environment and Water (MMAyA) com- Water pollution is a major environmental prob- prising three Vice Ministries: lem because it negatively affects the quality of life • Vice Ministry of Drinking Water and Basic San Changeitation (VAPSB) (VMACC) as well as groundwater near major cities, are begin- • Vice Ministry for the Environment and Climate- ningof the to population. become contaminated. In Bolivia, many Much rivers of theand distri lakes,- bution system for drinking water and wastewater Vice Ministry for Water Resources and Irriga disposal is old and in a state of disrepair. The main tion (VRHR) - barriers or gaps are related to the poor sewage sys- quently, in some cases in less than a year. The min- isterialUnfortunately, structure also MMAyA underwent ministers frequent changed changes. fre and wastewater are therefore released into the The MMAyA, through the Vice Ministry of Drink- tem and wastewater treatment coverage. Garbage - treatment, causing their contamination. This caus- sible for the formulation and updating of the water esflows permanent and bodies problems of surface of maintenance water, with andlittle opera or no- resourcesing Water andpolicy, Basic as Sanitationwell as designing (VAPSB), and is respon imple- tion for service operators and municipalities. menting programmatic approaches, projects and An additional task is the implementation of ex- actions to guarantee that the water supplied to the creta and solid waste management. Despite the im- - provement of the urban solid waste collection sys- man consumption. tem, sanitary and storm sewer systems are affected Bolivian population is sufficient and suitable for hu by the presence of waste mainly dumped in periph- development and implementation of plans, poli- eral areas. This is the leading cause of pollution in the ciesThe and VRHR norms is related responsible to Integral for contributing Watershed to Man thecountry followed by mining and industrial activity. agement. The Authority for the Oversight and So- This affects both the water courses and surface storage, and the aquifers used to supply drinking water. cial Control of Drinking Water and Basic Sanitation (AAPS) and the Autonomous Territorial Entities

Table 1. Irrigation systems, users and irrigated area by Department Systems Users Irrigated Area Province Number % Families % Hectares % Chuquisaca Cochabamba 678 14.5 17,718 8.1 21,168 9.4 20.3 1,035 21.9 81,025 37.6 87,534 38.6 Oruro 372 La Paz 961 54,818 25.1 35,993 15.9 Potosí 20.2 14.7 7.2 6.6 9,934 4.6 14,039 6.2 Santa Cruz 232 956 31,940 16,240 Tarija 7.3 4.9 5,865 2,6 15,239 6.7 Total 4,724550 100.011.6 15,975217,975 100.0 226,56436,351 100.016.0

Source: MAGDR – DGSR – PRONAR, 2015. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 83

Table 2. Categorization of EPSA by town Categories Population Territoriality

Category A EPSA Main axis of the country (cities of La Paz, Cochabamba More than 500,000 inhabitants Capital cities,and peri-urban Santa Cruz areas De Laand Sierra) other major cities EPSA Between 50,000 and 500,000 inhabitants Category B Intermediate cities Category C EPSA Between 10,000 and 50,000 inhabitants Cities and/or Minor Municipalities Category D EPSA Between 2,000 and 10,000 inhabitants Indigenous Peasant Constitution Less than 10,000 inhabitants or EPSA of Native Registers Rural area

Source: Indicadores de Desempeño de las EPSA reguladas, 2016.

dance with the population and territoriality criteria compliance with these policies. detailed in Table 2. (ETA)The are national the entities regulation responsible and technical for coordinating assistance Table 3 shows the type of administration of the of the Providers of Drinking Water and Sanitation - - tal cities, which the APPS authorized to grant rights - ofEPSAs use andthat exploitation operate in the of water nine departmentalsources for human capi Servicescenses for (EPSA) services is the and responsibility establishes the of principlesa major gov to consumption and the provision of drinking water ernment agency: the AAPS. This agency grants li and basic sanitation services. Water supply sources are also given. prices,control rates service and quality, fees. The based AAPS on alsothe Guidelinesreceives com for- plaintsthe Quality and commentsof Potable Water.from users. In turn, it sets service APPS nationwide seeks to guarantee legal securi- - ty inThe the grantingprovision of of Licenses drinking and water Registries and sanitation by the vised by the AAPS, are documents that are avail- services as well as water sources, infrastructure, in- ableThe to the Drinking public, Waterwhich Qualityhighlight Guidelines, the link between super vestments, including the area of service provision. - - es related to water pollution have a great impact ty, Climate Change and Forest Management and De- onwater the qualityhealth of and people. health. Measures They state designed that “diseas to im- The Vice Ministry of Environment, Biodiversi- sible for ensuring the sustainable use of natural - resources,velopment including((VMABCCGDF) the protection is the authority and conserva respon- prove drinking water quality provide significant- tion of the environment, and regulating, prevent- lines,health and benefits”. contextualizes Bolivia draws them up with its rulesthe standards and reg ing and controlling the contamination of surface andulations, norms on of theneighboring basis of countries the PAHO-WHO and countries Guide and groundwater by agrochemicals and indus- that have socio-economic characteristics similar to trial waste, limiting deforestation and promoting those of its population and the same geographical reforestation. - - - Chaco-Amazónico).characteristics (ecological macro-floors: Cordil mentBolivia within has the a NationalSectoral Development Plan for(PND). Ba leraAnother Andina, of Bolivian the powers Altiplano, of the Valleys APPS is and to Llanogrant sic Sanitation (PSD-SB) that is the sectoral instru rights of use and exploitation of water sources for - human consumption and the provision of drink- tablishesIt was updated and lays for thethe foundationsperiod 2011-2015 for aand, commit since- mentthen, thisbetween plan hasthe beennational, continued. departmental The PSD-SB and eslo- - cal levels to achieve a substantial increase in access ing water and basic sanitation services to the EPSA, under the Licenses and Registries regime in accor 84 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

to sustainable drinking water and basic sanitation tation of community development, hygiene promo- services, within the framework of Integrated Wa- tion and technical assistance to service providers. - It also establishes the participatory and responsible - managementter Resource Managementof the entities (IWRM) providing in basic,the country. public tionIn of the all MMAyA, investments there isin anthe Executing sectors Unitwithin (EMA the and private services, in order to guarantee the sus- Ministry’sGUA), created sphere in 2009,of authority. responsible In response for the executo the - - courages the participation of users, transparency, equitytainability and andsocial non-profit justice, respecting nature of theand latter. supporting It en need to ensure the human right to water, EMA the community systems of peasant and indigenous GUA has launched a $215.5 million USD investment- groups. It supports the efforts of service providers, program for potable water and irrigation –the "Mi - Agua" Project, phases I and II- to achieve the coun vice Provider Cooperatives and Service Providers’ try’s millennium goals, drawn up by the Executive includingAssociations, urban, within peri-urban the framework and rural ofEPSAs, the legalSer Paz,Branch Potosí of theand currentSanta Cruz, government. irrigation projects In parallel, in ru it- guarantees of access to water sources. ralhas areas launched, as a particularlymeans of strengthening in the Departments food securi of La- The National Service of Support for Sustainabil-

the planning, and to a certain extent the implemen- ty, providing water to more than 260,000 families in ity in Basic Sanitation (SENASBA) is responsible for rural areas, through more than 1,900 water supply projects with 80,579 residential connections and

Table 3. Type of administration and flow offered in Departmental Capital Cities City Epsa/Company Water Supply Flow (Lt/Sec) S.A. (Mixed ownership limited Condoriri, Huayna Potosí, Milluni, Choqueyapú, Incachaca, liability company.EPSAS The state has Eight surface water sources from rain and thawing: Tuni, 2,011-3,000 Range: La Paz / El Alto shares in the company) Ajan Khota, Hampaturi Bajo. Tilala System (37 Water Wells Saguapac (Cooperative) 90 M Deep) Santa Cruz Range: Groundwater Surface sources 347-2,067722 Small Private companies Nine (9) Cooperatives

Cochabamba and Chungara (Municipal Company) Surface sources: Escalerani, Wara Wara, Hierbabuenani Range: SEMAPA 191-404 Groundwater: Quillacollo 462 Sucre Surface sources: Cajamarca System, including Cajamarca, (Municipal Company) 80 Safiri, Punilla rivers ELAPAS Mayum Jalaqueri Pears, Murillo And Fisculco rivers. Surface sources: Ravelo System, which includes the Ravelo, 39034 Oruro Service - Sela Local(Municipal Aqueduct Company)and Sewerage Surface sources: Sepulturas and Huayña Porto rivers

Potosí AAPOS (Community Company) Groundwater (Challa Pampa, Challa Pampita and Airport) 220528 Tarapaya, Irupampa, Illimani, Challuna) Surface sources: San Juan River and 21 Lagoons (Khari, Trinidad

COATRI (Cooperative) Groundwater 118 Tarija Jacinto rivers Surface sources: Rincon, La Victoria, Guadalquivir and San 574 COSAALT (Cooperative) Cobija COSAPCO (Cooperative) 24 Groundwater 279 Surface sources: Arroyo Bay Source: Compiled by the authors using data supplied by the service operators. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 85

rent government contemplates the passage of a - new law on drinking water and sewerage services, 24,600ent installed hectares diameters. with new irrigation, in addition to approximately 2,500 kilometers of pipes with differ According to the Political Constitution of the called “Water for Life”. - Phase III of the “Mi Agua” project, which began in 2013, includes 1,021 new projects (689 involving- allState levels, (CPE) is responsibleof 2009, the forCentral the protection Government of natural (Exec ralwater areas and of the 332 departments irrigation) with of Cochabamba, an investment Oruro, of resourcesutive Branch) and of the the care Plurinational of water resources, State of Bolivia, regarded at $163.5 million USD, which mainly included the ru- as strategic for socio-economic development and

Chuquisaca, Tarija, Beni and Pando, thus complet The institutional framework of the sector is de- 3.1ing Otherprojects entities in the nine involved Departments of Bolivia. Bolivian sovereignty. It is important to mention that the Ministry of Health, through the Vice Ministry of Health and •fined Political on the basisConstitution of the following of the Plurinational regulations: State Promotion (VSP) and its decentralized entities, is responsible for the work of monitoring the quality • of the water supplied by providers. It is in charge of of Bolivia, January 2009. undertaking sanitary surveillance of water for hu- • Law 031, “Andrés Ibáñez” Framework Law on man consumption and epidemiological surveillance Autonomies and Decentralization , July 2010. of water-borne diseases. It is also responsible for • Decree Law 15629, General Health Law (Health • Code), 1978. - event of disasters or risks to public health. Law 1333, Environmental Law, April 1992. - issuingState the universities Declaration are of generatorsHealth Emergency of knowledge in the National Regulations for the Provision of Drink and sources of technological innovation. They play • ing Water and Sewage Services for Urban Cen a leading role in the Commissions responsible for • ters, November 1992. standardization, given their practical and research Services.Regulation of Law 1333 on Water Pollution, 1995. experience and the non-occupational migration of • Law No. 2029 on Drinking Water and Sewerage their technical-academic staff, as occurs with the Services. technical staff of state entities. They undertake • Law No. 2029 on Drinking Water and Sewerage teaching, research and social interaction work in Services. • Law No. 3602 on Drinking Water and Sewerage - managementthe technical -of scientific water resources framework, from which different provides per- Law No. 300, Framework Law of Mother Earth feedbackspectives. forTheir the potentialknowledge lies system mainly specific in the provito the- • and Integral Development for Living Well, Sep- sion of water quality laboratory services, wastewa- tember 2012. ter, as well as expertise in the evaluation of water • Law 2066, Drinking Water and Sewerage Ser resources, with highly specialized personnel. vices Law, modifying Law 2029, April 2000. • Law No. 071, Law of the Rights of Mother Earth, • December 2010. Supreme Decree 29894. - 4. Bolivian General Regulations Supreme Decree 22965 of November 1991, which creates the National Basic Sanitation Director on Water Management ate (DINASBA), modified by Supreme Decree- - 24855 of September 1997, which creates the • Vice Ministry of Basic Services, now Vice Minis beenAt present, severely there mutilated is no framework and practically law in Bolivia repealed. re try of Drinking Water and Basic Sanitation. lated to water resources. The Water Law of 1906 has • Bolivian Law 512 - Drinking Water (NB 512). 4th in the Drinking Water and Sewage Services Act No. revision, October 2010. - The institutional framework of the sector is defined- National Regulation for the Control of Water Quality for Human Consumption. Second revi 2029 of 1999, revised in 2000 in Law 2066. The cur sion, December 2010. 86 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

• - Table 4. Minimum Control Parameters Parameter Maximum acceptable value • NB 495 - Drinking Water-Definitions and Ter- minology. Second revision, November 2005. pH Conductivity • NB 496-Drinking Water - Sampling. First revi- 6.5 a 9.0 sion, November 2005. Turbidity 1,500 μS/cm* • NB 689 - Water Installations - Design for Drink 0,2 – 1,0 mg/lt ing Water Systems, December 2004. 5 UNT - Heat-resistant coliforms Technical Regulations NB 689; Design for Residual chlorine Drinking Water Systems. Vols. 1 and 2, Decem be expressed as 1,000 mg Std/l. The temperature0 UFC/100 parameter ml ber 2004. must* The bemaximum measured acceptable at the sampling value of point the conductivityand in the laboratory can also in time to perform the analyses. It serves as a reference for mi- 5. Specific standard for drinking

water quality in Bolivia crobiological analyses and for the calculation of the Langelier Index. Source: NB 512 Regulation. This section will detail the responsibilities and the follow-up of the norms to determine the water establishes the requirements and conditions that the Ministry of Services and Public Works, the Vice quality offered by the service providers. Since 2004, The standard establishes the maximum acceptable valuesmust be of fulfilled the various by EPSAs, parameters both public that and determine private. Ministry of Basic Services and the Bolivian Institute the quality of water supplied for human use and for Standardization and Quality (IBNORCA) have consumption and the methods of application and Waterbeen responsible for human forconsumption. enforcing the This (NB responsibili 512) and its- control. Technicalty is supervised Regulations by the for AAPS Controlling and was the published Quality inof 5.1 Control of the quality of water for human consumption the The“Performance fundamental Indicators purpose of theof this2016 regulationRegulated 5.1.1 Water quality control parameters isEPSAs”. to establish the requirements for the physical, chemical, microbiological and radiological quality quality control parameters for human consumption of water intended for human consumption. It also Bolivian Standard NB 512 establishes the water They are grouped according to their technical andwith economic which EPSAs feasibility must comply. into the following catego- Photograph 4. Water Quality Laboratory, UMSA, La Paz - tary Control and Special Control. ries: Minimum Control, Basic Control, Complemen 5.1.2 Minimum Control Parameters

- plyThe with Minimum are shown Control in TableParameters 4. for the Quality of Water for Human Consumption EPSAs must com 5.1.3 Basic Control Parameters

- plyThe with Minimum are shown Control in TableParameters 5. for the Quality of Water for Human Consumption EPSAs must com 5.1.4 Complementary Control Parameters

withThe Minimum are shown Control in Table Parameters 6. for the Quality of Water for Human Consumption EPSAs must comply WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 87

Table 6. Complementary Control Parameters Table 5. Basic Control Parameters Parameter Maximum acceptable value Parameter Maximum acceptable value Inorganic Chemicals Physical Aluminum 0.1 mg/lt Color Ammonia Chemical 15 UCV Arsenic 0.01 mg/lt Total dissolved solids 1,000 mg/lt 0.5 mg/lt 0.3 mg/lt Organic Chemicals Copper 1 mg/lt Boron Total Alkalinity 370 mg/lt CaCO Fluoride Calcium 200 mg/lt 3 Nitrites 0.1 mg/lt 1.5 mg/lt Chlorides Nitrites Hardness 250 mg/lt 0.01 mg/lt 45 mg/lt Total iron 0.3 mg/lt 500 mg/lt CaCO3 Zinc Lead Magnesium Disinfection byproducts 5 mg/lt Manganese 0.1 mg/lt 150 mg/lt Total Trihalomethanes (THM) Sodium 200 mg/lt Pesticides made from Organic Chemicals Sulfates 400 mg/lt 100 μg/lt Total pesticides

0.5 μg/lt Source: NB 512 Regulation. Individual pesticidesHydrocarbons (*) 0.1 μg/lt Total hydrocarbons (TPH) 5.1.5 Special Control Parameters 10 μg/lt - Benzene Microbiological Bacteria 2 μg/lt Total coliforms Thecomply parameters with are for shown the Special in Table Control 7. These of the param Qual- Escherichia Coli etersity of willWater be forenforced Human in Consumption disaster situations EPSAs ormust in 0 UCF/100 ml Total heterotrophics special cases according to the history of the source 0 UCF/100 ml Pseudomonas aeruginosa 500 UCF/100 ml Clostridium perfringens and/or region, or when EPSAs deem necessary. 0 UCF/100 ml 3.1.6 Minimum number of samples in the network - ceptable individual value or the sum of their individual 0values UCF/100 may exceed ml the * There are pesticides whose individual values may exceed the maximum ac samples in the distribution network, depending on EPSAs will determine the minimum number of the population supplied, using Table 8. total maximum value. Source: Nb 512 Regulation.

5.1.7 Minimum number of sampling 5.1.8 Location of sampling points in the network points in the network On the basis of the value established in number - imum number of weekly sampling points in the distribution network on the basis of the following distributionFor towns with network over is 5,000 obtained inhabitants, by dividing the min the 5.1.7, EPSAs must locate the sampling points in the • They must be uniformly distributed and in- result is obtained, it will be rounded up to the next criteria:clude geographical areas with a risk of contam- number.amount obtained from Table 8 by four. If a decimal ination, low pressure points, high population the minimum number of sampling points will be • They must be representative of the supply area. the Forone townsobtained with from fewer Table than 8, and 5,000 it will inhabitants, not nec- • Theydensity, must final be sections proportional of pipes. to the population essary to divide it by four. supplied. 88 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

Table 7. Special Control Parameters With these criteria, there is a possibility that the Parameter Maximum acceptable value number of sampling points established in the network may be greater than that obtained in section Inorganic Chemicals Antimony 5.1.7. 0.005 mg/Lt 5.1.9 Sampling Cadmium Barium 0.7 mg/Lt - Cyanide tion network according to the number of sam- 0.005 mg/Lt EPSAs must take water samples in the distribu Total Chromium pling points obtained in Table 8 0.07 mg/Lt When the number of sampling points established Mercury 0.05 mg/Lt and section 5.1.7.- Nickel 0.001 mg/Lt Taste and smell Aceptable in accordance with 5.1.8 is greater than the num 0.05 mg/Lt be rotated, thus respecting the number of samples Selenium ber obtained in Section 5.1.7, weekly sampling may Organic Chemicals Hydrocarbons 0.01 mg/Lt defined. Toluene 5.1.10 Characteristics of sampling points Sampling points should be representative of the 700 μg/Lt Xylene Ethylbenzene 300 μg/Lt The sampling tap must be located as close as quality of the water supplied by the EPSAs. 500 μg/Lt possible to the indoor connection controlled by Benzo (a) pyreneRadioactive Chemicals 0.2 μg/Lt - ground storage tank, raised tank or any other type ofthe indoor EPSAs water and free storage. from the influence of an under Global Alpha radioactivity 0.10 Bq/Lt * Organic Chemicals Global Beta radioactivity 1.0 Bq/Lt * 5.1.11 Sampling frequencies Acrylamide - 0.5 μg/Lt SAs must perform to control water quality is be- Chloroform tweenThe minimum once a month frequency and onceof sampling a year, depending per year EP on Epichlorohydrin 0.4 μg/Lt the population served, the control parameters (Ta- 100 μg/Lt bles 6 to 8) and the location of the sampling points. Source: NB 512 Regulation

5.1.12. Modification of sampling frequencies Table 8. Minimum number of samples of the Minimum Control Parameters (Distribution Network) both the increase and decrease in the number of Modification of sampling frequencies is defined as Population supplied (inhab.) Number of samples samples to be taken from the parameter (s) under consideration. 1/Trimester 1.001 to 2.000 1/ Trimester ≤ 1.000 5.1.13. Increasing sampling frequencies 1/Month

2.001 to 5.000 10.001 to 20.000 a.EPSAs If thewill result proceed of thewith analyses the increase obtained, in sampling for any 5.001 to 10.000 (1c/5,000 inhab)/Month frequencies, in the following cases: 20.001 to 30.000 parameter, has been exceeded under nor- (1c/5,000 Inhab)/Month mal operating conditions or adverse weather 20.001 to 30.000 (1c/5,000 Inhab)/Month conditions. (1c/5,000 Inhab)/Month b. If the result of the analysis has shown that the (10+1c/10,000 Inhab)/Month 50.001 to 100.000 (1c/5,000 Inhab)/Month maximum acceptable value of any parameter (10+1c/10,000 Inhab)/Month 100.001 to 500.000 has been exceeded, in more than three consecutive samples. > 500.000 Source: Nb 512 Regulation. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 89

- pling of the parameter in question, as many times there is a complaint that the source for water as necessaryThe EPSA until must the increase problem the has frequency been controlled of sam consumptionEPSAs when ithas is beenidentified, contaminated. suspected and/or and the foreseeable risk is low. Otherwise it must suspend the service and report the details of the 5.1.16 Mix of water sources problem, the solution and/or the actions to be tak- The sampling frequency in the event of the mixing en to the Competent Authority or the institution of ground and surface water sources will be deter- delegated by the latter. mined considering the mixture as surface water.

5.1.14. Reduction of sampling frequencies 5.1.17 Periodic control at source If for two consecutive years the result of the analy- - - - mentary Control (Tables 5 and 6) has values below SAsUsing must the conductparameters periodic of NB monitoring 512, NB 689 ofand the the water Wa sis of the parameters of Basic Control and Comple qualityter Resources of the sourceRegulation during of Lawthe dry1333 season as a guide, and EPthe able to process, with the competent authority, the decreasethose established in the frequency in the NB of 512, the the samplings EPSAs will to be a mixture of sources, in such a way as to control the taken in the following year with respect to that pa- rainy season (2 times/ year) and/or in the event of rameter. For Table 5, this will be done every six the treatment process. months and for Table 6 it will be done annually. quality of the water source and/or the efficiency of - 5.1.18 Controlling the selection of the source ical parameters. - This modification is not applicable to microbiolog ity of the source in accordance with Tables 5, 6 5.1.15 Compliance with quality requirements andEPSAs 7, mustat the conduct start of an the analysis activities of the and/or water during qual the source selection process. In the event that max- a.The quality requirements EPSAs must comply with consider the costs of treatment and its technolog- for waterthe results for human of the consumption analyses corresponding are: to the icalimum possibilities acceptable dependingvalues are exceeded,on the values EPSAs of must the compoundsIn the course that of oneaffect year, the 90 organoleptic, percent (90%) phys ofparameters, or discard the source to avoid further ical and chemical quality of water for human problems.

5.1.19. Sampling procedure consumption, detailed in Tables No. 1, No. 2 and- No. 3 of the Regulation, must not exceed the preservation, transport, storage and analysis of the b. Duringconcentrations a one-year or valuesperiod, established the content in of Boliv ther- EPSAs must ensure that the sampling, handling, ian Standard NB 512. total samples taken at the output of the treat- sample are carried out in accordance with Bolivian mentmo-resistant plant, coliformsstorage tanksper 100 and milliliters distribution of the a.Standard Sampling NB 496 vials “Drinking should be Water prepared – Sampling”. according Some to network of the water supply areas must com- of thethe most procedures important used ones for are taking mentioned samples. below: - b. Samples should be representative of the water alyzed should not contain thermo-resistant quality of the source or supply areas when the coliforms.ply with the following: 95% of the samples an sample is taken. c. When the concentration of residual chlorine c. Samples should not be contaminated during sampling. network, a sample of water will be taken for d. Samples should be maintained at a tempera- bacteriologicalis less than 0.2 mg/lanalysis at a terminalof thermo-resistant point of the ture and conditions ensuring that there is no coliforms. natural alteration of the value or concentration, d. The analysis of Special Control parameters, defor the measurement or observation for which scribed in Table 7, will be conducted by the the sample is intended. 90 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

e. Samples should taken by trained, experienced III states that AAPS will exercise social control over personnel. the quantity of public services; - f. Samples should be analyzed as soon as possi- vides instructions on the general water resources and services regime. Article 298.II.5 pro after being and in keeping with Normalized - Procedures.ble within a period of no more than 48 hours cesses of Supervision, Supervision and Control basedRegulatory on current follow-up sectoral regulatory is applied regulations through pro on 5.1.20 Standard Analytical Methods drinking water and basic sanitation, which estab- The analytical determinations of the parameters lishes obligations for both reporting and compliance indicated in the regulations must be carried out in accordance with current standards, based on stan- have in relation to the regulator in their capacity as dard analysis methods published by APHA, AWWA, with conditions in the provision of services EPSAs WPCF, ASTM and DIN. concessionaires. EPSAs are obliged to have short-- alterm Service and medium-termDevelopment Plansservice (PTDS), planning, Contingency reflected 6.Regulation of Drinking Water Plansin Five-Year (PdC) andDevelopment Annual Operating Plans (PDQ), Plans Transition ( POA). and Sewerage Services. - SAs are undertaken through the management of The Authority for the Supervision and Social Con- Actions for the control and follow-up of EP- - nancial statements. On-site inspections are also carriedsemi-annual out of and the annual various reports, components in addition of the to ser fi- trol of Water and Basic Sanitation (AAPS) was cre ated within the framework of Law No. 2066 of April- - ter1, 2000 resource and Article administration 3 of Supreme and management,Decree No. 071 pri of- vices provided by EPSAs. - oritizingApril 9, 2009. the rightThis Nationalof use for Authority human regulatesconsumption wa latedThe into technical, management economic, indicators, financial which and allowcommer ob- and sanitation, in balance with the environment. servations,cial performance recommendations of the EPSA is evaluatedand instructions and trans to - atively affect service provision over time, making it qualityThree control. major policies are considered: prices and possiblethe EPSA to to perceive correct the trendsdistortion in indicators factors that and neg the tariffs,The b) AAPS efficient is responsible water use andfor thec) drinking control ofwater the quality of water for human consumption in regulat- of noncompliance or underperformance, the AAPS ed providers, including the records of the sampling formulateshistorical performance charges of infringement, of EPSAs. In extremewhich results cases and control of the water quality analyses carried in the imposition of economic sanctions that may out, as well as maintenance work, health inspec- lead to intervention processes when high levels tions and purge programs by regulated providers. of risk are established in the provision of the ser- - 6.1 Regulatory monitoring model formance evaluation contributes to entities in the Sectorvice or andthe revocationTerritorial of Institutions the license. directing Likewise, their per protect the rights of users, because the right of ac- Policies, Programs and Projects towards the im- cessIn Bolivia, to drinking the regulatory water and approach sewerage is designed should beto guaranteed on the basis of the criteria of universal- goals and institutional objectives. - provement of services based on the fulfillment of implement their respective Contingency Plans since ity, responsibility, accessibility, continuity, efficien The APPS has instructed EPSAs to prepare and cy, efficiency,The regulation fair rates of anddrinking the coverage water and required sewer to- the potential effects of climate change (drought), ageensure services the sustainability is supported of by EPSAs. a constitutional legal designedMarch 31, 2016.to mitigate This is impacts, a preventive which measure could have against an impact on the reduction of the availability of water The provision of basic services is the responsi- resources to provide the service to the population. bilityframework, of all levels Article of 20the Paragraph state. II of which states It is necessary to take into account the fact that that: Article 241 paragraph WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 91

Table 9. Regularized EPSAs by Department until the 2016 administration Temporary Department Licenses Registers Total Authorization Cochabamba 1 1 64 415 480 Potosí 277 1 La Paz 25 438 464 Santa Cruz 222 0 15 293 Chuquisaca 0 220 65 287 Oruro 12 140 0 15 205 Tarija 71 1 152 2 9 81 Pando 1 0 Beni 5 60 67 Total 211 188254 6 209955

Source: Indicadores de Desempeño de las EPSA reguladas, 2016. Table 10. Number of EPSAs with regulatory follow up by Department Category Department A B C D Total % Santa Cruz 1 24 37 Cochabamba 1 1 0 7 10.0 6 6 52.9 0 2 3 0 7.1 5 Potosí 0 2 3 0 7.1 Beni 5 1 1 2 0 4 5 Oruro 0 1 2 1 4 La Paz 5.7 Tarija 0 3 1 0 4 5.7 Chuquisaca 0 1 0 2 3 4.3 5.7 Pando 0 1 0 0 1 1.4 Total 3 18 35 14 70 100.0

Source: Indicadores de Desempeño de las EPSA reguladas, 2016.

b) maintain the quality of the water resource within the parameters of the norm, c) provide users with “El Niño” and “La Niña” phenomena correlate with potable water supply in the event of extreme ra- offloods the quality and intense of water droughts at source in is various critical regionsdue to the of tioning, and d) avoid potential contamination with the country. In the event of floods, the deterioration - during the dry season, there is an increase in the enced in previous years. concentrationmixing of drinking of pollutants water and in wastewater. water receiving Likewise, bod- wastewater,As a result thereby of the preventing passage of the Supreme “crises” experiDecree ies due to the reduction of contributions that contribute to their dilution. Special Transitory Authorizations, the APPS having The most important results expected, after madeDS 726 the in 2010,promotion all concessions to license areof those transformed with accept into- the implementation of the respective Contingency able levels of sustainability but not of those that had risks in service provision, which is why they availability of water resources in acceptable ranges, are only in the Transitory Authorizations category. Plans in the EPSAs, are as follows: a) maintain the 92 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

6.1.1 EPSAs with regulatory monitoring -

chabamba) and SAGUAPAC (Santa Cruz), and ac APPS regulates 56 EPSAs nationally, three of which count for 55.1% of the drinking water connections beingbelong incorporated to category (A),into 18 the to regulatory category (B) system and 35(Ta to- out of a total of 1,237,789 connectionsTable nationwide, 12). blecategory 10 (C). Another 14 EPSAs are in the process of and 66.3% of sewerage connections out of a total of 772,864 connections nationwide (see 6.1.2 Population, 2016). with regulatory coverage 7. Performance indicators by goals, - parameters and optimal ranges ship between the sum of the populations within the Regulatoryservice areas coverage authorized (RC) by results the APPS from andthe relationthe total The following are considered performance indica- population of the country, yielding a result for the tors by objectives, parameters and optimal ranges Table 11).

6.22016 Regulatory administration coverage-number of 70.48% coverage ( 7.1by category:Objective: Reliability of resource of connections 7.1.1 Assessment Current performance of source: - - tween the volume actually exploited during the pe- The three cities on the central axis of Bolivia are in Relationship be Category A: EPSAS (La Paz-El Alto), SEMAPA (Co Table 11. Population under regulatory coverage of the APPS Population In Area Authorized Year Population according to INE* Regulatory Coverage in % To EPSAS 2013 2014 7.137.735 10.507.789 67.93 7.274.884 10.665.841 68.21 2015 7.524.750 10.825.013 69.51 2016 7.742.791 10.985.059 70.48 Table 12. RegulatorySource: Indicadores coverage-number de Desempeño of de connections las EPSA reguladas, 2016. Drinking water Category Number of EPSA % Sewerage Connections % connections Category A 3 32.3 682,165 55.1 512,241 66.3 Category C 11.2 Category B 18 399,222 201,053 26.0 Category D 14 1.4 7,232 35 138,715 52,338 6.8 Totales 70 1,237,28917,187 100 772,864 1000.9

Source: IndicadoresTable de 13.Desempeño Objective de las – EPSAReliability reguladas, of 2016. Resource Indicator Category A Category B Category C Category D Current performance of source

<85% <85% <85% <85% Drinking water samples coverage Efficient use of resource >65% >60% >60% >60% Compliance of drinking water analyses 100% 95% 90% 85% undertaken 95% 95% 95% 95%

Source: Adapted from: Indicadores de Desempeño de las EPSA Reguladas, 2016. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 93

riod and the volume authorized by AAPS; optimal

- 100% are EPSAs that take a greater number of value: <85% samples than specified in the standard. Category (A): Central axis, comprising three EP Category (B): This category comprises 18 EPSAs, 17 recordsSAs: Cochabamba-La volumes of more Paz-Santa than optimal Cruz; exploita 77.14%-- whileof which the reportremainder records; fail to seven comply of withwhich the (39%) sam- tion78.07%-88.29%, of sources. respectively. Only one EPSA plecomply coverage with indicator. the optimal indicator (>95%), - mation; eight comply with the optimal parame- Category (B): They comprise 18 EPSAs, of which 15 Category (C): Of the 35 EPSAs, only 25 present infor (83%) have values below 85%. with the optimal parameter. Category (C): This category comprises 35 EPSAs, ter (>90%), and the remaining 17 fail to comply- parameter.with 30 showing consistent data, eight (27.6%) - exceeding 85% and 72.4% meeting the optimal Category (D): Of the 14 EPSAs, only six report infor seven of which report information, three of mation and only three EPSAs comply with cur Category (D): This category comprises 14 EPSAs, rent regulations (>85%). with the optimum parameter. samples for the quality control of drinking water which exceed 85% and four of which comply establishedEPSAs that by the fail indicator to comply are with exposing the number their us of- Efficient water use - ers to health risks. ume of water that actually reaches users and the Relationship between the vol Drinking water analysis compliance: This indica- - volume extracted from the source; optimal value:- 65% tor verifies that the water produced meets the qual Category (A): Central axis, comprising three EP ity requirements established in Bolivian Standard- presentsSAs: Santa information Cruz-La Paz-Cochabamba; on compliance with 81.56%- the NB512 Potable Water-Requirements. optimal60.78%-53.34%, indicator. respectively. Non-compliance Only oneis due EPSA to Category (A): Central Axis, comprising three EP- the decrease in volumes of potable water billed terSAs: quality Cochabamba-La standards. Paz-Santa Cruz; 99.12%- during the administration due to the drop in 99%-95.70%, respectively comply with the wa-

that occurred in both cities. Categorycertain (B): inorganic 61% of parametersEPSAs comply such with as ironthe indi and flows in its surface sources owing to the drought manganese,cator and NB pH 512. and The compliance other 39% withmust residual control chlorine standards, and register values below Category (B): This comprises 18 EPSAs, 14 of which (77.8%) comply with the optimal indicator and - four of which (22.2%) have values below 60%. - the minimum level of 0.2 mg/l. Category (C): This category comprises 35 EPSAs, 26- Category (C): Only 25 of the 35 EPSAs present infor of which report data, 24 (92.3%) reach the opti mation; 12 comply with the optimal parameter mal parameter, and two (7.7%) have values be- quality(>90%), control and the of remaining water they 13 fail provide to comply to users with mation,low 60%. and comply with the optimal parameter. and,the optimal if necessary, parameter. improve EPSAs water must treatment improve thein- Category (D): Of the 14 EPSAs, only seven report infor frastructure, including disinfection. Drinking water sample coverage: The indicator - measures compliance with the number of samples formation on the indicator, three of which com- for water quality monitoring according to the pro- Categoryply with (D): the Of water the 14 analysis EPSAs, standards. only six present in - - visions of Standard NB 512 Potable Water-Require- low the parameter established by the APPS must ments and its Regulations. EPSAs with drinking water analysis results be Category (A): Central Axis, comprising three EP safety of the water they provide to their users, pre- SAs: Cochabamba-Santa Cruz-La Paz; 222.48%- take specific actions to guarantee the quality and 183.72%-98.59%, respectively. Those that exceed 94 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

venting the health risk factors of the water sup- have micro measurement or macro measure- plied. They must also implement a Potable Water ment. The volume of water produced is estimated by its operators and unmetered consumption is estimated in the same way. Quality Control Plan, as indicated by the Water 7.1.2Quality Objective: Policy. Stability of Supply CategoryNon-compliance (D): Only six is ofdue the to 14 the EPSAs, reduction comply of with re- 7.1.3 Assessment the optimal parameter (> 50 L/inhab./day).- Supply: - spect to the authorized amount. serves or water flows in their sources with re supplied. The indicator reflects the amount of drink Continuity due to rationing: ing water produced by the EPSA per inhabitant the degree of continuity of the service considering the number of hours of supply The to indicatorthe user populareflects- Category (A): Central axis, optimal parameter> 150- tion in the authorized area, according to the capaci- tively.liters/room/day; Cochabamba Cochabamba-Santa apparently complies Cruz-La with ty of sources and infrastructure thePaz, indicator, 161.85-137.53-92.49 although Liters/room/daythis result is distorted respec by the high percentage of physical water losses in Category (A): Optimal parameter> 20 hours/day;- fail to exceed the parameter established by the ly.Central The lastaxis; value Santa of Cruz continuity - La Paz due - Cochabamba, to rationing APPS,its distribution with the network.latter having Santa an Cruz impact and onLa Pazthe is24 hoursrecurrent - 22.38 from hours previous -13.06 hours, administrations respective decrease in water availability in one of its authorized water sources (Incachaca and Hampaturi sources, taking into account climate factors and - highto 2016, water due losses to water in the scarcity network. in its authorized fects of climate change. Basins), due to the drought aggravated by the ef with the optimal parameter. Operators that sup- Categoryply water (B): using Fifty-five surface per sources cent of have EPSAs continuity comply Category (B): In general, EPSAs in this category limitations on the provision of water for more resultcomply achieved with the is optimal affected parameter by the high of overrates 100 of - waterliters/inhab./day. not accounted However, for in inthe most drinking EPSAs, water the tion capacity and storage infrastructure. than 20 hours/day, due to their limited produc capita provision tends to decrease due to the re- Discontinuous service affects the management ductiondistribution in the network. supply of In its some surface EPSAs, sources. the per of distribution. The operation of networks incorporates air, causing the removal of material from the internal walls of the pipes, in addition Category (C): Only 24 of the 35 EPSAs comply with to the inaccurate measurement of consumption, inhabitant/daythe optimal parameter above the (> optimum 80 L/inhab./day). parameter, causing complaints and delayed payment by Only three EPSAs have a capacity of over 190 l/ customers.

attributable to the fact that these EPSAS do not Table 14. Objective: Supply Stability Indicator Category A Category B Category C Category D Supply >100 l/hab/day Continuity due to rationing >20 hr/day >20 hr/day >12 hr/day >150 l/hab/day >80 l/hab/day >50 l/hab/day Continuity by cut-off point >8 hr/day Drinking water service coverage >95% >95% >95% >95% Sewer service coverage >90% >90% >80% >70% Micromeasurement coverage >65% >65% >65% >65% >90% >90% >90% >80% Source: Adapted from: Indicadores de Desempeño de las EPSA reguladas, 2016. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 95

- mation and comply with the optimal parameter Category (C): Twenty of the 35 EPSAs report infor 60.93%, respectively. In the first two cases, they- - ancecomply results; with the restoptimal do not parameter attend their (> 65%). peri-ur- (>12 hours/day). Category (B): Only 5 of the 18 EPSAs show compli Categoryhours/day). (D): Only 6 of the 14 EPSAs provide in limitations. formation and meet the optimal parameter (>8 ban areas due to infrastructure and financial- Continuity by cut-off point: Continuity by cut-off tary sewer service and only four of these comply point is the expression as a percentage of continuity Category (C): Only 20 the 35 EPSAs provide sani by rationing. And the cut-off point is established as - a rationing measure, although it is also due to infra- agewith service the optimal and only coverage four comply parameter with (> coverage 65%). structure maintenance. Category (D): Seven of the 14 EPSAs provide sewer

Drinking water service coverage: The indicator > 0.65%. - establishes the percentage of the population sup- itary sewer services to implement projects to in- plied with potable water service with household creaseIt is their essential coverage. for EPSAs that fail to provide san

Micromeasurement coverage: The indicator de- connections and registered in the EPSA. termines the percentage relationship between the Category (A): The Central Axis, La Paz-Santa- number of household connections with a meter in Cruz-Cochabamba have coverage of 97.52%- 96.91%-66.67% respectively; the optimal param eter being (>90%). their homes and the total number of EPSA users. Category (B): Sixty-seven per cent of EPSAs comply- Category (A): The Central Axis, La Paz, Santa Cruz banwith areas, the optimal due to parameter infrastructure (>90% limitations of coverage). and and Cochabamba have values of 100%, 99.75% waterEPSAS supply. are not meeting requirements in peri-ur percentageand 86.85%, of respectively. unaccounted The for water. indicator should be > 90%. The city of Cochabampa has a high optimal parameter; the rest fail to comply with Categoryto expand (C): theirOnly water22 of the networks. 35 EPSAs comply with Category (B): Fifty-six per cent of EPSAs meet the coverage >80%, and lack the financial resources which comply with the optimal coverage param- the Efficient Water Use Policy. Category (D): 13 EPSAs present information, 12 of Category (C): Only 30 of the 35 EPSAs have micro measurement information and 24 comply with eterAs a(>70%). result of the new government policies, the parameter (> 90%). Category (D): Only 9 of the 14 EPSAs have micro to achieve the proposed coverage, especially in measurement of over 80% and only six comply peri-urbanEPSAs must areas, implement in coordination new investment with their projects local with 100% micro measurement. governments. 7.2 Objective: Environmental Protection 7.2.1 Assessment Sewerage Coverage: The indicator measures the - percentage of the population served with a house- - hold connection to the sewerage service. Incidence of groundwater extraction: Detailed in This indicator is included, since it is directly re- formation is unavailable in the publication “Perfor lated to the quality of water in the receiving bodies Wastewatermance Indicators Treatment of Regulated Index: EPSAs”. The indicator that can be or are potential sources of supply for shows the percentage relationship between the vol- downstream populations, in addition to establish- ume of wastewater treated and the total estimated ing basic sewerage conditions. volume of wastewater produced in the water service area, in order to minimize impacts on the environment and the health of the population. Category (A): Central axis; Cochabamba, La Paz and Santa Cruz have values of 84.08%-70.77%- 96 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

Category (A): The Central Axis, La Paz, Santa Cruz- Category (A): Central axis; Santa Cruz, La Paz and and Cochabamba have values of 100%, 99.75% Cochabamba have values of 91.93%, 60.48% and and 86.85%, respectively. The optimal parame 59.42%, respectively, with an optimal indicator ter is set as >60%. theof (>95%), optimal which parameter is not of complied satisfactory with. analyses. The low percentage in the case of the city of La Paz Category (B): Only 2 of the 18 EPSAs comply with is due to the lack of a treatment system; 27.49% plants, and none of them meet the optimal pa- corresponds partly to the City of El Alto, a city Category (C): Only 8 of the 13 EPSAs have treatment treatmentadjacent to plants, La Paz. six of which comply with the No information on category D is reported. The ab- Categoryindicator. (B): Seven of the 18 EPSAs have sewage sencerameter of (>95%).treatment systems is assumed.

Categoryparameter. (C): only 13 of the 35 EPSAs have treatment 7.3 Proper handling of the drinking plants, 10 of which comply with the optimum- water and sewerage system sumed that there is no wastewater treatment. 7.3.1 Assessment Category (D): No data are available, but it is as Installed capacity of drinking water treatment Quality control of waste water: The indicator plant: The indicator shows the relationship be- shows the relationship between the number of sat- tween the treated volume of water in potabilization isfactory analyses of treated wastewater and the to- plants with respect to the installed capacity of the tal number of samples analyzed. potabilization system.

Table 15. Environmental Protection Indicator Category A Category B Category C Category D Incidence of raw groundwater extraction Wastewater Treatment Index <85% <85% <85% <85% >60% >60% >50% >50% Wastewater Quality Control >95% >95% >95% >95% Source: Adapted from: Indicadores de Desempeño de las EPSA reguladas, 2016.

Table 16. Appropriate handling of the Water and Sewerage System Indicator Category A Category B Category C Category D Installed capacity of drinking water treatment plant Installed capacity of drinking water treatment plant <90% <90% <90% <90% Drinking water service coverage <90% <90% <90% <90% Water index not accounted for in production >95% >95% >95% >95% Water index not accounted for in production <5% <10% <10% <15% Density of faults in potable water pipes <30% <30% <30% <30% Faults/100 km Faults/100 km Faults/100 km Faults/100 km 20-50 20-50 20-50 20-50 Density of faults in potable water pipes Faults/1000 Faults/1000 Faults/1000 Faults/1000 connections20-50 connections20-50 connections20-50 connections20-50 2-4 2-4 2-4 2-4 Density of faults in wastewater pipes Faults/100 km Faults/100 km Faults/100 km Faults/100 km

Source: Adapted from: Indicadores de Desempeño de las EPSA reguladas, 2016. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 97

Table 17. Wastewater Treatment Volume by Capital City (in l/sec) City/Year 2008 2009 2010 s.d. s.d. s.d. Santa Cruz La Paz / El Alto Cochabamba 1,009 1,053 1,116 Oruro 795 655 522 Sucre 140 245 750 750 Potosí 13 132 152 145 Tarija 174 125 Trinidad 74 162 167 Cobija s.d. s.d. s.d. 76 76 Total 3,022

2,478 2,966 Source: Nb 512 Regulation.

Figure 4. Percentage of wastewater treatment in plants

100

0 Peru Chile Cuba Brazil Bolivia Mexico Canada America Colombia Argentina Caribbean Costa Rica Costa Venezuela Guatemala United States South America Dominican Rep.

Source: Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assesment. Report 2012

- Category (A): Central axis: Cochabamba and La Paz;- Category (B): Four EPSAs report information below- terwith extracted values of from 55.78% its andsurface 79.91%, sources, for an which opti the optimal parameter (<90%). mal value (<90%). La Paz treats 100% of the wa- Category (C): Only eight of the 35 EPSAs have wa ofter which purification require plants, investment three toof expandwhich are capacity. above accountsfrom deep for wells, 79.91% subjected of its production; to disinfection. the equiv The the optimal parameter of the indicator and five alent of 20.09% corresponds to water extracted - from its wells. Categorymal parameter (D): Only of two the of indicator. the 14 EPSAs have water city of Santa Cruz disinfects 100% of the water- purification plants, which comply with the opti ciencies of the plants. It is necessary to have a study on the overall effi 98 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

Installed Capacity of Wastewater Treatment - Plant: This section details the relationship between mation, nine of which comply with the pressure the volume of water treated in Wastewater Treat- Categoryrange. (C): Only 19 of the 35 EPSAs present infor ment Plants with respect to the installed treatment capacity. information on monitoring service pressures, Categorycomplying (D): with Only the two optimum of the 14parameter. EPSAs presentTwelve

Category (A): Central axis; La Paz, Cochabamba and controls. Santa Cruz Cruz, is have reaching values the of limit 69.6%, of its 77.22% capacity, and EPSAs are recommended to perform pressure 98.45%, the optimal parameter being <90%.- The following are not evaluated: the index of wa- - ter not accounted for in production, the index of compromisingpa have achieved the thegoal optimal of achieving parameter; 100% cover how- water not accounted for in the network, the density age in the medium term. La Paz and Cochabam of faults in potable water pipes, the density of faults - in drinking water connections and the density of creasedever, La Pazthe volumetreats the of wastewatertreatment due discharged to a reduc at- faults in wastewater connections, since these are tionthe plant in the in amount the city of of drinking El Alto. waterCochabamba it supplies de to users. - highly specific to each system. ment infrastructure and only two of them com- 8. Conclusions Category (B): Only eight of the 18 EPSAs, have treat - The following entities are responsible for contrib- ply with the optimal parameter (<90%). - uting to the implementation of the policy, protect- Categorymum parameter. (C): Only 13 of the 35 EPSAs have treat ing natural resources and the environment, and ment plants, 10 of which comply with the opti providing support to the providers of drinking water for due compliance in the supply of water for hu- CategoryThe wastewater(D): There are treatment no available plants data. (WWTP)

will enable them to progressively achieve effective manresponsible consumption: for implementing the general policy operation,identified in since Bolivia many urgently of them require do not a strategyoperate thatdue 1. ofGovernorships conservation (departmental and protection governments), of watersheds are to the lack of resources and capacities of the op- and aquifers, in their sphere of jurisdiction. erators. However, they have the potential to reuse - wastewater for irrigation purposes (see Figure 4 sponsible for ensuring the provision of pota- and Table 17). 2. bleAutonomous water and Municipal sewerage Governmentsservices within are their re jurisdiction. Pressure on Drinking Water Service: The indicator shows the degree of compliance of pressure 3. i.SENASBA, Providing in charge technical of the assistance development and institu of the- points of the drinking water network, in order to sector'stional capacities, strengthening is responsible to providers for: in terms guaranteeranges between service 13 in andthe concession 70 mca at area. representative of drinking water quality. - ii. Training human resources and providers in various sectoral issues, including oper- Category (A): Central Axis, Santa Cruz-La Paz-Coch- ational control plans and others related to abamba have values of 100%-89.41%-11.19%, the drinking water quality, as well as promot- highoptimal zones. parameter Cochabamba being does >95%. not Duecomply to due its to to - pography, La Paz has pressure difficulties in its tencies in the sector. iii. Helping,ing a certification during systemthe implementation for labor compe of maintenance deficiencies and a deficit of water potable water works, to inform the pop- resources: high unaccounted for water. ulation of the importance of drinking wa- Category (B): Only 30% of the 18 EPSAs comply with the indicator (>95%). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 99

ter quality. It has the Plurinational Wa- ination, as well as the decontamination processes, ter School as a coordination platform for require long-term actions that may even force the knowledge management through training abandonment of the local source of water supply. and applied research processes. It is therefore necessary to establish more analysis, - monitoring and protection of groundwater, given the obvious lack of care in the management of facil- 4. ProductiveThe Executing and Entity Social of InvestmentEnvironment (FPS) and Waand ities near the wells for water extraction. ter (EMAGUA) under the MMAyA, the Fund for This is a marked tendency towards urban that administer investment in drinking water the Program and Project Coordinating Units - on the Autonomous Departmental or Munic- tablegrowth water, in the but main also cities requires of Bolivia, a strategy located to inbe areas able and sanitation, as well as the Units dependent towith afford a water major deficit. investments This is driving in the theconstruction need for po of health infrastructure works on their own or wastewater treatment plants, since many of them throughipal Governments, third parties, which must build ensure hydraulic that the andde- are overloaded and there is less sewerage than signs and public works meet the requirements drinking water coverage. to ensure the supply of drinking water, in keep- The wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) ing with the policy and technical regulations corresponding to the National Development will enable them to progressively achieve effective - operation,identified in since Bolivia many urgently of them require do not a strategyoperate thatdue tion Plan. to the lack of resources and capacities of the op- Plan (PDN), which includes the Basic Sanita- erators. However, they have the potential to reuse wastewater for irrigation purposes. Downstream of 5. nationalIBMETRO, reference affiliated entity to the for Ministry all measurements of Produc the WWTPs, mainly in places with agro-productive and,tive Developmentas such, protects and and Plural maintains Economy, national is the characteristics, treated (or partially treated) water measurement standards. It also provides cali- and, in some cases, untreated waters are being used for complementary irrigation. However, very little has been done to explore the solution to the prob- onbration, the above, accreditation it is the entity and verification in charge of services the ac- lems of pollution and health that may be caused by creditationfor equipment of laboratories in metrological for water aspects. analysis, Based its use in irrigation. as well as the calibration and metrological ver- - - ter and basic sanitation sector. Although there is a regulatory framework in Bo ification of equipment used in the drinking wa tolivia, comply the Environment with the norm, Law it is and necessary the Sectoral to meet Laws sev- There is a growing consensus that the best way (Drinking Water Law and Irrigation Law), in order to guarantee water suitable for human consumption is through the protection and control of wa- eral needs such as the following: 1) greater quantity ter sources, avoiding nearby contamination points, sectorsand quality according of information, to the roles which and impliescompetencies financial of which results in not only attending the point where resources and advice, 2) coordination between the- the extraction of water, whether surface or ground- ity development in the various levels of government water, is carried out, but also protecting the micro andeach entities of them involved for greater with effectiveness, the problem. and 3) capac basin, the recharge area and the catchment area of the collection works. - In this context, the detection of possible sourc- Although it is estimated that in Bolivia there are es of contamination is more visible and evident in 303,000 million m³/year of renewable internal wa surface waters, which makes it possible to take pre- ter resources, 40% of the territory experiences dry ventive or corrective measures, whereas in the case periods. It is estimated that 1,054 million m³/year- of groundwater, contamination advances without dustrialof water use.are used for irrigation, 124 million m³/year being able to be visualized and studies to deter- for population use and 62 million m³/year for in mine the source and characteristics of the contam- Over five million inhabitants of Bolivia lack sewerage systems. The final disposal of untreated 100 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA

- The oversight body informs social organizations, departmental and national representatives, wastewaterpopulated centers collected nationwide, amounts to where 70%, contaminatwater is re- with the aim of making management transparent ing water courses, land and aquifers. A study of 111 and strengthening social control in the sector by receiving suggestions from participants. theused remainder for irrigation have in no an form area of of treatment. 5000 ha, shows that - 84 haveA Mixed a WWTP Wastewater with operational Commission problems has been while cre- ter and sanitation service, which are under the reg- ated as a space for generating proposals and guide- ulatoryThe systemAAPS supervises throughout the the EPSA country. linked to the wa According to the projections of the institution, commission is producing technical assistance and informationlines to find solutionsfor making to thefuture problem decisions. of reuse. It is Thees- sential to invest in the construction of wastewater coverage.the short-term Within goal this is to framework, achieve 75 toall 80% the percentinvest- treatment plants, since many of them are overload- mentsdrinking made water by coveragethe state, and through up to various60% sewerage institu- ed and there is less sewerage than drinking water tions, are geared to this objective. coverage. A strategy is also required to ensure that - it works properly. ronment and Water, the country requires an invest- Downstream of the WWTPs, treated and un- mentAccording of one billion to data dollars from to theexpand Ministry coverage, of Envi and treated wastewater is being used for complementa- improve and maintain the quality of drinking water ry irrigation. However, very little research has been and sewerage service nationwide. One of the AAPS policies is to become an infor- and health that could be caused by its use for irriga- mation reference to identify the sectors in which tion.done Although to find a solutionthere is ato regulatory the problems framework, of pollution it is basic sanitation, treatment plants and water sourc- necessary to ensure the following to achieve greater es are required, among other needs. - The main factor in the quality of water for hu- ity of information, in addition to its systematization man consumption and irrigation in the three com- effectiveness, namely: 1) greater quantity and qual to the roles (in addition to their recognition). negative impact of mining and industrial activity on and 2) coordination between the sectors according waterponents resources, of the Bolivian which inhydrographic many cases systemhave exceed is the- - ed the maximum limits allowed for concentrations According to the AAPS, there is 70% drinking of harmful substances, causing social and econom- water coverage in Bolivia (equivalent to seven mil ic problems in depressed sectors of society. In the rurallion residents), areas. During whereas a public 30% event (three held million) at the seat lack major water courses of the Amazonian and Plata ofaccess government, this benefit, the regulatory the majority authority of whom explained live in - ed in a high concentration of sediments, caused by connection – coverage, equivalent to approximately laminarslopes, the erosion deterioration and mass of movement water quality in theis reflect upper that there is 55% basic sanitation service - sewer basins, as well as by the high levels of concentration of the substances used in gold mining. 5.5 million residents. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BOLIVIA 101

References

Climas Cuaternari- os en América del Sur. ArgolloAutoridad J. y de Mourguiart Fiscalización P. (1995). y Control Social de Agua Norma Boliviana NB 512 – Agua Potable Requisitos La Paz: ORSTOM. In- (2005). Saneamiento, Agua de Consumo e dicadores de Desempeño de las EPSA Reguladas. OrganizaciónHigiene. Mundial de la Salud (OMS) / ONU Potable y Saneamiento Básico (AAPS) (2016). Agua (2015). - La Paz: MMAyA.Procesos de salinización en el Alti- Reglamento Nacional para el Control de la Calidad Cardozo,plano A.,Central. Montes Una de contribución Oca, I., Rodrigo, a su conocimienL. A., Saave- de Agua para ConsumoProyecto HumanoPrecámbrico. - NB 512. to.dra, A. (2004). Servicio Geológico de Bolivia / British Geological Survey (1994). La Paz: Academia Nacional de Ciencias de- Urquidi, Fernando (2012). Los recursos hídricos en Bolivia. - DiagnósticoBolivia: un puntodel Agua de vistaen las estratégico Américas. sobre la Constitución Política del Estado (CPE) (2009). Recu IANAS-FCCyT.problemática de las aguas transfronterizas en perado de: https://www.oas.org/dil/esp/ConNorma Boliviana NB 689, México:- Parastitucion_Bolivia.pdf el Diseño de Sistemas de Agua Potable y - España,Plantas Carlos Potabilizadoras (2004a). de Agua. Urquidi, Fernando (2013). Water ResourcesDiagnosis in Bo Reglamentos Técnicos de oflivia: Water A Strategic in the Americas. Viewpoint of the Issues Asso Diseño para Sistemas de Agua Potable. ciated with Transboundary Waters in: España, Carlos (2004b). México: IANAS, AMC,- Manejo NBintegral 689; aciónII-UNAM. de los recursos hídricos en las ciudades enVols. la 1/2cuenca y 2/2. de Arroyo Bahía-Pando. Santa Cruz, Urquidi, Fernando (2015). Compendio de la situDe- Fundación Natura Bolivia (2010). safíos del agua urbana en las Américas. Plan global binacio- capitales departamentales de Bolivia, en nalBolivia. de protección-prevención de inundaciones México:- INTESCA,y aprovechamiento AIC & CNR (1993).de los recursos del lago Tit- IANAS-UNESCO. - icaca, río Desaguadero, lago Poopó y salar de Urquidi, Fernando (2015).Urban Compendium Water Challenges of the Wa in Coipasa (Sistema T.D.P.S.). theter ResourcesAmericas. in the Capital Cities of the Depart ments of Bolivia, in Convenios ALA/8603 Mexico: IANAS-UNESCO). y ALA/87/23 – Perú y Bolivia. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL 102

Brazil

Brazil has the highest volume of renewable fresh water resources, accounting for approximately 12% of the world’s supply. This does not mean that the country is safe from shortage of this natural resource. In the next decade, increasing consumption of treated water is a factor that will amplify the problems caused by extended droughts and the national precarious distribution infrastructure. Until 2030, water consumption will increase 24% in comparison to the current volume, due to urbanization process, and the expansion of industry, agroindustry and the economy.

Streets of downtown São Paulo, Brazil © iStock 103 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL

Water Quality In Brazil

Adalberto Luís Val, Carlos E. de M. Bicudo, Denise de C. Bicudo, Diego Guimarães Florencio Pujoni, Fernando Rosado Spilki, Ina de Souza Nogueira, Ivanildo Hespanhol, José Almir Cirilo, José Galizia Tundisi, Pedro Val, Ricardo Hirata, Sandra Maria Feliciano de Oliveira e Azevedo, Silvio Crestana and Virginia S.T. Ciminelli

1. The Water Quality In Brazil: Historical Perspective

- - icalIndustrial process development, of water quality urbanization, degradation and somewhat agricultural followed activities the in worldwide the last 50 path years described contrib inuted Tundisi extensively et al to the complex and delicate situation of water quality in Brazil. The histor-

. (2015) and was clearly described in Bicudo & Bicudo (2017). First, the in- quatedustrial wastewater development treatment produced contributed effluents towith the heavy accumulation metals, dissolved of organic organic matter substances,and the eu- trophicationand other toxic of materials.rivers, reservoirs, Accelerated and lakes.urbanization The extensive after the agricultural year 1950 together activities, with the inadeheavy application of pesticides and herbicides, and the uncontrolled use of fertilizers, especially in regions of widespread sugar cane and soy bean plantation, also contributed to water quali-

with enormous economic, ecological, and human health consequences. ty degradation.Mineral exploitation Today, eutrophication of iron, gold, andis one other of the metals major is anotherenvironmental cause for problems the degradation in Brazil

contaminants that may be related to this activity. Mozetto et al of the water quality in several regions of Brazil. Arsenic, mercury, and lead are all typical . (2003) described how metals and nutrients are weakly bound in sediments of the Tietê River (São Paulo) and what this- eswould aggravated cause to the human picture health. of the In water the last quality few years, degradation. floods, largeDeforestation disasters activitiessuch as the all Doceover theRiver country, contamination including by removal a tailing of dam riparian failure, vegetation and other also intense affect discharge water quality of toxic of water substanc bod- - ularly high impact on water quality due to increasing exploitation. ies and contribute to deterioration. Urban rivers and reservoirs are environments of partic

Adalberto Luís Val [email protected] Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Manaus, AM, Brasil. Carlos E. de M. Bicudo [email protected] Chapter Coordinator, Instituto de Botânica, São Paulo, SP, Brasil. Denise de C. Bicudo [email protected] Instituto de Botânica, São Paulo, SP, Brasil. Diego Guimarães Florencio Pujoni [email protected] Universidade Federal de Mi- nas Gerais, MG, Brasil. Fernando Rosado Spilki [email protected] Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, RS, Brasil. Ina de Souza Nogueira [email protected] Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brasil. Ivanildo Hespanhol [email protected] Univer- sidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil. José Almir Cirilo [email protected] Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brasil. José Galizia Tundisi [email protected] Chapter Coordinator, Instituto Internacional de Ecologia, São Carlos, SP, Brasil. Pedro Val pedroval07@ gmail.com Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto, MG, Brasil. Ricardo Hirata [email protected] Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Bra- sil. Sandra Maria Feliciano de Oliveira e Azevedo [email protected] Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil. Silvio Crestana [email protected] Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária, São Carlos, SP, Brasil. Virginia S.T. Ciminelli [email protected] Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL 104

Consequences of this large-scale process are nologist Harald Sioli who initially described the very relevant. First, the economy of municipalities and states are negatively impacted. Second, waters of the Solimões/Amazonas river; the black the impact on human health is also not totally un- three basic water types of the Amazon: the white derstood yet. Deteriorated water quality results in high costs for water treatment to provide adequate justwaters based of the on color,Negro but River; mainly and onthe physicochemical clear waters of drinking water to the human population. Deterio- andthe Tapajósbiological (Sioli, characteristics. 1950). These Thedistinctions white, or are rath not- ration of biodiversity is yet another consequence of - low water quality and environmental disasters af- er have a near neutral pH, a large amount of sus- fecting rivers, reservoirs or lakes. Due to this sce- pendeder muddy, sand waters from ofthe the Andes Solimões-Amazonas and riverbanks, Rivlow concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), pristine. Therefore, the restoration of water quality and higher nutrients relative to other water bodies nario, few watersheds of Brazil can be considered- i.e. - sheds left, and the enforcement of environmental er) differ in that they show an acid pH ranging from lawsin Brazil, are somethe protection of the important of the few actions pristine necessary water of the Amazon. Black water rivers ( Negro Riv to promote better life quality, reduce risks and vul- sodium, potassium, and calcium. The clear waters nerability to water security and promote econom- (3.2i.e. to 5, high levels of DOC, and very low levels of ic growth. It is fundamental to monitor all regions levels of DOC, sodium, potassium, calcium, and high consistently with the maintenance of permanent Tapajós River) have a pH between 6 and 7, low and public databases to support public policies. A remarkable feature of the Amazon basin is the In this volume, we outline the current state of seasonaltransparency variation (Furch, of 1984).river water levels, appropri- et al of the main challenges for surface and groundwater. water quality in all regions of Brazil including some ately called flood pulses (Junk ., 1989). In the- such as the emerging risks of pesticides, herbicides, terbanks seasons. of Manaus, Other the environmental level of the Negroparameters River alsocan Furthermore, we present some specific challenges, showvary morediurnal, than seasonal, 15 m between and even low geographic and high-wa vari- the economic implications of water quality degra- - dationhormones, and make and climate some remarks change. about Lastly, the we reduction discuss ious environmental characteristics, such as the dissolvedation, influenced oxygen bylevel. the Of interaction course, these with different the var characteristics impose challenges of all orders of of water vulnerability in Brazil. 2. Water Quality: North Region a broad set of adaptations at all levels of the biolog- icalaquatic organization organisms. has In thebeen case developed of fish, for throughout example, In the Amazon everything is great and diverse. The the evolutionary process, so that they can cope with extensive watershed originates in the Peruvian An- oxygen availability over short periods of time (Val across all the countries of northern South America, environments that exhibit significantet al variation in- coveringdes, specifically an area in of the seven Nevado million Mismi, square and spreadskilome- - &meostasis Almeida, despite 1995; Val, the 1995; acidity Val and ion., 2015). poor Similarcharac- ly, fish from the Negro River can maintainet ionical ho ters. The Amazonas River, the main water course, Wood et al thatreaches reaches the Atlanticall marine Ocean environments after flowing of the for world. 6,992 ateristics relevant of role their in environment this process (Gonzalez(Duarte et al ., 2002; km, where it discharges 20% of all the fresh water There is., still2014). much Today to beit is said known about that the DOC adapta has- tions and abilities of the aquatic biota of the., 2016). Ama- This volume of water is five times greater than that- zon. However, many aquatic organisms are already of the Congo River (Africa) and 12 times than that facing challenges posed by man-made environmen- of the Mississippi River (United States of Ameri- ca). Each small space is unique in the Amazon. This holds true for water too. It was the German lim tal changes. We highlight here, very briefly, three of 105 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL

these challenges. First, the presence of metals from which still affects public policies in the country has mining in several bodies of water in the region, decreased the effort to expand the treatment of domestic sewage. The result is that sewage collection sensitive to these metals, such as copper (Crémazy etwhich al endanger severalet al species of fish that are very volume produced, and effective treatment of sew- of climate change on aquatic environments, making ageis in inmost major Northeastern cities, with cities few exceptions,less than 40% is belowof the them., warmer,2016; Duarte more acidic., 2009). and with Second, less thedissolved effect - and canals that cross the poorest regions of the cit- tion of the challenges that many aquatic organisms 30%. The issue of solid waste pollution from rivers oxygen, conditions that represent an intensifica services and the lack of environmental awareness Third, the urban impact on the rivers that cross the ofies the is alarming;riverine population the deficiency transform of waste these collection small cities,of the when Amazon they already receive a face vast (Oliveira amount of & new Val, chem 2017).- ical compounds and debris that represent new chal- Diffuse industrial pollution is another cause for lenges for the aquatic biota. In this case, two groups concernwatercourses as industrial into floating clusters solid such waste as garment reservoirs. production growing in areas close to temporary rivers that receive high net waste from production. aof great compounds challenge are to worthexpand mentioning: what we know plastics about andthe pristineleachate Amazonianfrom landfills. aquatic Lastly, environment while on the is one needed, hand the wettest regions of the Northeast, water quali- on the other hand there is also a gigantic and urgent ty isUpstream usually satisfactory, of urban centers although and stillthere considering are prob- need for robust information to reduce the anthropic lems in some rivers resulting from contamination impacts of all orders on the unique aquatic environ- by agricultural activities (i.e. sugarcane). In the re- ments that occur in the Amazon. relatively higher level of sewage treatment in the maingion crossedcities compared by the São to Franciscoother parts River, of the despite North a- 3. Water Quality: Northeast Region east, eventual algae proliferation accidents have occurred, damaging the water supply of the cit- In order to contextualize the issue of water quality ies. It must be considered in this case the presence of many irrigation systems along the river, whose hydrochemical quality and quantity of surface wa- drainage systems can affect water quality. terin the and Brazilian groundwater Northeast, must thebe highlighted.distinction between Consid- Concerning groundwater formations, the water stored in sedimentary aquifers are generally of good quality in all aspects. In coastal sedimentary twoering perennial the surface large water rivers, issue, the SãoNortheastern Francisco, whichBrazil aquifers there is a risk of salinization in many wells contains only 3% of Brazilian water and has only as a consequence of high exploitation or vertical in-

areconcentrates intermittent, 63% i.e. of the Northeast water, and thewater quality is greatly impaired by the high con- son.Parnaíba, In the with coastal 15%. region, All other perennial somewhat rivers large of riverssmall filtration in poorly sealed wells. On the other hand, extension are present they and only are flow of great in the importance rainy sea in which water percolates between rock fractures. to water supply for the population and productive centration of salts in the so-called fissure aquifers - the region. tion and industrial production is concentrated up Alarmingly, these salts dominate more than 80% of activities, chiefly since the majority of the popula to the coastline, the biggest problem for river wa- 4. Water Quality: Central-West Region terto 150quality km fromis pollution the coastline. from domestic In this rangesewage closer and solid waste, particularly along rivers and canals - age treatment programs have been partially imple- The Central-West region of Brazil contains springs- mentedthat flow in through the region, cities. especially Although in theimportant larger urban sew sidesof five supplying hydrographic the Central-West regions (Amazon, and all Paraguay,the other Araguaia-Tocantins, Paraná and São Francisco). Be

centers, the economic crisis that began in 2014 and regions in Brazil, these hydrographic regions also WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL 106

contribute to Paraguay and Argentina. This is the this region contains a great amount of iron. During second least populated region, where pristine wa- the rainy period, most of the rivers become muddy ters can be found in different locations such as the due to erosion and deforestation. The region also has a great groundwater re- - Formoso River basin in the state of Mato Grosso do- southeast, and central-west regions and contrib- Sul (municipalities of Bonito, Jardim, and Bodoque serve. The Guarani Aquifer expands through south, statena) and (especially the Federal in theDistrict Chapada (Águas dos Emendadas Veadeiros ParkEco the watersheds in the southern Central-West re- logical Station). Also, in different places of the Goiás- gion.utes toSeveral the water springs supply originate of a significant from this portion ground ofwater system and are exploited for irrigation and region) and Mato Grosso (Poconé) (Tundisi & Mat public supply. One can also observe cave lakes that sumura-Tundisi, 2011; Cunha-Santino & Bianchini Jr.,- scribed2008; O’Sullivan below. & Reynolds, 2004). As in the North region,Thermal waters waters can be occur classified due to in natural some types geother de- are common at the north of Goiás and south of Mato- portantGrosso do and Sul attractive states. for tourism and recreation (waterAquatic sports, environments waterfalls, inpristine Central lagoons, Brazil are rivers im mal gradients in the Earth’s crust (Goiás, 2006).- Thermal localities exist in Mato Grosso (Barra do serious erosion problems, silting, construction of theGarça, latter Rondonópolis, being the state Juscimeira, with the Primavera greatest number do Les waterwayswith rapids). and Unfortunately, hydropower theyplants, are and experiencing water piv- te and Santo Antônio do Leverger cities) and Goiás, ots as well as water pollution (rural and urban). The most damaging of all has been the advance of agri- of hot springs in Brazil. Thermal springs originate- cultural and agribusiness frontiers that began with through different aquifers (Araxá, Paranoá, Serra- Geral, Serra da Mesa, Aquidauana, Cristalino No roeste and Guarani). There are 19 natural upwell government projects in the 1970s (Miziara, 2006;- largesting sources hot water in the complex state in classified the country as isothermal is concen- Rodrigues & Miziara, 2008) and was intensified in (36-38°C) and hyperthermal (> 38°C) springs. The- the first decade of the 21st Century, promoting in- tertense treatment deforestation, also contributed especially for in the Goiás serious and Matomis- trated in the Caldas Novas and Rio Quente munici characterizationGrosso do Sul states. of the The watersheds lack of sanitation that changed and wa to palities (Goiás, 2006), but thermal upwellings also meet population growth, agricultural, industrial, hyperthermalexist in Chapada river dos in Veadeirosthe country Park, and runsLagoa through Santa, and commercial supplies. aand Cerrado Goiás region.city. Quente River (Goiás) is the largest Acidic or black waters are composed of dis- plant (HPP) reservoirs and/or small HPP that mod- solved acids of plant origin with a brownish color Currently, there are about 700 hydropower - Tocantinsifies the rivers with morphology,eight reservoirs the ofwater various quality, shapes and/ in Chapadaand pH < dos 6. They Veadeiros are registered Park presents in different an extensive locali or the type of water. The most modified river is the areaties of covered all Central-West by acidic Brazil water states. rivers, Specifically, among which the fragmentedits course, the is largestthe Araguaia one being due in to the its state origin. of Goiás This (Serra da Mesa Reservoir). The only river notet yetal., andthe Negrobrackish River waters in the are state recorded of Mato in Grosso the Pantanal do Sul and Suia-mixu River in the state of Matoet alGrosso. Salt river is the largest in central Brazil (Valente - est2013) continuous and borders wetland the states on the Mato planet. Grosso Nonetheless, and Goiás. (Santos & Sant’Anna, 2010; Barbiero . 2008), in- There also is the Mato Grosso’s Pantanal, the larg tersthe northeast originate regionin the of soil Goiás containing (Bambuí theseaquifer water that under some sort of impact (i.e. livestock, deforesta- bodies.promotes Muddy brackish or brownsprings, waters Goiás, are2006). recorded These wafor tion,some and of the gold-mining) rivers that that flow affect into theirthis ecosystem water quality. are most of the rivers that run through latosol regions. Another process of extreme importance is the climate impacts, which have been increasing in the

In Central-West Brazil, the most common type is the ferruginous latosol (Resck, 1991). Waters flowing in last 10 years. Seasons have changed to the point of 107 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL

producing excessive rains and extreme droughts. lion people. Water quality is affected mainly by the lack of waste water treatment, the discharge of fer- and rivers that once were perennial and now dry These conditions lead to processes of large floods plants, and the contamination of groundwater. - tilizersAlthough from agriculturethe southeast and treatseffluents a large of industrial volume tialup duringabsence the of drought water inperiod. their Forbeds, example, damaging in 2017 the - aquaticonly in Goiás,biota and more the than public 15 riverssupply. had total or par Water is an excellent indicator of environmen- stillof sewage discharged it is notwithout sufficient any treatment for a complete in continen clean- - taling waterup of surfacebodies suchwaters. as Aboutrivers, 40reservoirs, % of sewage coast is- ter regime to which the ecosystems are subjected. al lagoons, and coastal regions. As a consequence, tal quality since it is directly influenced by the wa blooms of cyanobacteria are frequent in the inland

changeFurthermore, (Coe et volume al and flow are also affected by São Paulo State, for example is very frequent, even deforestation which is being intensified by climate and coastal waters. Eutrophication of reservoirs in is still anthropocentric., 2011). andCurrently, harmful the (concepti.e. numer forin press). sustainable water use in the Central-West Brazil a permanentSeveral diffuse feature sources in some of watercases (Tundisiquality degra 2018,- dation also originate in abandoned solid waste res- anous environmental reservoirs and sense licensed is necessary. grants) (Tundisi, Together 2002; with idues. These diffuse impacts affect not only surface the2014), intensive thus conceptualizing use of water comes water the sustainability concept of vir inwaters but also underground waters. Deforestation of vegetation mosaics and riparian forests is anoth- - er main cause of degradation, increasing discharge tiontual waterprocess, (Tundisi, which is2014), ultimately which isexported used because to other of of pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers to rivers and res- regionsits presence of the in countrythe final andproduct to the of theworld. food This produc con- ervoirs impairing water quality and increasing the cept is well applied in a region whose economy is cost of water treatment for potable uses. (Tundisi & based on agriculture and livestock production, and et al water is therefore fundamental for its economic de- Contamination of groundwater in the south- eastMatsumura-Tundisi, is an additional impact2010; Tundisi on water quality.., 2015). Part of - the southeast region uses water resources from the velopment. Investigation of water quality in Brazil - abides by specific legislation by the National Envi - andronmental by an integratedCouncil (CONAMA, water resource 357; Brasil, management 2005), by habitants)Guarani Aquifer. as source These of publicresources supply are of used water. by sev the National Water Resources Policy (Brasil, 1997),- eralProtection small to midsized of water towns quality (50.000 in the toregion 200.000 would in plication of these laws is still precarious and rais- therefore include recovery of vegetation in the wa- system (ANA, 2005). In the Central-West region, ap tersheds, restoration of riparian forests, treatment water and lobby of the agribusiness companies. The onlyes many legislation conflicts effectively such as the applied indiscriminate focuses on use pub ofair solid-waste sites in order to avoid contamina- tionof 100% of surface of wastewater, and groundwater. and reduction Integrated of the manopen- agement of watersheds with a systemic vision, oflic watersupply in (Consolidation the Central-West Ordinance, region and 5/2017; their Brasil, mul- strong environmental education of the population, tiple2017). uses As highlighted lead to a complexhere, there scenario are different with strong types and capacity building of managers are some of the human interference. It cannot be denied that wa- fundamental steps in the recovery and conserva- ter supports sustainable development in the Cen- tion of water quality. Also, strong conservation tral-West region. measures in existing pristine waters could be an ex- - sis on the original water quality in the Southeast. 5. Water Quality: Southeast Region Preparationcellent tool to of maintain water quality a scientific management information for bare- covery and conservation is also essential to adapt to climatic change (Jorgensen, Tundisi, Matsumu- - The southeast of Brazil is the most populated and urbanized area of the country with about 120 mil ra-Tundisi, 2013). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL 108

6. Water Quality: South Region are highly impacted by low levels of sewage treatment and a consequent increase in costs related to water treatment and waterborne diseases. In the case of Florianópolis, losses in water quality repre- The Southern region of Brazil consists of three- sent a constant threat to the tourism economic ac- states, namely Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio tivity; the beaches of the city are often closed due Grandeprimarily do subtropical. Sul. The region Industrial is occupied activity by occurs approx in to inadequate disposal of untreated debris lead- largeimately urban 28 millioncenters inhabitantsof the sector, and the themost climate frequent is ing to risks for recreational use. In the city of Porto being associated with the metal-mechanic industry, clothing, footwear, and food. The vast plains are oc- water in the city, is impacted annually by large al- cupied by large plantations of soybeans, rice, maize, gaeAlegre, blooms, Lake resultingGuaíba, the from main the reservoir disposal ofof drinkinguntreat- and cattle ranching, whereas the rural mountain- ed sewage from the city itself and its hydrographic ous regions are occupied by small farms involved - along all the rivers draining into the lake. The larg- ucational and income levels are usually above the basin, which comprises more 5 million inhabitants in dairy, swine, and poultry production chains. Ed Paradoxically, the South is often noted for its high caseser cities of gastroenteritis in the region, per those year, with this more being than one 200as- humanBrazilian development average, although indicators great but disparities is also facingexist. pectthousand of the inhabitants, severe impact often of report water more contamination than 6,000 deeper problems regarding water quality which is in public health. The whole picture is further ham- being impacted by many different pollution sourc- pered by the industrial contamination already men- es. Water resources are impacted by the excessive use of agrochemicals, supplementary nutrients (N - er)tioned. are often The impacted municipalities by no insewage the Brazil-Uruguay treatment and from a variety of sources, including metals and oth- lackborder of (mostfunds ofto themincrease crossed their by sewage the Uruguay treatment Riv and P) applied to crops, and industrial effluents infrastructure. cases of contamination by organic solvents and oth- In addition to these water quality problems, erser wastes.from processing In the latter industries, case, there such are as significanttanneries there are also periodic droughts, especially in the and paper mills, many times leading to shortening summer months, which threaten the water security of water supply. However, the greatest impact on - - agement of multiple uses of water has already gen- - of large areas of Southern Brazil. Inefficient man- water bodies is related to deficits in environmen ulation and the agrarian sector, aggravated at times domestictal sanitation: sewage although is not almost treated 90% before of the being popula dis- oferated scarcity. conflicts, This isespecially worsened between by a problematic the urban manpop- chargedtion receives onto treatedrivers and water, lakes. up Theseto 30% statistics of the total are agement and surveillance system. The structure of even more serious considering that only the state of environmental monitoring, especially in the state of

- - foreParaná it is has released 70% of to the the treated rivers in sewage the states in its of majorSanta Rio Grande do Sul is largely depleted. The current cities, while only 10% of the sewage is treated be inspection bodies do not have the financial resourc This situation of contamination and losses es and sufficient staff to carry out their activities. inCatarina water andquality Rio isGrande even doaggravated Sul. by several so- 7. The Water Quality Of Brazilian cio-economic and institutional issues that came Groundwater Resource along with the economic crisis of the last decades by the state governments within this region. The - - on the border with Paraguay and Argentina, are im- Groundwater plays an essential role in public wa- pactedwestern by areas industrial of Paraná swine and manure Santa Catarina as well states,as do- ter supply in Brazil. According to the National Wa mestic sewage. The large metropolitan areas of the byter aquifers,Agency (ANA, with a2010), high halfpredominance of the country’s in small munic and region, especially Florianópolis and Porto Alegre, medium-sizedipalities is totally cities. (39%) In orprivate partially water (13%) supply, supplied the 109 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL

been used to alleviate the severe problems of lack compounds a new and real concern in urban aqui- ofimportance water of the is evenpublic more system, significant, which is recurrent since it has in fers,of in especially open dumps when and present landfills in havefree phase made (pure these product) reaching complex aquifers such as fractured ones (Hirata et al thisalmost exploitation every Brazilian and local city, studiesor even havea low-cost shown water that There is no information on the situation of thisalternative. value is Unfortunately, considerably higherthere isthan no estimatethe percep on- groundwater degradation., 2015). in urban areas. Although tion of society and government. This importance is is a real risk of aquifer degradation involving ni- trogenBrazil has fertilizers been a majorand some agricultural agrochemicals, producer, mainly there well exemplified in the Metropolitan Region of São herbicides and some insecticides. The lack of moni- Paulo where public water supply is only 1%, but 12,000 private-1 wells (60% illegal) extracting about of systematic studies still compromise the under- 10government's m³ s , provide low water attention, for 20% including of the population.the lack of standingtoring networks of the real in critical situation areas on andwater the quality. deficiency The initiativesThis "hidden to protect statistic" the is quality one of of the aquifers. causes of the scarcity of planning and control of territorial occu- The lithological, tectonic, and climatic charac- - uted to increase the problem of aquifer degradation. good groundwater quality and mostly naturally po- pation in Brazilian municipalities has also contrib teristics of Brazil create excellent conditions for aquifers of the northeastern semi-arid region, natu- 8. Water Quality And Human Health table.ral geochemical Except for anomalieshigh salinity of toxicobserved substances in fractured such Safe and adequate water supply is a key resource Fe and Mg have a more extensive occurrence and for social and economic development validated by as F, Cr, and Ba are very limited in area. However,- many international organizations like the World tary aquifers. In terms of anthropogenic contami- - nantare generally sources, associatedthe situation with is more unconfined complex sedimen and de- - serves more attention by the government. Nitrate Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Ed ucational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UN- ESCO), the United Nations Environment Programme- is the single contaminant with a more significant (UNEP) and and the Food and Agriculture Organi- presence in Brazilian aquifers. In urban areas it is- zation of the United Nations (FAO). The United Na ulationalmost ubiquitous.in the regions This where reflects these the lacksystems of sewage exist, righttions Generalfor safe Assemblywater and and sanitation the United with Nations a strong Hu duenetworks, to the whichlack of only maintenance covers 50% or ofage. the The urban problem pop man Rights Council recognized in 2010 the human is not worse because the contamination has been restricted to the shallower portions of the aquifer participation of Brazilian government (Heller, 2015). (usually down to a depth of some tens of meters), However, the WHO & UNICEF (2017) report recently also allowing the use of its water in the deeper parts. waterpointed service out that available only 71% when of theneeded global and population free from Other contaminants in urban areas are petro- (5.2 billion people) is supplied with a safe drinking- leum-derived liquid fuels from leaks and poor oper- contamination. Therefore, 29% of the global popu- in the state of São Paulo have shown that more than lation (2 billion people) still does not have access to ation of service stations. Studies by CETESB (2009) this service. Data showed that only 65% of the pop aquifers; however, the plume had limited dimen- ulation in Latin America uses safe drinking water. sions50% ofand these impacts. installations Chlorinated had solvents leaks reaching and heavy the safe,Sanitation managed service sanitation data are service more critical.(i.e. excreta Only safe39%- metals are products that are quite common in inof the global population (2.9 billion people) uses a dustry and are responsible for the most massive and most complex plumes of aquifer contamination valuely disposed among of all ‘in regions situ’ or analyzed. treated off-site). For Latin in the country. The high toxicity and large volume of AmericaHuman this health percentage is both drops directly to 22%, and the indirectly smallest product handled by the industry and even disposed impacted by the water quality. Outbreaks of wa- WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL 110

terborne diseases (cholera and infections as lepto- - spirosis and viruses) common in urban areas may occur as a result of contaminated or inadequate (SNIS 2016). It is important to point out that 34 mil- water supply, sometimes affecting thousands of itationlion Brazilians service reinforcesstill do not this have regional access discrepancy. to drinking people and causing many deaths. Outbreaks of vec- water pipelines in their houses. Recent data on san tor-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fe- sanitation facilities connected to a sewer system ver, mosquitoes and intermediate hosts (snails) On average, 51.92% of the population has access to that harbor the worm that causes schistosomiasis connectedfrom which to only a sewer 44.92% net, ofwhile wastewater this service is treated. covers cases of childhood diarrheal disease every year. At the North region only 10.45% of wastewater is Thiscan also disease occur. remains Globally, as onethere of theare leadingnearly 1.7causes billion of The link between poverty and occurrence of wa- child mortality and morbidity in the world, killing terborne78.57% in diseases the Southeast is very region notorious. (SNIS, Population 2016). that lacks these services is predominantly located in the peripheral areas of urban centers and in areas of in- diseasearound 525,000can be prevented five-year-old through and youngersafe drinking per year. wa- formal urbanization, which indicates the need for terHowever, and adequate a significant sanitation proportion and hygiene of the diarrheal(WHO & adopting integrated programs for urban development. This picture is in accordance to some public - - latedUNICEF, with 2017). water quality, other impacts on human healthBesides through this unsafe classical water scenario use may of hazardsarise from re thehealth population data. In 2013, had 340access thousand to sewage people system were there hos natural toxic agents (e.g. biological toxins, such as pitalized with gastrointestinal infections. If 100% of those from cyanobacteria and arsenic) or from anthropogenic sources (pesticides, pharmaceutical would be a reduction, in absolute terms, of 74.600 compounds or other chemical contaminants). In- hospitalizations, 56% of which would occur in the direct impact is also related with water availabil- mostNortheast frequently region registered. (Instituto Diseases Trata Brasil-DATASUS, related to fae- ity in food production. For example, agricultural cal-oral2014). Among transmission waterborne as diarrhea, diseases, enteric diarrhea fever is andthe productivity is tied to food security consequences - talizations caused by inadequate sanitation service frequent. hepatitis A were responsible for 87% of the hospi in regions where severe droughts or flooding are Water resources contamination including to guarantee safe drinking water and sanitation drinkingfrom 2000 water to 2013. supplies by human excreta remains Considering water availability as the first step a major human health concern. In contrast, the world’s water availability leads to a false concept importance of toxic natural microorganisms and ofservices, a wealthy knowledge water supply that for Brazil different has 12%services of the as their toxins as cyanobacteria/cyanotoxins and tox- human consumption, agricultural and industrial ic compounds, such as heavy metals and synthet- use, recreation, and energy production. As report- ic organic contaminants, has only emerged in the ed in this document, there are important regional last half of the XX century. This concern is connect- population,disparities. Whilewater availabilitythe North region for human reaches use 68.5%in the increaseded to the recognition eutrophication of artificial in fresh eutrophication and coastal wa asof national water storage with 6.8% of Brazilian- tera developing has caused problem enrichment since of the nutrients 1950s. Human-led and other zilian population. In the most populated and devel- pollutant. It has become much more widespread in Northeast region is onlyi.e. 3.3% for 28.9% of the Bra some regions where the advance rates of agricul- - ture, industry, and urbanization has experienced oped region of Brazil ( Southeast), only 6% ofet rapid increase, but without being followed by an alBrazil’s water availability supplies the highest per improvement in wastewater treatment. This arti- suppliedcentage of with Brazilian safe drinking population water, (42.7%) but the(Augusto dispari - - ties., 2012). are great. On average,In the Southeast 83.3% of region, Brazilian this people percent is- ing higher incidence of microalgae and cyanobac- teriaficial eutrophicationblooms, and has affects negative water consequences quality, includ to age is 91.24% and in the North region, only 55.38% 111 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL

- ic pollutants due to their chemical characteristics, which may favor bioaccumulation along the aquat- mostthe efficiency aquatic ecosystemsand cost of havewater the treatment. necessary In char Bra- zil,acteristics bloom occurrencefor an intense is intensified growth of by cyanobacteria the fact that contamination by metals and other pollutants be- throughout the year. ic food chain. Reservoirs are more susceptible to Cyanobacteria cannot be considered pathogen- important potential consequence of damming is the ic microorganisms in the classical sense because al- cause of their mobilization from flooded soils. One though several strains of different species can pro- associated to the anaerobic degradation of organ- duce bioactive and toxic secondary metabolites for icintensification matter. In tropical in the reservoirs,production the of methyl Hg methylation mercury, mammalians, a large part of these compounds will process is favored by the high water temperature only be released into water after the cyanobacterial cell lysis. The quality of water may be more com- the reducing conditions in the hypolimnium (Con- promised by the presence of dissolved cyanotoxins falonierithat favors et althe intensified microbiotic activity and than by viable forms of cyanobacterial cells, which It is also important to consider that water avail- could potentially be removed during the conven- ., 2010). tional water treatment. However, this procedure Climate change studies have already indicated a may lead to rupture of the cells of these microor- reductionability in Brazilin the largelyamount dependsof rain in on the the North weather. and ganisms due to the chemicals used during the treatment process. Cyanobacteria are also often asso- - ciated with the production of compounds that are esNortheast in weather regions and ofclimatic the country patterns of up are to affecting 20% by responsible for taste and odor in drinking water. Al- humanthe end ofhealth the XXI by Centuryincreasing (Marengo, morbidity, 2008). mortality, Chang though these compounds cannot be considered as disabilities, and by the emergence of diseases in toxic as the cyanotoxins, their presence concerns previously non-endemic regions. Multiple factors health authorities given that such compounds fre- are associated with the region’s vulnerability to cli- quently result in rejection of the potable water by mate change, water quality and sanitation services. the population, which in turn leads them to seek It is well known that water scarcity in the Northeast alternative sources of water supply. Aquatic envi- region affects health of the population, and most ronments located in areas of strong anthropogen- of the health problems derive from socio-environ- ic impact had a high dominance of cyanobacteria mental processes caused by drought. Outbreaks of and occurrence of blooms. Potentially toxic species vector and waterborne diseases can be triggered by extreme events. There is some good epidemiologi- - cal evidence of human health risk linked to climate cordsof cyanobacteria coming from have multiple been identifieduse reservoirs in at (Azeveleast 11- variability. Most of that evidence comes from ma- out of 26 Brazilian states, the majority of these re laria studies. The number of cases of malaria has in- can disappear from the reservoir before health au- creased in urban and rural Amazonian area under- thoritiesdo, 2005). consider In some themcases, a the human cyanobacterial health risk. bloom This happens because the authorities may be unaware of the potential damages resulting from cyanobacteria malariagoing large is also environmental reported for Amazoniachanges. El (Oki Niño & Kanae,drives blooms and therefore they assume that the conven- malaria outbreakset al and linkages between ENSO and tional water treatment system is capable of removing any potential problem. of2006, surface Field water .,providing 2014). The breeding link between sites for malaria mos- Water contamination by heavy metals and syn- and El Niño is due, in part, to the increasing amount- thetic organic compounds as pesticides or pharma- ly an urban disease whose vector is also affected ceutical drugs occur due to the inadequate waste- quitoes. Unlike malaria, dengue fever (DF) is most water discharge into aquatic environments. Only recently human exposure to certain heavy metals, by climate. In Rio de Janeiro, a 1°C increase in the- such as methyl mercury (MeHg), cadmium (Cd), and monthly minimum temperature led to 45% increase lead (Pb) was considered a health risk. Aquatic sys- of DF in the subsequent month,et al while a 10-millime- tems are particularly sensitive to synthetic organ- miasister rise (SCH) in precipitation is endemic led in torural a 6% and increase peripheral in DF ur in- the following month (Gomes ., 2012). Schistoso WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL 112

ter load dilution, hydroelectric power generation, will increase in a warmer climate. Hantaviruses as banized regions of Brazil. It is highly likely that SCH a whole set of problems resulting from the inten- and climate change events. Also, incidence of viscer- conservation of biodiversity, and health. In Brazil, well have their prevalence increased due to El Niño- industrialization, agriculture, and energy produc- et al tionsification leads of to human economic activities impacts such of as major urbanization, propor- al leishmaniosisThe data discussed has increased here shows in Brazil that the in relationassocia- tions not yet properly measured but certainly very tionship tobetween El Niño water and deforestation and health conditions (Field is., usual2014).- et al - ly very complex and mediated by several factors of ter treatment for potable water production is ex- physical-geographical, socio-environmental, eco- significant (Tundisi ., 2015). For example, wa nomic, and cultural nature. Indeed, all sectors of the - development nexus are interlinked through water. ingtremely water expensive. from degraded About sources. US$ 60.00 Instead, to US$ the 90.00 cost The growth of population and economic activities tois requiredtreat pristine for the and production uncontaminated of 1,000 m³waters of drink may are linked to water availability and use in agricul- - ture, industry, energy consumption, and domestic - purposes. These factors contribute to an increasing reach a maximum of US$ 3.00 (Tundisi & Matsumu demand on the local and regional water supplies. diseasesra-Tundisi, as 2010).well number However, of hours there lost are in other school exter due These forces are rapidly accelerating, often with un- tonalities’ absence; effects: number hospitalizations of hours of work due to lost waterborne due to ill- predictable changes that represent new uncertain- ness from contaminated water or intoxication by ties for water managers, which poses an increas- toxic substances. ing risk for public health. At the same time, climate - change is generating new uncertainties regarding ened by eutrophication and silting, which rep- freshwater supplies and to the multiple sectors of resentsRecreation, the impact tourism, of nitrogen public andsupplies phosphorus are threat on water use. As water availability becomes more uncertain, society will become more vulnerable to a - wide range of risks associated with inadequate wa- untreated sewage and soil erosion. Between 30 and ter supply, including hunger and thirst, high rates 40 percent of the world’s food comes from the irri of disease and death, loss of productivity and eco- fromgated freshwater16 percent of aquaculture; the total cultivated and current land; around global nomic crises, and degraded ecosystems. Therefore, one-fifth of the total value of fish production comes- these challenges require an urgent implementation lion liters per day (forecasts estimate an increase of of policies that will be able to serve as a tool for livestock drinking-water requirements are 60 bil monitoring the access and use of good-quality and hectares are under irrigation considering its poten- its relations with health indicators. 0.4 billion liters per year). In Brazil, only 5.4 million leaching of chemicals are particularly of great con- cerntial of considering 29.6 million the hectares. tropical Runoff,climate soilwith loss, its high and 9. Water Quality And Economic Impact intensity rainfalls in areas under fragile soils and inadequate management practices. - pact on water quality is of relevance to policy mak- from non-point pollution sources such as the agri- Identifyingers seeking to and promote estimating sustainable the significance water resources of im Regarding chemical contamination of water management and wider economic development. A in the world’s top level. The industry of pesticides failure to account for externality effects leads to a culture ones, the Brazilian market for pesticides is misallocation of resources to an inappropriate mix of land uses and inappropriate management of in- accounted for US$ 9.71 billion dollars, according to - 2012 data, referring to 823,226 tons of commercial- ics of clean water is strictly related to its different dition,product the and impact 346,583 of tons climate of active change, ingredient demography, added dividual parcels of land (Moxey, 2012). The econom- landto a totaluse and of 29.53 the impact million of tons new of and fertilizers. emerging In con ad- al irrigation, industry, households, water-based rec- taminants on surface and groundwater must also uses and shall be valued accordingly for: agricultur- be considered. These pollutants are the result of the reation (fish, wildlife habitat and navigation), wa 113 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL

addition of drugs, cosmetics, antibiotics, hormones, specify maximum concentrations of various bioac- nanomaterials, paints and coatings dissolved in riv- tive substances in drinking water by considering a er waters, dams and groundwater and constitute minimum or tolerable reference risk (risk equal to the most recent threat to human health, biodiversi- - ond-6 phase, risk management, is to assist developing countries10 of developing in the preparation the disease ofin their70 years). own Thenational sec recoveryty, and ecosystem and conservation functioning policies (Boxall, (ex. 2012). water and standards and regulations considering their spe- Reliable water resources database to promote of water pollution must be prioritized. Finally, ad- conditions. However, excessively restrict consider- vancednutrients technologies reuse) is a as must. big data, Economic robotics, assessment internet ationscific environmental, and policies may social, endanger economic, public and health cultural by not allowing their effective application due to eco- integration of urban, rural, and industrial spaces nomic reasons. andof things, societal and activities. 3-D manufacturing Predictive is models making and real sim the- In relation to traditional procedures within ulations using big data tools shall be exploited to water companies, many industrialized countries promote intelligent and long-term water quality management. treatment plant with previous treatment to avoid bacteria,recycle filtered protozoa backwash (mainly watersCryptosporidium into the water sp.), solids and organic matter to return to the plant. In 10. Water Quality And Surrogate Variables: The Alto Tietê River Basin are recycled to the plant without treatment. This generateBrazil, on a the build other up ofhand, those filter’s pollutants backwash in the waters plant, Several plans and studies have recently been made jeopardizing the production of safe water. This and to critically evaluate the drinking water supply in other practices lead to severe problems in public water supply. For example, during the drought - - Brazil. Among them, thereet areal different security ter distribution companies adopted the emergen- plans for water supply in Brazil and international cythat measure affected ofSão stopping Paulo in the 2015 water (Kelman, distribution 2015), wa to outlinely (SUS, good2012; proposals,Bensousson they did., 2012;not consider PAHO/WHO, fun- some sectors of the city in a time span ranging from damental2012; BRAZIL, aspects 2014). of Even normalization, though these criteria publications for wa- a few hours to a couple of days. When water dis- - tribution is interrupted and users continue to draw tional procedures adopted by water companies. So, water from the network it causes negative pressure ter treatment, and the traditional Brazilian opera inside pipes and, due to precarious conditions (e.g. - cracks), external matter is sucked inside the tubes. ingthe adaptedOrdinance to social,MS-2914/2011 technical, was and based public on health foreign of When the water distribution restarts, a huge mass standards or from the WHO Guidelines, without be of pollutants is delivered to users. Therefore, in- The evolution of guidelines and standards re- latedBrazilian to public conditions. health are not based only on epide- forbidden. miological and toxicological studies. Technological termittent supply operation should be officially development, socioeconomic, cultural, and hygiene - practices as well as public sensitivity and percep- The Metropolitan Region of São Paulo (MRSP) tion play an imperative role on stablishing guide- comprises the city of São Paulo and 38 adjacent cit lines for quality criteria to ensure health protection ies. The whole area is 700 m above sea level and most of it is situated in the Alto Tietê river basin (upper Tietê River basin). Currently, the population size is of consumers (Hespanhol & Prost, 1994). The work about 21 million people and is estimated to reach- done by WHO is divided in two phases. The first 25 million by 2025. Surface water from. Adding superficial anoth- Collaboratingphase is the preparation Centers of WHOof WHO (all Guidelines, of them situated which reservoirs forof ground drinking water, supply the (Cantareira, overall-1 available Guarapi wa- inare industrialized done based oncountries), a risk-benefit according approach to their by spe the- ranga, Alto-1 Tietê, etc.) totals 74 m³ s cialty on one or several variables. These guidelines er 10 m³) becomes s raw wastewater.-1 Since the installed ter is-1 around 84 m³ s . About 80% of this water (67 m³ s WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL 114

, Figure 1. Reduction of industrial loads between 1991 and 1994 is discharged without any-1 treatmentcapacity of into wastewater the waterways -1treatment (i.e. is rivers only 18and m³ res s - 500,000 4,46 4,41 5,000 ervoirs).the difference This ofcritical 49 m³ situation s will become worse 450,000 4,500 4,015 ) 400,000 4,000 when the transposition of new waters from other -1 ) water bodies (i.e. 350,000 35,241 3,500 -1 35,64 - 300,000 2,4 3,000 São Lourenço River, Paraíba do 31,66 250,000 2,500 Sul Reservoir, Billings Reservoir, Taiaçupeba, Itatin 1,61 200,000 231,2 2,000 ga-Jundiaí, Guaió, Juquiá-Santa-1 Rita and Itapanhaú) 150,000 1,500 bring an additional 20 m³ s of water to the MRSP. 150,534

change from water to wastewater, this operation d load (kg Inorganic Organic load (BOD kg d kg load (BOD Organic 100,000 1,000 Considering water losses between of raw 20% wastewater. to 80% as 50,000 500 Several attempts were made-1 to control water will generate an extra 13 m³ s 0 0 Initial Dec 1 Dec 2 Dec 3 Sep 4 involving the construction of six wastewater treat- mentpollution plants in thisat secondary river basin. level As was early proposed as 1953, bya plan the city of São Paulo. Since then, many other plans were Source: Herman & Braga, 1997.

- Figure 2. Scheme of STAR program ectproposed, take place. however, This only project in the included, late 1980s among and earlyoth- Industries control er1990s, features, did the a constructionwastewater plantof the withSANEGRAN a treatment Proj

- Selection Control -1 criteria regulation capacityaccomplished. of 63m³ s . With exception of the SANE GRAM Project, none of the other projects were Industries in Priority Eﬄuent Control the basin industries characteristics wastewaterIn the mid into 70’s, the apublic state sewerlaw in network São Paulo whenev (State- Law nº 997, 1976) required industries to discharge STAR -1 implementation er possible. The organic load of 370,000 kg BOD d at the outlet-1 of the process was (Figure reduced 1 to 150,000- Water quality Eﬄuent monitoring monitoring logicalkg BOD Oxygen d in Demand). September This 1994,-1 program and the was inorganic abrupt- load from 4,700 to 1,600 kg d ; BOD - Bio ly ended by September 1994. Source: Herman & Braga, 1997. In September 1991, the State Government study, discuss, and elaborate regulations and stan- launched the Tietê Project and the STAR (Sistema dards for water quality is strongly recommended. andde Tratamento reservoirs ofde the Águas Metropolitan Residuárias São or Paulo Treatment (Fig- These studies must be supported by scientists, mi- Systemure 2). for Raw Wastewater) to clean up the rivers crobiologists, epidemiologists, toxicologists, biol- The plans for drinking water are essential for making the direct potable reuse a reality. Direct potable reuse should consider multiple complemen- conditionsogists, and and environmental not only the engineersbiased viewpoint from Brazil from tary barriers for water treatment, such as ultra- specialistsand abroad from to produce water companies regulation and under from Brazilian entities for health and environmental regulation. In addi- oxidative process, active carbon, and disinfection. tion, if decision makers do not consider the source Thisfiltration, would double make it pass possible reverse to produce osmosis, high advanced quality control, the quality of water produced by conven- water free from organic and inorganic matter, en- tional systems will degrade even faster. This is why docrine disruptors, pharmaceutical pollutants, and source control must be mandatory in all water qual- nanoparticles. The creation of technical groups to ity plans. 115 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL

A new generation for regulations is presented focusing on a new paradigm to reformulate the conventional methodology and criteria to evalu- theuse concentrationtoday. The most of widely biodegradable known is organic the Biological matter ate programs associated with public health, such Oxygen Demand (BOD), which is used to evaluate as drinking water, water reuse, and sludge uses in Surrogate variables should be evaluated by agriculture. This new generation of standards will theirin water, correlation wastewater with and groups industrial of variables effluents. repre- make the water security plans more realistic and will reduce monitoring costs. The term surrogate is used to indicate a substitute for a group of vari- sented in terms of Qualitative Surrogate Attribute ables. Surrogate variables such as microorganisms, TheyPrioritization should be (QSAP), no longer which based are in to proposal be certificated of vari- particles or substances are used to evaluate the by Qualitative MicrobialFigure Risk 3Assessment shows a conceptual (QMRA). fate of pathogens in the environment. The discov- - ery of the coliform Escherichia coli in feces and the ables by “specialists”. - elaborationscheme for decision-makingof a list of possible starting surrogate from variables the defi asnition a function of the specificof practical, theme biologic, to be regulated and environmen and the- methodsE. coli could used be for used its asidentification a simple indicator in contaminat of many - waterborneed waters revolutionized pathogenic organisms. the sanitation If there field is as E.coli the quate variables, determines the exposure level, the in water, it is likely to have other contaminants as dose-response,tal aspects of interest. and the QMRA risk. selects the most ade well. Therefore, its use as surrogate variable helps Surrogate variables have been used to evalu- - ate the quality of reuse waters for potable uses. clair et al - to evaluate the efficiency of water treatment (Sin ., 2012). Several surrogate variables are in In Perth, Australia, the Beenyup Advanced Waste Figure 3. Conceptual structure of decisions to select surrogate variables (Sinclair et al., 2012) trihalometanes (Edzwald et al., 1985) Deﬁne Problem Hazard Identiﬁcation & Problem Statement

Detail Experimental Context QSAP QSAP Natural System or Engineered System? Transport & Survival or Removal & Desinfection?

Prioritize Surrogate Attributes (QSAP) Practical Attributes Biological Attributes Environmental Attributes Safety Funtional morphology Temperature Available in high numbers Genetic / taxonomic similarity pH Automation Hydrophobicity Relative humidity Speed of Detection Resistance UV (sunlight and temp.) Viability assay possible Genetic stability Organic content / nutrients Benchmarked and validated Prior treatment Bioﬁlm and native organisms Common in environment Natural of release

QSAP Develop List of Possible Surrogates QSAP Select Surrogate (s)

QMRA QMRA Conduct experiment Exposure Assessment

Dose Response & Risk Characterization WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL 116

- viewed as a key factor to limit algal growth. Prolif- - eration of cyanobacteria is thus prevented by the water Treatment was equipped with ultrafiltra lack of phosphorus in the freshwater ecosystems managedtion membranes, aquifer recharge reverse into osmosis, the sandy and UVaquifer radia of (Schindler et al tion disinfection. The effluent is infiltrated through- nitrogen load at higher rates than phosphorus can duce drinking water (Australian Water Corpora- also stimulate eutrophication., 2008). However, of estuarine, the increase coastal, in tion,Leederville, Project actingWater asForever-Whatever environmental buffer, The Weather, to pro and freshwater ecosystems around the world (Paerl - cess of phosphorus and nitrogen, another process BeenyupThis discussionAdvanced Wastewateris relevant toReclamation introduce Plant,some is& effectivelyDawnl, 2012). acting Besides as a stimulatoreutrophication of cyanobacte due to ex- Perth, Australia, 2013). - matic changes in the hydrological system affecting evaluationbasic aspects on abouthow the regulations command in and Brazil, control focusing me- therial growthphysical and and water chemical quality environment, deterioration: metabo the cli- chanicson the Alto work Tietê in SãoRiver Paulo Basin led in thisSão Paulo.discussion A deep to lism, growth rates, and bloom formation (Paerl et question whether the parameters adopted to con- al trol water quality are coherent to the current real- - - ture., 2011). can affect the growth rate of all phytoplankton vironmental Sanitation Technology Company of the speciesAn increase and promote of 2°C rapidof the increase surface water in cyanobacte tempera- ity or not. This evaluation focused on how the En- rial growth rates, causing bloom formation (Paerl charges. In practical terms, it is notorious that the standardsstate (CETESB) adopted monitors as reference the industrial in São effluent Paulo, dis as will considerably change the water quality due to well as in the rest of the country, are copied from the& Huismain, production 2008). of antioxidant Large masses enzymes of cyanobacteria and other - excreta. This deteriorates the water quality in water ever is the most restrictive, sometimes rounding bodies and has negative consequences to society as someWHO numbers). guidelines This and premise USEPA goes, guidelines unfortunately, (which described earlier in this document. against what WHO advocates about adapting their Toxic substances produced by some cyanobac- guidelines to local standards for risk evaluation re- teria species can also be added to the dissolved or- lated to water consumption. Hence, using pre-es- ganic matter content of the water and interfere with tablished international values without further eval- pH and the physic-chemical equilibrium. This can uation may jeopardize the main purpose of the risk analysis, which is to guarantee the safety of the - consumers. The main questions that come up in esalso of leadthe impacts to mass of killing climatic of changes fish and and aquatic its effects birds onand the consequently hydrological impact and water human quality health. conditions Evidenc in lakes and reservoirs are accumulating during the current scenario are: (1) are there compounds in Brazil that offer a risk to human health but are monitornot considered compounds by either that mayWHO not or evenUSEPA? be presentand (2) tothe Southern last 20 years. South For America example, revealed a survey an ofincrease 143 lakes in inare local people waters? in Brazil investing precious resources to cyanobacteria-drivenalong a latitudinal gradient phytoplankton from Northern biomass Europe that was directly related to temperature (Kosten et al., Cylindros- 11. Emerging Risks For Water permopsis raciborskii has a strong capacity of ad- 2011). As for the geographic distribution, Quality: Climate Change and is adapted to low light conditions. Today, it is - aptation, prefers water temperatures above 20oC,et al. ularly nitrogen and phosphorus) due to human ac- tivitiesOver the promoted last 50 years, accelerated nutrient eutrophication enrichment (partic rates. widespread in all continents. In Brazil, Tundisi - es(2005) in the reported hydrological an effect cycle of globaldue to changeclimate detected change, are the main causes of this process. In freshwa- causingat Lobo-Broa extreme reservoir, events suchin São as Paulo longer State. drought Chang pe- terUrban, ecosystems, industrial, phosphorus and agricultural availability developments has been riods followed by heavy rains also has an impact on 117 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL

phytoplankton growth. This relation is described in Machado et al - - ally reporting., very2016). low The concentrations related studies (ini.e. agricul in the more detail latter in this text (16. Case Study: Broa tural systems have detected a range of ECs gener Reservoir). were-1 detected in waters, such as triclosan, caffeine, 12. Emerging Risks For Water Quality: ng L range) (Boxall, 2012). ECs of different classes- diol, stigmasterol, cholesterol, and bisphenol. The Agriculture (Pesticides, Herbicides, atrazine, paracetamol, atenolol, estrone, 17-β-estra Hormones) be increasingly relevant in the near future under In recent years, there has been increasing con- theimpacts scenario of ECs of in land and use, from demographic agricultural systemsgrowth, willcli- - ergy demands and its impact on agricultural supply. ofcern product over the types environmental including humanrisks of thepharmaceuti Emerging- mate change, global increase of food, fiber and en cals,Contaminants veterinary (EC).medicines, ECs originate nanomaterials, from apersonal variety is expected for the next decades. Natural resourc- esIn addition,such as land, intensification water, air, andof agriculture biodiversity practices will be not necessarily new chemicals; they may be pre-ex- highly scarce and the spatial border separating ur- careisting products, substances paints, in the and environment, coatings. Some but ECs whose are ban from rural areas will disappear. Finally, poli- - cy-makers and scientists will have to cooperate to ognized. Some examples are natural and transfor- mationpresence products and significance of synthetic are chemicalsonly now beingformed rec in address the consumer demands for safety and the the environment by biochemical processes in ani- create an initial environmental ECs priority list, to- - scarce and methods for detection in the natural en- readylack of exist conceptual in certain models regions, for ECs however in the researchenviron vironmentmals, plants, may and be microbes. non-existent Data or on in itsECs infancy. are often ment. Environmental risk assessment schemes al tropics are urgently needed. - and policy strategies for ECs and agriculture in the factants,Evaluating antibiotics the environmental and other fatepharmaceuticals, and effects of steroidECs includes hormones research and onother compounds endocrine-disrupting such as sur 13. Reducing Vulnerability: Urban Areas disinfection byproducts, new pesticides and its metabolites,compounds and (EDCs), naturally-occurring fire retardants, algal sunscreens,toxins. De- Today, cities are the engine of the economic devel- tection of these contaminants in environmental opment of several developed and developing coun- matrices (water, wastewater, soils and sediments) - is particularly challenging because of the low detection limits required, the complex nature of the sam- populationtries. More thanis living 50% in of largethe world metropolis, human mediumpopula sized,tion is or urban. small Incities. Latin Therefore, America, water82% of quality the human in ur- from interferences. New extraction and cleanup ban regions is fundamental for sustainability. Vul- techniquesples, and difficulty coupled in with separating improvements these compounds in instru- nerability in cities is related to lack of sanitation mental technologies to provide the needed sensi- especially in periurban regions and low percent- - are very promising. tivity and specificity for accurate measurements vulnerableage of wastewater region of treatment the urban (in ecosystem Latin America is the apde- hormones and anabolic steroids), antibiotics and forestationproximately of 20% uptown of wastewater watersheds is treated). that supply Another wa- otherRelevant pharmaceuticals contaminants associated are ECswith (particularlywastewater, ter for the city. Deforestation leads to losses in the and antibiotic resistance genes in bacteria and pri- quantity of water due to lack of replenishment of ons (Snow et al surface and ground supplies. At the same time, de- tropical countries, very few studies exist and none forested areas also reduce water quality and more ., 2009; 2017). In Latin America and- chemical treatment is needed to produce potable ronments (Sodré et al et al water. (Tundisi et al of those is specifically targeted to agricultural envi ., 2010; Campanha ., 2015; ., 2010). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL 118

Integrated water resources management ac- pecially in light of the events of water scarcity in counting for water quality and quantity in surface places where water resources have been tradition- and underground sources are fundamental to really considered abundant. Water has also emerged duce the vulnerability of cities to water security. The protection of riparian vegetation and the veg- economic tension between industry and local com- etation at the sources of supply is an important munities,as one of whothe most in turn significant are often causes concerned of social with andthe measure and promotes water replenishment and risks of depletion and deterioration of surface and actively produces better water quality (Tundisi et - al are other important measures of management with andgroundwater in turn, the resources. sector’s abilityThese toconflicts achieve directly the social in economic., 2015). Wastewaterand human health treatment impacts. and Water water reuse licensefluence to how operate. society There perceives are, in mining summary, operations several is a low-cost opportunity to increase the current reasons for decreasing vulnerabilities by improv- supply of water (Nasiri et al - - ter sources around towns and in urban rivers is another consistent sustainability., 2013). measure. Monitoring With such wa reducinging water water management: consumption (1) increase and creating access self-suf to wa- - ter resources; (2) reduce management risks (e.g., by- volvement can be optimized and stimulate commu- - nicationmonitoring in water the information science and flows water and planning. people’s in ers,ficient especially water use, during with events decreasing of scarcity need ofand new other re The implementation of urban forest parks could sources); (3) decrease competition with other us increase the sustainability and promote the cre- - ation of green areas in cities while creating new op- lationshipextreme conditions; with stakeholders (4) saving to drinkingensure the water license for portunities for education, research, water supply, tothe operate, preservation among of other life; andfactors. (5) build a positive re protection of natural wetlands at the watersheds of use has been perhaps the main driving force for the theatmosphere, urban areas. and Introduction clean air. Equally of new important and advanced is the recentAs aadvances result, increasingwe have witnessed the efficiency in the of miner water- legislation at the municipalities could consider- al sector. The increase in water recycling and use ably advance the reduction of urban vulnerability of saline, brackish, sewage and rain water, thus decreasing the use of noble water; the minimization of leakages and losses in industrial operations are as well as 1) stimulate programs of re-vegetation of some improvements that deserve to be highlighted. urban areas; 2) decentralize wastewater treatment The increasing participation of the mineral sector systems; 3) use rain water in new buildings and - athouses; urban 4)ecosystems introduce implies new environmental in biogeophysic, courses eco- ban areas is worth mentioning as well (Ciminelli et at schools. Reducing vulnerability to water security alin finding solutions for water scarcity in nearby ur and technological background and a robust partici- - pationnomic, ofand the social people. measures with a strong scientific ter., results2015). There in the are reduction various of industrial costs and experiences generation ofshowing new revenues. that increasing This creates efficiency a virtuous in the use cycle of andwa stimulates new and ambitious investments.

14. Reducing Vulnerability: is perhaps the fact that the sector is quite hetero- What are the main challenges? The first one The Mineral Sector geneous and therefore good practices should be disseminated among all. Another topic to be ad- Water has been recognized as a strategic issue for dressed is the increasing number of artisanal min- the mining sector as most processes need considering or garimpo, often illegal, in many regions in able amounts of water to operate. The participation of the mineral sector in the overall water consump- on water resources and great vulnerability in the minedLatin America. territories. This The creates impacts uncontrolled of artisanal impactsmining - are not caused by the lack of technology. It is rath- encestion is onsmall water (< 10%)resources compared cannot to bethe neglected, agribusiness eser a social and economic issue related to the lack of (> 70%) (ANA, 2017). However, the local interfer 119 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL

education and infrastructure, poverty and inequality, prevalence of economic interests, and the fail- broad term that considers, in the case of aquatic ure of the state to implement public policies and biodiversity,to fish and other both marinethe set ofproducts, the continental, but it is coastala very and marine aquatic ecosystems and the organisms - living or spending part of their biological cycle in ment,law enforcement. and more emphasis The 2015 on failure less-dependent of a tailings water dam such environments. Compared to knowledge about operations,in Brazil added such pressure as dry processingon water/tailings and dry manage tailing disposal. economic interest, little or almost nothing is known Finally, it is clear that water security is essen- aboutdiversity other loss marine in the oceans,animals, mainly and much of fish less species indeed of tial for the mineral industry to remain competitive about freshwater species. and cannot be achieved without a commitment of - all stakeholders. Cooperation between different diversity crisis. Perhaps, the only attempt to mea- production chains, between industry, society, and sureOnly biodiversity very recently loss did in Brazillight wakeof the up continuous to the bio governmental agencies is required. An integrated, aggravation of the eutrophication problem is the systemic, and multidisciplinary approach to assess water quality and availability should rely on of uninterrupted monthly phytoplankton sampling a sound, well-designed, and reliable database (e.g. andGarças simultaneous time-series. evaluation This record of environment includes 21 yearschar- real-time metrics). Sharing experiences, knowledge, competencies, information, and responsibili- - ty should be expected in the future. This approach edacteristics in the southern of the Garças part of reservoir, the São Paulo a system municipality. located is increasingly needed to guarantee a good quality at the Parque Estadual das Fontes do Ipiranga locat- of life and the sustainability of shared territories. onlyFurthermore, four remained it revealed after that an ofabrupt the 36 lossspecies between of Cy anobacteria known to occur in the reservoir in 1997, 15. Reducing Vulnerability: loss of species richness and diversity. Among those December 2003 and October 2008, which resulted in Biodiversity remaining, Planktothrix agardhii Mi- - crocystis aeruginosa, Microcystisformed panniformis 97-98% and of tries in the world in terms of biodiversity. We are Cylindrospermopsisthe total biomass in raciborskiiNovember-December were the other 2005. spe - Brazil is well known to be one of the richest coun- cies, all of them Cyanobacteria that resisted the res- try. However, what is effectively known about this ervoir’s rising eutrophication. very proud to know Brazil as a megadiverse coun Some measures are broadly used in various concern about the preservation of its biodiversi- parts of the world in an attempt to mitigate eutro- megadiversity? Since 2009, Brazil is showing some - better management practices with optimization in ty, mainly the aquatic one. Also in 2009, a research- thephication use of and fertilizers, loss of biodiversity. reduction ofAmong intensive them liveare:- project carried out by the Brazilian Institute of Ge stock, improvement of sewage treatment, resto- concernography andof governmental, Statistics (IBGE) non-governmental, warned the risk of and ex ration of lost wetlands in order to increase P and privatetinction institutions. of at least 238 This species, concern which was created also demon some- N retention capacity (mitigation of nutrient diffuse loads), reestablishment of buffer zones along rivers admitted, at the time, that failed the country’s at- (riparian forests) and the water restriction by hu- strated by the Federal Ministry of Environment that- mans (intensive agriculture retreating in more vul- - nerable areas, improvement of the water recycling cesstempt and, to improveconsequently, the fishing the aquatic resources biodiversity manage scenarioment to in significantly the country. benefit the sustainable pro of water allocation for their distinct uses and more consistentin hydrographic drought basins, control) improvement of efficiency

In 2018, still very little was done to improve this- - lyscenario prepared. such However, that Brazil biodiversity may start is a notcycle restricted of great zilianThe situation challenges is aggravated to be faced inby Brazil the lack will of demand a con- progress in fishing activities without being proper a lot more effort than that taken in Europe. The Bra WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL 120

warmer climate, a fact that may lead to ineffective managementsolidated scientific strategies base of for the the aquatic country ecosystems. and the on the ecosystem services were already quantified- It is absolutely urgent, therefore, to establish exten- al(Periotto warming & Tundisi, affects 2013).patterns of precipitation and sive multidisciplinary research programs that will drought.As described The changes by Paerl in the & Huismanhydrological (2008), cycle glob en- pursue, as far as possible, syntheses, inferences, hanced cyanobacterial dominance. Heavy rains af- and the production of information based on the ter extensive drought periods increased nutrient input promoting phytoplankton growth. During periods of drought, residence time increases and pro- biodiversity.monitoring of time-series, as well as the definition motes blooms. Another consequence of this process of possible scientific gaps regarding the Brazilian is the prevention of silica discharge into the reservoir reducing diatom growth due to extensive peri- 16. Case Study: Broa Reservoir - dominance of Aulacoseira italica during many years ods of drought. The Lobo/Broa reservoir had a pre- fect of silica reduction was described by Schindler The Carlos Botelho Hydroelectric Power Plant-UHE due to silica concentrations of up to 5mg/l. This ef continuous(Lobo/Broa sampling reservoir) and was studies selected allowed in 1971 a thor for a- program of ecological research. In the last 47 years, understanding(2006) in a review this of is eutrophication. a clear evidence As aof result, an effect the and its watershed (Tundisi & Matsumura Tundisi, ofLobo/Broa global changes reservoir at a islocal currently and regional eutrophic. freshwater To our ough characterization of this artificial ecosystem- ecosystem. voir were well studied which allowed for measures to2013). maintain The functioninggood quality mechanisms of water (i.e. of low the conduc reser- - ) by means of periodic vironmentalThe concepts planning. and The the selection scientific of informationcriteria was turbulence with re-oxygenation–1 of the whole water basedproduced on ingeneral last 47 mechanisms years form theof functioningbasis of the anden tivity – average 10-20μScm the hierarchical structure of the sub-systems. These - rophytecolumn, growthhigh saturation in the headwaters, of oxygen (80-100%),ultimately prelow- i. The maintenance of basic processes in the wa- ventingretention high time nutrient (< 20 days),load and and eutrophication. an extensive mac The criteriatershed were such chosen as the on theinput following of allochthonous principles: ma- phytoplankton composition was consistent with terial of organic origin in the rivers, and the low the oligomesotrophic characteristic of the reser- residence time in the reservoir. ii. The maintenance of spatial heterogeneity based on the diversity presented by the gallery voir: predominance of diatoms and chlorophyceae forests along the streams, and the compart- with a maximum of 10μg/l chlorophyll. However, in ments with macrophytes in the upper reservoir. the winter of July 2014 the following changes were- iii. The maintenance of adequate water quality in riaobserved: (Cylindrospermopsis a heavy bloom raciborskii of cyanobacteria) is an occurredinvasive surface water (rivers, small shallow wetlands, for the first time in the reservoir. This cyanobacte reservoir) and groundwater. were measured and high concentration and input iv. The regulation by law and projects of environ- ofspecies. phosphorus Very high was chlorophyll also detected. levels The (up explanation to 100μg/l) for this sudden appearance of blooms can be at- activities.mental education on the use of (1) the reservoir v. Theand stopping(2) the watershed of all activities for recreation known to causeor other se- tributed to the following factors: 1) increase of up vere damage to the regional ecosystems, such to 2°C above the average water temperature during as mining operations; removal of vegetation; the winter; 2) lower rainfall during summer (30% - inless order of the to yearly maintain average volumes of 1.500 for mm) hydroelectricity and increase in the retention time (from <20 days up to 60 days) introduction of exotic fish species in the reser wildlifevoir (introduced in general. at first in the decade of 1960); production (Tundisi & Matsumura-Tundisi, 2018). overfishing, and activities that could disturb Effects on the overall economy of the region and 121 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL

This planning produced a comprehensive syn- of adequate environmental occupation sanitation thesis of activities based on the following systems - merly isolated reservoir started to be a part of its i. The watershed urbaninfrastructure. mesh. Therefore, from the 70s on, this for ii.and Thecompartments: reservoir itself and its interaction with the Historical recovery of the environmental chang- watershed iii. The small rivers and streams, and the pattern environmental markers recorded in the sedimenta- of drainage es was obtained from “clues” provided by distinct iv. The vegetation and the gallery forests - v. The macrophyte vegetation in the small rivers ry cores that included 100 years of reservoir history. vi. The soil conservation andThe eutrophicthe growth state of the dated land since use 1960 and andoccupation was strong im- vii. The water quality; its conservation; sanitary ly associated with the input of domestic effluents problems increase of potentially toxic Cyanobacteria blooms inpact. the Eutrophication reservoir. Such triggered organisms the merit occurrence some great and Considering the wider context, the environ- preoccupation since they are the cause of several mental planning of the watershed consisted in per- economic, environmental, and health problems as manent assistance of small communities in mon- described earlier in this volume. Historically, at the itoring the quality of water supply (surface or groundwater) and in techniques of studying region- to be much more frequent, impairing the treatment processbeginning of of the the water 80s, Cyanobacteria intended for bloomspublic startedsupply.

theal ecosystems. watershed and Recreation, the reservoir. small The scale guidelines agriculture, for eutrophication in the reservoir accompanied the theseand fishing, actions are as thewell main as the activities programs in progressof environ in- Throughout years 1990 and 1991 a phase of severe mental education introduced a permanent system to Cyanobacteria (Dolichospermum solitarium) that of monitoring aiming to reestablish the lost envi- affectedfirst reports the populationof gastrointestinal that relied disorder on the casesreservoir due ronmental services. water. Contamination markers related to inorganic micropollutants concentration (e.g. APH, aromatic polycyclic hydrocarbons) were also detected in the 17. Case Study: Guarapiranga Reservoir to downstream in the reservoir and the consequent - reservoir. Decrease in the C:N ratioN values from suggestedupstream zil and represents a challenging scenario between 15 - goodGuarapiranga water quality is an and emblematic urbanization. reservoir Construction in Bra tionincrease of the in reservoir. the total nitrogen,High coprostanol δ (fecal sterol) of this reservoir for the generation of electric pow- an increase in the sewage discharge at the final por - the sampling stations used for the reservoir water ished two years later. Due to the rapid growth of ecologicalvalues confirmed quality evaluation. the sewage In presence the upstream in 70% area of er for the city of São Paulo started in 1906 and fin - - the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo (MRSP) with esof theranging reservoir, between superficial algae and layers macrophytes. presented These low a population reaching about 800,000 inhabitants,- sourceser fecal wereinfluence represented and a mixture by intermediate of C and valuesN sourc of ingGuarapiranga responsible became for other one environmental of the most important services C and by the dominance of campes- water public supply systems in 1929, besides be terol, an algal sterol.13 use and occupation did not affect the rural scenario C:N ratio and δ - thatto the dominated region. Until the the reservoir mid-60s, margins. changes Despite in the soilthe - population and urban growth having changed their voirInefficiency has been punctually of collection but intensively and treatment receiving sys hightem fororganic domestic loads effluents from itsshowed contributing that the waterreser- sheds during the last three decades. Added to the andpace accumulatedbetween 1940 high and 1960,densities it was of largely piled-up after allot the- scenario of a decrease of water availability between ments70s that and an slumaugmented nuclei urbanall in parallel occupation to the developed absence

the years 2013 and 2015, the Guarapiranga reservoir WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | BRAZIL 122

is close to overcoming its depuration power. Thus, the reservoir will transition from an eutrophication - lessonsvoir can tobe be obtained strongly in consideredBicudo & Bicudo during (2017). the pres The- tion situation in which its ecological functions will ervationGuarapiranga and recoveryreservoir of is aall legacy reservoirs of challenges threatened and andcollapse. intense Very sewage detailed influence information to a fecal about contamina the reser- with urbanization.

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Canada

Despite Canada's low population density and its vast land mass, it experiences considerable problems in relation to water pollution in some areas. Although the country’s freshwater is relatively abundant, much of it is found in the lakes or rivers of the north that flow into that area, while over 90% of the human population lives on a narrow strip of the southern border with the United States, where water is relatively scarce. The few smaller rivers and lakes in southern Canada are used as drinking water sources as well as for waste disposal, which increases water quality problems. The growing scarcity of water as a result of climate change and the increased use of water by men portend greater problems for the future.

Toronto City from Lake Ontario, Canada © iStock 128 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA

Past, Present and Future Challenges to Management of Freshwater Quality in Canada

D. W. Schindler

Summary

problems in some areas. While the country’s freshwater is relatively abundant, much of it Despite Canada’s low population and large land mass, there are significant water pollution

scarce.is in northern The few lakes modest or rivers size riversthat drain and north,lakes of over southern 90% of Canada the human are usedpopulation for both lives drink in a- ingnarrow water band sources along and the waste country’s disposal, southern amplifying border water with thequality USA, problems. where water Increasing is relatively scarcity of water as the result of climate change and increasing human water use promise increased problems in the future. A diversity of large polluting industries cause water quality problems even in northern areas with low populations, often via long-range atmospheric transport of pollutants that biomagnify to toxic levels in aquatic organisms that are used as human food. A poor and disjointed Canadian regulatory framework has caused a history of weak water policies, where protecting water quality has been subsumed by protecting - ing populations are expected to exacerbate future water quality problems, even in remote industrial development. Droughts, floods and fires caused by climate warming and increas make it imperative that streamlined and coherent national water policies are developed, andareas. investments Increasingly in complexwater research effluents, are population increased. and industrial growth and climate change

Introduction Water Quantity- a factor in water quality Incredible as it may seem, many of Canada’s water quality problems occur because of insuf- - als and disposal of wastes. As population and per capita water demand increase, climate is slowlyficient watersapping quantity, the amount causing of theavailable same waterwater bodiesin some to areas,be 5used intensifying for both water usage withdraw of the remainder. There are historical reasons for this. - ty issues in Canada. Perhaps lulled by the seeming abundance of freshwater and the rela- Before the mid-20th century, little attention was paid to either water quality or quanti

D. W. Schindler [email protected] is the Killiam Memorial Professor of Ecology, Emeritus at the University of Alberta. His path-breaking work on the impact of pollutants on entire ecosystems has earned him recognition as one of the most distinguished scholars of Canada. He is an elected fellow of the Royal Societies of Canada and Great Britain and the National Academy of Science, Engineering and Medicine of the U.S.A. He is the recipient of virtually every major international environmental award – including the Stockholm Water Prize, the Volvo Environmental Prize and the Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement – as well as numerous national and regional recognitions. Much of his recent work has had significant impact on the formulation of Canadian water policies. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA 129

tively low human population in a large country, wa- ity problems. Canada’s runoff per unit area is only ter quality was generally considered as a secondary about half that of truly water-rich countries like policy issue, and priority was given to developing cities and industries while ignoring their water There were some astute early measures to pro- - Finland, Brazil and Russia (Sprague 2007). dance” has caused many important regional Ca- - demandsnadian problems or water to polllution. be obscured. This For “Myth example, of Abun the missiontect freshwaters. (IJC) were The set Boundary up by the Waters governments Treaty of southern parts of Saskatchewan and Alberta known 1909 and the subsequent International Joint Com - where average evapotranspiration exceeds aver- Canada and the USA to resolve water disputes in ageas “Palliser’s precipitation, Triangle” so that are there effectively is no net semi-deserts, runoff. The the Laurentian Great Lakes and other cross-bor der lakes and rivers. As mentioned earlier, the Great- of overly optimistic marketing by the Canadian Pa- pansion.Lakes watershed As a result, is home it has to been 33 million the focus people of Canadi in thearea was settled in the early 20th century as a result- anUSA water and issuesCanada, for and most is ofa center the past for century. industrial ex age decades. The railway was anxious to promote agriculturecific Railroad in duringorder toa serieshave customers of wetter tothan make aver it resolved by the IJC were primarily related to wa- In the early years of the 20th century, disputes exodusprofitable. of Afterpeople, rapid leaving settlement numerous in the abandoned early 20th reportedter use and a modificationseveral year ofstudy water of flows pollution rather in than the century, since the late 1920s there has been a steady- water quality. This changed in 1969 when the IJC- triangle/).ghost towns” A similar (Jones area1987; where http://www.googlesight evapotranspiration Great Lakes that became a cornerstone of freshwa- seeing.com/2011/06/ghost-towns-of-the-palliser-- ter research in Canada. The above study (IJC 1969) ish Columbia’s Okanagan Valley, where rapid popu- warned that both the US and Canada needed to de lationequals growth or exceeds and increasingaverage precipitation orchard and is wine in Brit in- wasvote the more rapid effort proliferation to identifying of algal and blooms solving in Greatlakes dustries compete for scarce water. Lakes pollution problems. Most urgent at the time concern on both sides of the border. water is abundant, only about one percent of the Erie and Ontario, which were the subject of public- lakes’In water the Laurentian is renewed Great on average Lakes each basin, year. although If wa- dations was to form two completely new institutes ter withdrawal exceeds this value, lake levels will devotedCanada’s to freshwater response toresearch. the IJC One, 1969 the recommen Canada decline. As a result, high population density and in- Center for Inland Waters (CCIW), was to be devot- dustrial demand require conservation measures, as will become obvious later in this chapter. Cana- - ed primarily to work on the Great Lakes. It opened its doors in 1967 as a part of the federal Department dians tend to forget that 85% of the human popu- of Energy, Mines and Resources. It was eventually lation and industry occur in a 100 km band along- placedThe within second Environment institute, the Canada, Freshwater a new Institute federal lousthe US latitudes border, ( Figurewhereas 1 most large rivers in Cana (FWI),government had a department broad general that mandate was formed for infreshwa 1971. - da flow north, with only their headwaters in popu ter research. It was initially managed by the ven- in Canada has been sporadic.). Outside Finally, of the the Laurentian large pro- portionGreat Lakes, of Canada’s research surface and monitoring covered withof freshwater water is but had a branch housed in CCIW to supply biolog- deceptive, with low temperatures and evaporation icalerable expertise Fisheries to Researchthe physical Board and of chemical Canada (FRBC),units at masking the fact that precipitation is low to moder- - ate. The true measure of water that can be used sus- - tainably is the annual runoff per unit area. In this versityCCIW. The of Manitoba FRBC liked campus, to place as itsthe institutes result of theon uni- respect, Canada does not rank unusually high. Ca- versity campuses. The FWI was placed on the Uni it could construct its own. The FWI opened in Sep- two countries that have rather severe water qual- versity offering to lease the FRBC a building until nadian areal runoff is similar to the USA and China, tember,1966. Its first director was Waldo E Johnson, 130 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA

12/11/2018Figure 1. Average annual runoff in Canada, A1971verage toannual 2013 runoff in Canada, 1971 to 2013

Note(s): Runoff data were derived from discharge values from hydrometric stations with natural flows for the period 1971 to 2013 below the boundary delineated on the map and 1971 to 2004 above the boundary line with the exception of the Arctic Islands where estimates were taken from Spence andWater Burke, Survey 2018. of Canada, Archived Hydrometric Data (HYDAT), www.ec.gc.ca/rhc-wsc/default.as- Source(s): Statistics Canada, Environment, Energy and Transportation Statistics Division, 2017, based on data from Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2015, Journal of Hydrology p?lang=En&n=4EED50F1-1 (accessed December 3, 2015); Spence, C. and A. Burk, 2008, "Estimates of Canadian Arctic Archipelago runoff from observed hydrometric data," , vol. 362, pp. 247-259.

Map description - Thepersonnel title of thewere map initially is "A devotedverage toannual the study runof off euin -Canada,phication 1971 Section to 2013" and the branch at CCIW, respec- a senior fisheries scientist. About 1/3 of the FWI’s- tively.very experienced A conspicuous Swiss feature scientist, of the to lead FWI the plan Eutro was This map is a runoff map with each line corresponding to an amount of annual runoff (in millimeters). Onandtrophication, this was map, able aa todarkernew assemble venture colour foran indicates theexcellent FRB. aFortunate staffhigher in amounta control of runof policiesf. Category could be tested1 (dark in blue) whole is ecosystem greater thanveryly, the or short equalBoard time, towas 3,000largely not boundmm by internationalof by runof civilf, serviceCategory recruiting. rules, 2 (mediumdark settings.to form a field blue) station is 2,000 where mm experimental to less nutrient than 3,000 mm, Category 3 (medium blue) is 1,000 mm to less than 2,000 mm, Category 4 (mediumlight blue) is 800 mm to less than 1,000 mm, Category 5 (light blue) is 600 mm Johnson recruited J. R.Vallentyne, then a professor The Fisheries Research Board of Canada (FRBC) https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/170321/mc-b001-eng.htmat Cornell University, and Richard Vollenweider, a was founded as the Biological Board of Canada in 2/3 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA 131

managed by a group of prominent aquatic scien- Canadian Constitution is much weaker in many re- 1912, changed to the FRBC in 1937. The FRBC was of the British North America Act proceedings, the was world renowned for its excellent science to the fact that the various Canadian provinces, which backtists atsound arms-length water policies, from government. both with respect The FRBC to hadspects independently than most national controlled constitutions. their own resourcesIt reflects until that time, jealously insisted on retaining most of their former rights. After constitutional deliber- fisheries and more generally (Hayes 1973). With theations, provincial retained control over natural re- IJC’s 1969 report, policy makers were concerned sources, including water, except for national parks, wasthat alsothe many considered issues aberrantidentified by transcended politicians, thein that ex indigenous reserves, military bases and northern itpertise did not and report mandate to a government of the FRBC. ministry. The organization This was territories, which are federal responsibilities. The - - eries and cross-border waters, although in some changed in 1973, when FRBC personnel were trans- casesfederal management government wasretained transferred the regulation later to of prov fish- mentferred of to Fisheries Environment and Oceans Canada was and separated the FRBC from was inces under federal-provincial agreements. Some reduced to an advisory role. By 1979, the Depart municipalities have also formed their own regulations. The result has been an incoherent and incon- Environment Canada, leaving different agencies in sistent hodge-podge of standards, guidelines and federalcharge ofresearch water andon water fish, asubject strange to dichotomy political whim. that objectives, with some jurisdictions less protective existsThe to thisProvince day. The of FRBCOntario was also disbanded, had concerns leaving than others. The environment is general and water in particular are considered by all levels of govern- - ment to be of secondary importance to economic about freshwater. Its new Ministry of Environment- development. edwas soon formed after. in Some1972 with of Canada’s water as most its primary valuable man re- searchdate, and on a eutrophication field station in and Dorset, acid Ontario rain was was done add at provincial vs federal jurisdiction over water, and the Dorset Field Station, which exists today as the increasingIn 1970, publicin response concern, to continuous Parliament disputes passed over the - Canada Water Act, which formulates how feder- - al and provincial jurisdictions are to share the re- cializesDorset Environmental in freshwater research. Research Consortium, a gov sponsibilities over water. It has been moderately ernment-university-NGO partnership that still spe effect, with some minor changes from the original Also in the1960s, Ontario started several new version.successful It (Boothremains and subject Quinn to 1995) the personal and remains whims in stronguniversities, environmental including Laurentianand aquatic (1960), programs. Lakehead Old- and relative aggressiveness of federal and provin- er(1965) universities and Trent in (1966)Canada which also beganwould to also strengthen develop cial politicians, and is generally still too weak to re- their water programs about that time. liably protect freshwater. Aided by rapid developments in chemical Canadian water quality is generally protected - by guidelines and objectives rather than regula- ry, talented individuals in these groups made rapid tions. These are not legally enforceable, and are of- progressmethods andin identifying equipment and during solving the midwater 20th pollution centu ten much more lenient than studies of toxicology or - awakening in Canadian concern about freshwater. ter-related policies were more often incidental to issues in Canada. All in all, the 1960s were the age of human health recommend. “It is apparent that wa- riculture than a coherent subject area in their own Canada’s Regulatory Nightmare other pursuits like fisheries, transportation and ag

One of Canada’s long-term water policy problems right until after the Second World War (Quinn 2013).- is that the Canadian Constitution does not explic- Quinn (1985) provides a more detailed account- itly recognize water, or which agencies are respon- mentalof early laws water that policies, result andof jurisdictional (Boyd (2003) discrep discuss- ancies.es in detail An attemptmany of wasthe flawsmade in to Canadian gain consistency environ sible for administering it. Formed in 1967 as part 132 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA

Eutrophication

in the treatment of water issues across the coun- about the increases in algal blooms that were ap- et al pearingIn the mid-20th in fresh century, and coastal there waters was growing of many concern coun- becametry with thethe basisfederal for water draft inquiryfederal oflegislation. 1984 (Pearse The tries. It was the focus of much of the above-men- . 1986) which crafted 55 recommendations that- vened and it was never passed. It was subsumed by - legislation was tabled in 1987, but an election inter tioned IJC (1969) study in the St Lawrence Great Lakes, where widespread algal blooms were in- more inclusive but ill-defined policy foci, such as camecreasing the in focus lakes of Erie much and of Ontario, the early as work well ofas the coastal two the “Green Plan,” the “Ecosystem Approach” and the newareas Canadian of the other laboratories, Great Lakes. CCIW Eutrophication and FWI, as well be concept “Sustainable Development,” which were as the Dorset Field Station. time,(and stillcutbacks are) soto federalvague and freshwater ill-defined research that almost and a newany treatmentemphasis onof resourcewater can development be justified. haveSince slow that- ly de-emphasized freshwater relative to other re- Eutrophication had been the subject of a 1967 sources, despite repeated warnings that this is fool- onsymposium how to control sponsored the problem. by the US A National prominent Academy Swiss of Sciences (NAS 1969). No consensus was reached- Another problem has been that most of the provincesish (Pearse do and not Quinn have 1996;either Bakker high calibre and Cook water 2011). re- limnologist, RA Vollenweider, attended the meet - ing. He was recruited by FWI to head its Great Lakes- ing cutting edge aquatic science. In an era of rapid branch in Burlington, Ontario. Vollenweider had increasessearch institutions in industrial or officials development, capable as of well interpret as rap- inputsjust finished of phosphorus a comprehensive and nitrogen review to of lakesthe prob was thelem primaryfor the OECD, cause whichof the concludedeutrophication that increasedproblem. has been a record of unreliable, unsound and un- predictableid increases decisions in scientific that understanding, affect freshwaters. the result the basis for attempts to control eutrophication in Despite all of these problems, Canada has main- His unpublished tome (Vollenweider 1968) became- tained a reputation as one of the countries with the - mentEurope for and this North work. America. Vollenweider later re - ceivedThe the nutrient Tyler Prizebases for of Environmental Vollenweider’s Achieve models den,best Norwaywater quality. and Austria The OECD ranked ranks above Canada Canada, fourth all were explored in whole lake experiments in north- among 17 countries in water quality, with only Swe

receiving an “A” grade (the USA ranked much lower western Ontario at the Experimental Lakes Area water-quality-index.aspxon the OECD list, earning . only a C). https://www. (ELA), another part of the FWI research program conferenceboard.ca/hcp/Details/Environment/With expanding population and industry, plus nitrogenon eutrophication. but not carbon, In a firstto test experiment the theory begunpromot in- the regional or global threats of climate change, 1969, Lake 227 was fertilized with phosphorus and acid rain and long-range atmospheric transport of toxins, it is urgent for Canada to improve its envi- controlleded by the soap to successfully and detergent curb industry eutrophication in the 1960s (Ca- - and early 1970s that carbon inputs must also be- nings. This has been the topic of a number of schol- clusion was based on the results of short-term labo- ronmental policies and their scientific underpin nadian Research and Development 1970). Their con - - ciansarly books and the (most public. recently Bakker 2007; Brooymans ganicratory carbon experiments. ever measured At the time in freshwater.of fertilization, The Lake lake 2011), but the problem is largely ignored by politi quickly227 had producedthe lowest a concentrationlarge algal bloom of dissolved once fertilized inor some of the major water quality problems in Can- with phosphorus and nitrogen. The algae’s shortage ada,In progress the remainder that has of beenthis article, made inI briefly solving outline them of carbon was found to be supplied from the atmosphere, quickly leading to the abandonment of the in the foreseeable future. carbon theory. The experiment also exposed how since the mid-20th century, and problems that loom WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA 133

unreliable poorly-scaled small scale experiments tional to phosphorus concentrations in all lakes, re- could be at predicting sound management policies gardless of the amount of nitrogen or carbon added. for whole ecosystems (Schindler et al He hypothesized that in-lake mechanisms were re- - sponsible for enhancing inputs of carbon and ni- posed that controlling only one element,. 1972). phos- trogen from the atmosphere, supplying enough of phorus,Based could on Vollenweider’s control or reverse study, the IJCeutrophica had pro- these two elements to keep algal blooms proportional to phosphorus loading. This conclusion went - unchallenged until the new millennium, when the erstion believed problem. that This nitrogen was reflected must also in the be 1972controlled, Water controversy over whether nitrogen inputs to lakes whichQuality posed Agreement a much between more expensive the two countries.problem. In Oth an

shortalso need term tobottle be controlled and mesocosm resurfaced experiments (Lewis con and- Nitrogenexperiment and to carbon test these were two added theories, to both Lake halves, 226 but at tinueWurtsbaugh to used 2008).as evidence Nutrient that it additions is necessary to small,to de- phosphorusthe ELA was splitwas inonly half added with ato heavy one half.nylon Only curtain. the crease nitrogen inputs in lakes to control eutro- side receiving phosphorus produced an algal bloom phication. However, such experiments ignore the long-term (years) responses of the biogeochemi- between the two basins resulted in phosphorus in- - (Schindler 1974). The strikingly visible difference- et al et alcal cycles of lakes toet correct al deficiencies in nitro toput the being IJC-sponsored reduced in Canada, water thequality USA agreementand many Eu in ofgen the (Schindler evidence 2012; used Schindler to promote .nitrogen 2008; Higgins control ropean countries. In the Great Lakes, amendments- is .based 2017). onAs Vitousekexperiments that. (2010) show pointed only proximateout, much - (short term) nutrient limitation, whereas decreas- 1983 required even more stringent control of phos ing eutrophication requires reductions in ultimate phorus http://www.ijc.org/en/activitiesX/consul (long-term) nutrient limitation, which in the case of growingtations/glwqa/guide_3.php evidence that non-point . sources like ag- lakes, is phosphorus. Significantly, these early agreements ignored - to the phosphorus input to the lakes, even though ricultural runoff were contributing significantly- phosphorusIn an extreme addition experimental continued. test, The in lake 1989 has nitro re- - gen fertilizer ceased to be added to Lake 227, while they were already important in lakes Erie and On- tario. The federal Pollution from Land Use Refer mained eutrophic for the ensuing 29 years. Despite ence Group (PLUARG) studied this problem for sev- producethe predictions algal blooms of critics in proportion(Scott and McCarthy to phosphorus, 2010), eral years in the 1970s. Their 157 page final report: evennitrogen though fixation proximate has supplied nitrogen enough limitation nitrogen is ob to- thehttp://agrienvarchive.ca/download/PLUARG_pol problem in some detail, pointing out that water served for about half the summer each year (Pater- lution_great_lakes_land_use.pdf in 1980 spelled out son et al et al not be achieved without considerable reduction in the effectiveness of controlling phosphorus, many non-pointquality objectives sources. for However, lakes Erie following and Ontario the earlier could . 2011; Higgins . 2017). As further proof of- policies to control point sources, eutrophication ered from eutrophication by reducing phosphorus fell from political fashion and funds for research inputslakes in alone, North althoughAmerica andin some Europe cases, have phosphorus now recov and monitoring were cut back by both Canada and return from sediments has delayed recovery by several years (Schindler et al have achieved the water quality objectives for phos- More recently, eutrophication has become a the USA. As a result, although all of the Great Lakes problem in western Canada,. 2016). largely as the result of non-point sources such as feedlots (Chambers et al. andphorus Ontario that were with set the in thehighest 1970s phosphorus (Dove and Chapra input from2015), land algal use blooms (Michalak still plagueet al areas of lakes Erie result2001). Phosphorusof intensive inputsuse of andfertilizers algal blooms and expansion on Lake . 2013). - Winnipeg more than doubled in the 1990s, as the ing Schindlerthat algal (1977)blooms summarizedeventually became results propor of the- whole lake experiments with nutrients at ELA, not of the pork industry in the Red River watershed, in both Canada and the USA. To exacerbate transport 134 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA

wetlands, damaged internal alkalinity generation mechanisms, and increasing nitrate or organic anof nutrients from land to water,et al the Red River had- ion levels (reviewed by Jeffries et al - tionfive floodshas also in been 15 years widespread that were in theat the western one in prai 100- tention has been paid to monitoring lake recovery ries,year asflood the level result (Schindler of lakeshore development. 2012). Eutrophica in arin the past two decades. . 2003). Little at eas where many lakes are eutrophic under pristine - not need to be controlled because the nitrates ence results in hypereutrophy and nuisance algal formedIt was in firstthe atmosphere reasoned that before nitrogen deposition oxides would blooms.conditions, The so lakes that are even shallow, rather and small geologically human influ sus- be neutralized by plant uptake once they reached ceptible to recycling of phosphorus from sediments (Orihel et al showed that with increased deposition of nitrates, foreststhe biosphere. quickly became However, saturated, examples leading in to Europe runoff . 2017). of nitric acid and removal of base cations from soils Acid Rain (Dise et al

. 2011). Canada still pays little attention- to oxides of nitrogen, ranking 16th of 17 countries- Although some of the first research on the effects ofgen-dioxide-concentration.aspx?AspxAutoDetectin per capita emissions: https://www.conference- lemacid hererain wasuntil done well in after Canada it had (Gorham been documented and Gordon board.ca/hcp/Details/Environment/urban-nitro 1960), it was not recognized as a widespread prob- Controlled additions of nitric acid to small ex- ough study of acid rain in Canada did not begin perimentalCookieSupport=1 lakes .also indicated that biological up- in Scandinavia and the USA in the late 1960s. Thor take and neutralization of nitrogen was low in the emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides in south- - until the mid-1970s, when it became obvious that et al - andabsence other of areasphosphorus, with base-poor causing acidificationsoils showed to that oc id-sensitiveern Canada andparts the of northeastern the Canadian USA Shield were that causing con- long-termcur (Rudd emissions. 1990). of Studiesnitric acid in eastern have depleted Canada tainedprecipitation thousands with of average lakes, and pH soilsbelow poor 5 to in fall the in base ac base cations, particularly calcium, enough to threat- cations that neutralize acid rain in less sensitive ar- en forest regrowth after logging (Watmough et al. eas (Schindler et al - Initial research was focused on toxicity of hy- pleted, runoff of the element from watersheds caus- . 1981). - es2005). calcium Once depletion soils become in lakes sufficiently as well, leading calcium to the de says. It was concluded that damage did not begin to elimination of Daphnia and other calcium-sensitive drogen ion to sport fish, using short-term bioas- crustaceans and molluscs. The Daphnia are often re- ever, controlled acid additions to small, intensively placed by Holopedium, an acid-tolerant crustacean studiedoccur until experimental lakes had beenlakes acidifiedshowed thatto pH<5. damage How to which has a large gelatinous carapace that is more important organisms lower in the food web and to key biogeochemical processes occurred at pH val- high abundance of Holopedium, has led some to re- - difficult for zooplanktivores to ingest. The resulting- tory toxicity tests had indicated (Schindler et al. ski et al ues as high etas al 6, ten times less acidic than labora- fer to the result as the “jellification” of lakes (Jezior- ognized, emissions of sulfur oxides in Canada were lem remains,. 2008). although Due to weak reduced policies in intensity. to reduce nitric reduced1985; Rudd rapidly. . 1988).Sources, Once although such damage large, were was recfew oxideWhile emissions additional in Canada, reductions the inacidification acid rain are prob dein number, and most industries made voluntary re- rain concerns have developed in western Canada, to occur until reductions were also made to Amer- wheresirable acidifying in eastern emissions Canada, since from the Alberta’s 1980s newoil sands acid ductions. Recovery in Canadian lakes did not begin industry are carried over acid-sensitive Precam- recovery of lakes has been uneven, because of sev- brian Shield in northwestern Saskatchewan (Whit- eralican factors,sulfur oxide including emissions, declining beginning base cation in 1990. concen The- also been recorded in some streams in the oil sands field and Watmough 2012). Spring acid pulses have trations, drought-induced mobilization of SO4 in WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA 135

region, although the impacts on species and biodi- the mine. Current plans include the perpetual use versity are still largely unknown (Alexander et al. of freezing technology similar to that used for ice - rinks to keep the arsenic trioxide frozen in place. crease as oil sands mining continues to expand. One The remediation cost to taxpayers was estimated to large2017). contributor The acidification to acidifying problem emissions is expected is the to high in emission of nitrogen oxides from large trucks used ca/news/canada/north/yellowknife-s-giant-mine- for hauling bitumen. approach 1 billion dollars in 2013 https://www.cbc.

cleanup-costs-to-double-1.1313262 . Toxic Mine Drainage and Emissions The Colomac Mine was an open pit gold mine 222- km north of Yellowknife. It operated for only four Mining has been one of Canada’s traditional in- dikeyears is between contaminated 1990 and with 1997, cyanide, and was toxic never metals profit and dustries, and related pollution has caused region- ammonium,able. A 76 ha tailingswhich iflagoon the dike contained is breached, by an earthen would al problems in many areas of the country, the re-

- spill into the Indin River, the drinking water supply sult of lax regulation. Over 10,000 abandoned mines for downstream Dene communities. Remediation werebase metal,already oil on sands, file atdiamond the turn and of uraniumthe new mines.mille complete,was estimated done to in cost partnership $70 million between in 2002 the (Auditor federal Weaknium (Mackaseyregulations 2000). and Theseunscrupulous range from developers coal to General of Canada 2002). Remediation is reportedly have often left restoration of abandoned mining www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change/ sites incomplete, leaving leakage of toxins and oth- services/federal-contaminated-sites/success-stogovernment and Indigenous communities https://- er problems for future generations of taxpayers to look after. Many of the mines have cleanup costs site, but no actual costs or assessment of success that are so prohibitive that instead of reclama- haveries.html#colomac been released. . Monitoring continues at the Among the most acutely affected mining sites where government departments prevent leakage is the vast oil sands area of northeastern Alberta, oftion, toxins they andhave otherwise been relegated maintain to “perpetual the integrity care,” of -

where over 4800 km² can be surface liters mined of toxic for tail bi- sites without correcting the problem. In 2002, the- tumen. Tailings ponds alone had12 a total area of 220 reported annual cost of such care was $20,000,000- currentkm² in 2017,rules containing state that 1.2 tailings x 10 ponds must be donedfor the mines Northwest of the Territories North was estimatedalone (Auditor to be Genover ings behind earthen dikes as high as 90 m. While- eral of Canada 2002). The cost of reclaiming aban es, the rules are not enforced. There are fears that The most notorious recent reclamation prob- reclamationready to reclaim of the within oil sands 10 years will afterbe too mining costly, ceas and $700,000,000. that companies will simply walk away, leaving the - lem is the Giant Mine, which extracted gold from lion dollars in securities had been guaranteed by underground and open pit mines only 5 km north oilburden sands on companies, Canadian taxpayers. but recent In revelations 2015, only 1.9under bil kgof Yellowknife,of gold. In response NWT. Between to public 1948 concerns and 2004, about when re- the Freedom of Information Act indicate that the leasesthe mine of wastoxic in arsenic operation, dust it producedto the atmosphere, over 220,000 in - into underground shafts that had been mined, rea- true cost of reclamation is estimated to be $260 soning1951 the thatmine permafrost started to blowwould arsenic keep trioxidethe arsenic dust billion https://www.thestar.com/news/investiga permanently in place. When the mine closed, over tions/2018/11/01/what-would-it-cost-to-clean-up- thealbertas-oilpatch-260-billion-a-top-official-warns. industry, suggesting that reclamation will large- in this way. However, during the same period, cli- lyhtml be funded. Only 0.6% by the of public,this sum if it has is done been at set all. aside by 237,000 tonnes of arsenic trioxide had been stored Water from the oil sands tailings ponds is and subsidence of permafrost is causing the stored acutely toxic to a wide variety of organisms. Tarry mate has warmed at least 3 degrees in the area, - arsenic to be mobilized as water is flooding into floating bitumen sludge is lethal to birds and ani 136 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA

mals entering the ponds, and high concentrations - of naphthenic acids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, toxic trace metals and other pollutants are importantbreached, sendingsockeye 21 salmon billion nursery.liters of waterThe dam and tailwas known, in addition to salinity that is far higher than foundings into to bewatercourses poorly constructed, leading to and Quesnel a major Lake, crack an federal or Alberta guidelines. - There is concern that seepage from the tailings - ponds could contaminate the water of the nearby ment’shad been frequency reported of in mine 2010. inspections Some attribute a few the years di et al earlier.saster to The cutbacks investigation in the British is still Columbia ongoing, governand to - date no charges have been laid. Meanwhile, recent itiesAthabasca in suites River. of organicA recent compounds study (Frank to prove. 2014) that reports of a healthy salmon return indicate that contaminantsused a “fingerprinting” from the techniquetailings ponds based are on reaching similar - day. The resulting concentrations of contaminants on-return-in-droves-to-quesnellake-watershed/the effects of the spill may have been insignificant . inthe the river. river Estimated are small seepage because is they 6.5 millionare diluted liters by per an https://www.wltribune.com/news/sockeye-salm- ings pond release is highly likely in Canada, espe- oil sands, leading industry spokespeople to assure ciallyUnless in regulations the oil sands, are tightened, where dikes a disastrous and tailings tail theaverage public of 780that m-3s-1 all is well. of water Airborne from upstreamemissions of from the ponds are much larger and more toxic than those in the above examples. regional source of semi-volatile organic pollutants tailings ponds are also believed to be a significant The scenario where a breach in a tailings pond (Parajulee and Wania 2015). Mercury disaster is never discussed, although such failures havedike isproduced caused byexpensive an engineering and ecologically flaw or naturaldevas- Few pollutants have caused as great a problem in Canadian waters as mercury. Foremost among in- famous mercury problems is the case of the Wab- releasedtating results were inmuch tailings smaller ponds than elsewhere could occur (Blight in theand oilFourie sands. 2005), A dike even breach though in a amountslarge oil sandsof tailings tail- - ings pond would be particularly destructive if it oc- igoon River and the Indigenous communities of- curred in winter, so that releases were under ice, as atingGrassy a Narrowschlor-alkali and process Whitedog to produce in northern sodium Ontar hy- droxideio. In 1962, and Dryden chlorine Chemical for bleaching Company paper began during oper production by the nearby Dryden Pulp and Paper they could be carried into Lake Athabasca and the - Slave River, eventually reaching Great Slave Lake breachedand the Mackenzie at the Obed RIver. Mountain Coal Mine, dis- Company. Both companies were owned by the Brit- On October 31, 2013, a tailings pond dike was ish multinational, Reed International. The effluent from the chlor-alkali plant was discharging into the Athabasca River 1100 km upstream tensivecharged mercury directly contamination into the Wabigoon-English was discovered River in thefrom river its mouth, at the time, releasing and ice-cover 670,000,000 prevented liters of effec coal- thesystem river downstream system, leading of Lake to closure Wabigoon. of the In commer 1970, ex- tiveslurry monitoring into the Athabasca of the progress River. ofIce the was spill forming as it was on carried downstream, or of its toxicity to aquatic life. Narrows and nearby Whitedog, two First Nations The spill, which included arsenic, toxic metals, and cial fishery, and destroying the livelihoods of Grassy- PAHs, was traced the entire length of the river, into et al over 100 km downstream that relied on fish for sub - orderedsistence Drydenand income Chemical from Companyguiding sport to cease fishermen. dump- vincialLake Athabasca governments. (Cooke , 2016). The company ingIn March, mercury 1970, into the the Ontario river system. provincial It was government estimated wasIn fined a similar, $4.5 million but unrelateddollars by incident,federal and on proAu- - tem.that overThe 9,000company kg of stopped mercury using had beenmercury dumped cells byin gust 3 and 4 2014, the tailings pond dike at Mount the company into the Wabigoon-English river sys Polley copper and gold mine in British Columbia WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA 137

Major mercury poisoning problems for Indige- a year later. nous People in Canada also follow construction of its chlor-alkali process in October 1975 and closed hydroelectric reservoirs (Calder et al - river system and its fauna had been severely con- By the time the problem was discovered, the that soils and vegetation inundated . when2016). reserStud- mercury, almost all of it in the toxic methylmercury ies in Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec have all shown taminated. Predatory fish contained over 10 ppm ofet al voirset al are flooded releaseet al mercury and enhance form. Early investigators of the problem recom methylation by bacteria (Bodaly . 1984; Kelly mended mitigation (Rudd and Turner 1983, Parks- . 1997; Schetagne . 2013). As in the case of- and Hamilton 1987), but authorities believed that quireGrassy consumption Narrows, methyl restrictions mercury if is human biomagnified health inis initialthe river values, would but clean concentrations up itself over are time. still Over too 5high de notfood to chains be jeopardized. to reach concentrations in fish that re cades, mercury in fish has declined to about 1/3 ofet al. sedimentsin fish for humanare several consumption times higher (2-4 thanppm inin nearbypreda Mercury inet fish al typically remains high for 10-30 referencetory species), lakes. and Moreover, mercury inconcentrations both fish and inbottom both ayears resource after to a subsistencereservoir is usersflooded for (Rosenberg at least two generations,1995; Munthe a clear violation. 2007). ofFish treaty are thereforerights as welllost as et al. human rights. fish and sediments have reached a plateau that has - changed littleet al in the past two decades (Rudd - creased enough to cause problems at some remote tential2017). sources of mercury at the original site of the locations.Even airborne Mercury mercury is released concentrations by high temperature have in chlor-alkaliRudd plant,. (2017) as wellfound as that nearby there waste were disposal still po combustion, because it is very volatile. After emis- sites, and there are current plans to remediate the sion, it can be carried in the atmosphere for long - distances before being re-deposited, contaminating stream of the pulp mill are still highly contaminated lakes in remote areas (Chételat et al witharea. mercury But sediments which inis recycled the river each and year, lakes and down re- such regions often contain predatory species that are long-lived but slow growing, ideal. 2015). conditions Lakes in for biomagnifying mercury to high values. For ex- mediation plans have not been finalized. - ample, Kidd et al dog Aswere a result found of to eatinghave symptoms contaminated of Minimata fish, by Dis the- - late 1960s people from Grassy Narrows and White centrations to values. (1995) in found lake thattrout long that food required chains ppb in the blood of people from the First Nations, consumptionin northern lakes advisories. often biomagnified Similar results mercury have beencon ease. Mercury concentrations were often over 100 found throughout the Canadian arctic during the cases. Neurological symptoms and other disorders Canadian arctic contaminants program (Muir and relatedand values to mercury over 200 poisoning ppb were were recorded observed in some that et al were similar to those observed following mercury While the global fallout of atmospheric mercury DeWitt 2010; Chételat . 2015). still widespread when the community was exam- industrial revolution (Fitzgerald et al exposure at Minimata Bay,et al Japan. Symptoms were- studiesis known have to have also increased implicated by regional about 3- sources. fold since Kelly the demiology report showed that the general health et al . 2005), recent ofined all in ages 2010 in (Takaoka the community . 2013). was Inpoorer 2018, thanan epi in (as well as concentrations of many other contami- other indigenous communities, and in rural com- . (2010) found elevated mercury concentrations - ada/thunder-bay/grassy-narrows-health-report- slightlynants) in higher snow concentrationswithin a 50 km ofradius mercury of the in centerwater munities at large https://www.cbc.ca/news/can of oil sands upgrading. Radmanowich (2012) found publicly released. As a result of the accumulating the same sources. Hebert et al - release-1.4675091. The report has still not been and fish in the Athabasca River downstream from - . (2013) found that far tem,evidnece, but it in is 2017still inthe the province planning of phase. Ontario allocated ther downstream on the Athabasca River, the eggs- funds for remediation of the Wabigoon River sys of fish-eating birds have increasing concentrations of mercury in eggs over the past 30 years. The In 138 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA

being affected by the resulting consumption adviso- digenous communities that rely on fish or birds are- Atlantic Ocean. It was observed in Lake Ontario as - newlyearly ascompleted 1835, but Welland Niagara FallsCanal prevented sometime itin from the ries. Unfortunately, Canada’s current plan for con entering other Great Lakes until it entered via the trolling emissions of greenhouse gases http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.825953/publication.html 19th century. Lampreys spread slowly through the includes building the equivalent of 100 large hydro- other Great Lakes, reaching even Lake Superior by erelectric aquatic reservoirs animals before with mercury, 2040, largely violating on northern human 1938. In the 1940s, lamprey populations exploded, rightsrivers andwhere the they terms would of Canada’s contaminate numbered fish andtreaties, oth devastating the lucrative lake trout, lake whitefish which are supposed to protect the rights of Indige- and cisco fisheries which once yielded 7 million kg- nous People and guarantee their ability to subsist siveof fish lamprey per year. control Within programs a few years, have fisheriesbeen in placewere forreduced several to aboutdecades, 2% ofbut pre-lamprey have not eliminated values. Expen the Climate warming can exacerbate mercury pollution.on their In traditional general, forests lands (Schindler and wetlands 2018). sequester mercury that enters from the atmosphere, pre- mussel,species http://www.glfc.org/sea-lamprey.php.quagga mussel, round goby, sea lamprey, venting almost all of it from entering downstream andAccording alewife reproduce to NOAA, and“Species spread, such ultimately as the zebra de- waters. However, when forests burn, they release grading habitat, out-competing native species, and much of the mercury stored in soils and vegetation, short-circuiting food webs. Non-native plants such causing elevated concentrations in downstream waters (Kelly et al have already increased greatly in area and intensity, as purpleZebra mussels loosestrife and andquagga Eurasian mussels watermilfoil Dreissena so that more mercury. 2006). will enter Forest downstream fires in Canada water polymorphahave also harmed and D. the bugensis Great Lakes are believedecosystem. to have bodies. Swanson et al - from transoceanic ships carrying veligers (larvae), smelt Osmerus mordax. (2006) caused also mercury found tothat increase the in juvenilesbeen introduced or adult in mussels. the late Zebra 1980’s and by ballastquagga water mus- vasion of native fish communities by alien rainbow sels are capable of heavily colonizing both hard and soft surfaces, including, docks, boats, break walls in predatory fish, due to alteration of the food chain. and beaches. Colonies of these species are also re- Invasive Species sponsible for clogging intake structures in power stations and water treatment plants, where remov- One of the most pernicious of freshwater problems al is costly and time consuming. Zebra mussels have continued to invade other waters, including small pollutants” by the accidental or deliberate intro- - ductionin Canada of hasspecies been fromthe introduction other continents. of “biological Again, nipeg. They can live several days out of water, and - arelakes probably in Canada transported and the USA, between and in 2014,lakes Lake by small Win boats, where they attach to hulls, motors and an- knownthe Great to be Lakes introduced, are the bestthe most documented of any ecosys exam- chors. Many areas have introduced compulsory temple, within the over world 180 (Pagnucconon-native etand al invasive species- cleaning stations, where boats entering the area nately, the damage caused by invasive species often must be cleaned and inspected before entering, in goes beyond the ecological. They can. 2015). threaten Unfortu hu- an attempt to slow the spread of zebra mussels. Invading mussels provide another example of - how water quality can be affected by factors other man health and hurt the Great Lakes economy by takedamaging many criticalpages, but industries I will give such a few as fisheries, examples ag to much more rapidly than native species, clearing the riculture, and tourism. Reviewing this topic would- waterthan chemicals. and excreting The nutrients invasive musselsnear the filter bottom water of mans in the watershed. the lake. This has caused a proliferation of attached illustrate the importance to the Great Lakes and hu algae, such as Cladophora, in nearshore areas, in a lamprey Petromyzon marinus, which is native to the so-called benthic shunt”. The algal mats are not ef- The first of many problem invaders was the sea WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA 139

fectively consumed by herbivores, instead senesc- sources was contaminated by runoff from a nearby ing and blowing ashore where they cause nuisance windrows and taste and odor problems (Hecky et working, and plant operators were neglecting mon- al itoringfeedlot duringsafeguards the flooding.and deliberately A chlorinator fudging was data. not Many of the other invaders have harmed the The community had a boil water order in place for . 2004). several months, and the incident was the subject of resemblance to its pristine condition. Great Lakes aquatic community, which bears little a judicial inquiry http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/- en/e_records/walkerton/index.html. - Canada’s Drinking Water In March, 2001, flu-like symptoms became common in residents of North Battleford, Saskatche Most large cities in Canada have excellent drinking wan, a town of 14000. The town’s water intake ac- water, with modern treatment plants designed by nosedtually layas downstreamcryptosporidiosis, of the theeffluent result from of contamiits waterwater quality specialists, and supported by state of nationtreatment of waterplant. suppliesEventually, by the Cryptosporidium problem was diagpar- the art electronic monitoring and control systems vum, which like Giardia is resistant to chlorination. that are upgraded frequently. Source water can be a Three people died and several thousand were ill. problem, particularly in the western prairies, where major rivers are used for both water supplies and waste disposal. As a result, there have been some It too was the subject of a judicial inquiry http://- rather classic cases of waterborne disease. efordWaterInquiry.pdf.www.publications.gov.sk.ca/freelaw/Publications_ Centre/Justice/NorthBattlefordWater/NorthBattl - - As one example, the City of Edmonton began er wereEventually, the probably it was discoveredsource of Cryptosporidium that feedlots in servedexperiencing by two increasingdrinking water reports treatment of flu-like plants. symp The the upper reaches of the North Saskatchewan Riv outbreaktoms in late continued 1982, when for about several 700,000 months, people with were the andoocytes cities for draw both their Edmonton water from and the North river, Battleford and are outbreak was diagnosed as giardiasis, the result of (Hrudey and Hrudey 2004). Numerous other towns- contaminationcity first denying of anywater responsibility. supplies with Eventually, the protozo thetions of large feedlots and highest applications of an Giardia lamblia, which is resistant to chlorina- manureat similar to risk.cropland Given are that in theAlberta, highest rivers concentra in that province appears to be particularly vulnerable to and it was estimated that the total number of peo- pletion. infected Over 800 was cases probably of giardiasis an order were of confirmed,magnitude larger. It was found that the water intake of one of contamination https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/ the city’s water treatment plants was downstream pub/16-002-x/2008004/c-g/manure-fumier/map-The drinking water problem is particularly of storm drainages that combined sewage and stor- acutecarte001-eng.htm. in the southern prairies, where source wa- rmwater during storm events (Hrudey and Hrudey - - posal in the city were completely overhauled, inter is scarce and often of poor quality. Early settlers 2004), As a result, water treatment and water dis had great difficulty in coping with the lack of pota In contrast, many small communities have beganble water to recommend in southern that prairie prairie regions. farmers In construct1960, the limitedcluding UVexpertise treatment and to resources, kill protozoans. relying on infra- Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PFRA)- structure that is decades old and in bad repair, and poorly trained personnel. For example, Walk- www.pfra.ca/doc/Dugouts/Miscellaneous/Dugtheir own “dugouts” to catch runoff water at snow- erton, Ontario suffered an outbreak of E. coli infec- melt that could be used as water supplies http://- outs are still in use, but many have been plagued byoutsForFarmWaterSupplies_1985.pdf. contaminants, algal blooms and toxin, Many taste dugand tion in May of 2000, just after a large rainstorm had odor problems. In the vicinity of major cities, many ofcaused the groundwater flooding in the wells area. that Seven were people used died,as water and rural communities are simply piping water from over 2000 were ill. Investigations revealed that one 140 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA

the large modern water plants, but this is not possible for communities far from such modern facil- - therwest aof conventionalYorkton, Saskatchewan water treatment in 1999. plant Yellowquill nor a in place in Canada, with some unchanged for a year had a boil water advisory in place since 1985. Nei ities. Typically, over 1000 boil water advisories are map-graphic.asp. reverse osmosis (RO) plant had been successful. or evenWorst several of all are years the http://www.watertoday.ca/drinking water problems of Reverse osmosis membranes clogged within hours,, indigenous communities, which lie under federal requiringwhich also unacceptablycaused the water frequent to be dark flushing. brown The in-1 rather than provincial purview, usually with very problemcolor. was dissolved organic carbon of 25mg L Peterson reasoned that the dissolved organic have long-term drinking water advisories in place. matter probably contained large refractory mol- Thelow federal operating government budgets. Inhas 2018, recently 91 First promised Nations to - - ecules that were difficult to break down, quick treatmenteliminate the plants, advisories many byof 2021,them but needing this seems replace un- usedly clogging state of the the RO art membranes. reverse osmosis He added membranes. a long likely with over 1000 First Nations having water- biological pre-filter to the water intake. He also-

mentSeveral or upgrading. problems, The some Parliamentary of them unique, Budget hin Of- ammsa.com/publications/saskatchewan-sage/The result was successful, and in 2004, the wa derfice hasthe estimatederadication that of thedrinking goal will water cost problems $3.2 billion. in ter treatment plant was officially opened. http:// First Nations. Many have poor water sources, with high turbidity, high dissolved solids or high nutri- andclean-water-flowing-yellow-quill-taps it has been serving the community since that ent concentrations, or high arsenic. Standard ap- Local operators were trained to run the plant proaches to disinfecting waters with high turbidity or dissolved solids involve adding large amounts duplicatedtime. Peterson’s at several IBROM other (Integrated First Nations, Biological where and it of chlorine. Many indigenous communities do not hasReverse dealt Osmosissuccessfully Membrane) with a wide plant variety has now of source been like the resulting taste, and it is widely known that water problems, including toxic cyanobacterial the combination of high chlorine and high dissolved - solids produces trihalomethanes and other carcin- ingwaterteam.org/ibrom/. A small Saskatchewan ogens. Although the increased incidence of cancers company,blooms and Sapphire high arsenic Water, https://www.safedrinknow produces its own is very low, people generally avoid using the water. - - phire-water.ca/. ter treatment plant operators. Federally sponsored SIBROM plants commercially https://www.sap trainersAnother are problemfew in number, is a shortage and theof qualified turnover wa in are appreciated by First Nations. They do not re- plant operators is high, because wages are low for a quireIBROM addition plants of large have aamounts number of of costly features chemi that- job with such high responsibility. cals. After treatment, water is trickled through a Many indigenous communities are spread out over broad areas, with houses some times a kilo- making the water less corrosive, and a very small meter or more apart. Installing and maintaining a amountmineral of filter chlorine to restore to prevent calcium secondary and magnesium, contam- distribution system is expensive, and in many cases ination. The plants occupy little space, and require cisterns or barrels are used to store water instead, little maintenance. Plant operators and a few out- inviting secondary contamination. side experts have formed the Safe Drinking Water There have been a few small success stories that Team (see above website) to help solve water prob- should serve as models for what could be done. The lems at First Nations and in other small communi- Safe Drinking Water Foundation is a small non-profit organization that was formed to promote edu- Alberta, where it supplies drinking water to over cation about drinking water and to help solve the ties. The largest plant in operation is at Saddle Lake, drinking water problems of prairie First Nations. As - - 6000 people of the provinces second largest First - etNation. al At least 21 IBROM plants are now in opera their first case, SDWF’s sole engineer, Hans Peter tion. The IBROM process is described by Peterson son was invited to Yellowquill First Nation, north . (2007). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA 141

Many of western Canada’s cities are located on et al rivers, where they were originally founded as trans- raise the cost of drinking water treatment for large portation hubs, because most of the early travel citiesto continue considerably (Ebele as chlorination. 2017). It can plantsbe expected are up to- used the rivers as highways. They both draw their graded or replaced. water and discharge their sewage into the same rivers. Modern personal care products, including pharmaceuticals, birth control hormones, and cosmet- Organochlorines and other Semi- ics are of concern, because they do not degrade as Volatile Organic Compounds rapidly as sewage, and some contain nanomaterials which have not been thoroughly assessed. Although Among the most bizarre troublesome pollutants concentrations are small, they are still of concern are a series of organic pollutants that persist in as endocrine disruptors or for causing selection for the environment, biomagnify in food chains, and drug resistant microbiological communities. volatilize at some environmental temperatures Feedlots draining to the rivers also add pharmaceu- and condense at slightly lower temperatures. Such ticals and endocrine disruptors. - In one spectacular test, Kidd et al merous pesticides such as DDT, toxaphene, dieldrin ) of the synthetic estrogen andsemi-volatile many others, compounds Dioxins include and furans many are PCBs, among nu -1 . (2007) added such compounds that have caused problems in a small amount (5-6 ngL Canada, because until they were regulated in the werein birth rapid control changes pills (17a-ethynyloestradiol;in the gonadal tissues ofEE2) both to malesa small and lake females at the ELAof the for fatheadthree summers. minnow TherePime- mills which used chlorine-based bleaching process- phales promelas leading to reproductive failure and late 1990s, they were discharged by pulp and paper- centrations that required consumption advisories were less sensitive, and insects, zooplankton and (Muires. They et wereal biomagnified in food chains to con algaea collapse were of unaffected. the fish population. Indeed, some Other invertebrate fish species declined slowly, but most consumption advisories populations increased, which was attributed to the are no longer. 1992). needed. After regulation, concentrations decrease in predation pressure when fathead min- Many of the original persistent organic pollutants (or POPs) were chlorinated compounds, but two years after addition of the estrogen ceased, but - thenows population declined. Effectshas since on the recovered fatheads topersisted pre-treat for- ed compounds have shown similar properties. Al- ment levels (Kidd et al more recently, many brominated and fluorinat disruptors has been often reported downstream of long range atmospheric transport, it was soon dis- . 2014). Evidence of endocrine though they were first regarded as a curiosity of- Agriculture and forestry are also known to re- tic food chains, as the result of long food chains of leasesewage chemicals effluents that (Falconer are endocrine 2006). disruptors, and long-livedcovered that organisms they biomagnified that seasonally to high levelsstored in large arc - quantities of lipids, and most of the contaminants are lipophilic (Muir et al - feminizedrivers. fish have been found in areas where ef ery that many of the bioaccumulated toxins were fluentsA wide from variety feedlots of pharmaceuticalsand pulp mills discharge and personal into reaching detrimental concentrations. (1988). After in theindigenous discov care products are found in Canadian drinking water, people of the north, a circumpolar effort was begun especially where major rivers are water supplies to identify, track and reduce such compounds, the for several cities. Antibiotics, endocrine disruptors, Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program (AMAP micro particles of plastic, cosmetic chemicals and a waters with sewage, and conventional treatment howresults such were compounds reviewed appeared by Muir andin the DeWitt arctic, 2010). even doesvariety not of remove miscellaneous them. As chemicals such chemicals are flushed and their into thoughWania andmost Mackaywere emitted (1995) thousands were able of kilometers to explain effects are recognized, reverse osmosis and a vari- to the south. Most have semi-volatile behaviour at ety of advanced drinking water treatments are in- normal seasonal temperatures, by which chemicals creasingly being deployed. This trend seems likely emitted from industries and soils at southerly lat- 142 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CANADA

Summary itudes would gradually make their way north, because they would condense under cooler temperatures, moving much as dew on the grass. Canada, it is clear that the large investment made in The same semi-volatile properties allow the Given the proliferation of water quality problems in chemicals to increase in concentration with elevation, where they accumulate in snowpacks and gla- research in the 1960s was an excellent investment.- et al et al - lemsMany are water largely quality the resultproblems of weak have and been inconsistent identified, mate warming causes glaciers to melt, some older waterand some policies reduced among or eliminated.federal and Remainingprovincial probagen- pesticidesciers (Blais that were. 1998; sequestered Donald in .glaciers 1999). Asin de cli- cies. Despite the failures of past water policies as cades past are again being mobilized to enter alpine described above, many industries are arguing for a streams and lakes (Donald et al et al. - generally weaken water policies. Such weak wa- cides was discontinued before concentrations. 1999, Blais in ice “steamlining” of regulatory processes, which would became2001). Fortunately, high enough use to of pose many a threat of the to worst organisms pesti - in alpine food chains, although alpine food chains ter policies are being resisted by NGOs such as the investigated to date are also much shorter than arc- policy,Council it of is Canadians essential https://canadians.org/waterthat Canada rejuvenates and tic ones, reducing the potential to biomagnify in top maintainspolicy. Given a strongthe impending program threats of water to future research water to predators (Campbell et al et al underpin sound water policies.

. 2000; Demers . 2007).

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Energy and Water

Energy is one of the most important inputs in drinking water supply and sewerage. Water must be harvested, pumped, transported, filtered, stored and re-pumped. It is necessary to build dams and reservoirs, and to lay and maintain pipes. Since water purification, desalination and pumping are operations that consume a great deal of energy, if more countries are forced to develop desalination, reverse osmosis and decontamination plants to increase the availability of drinking water, or access water resources that are further away and transport them over greater distances, energy costs will continue to rise. Accordingly, energy security is linked to the problems, solutions and options related to sustainable water management 148 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ENERGY

Water Quality and Alternative Energy Nexus in the Americas

Kwame Emmanuel and Anthony Clayton

Acknowledgments

This chapter summarizes the contributions of several academics and researchers in the re- - - gion. In particular, we would like to acknowledge the work of Dr. Judith Franco, of the Uncon ventional Energy Research Institute at the Universidad Nacional de Salta, Argentina; Dr. Clau dio Wheelock, Director of the Solar Station; Dr. Julio Lopez de la Fuente, SJ of the Universidad Centroamericana, and Erick Sandoval of the Interdisciplinary Institute of Natural Sciences at- the Universidad de Centroamérica, in Nicaragua; Roberto Castello Tió of Dominican Republic;- Dr. Melio Sáenz and Dr. Felipe Cisneros of the PROMAS Program for Water and Soil Manage ment at the Universidad de Cuenca, and Dr. Ricardo Izurieta of the National Academy of Sci ences of Quito, in Ecuador; Dr. José María Rincón-Martínez, Director of Research at Corpoema- and Research at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia, and Diana Marcela Durán-Hernández in Colombia; Dr. Juan Rodríguez of the Universidad Nacional de Perú; and Dr. Mireya R. Gold wasser, of the Catalysis Center at the Universidad Central de Venezuela. We would also like to acknowledge the invaluable collaboration of Julián Despradel, Coordinator of the Energy Program in the Dominican Republic, who compiled the information presented in this paper. Introduction

Access to adequate supplies of clean water is critically important to all human aspirations

proper treatment, recovery, reuse and disposal of wastewater are also critically important, asand failure goals, in including this regard sustainable has a number development, of damaging and isconsequences; now defined as the a basicdischarge human of untreatedright. The waste can contaminate ground and surface water, which has serious implications for the po-

safe water and sanitation are essential to human health, environmental sustainability and economictable water prosperity. supply and There ecosystem have beenintegrity. great Sustainable achievements Development in this area, Goal bringing (SDG) 6clean states water that to millions of people, but some of these achievements are now threatened by a combination of population growth and climate change, which is putting water supplies in some regions at unprecedented risk.

Kwame Emanuel [email protected] Associate Lecturer, Centre for Environmental Management, The University of the West Indies, Mona Campus, Jamaica. Anthony Clayton [email protected] Institute for Sustainable Development, University of the West Indies Mona Campus, Kingston, Jamaica. Claudio Estrada [email protected] Institute of Renewable Energies, National Univer- sity of Mexico and Antonio E. Jimenez. With the special contribution of Julián Despradel (Dominican Republic), Judith Franco (Argentina), José María Rincón-Martínez (Colombia), Diana Marcela Durán-Hernández (Colombia), Melio Sáenz (Ecuador), Felipe Cisneros (Ecua- dor), Claudio Wheelock (Nicaragua), Julio López de la Fuente (Nicaragua), Erick Sandoval (Nicaragua), Juan Rodríguez (Peru), Roberto Castello Tió (Dominican Republic) and Mireya R. Goldwasser (Venezuela). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ENERGY 149

opment of a collaborative approach in the Ameri- cas to address energy and water problems in con- systemsSo significant for water furthersupply and progress utilization in this does area not is junction. As policy decisions for energy and water keepnow essential.pace with If population the development growth, of then more water efficient sup- have a number of mutual cross-over implications, a plies per capita are likely to fall. Similarly, if water supply systems do not adjust to the changing and water supply problems simultaneously is more weather patterns associated with climate change, conjoint approach to find solutions to both energy then many parts of the world are likely to be inthat will operate under a wider set of circumstanc- creasingly water-stressed in future. Without signif- es.likely This to isresult therefore in indefinitely a multi-dimensional viable arrangements optimiza- icant progress in these areas, therefore, progress tion problem, where it is necessary to develop solutions that work in different dimensions at the same time. This also allows proposed solutions to be towards the other SDGs will become increasingly stress-tested under more realistic scenarios, such provisiondifficult, if ofnot potable impossible. water and sanitation. Water as, for example, what will happen to the water sup- Energy is one of the most critical inputs in the ply if the power grid fails? stored and pumped again. Dams and reservoirs IANAS is therefore mapping out the transition must be be built, harvested, pipes laid pumped, and maintained. transported, Water filtered, pu- pathways from the current status quo to a more - sustainable future for the water and energy nexus. gy-intensive operations, so if more countries have The remainder of this chapter summarizes the torification, develop desalination desalinization, and reverse pumping osmosis are very and ener de- submissions of regional experts from across the contamination plants to increase the availability of Americas on a number of aspects of this nexus, in- potable water, or to access water resources from cluding the use of alternative energy to treat saline, further away and transport them over greater dis- brackish and contaminated freshwater, and waste- tances, the energy cost will continue to rise. So en- water management in the Americas. - The goal was to determine the depth and range fordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy of expertise in the Americas on the energy and wa- forergy all security – are linked and the to goalsthe problems, of SDG 7 -solutions access to and af ter nexus. This involved looking at a number of ex- choices involved in sustainable water management. amples of emerging good practice, including the use If a country makes a policy decision to deliver piped of low-carbon alternative energy sources in manag- water to all consumers, the energy cost will be sig- ing and treating water. The focus was on tracking - the development of technologies from research to ter to consumers who may be uphill from the reser- commercial development, with particular regard to voirs)nificantly than higher if the country(because makes of the a need policy to decision pump wa to practical or close-to-market solutions. develop rainwater harvesting and local springs. An energy-intensive water system is also less resilient than a system that emphasizes local resources; if the Water Quality energy system fails, the water system will fail too. The energy sector also faces a number of crit- Water for primary use has to meet stringent micro- ical challenges, including dependency on unstable biological and chemical quality standards in order to prevent waterborne diseases and health risks environmental costs and profoundly serious impli- cationsoil-exporting for climate regimes, change. fluctuating An energy-intensive oil prices, high wa- must be chemically and microbiologically safe for ter supply system therefore connects two diverse from e.g. toxic chemicals. The final water product such as industrial use. For domestic consumption, probability of disruption. waterhuman should consumption, also be free and from fit for unpleasant other purposes, tastes setsThe of challenges, Inter-American which Networksignificantly of Academies increases the of and odours and, in some cases, improved for human Sciences (IANAS) is therefore exploring the devel-

health purposes, including fluoridisation or other 150 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ENERGY

mineralization. With regard to wastewater, the pur- - pose of treatment is to transform the primary waste versal access to safe water and improved water product into a form that is clean enough to either qualitygion to bymeet reducing the SDG pollution. 6 targets, which include uni be disposed of in the natural environment without So there are a number of factors that charac- harmful effects, or to be used for secondary pur- terize the water quality dilemma in the region. The poses such as irrigation or groundwater replenishment. The goal of wastewater treatment is to eliminate pathogens and remove organic and inorganic case of the small Caribbean small island of Grenada, constituents and, in some cases, to reduce aesthetic •as summarized by Mitchell et al (2018), illustrates- pollution such as agents that would discolour the somepansion of the challenges. of treatment The facilities; factors there include: water. This is achieved by putting the water through • TheA lack absence of financing of zoning for theregulations, maintenance which and nega ex- various physical, chemical and biological processes. tively impact watershed management and water quality; • Infrequent monitoring and analysis of water The Americas quality, due to the lack of legal, technical and

The Americas comprise two continents and a • No secondary or tertiary treatment of wastewa- very diverse group of countries. It is the most water,financial as well resources; as defective disposal infrastructure; ter-abundant region in the world, with South Amer- • - ity management; and freshwater resources. The region, however, is sig- • AnLimited inadequate community institutional involvement framework in water that qual is ica alone having nearly 31% of the world’s total - impacting negatively on the volume of potable wa- ternificantly which can challenged actually be by provided threats toto its water population. quality, incapable of Integrated Water Resource Man The issues include saline intrusion of coastal aqui- Manyagement of these (IWRM). and similar problems can be seen fers caused by over-extraction as in the case of Ja- in other countries across the region.

sea level rise; poor land use practices and water- shedmaica degradation and Barbados, resulting which inwill siltation be exacerbated of raw wa by- • OtherA combination factors influencing of population water and quality economic in the ter sources; arsenic contamination of groundwater Americasgrowth include: driving up water and energy demand - and increasing waste generation and pollution, which create problems for water quality examplein countries in Nicaragua; such as Argentina, and high Ecuadorcolloidal and iron Mexi con- management; tentco; high and levels contamination of the Escherichia by agricultural coli bacterium, and indus for- • - many informal settlements, which negatively affectsRapid andwatershed poorly management; planned urbanization, with thetrial contamination sectors in Ecuador. of aquifers In the and case water of the sources Domin by • A very large disparity in water and sanitation agriculturalican Republic, discharge, one of the for most example, serious from problems livestock is coverage between rich and poor, as in countries rearing (e.g., pigs and cows) and slaughterhouses. like Argentina; There are also issues with micro-plastics in waste- • Weak or non-existent enforcement of water water and water sources in Panama, and glypho- quality standards, and a complete lack of re- sate pollution in Colombia. In Mexico, widespread quired standards for a number of contami- distrust of piped water quality has resulted in the nants; and country being the highest per capita consumer of • A common pattern of investing in water supply bottled water globally, which means that millions infrastructure but neglecting to invest in wasteof plastic bottles are discarded in Mexico each year water management. • stem from management failings or technical gaps, challenges for water management in some (Flores-Díaz et al 2018). These issues, all of which- countries.Geological For conditions example, also water pose managers significant in

will make it difficult for many countries in the re WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ENERGY 151

- ly integrated renewables into their energy portfolio. ride contamination as a result of naturally-oc- Venezuela is an interesting case, as the country has curringMexico havegeochemical to contend processes, with arsenic while arsenicand fluo is some of the largest oil reserves in the world, but re-

Thisa waste complex product array of mining of challenges activities highlights in Ecuador. the lies more on hydropower, with the Caroni River and- need for a comprehensive and integrated approach ezuelaits tributary, is currently Paragua experiencing River, providing serious 72%disruption of the to water quality management, including better inelectricity its energy for sector, the country but that (Rivas is a problem et al., 2018). of gover Ven- management and enforcement, and the develop- nance, not the availability of resources. ment of cleaner technological solutions.

Energy and Water Treatment Alternative Energy Case studies from nine countries in the region that There is a bi-directional relationship between waare now using renewable energy for water treat- ter and energy issues. Water is used in almost all forms of energy production, while energy is a fun- in South America, one in Central America and three damental component of potable water supply and inment the are Caribbean. presented The here; countries one in Northare Argentina, America fiveCo- wastewater treatment. The supply of clean water is - extremely energy intensive from well abstraction to treatment (including desalination) to pumping and fromlumbia, Mexico. Ecuador, Nicaragua, Peru, Venezuela, St Lu conveyance to the consumer. In many of the Carib- cia, Barbados, Jamaica and a special collaboration bean nations, the water utilities are by far the larg- Argentina est single customer of the power companies. This Franco (n.d.) describes the use of solar stills to pro- relies almost entirely on a conventional oil-based duce freshwater without electrical or mechanical energy supply system, however, which then con- energy. The technology, which simulates a green- tributes to climate change with potentially disastrous consequences for the island nations. or collector and the cover. The tank is where the im- In response, the use of alternative non-fossil en- purehouse, water comprises to be treatedtwo primary is kept. components: Fixed above a it,tank at ergy (including renewable and nuclear) has become an angle, is a transparent cover, which can be made a vital mitigating strategy as it reduces the emission of either plastic or glass. The cover has two func- of greenhouse gasses to the atmosphere while providing the energy necessary to support economic collection. The treatment process is triggered by and population growth, as well as improved welfare solartions: radiation temperature passing magnification through the and cover condensate resulting and social development. in the evaporation of water. Condensation then occurs beneath the cover and droplets of freshwater to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern enare transported via gutters to a storage facility. The main objective of SDG 7 is to ensure access- stantially increasing the share of renewable energy - inergy the for energy all. The supply 2030 targetsmix, and therefore enhancing include interna sub- ta hasThe developed Institute modular of Research and transportable on Unconventional solar tional cooperation to support research and invest- stills,Energy which (INENCO) can be at assembled the National in a Universityfew hours. ofThese Sal solar stills have been installed in a number of com- of renewable energy has surpassed projections in munities in the province of Salta to treat water con- recentment in years, cleaner and energy. the use Globally, of the technology the development is like- taminated with arsenic, produce distilled water and ly to show above-trend growth for decades to come for desalination. Franco (n.d.) concludes that the technology is suitable for sparsely populated and sources. In the region, countries such as Chile, Mex- isolated areas with limited access to energy and po- ico,(IANAS-IAP Argentina, 2016), Cuba eventually and Venezuela displacing have high-carbon successful- table freshwater sources. 152 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ENERGY

Colombia - - ported that wind-powered desalination has been cient in eliminating pathogens, especially in high- Rincón-Martínez and Durán-Hernández (n.d.) re- eliminate pathogens. The method is not 100% effi mate change is now compounding the water scar- in reducing the prevalence of illnesses such as di- installedcity crisis. on The the aero-desalinator, arid Guajira Peninsula invented where by engi cli- arrhea.ly turbid During water, the but project, studies a have microbiological shown its efficacy analysis was conducted before and after exposure to sun- a wind-turbine to well abstraction infrastructure. Theneer technologyJuan Carlos extractsBorrero, salineis a device water that from connects wells the SODIS method in water treatment. SODIS is also - consideredlight and the a resultsviable confirmeddisaster management the effectiveness option of branes with copper and silver ions for the remov- for disinfection and has an advantage over chlori- aland of transportspathogens. itA toreverse a series osmosis of filters process and is mem used nation and boiling, as chlorination alters taste and to produce potable water. Advantages of the sys- boiling requires energy. SODIS is therefore consid- tem include reduced operating cost, as the price ered a sustainable, inexpensive treatment method which does not require electric power. solar alternatives, and no external power source A workshop conducted by the Swiss Federal In- andper gallonchemical is 20 treatment to 30 percent required. lower Currently than diesel there or - - nessstitute of forthe Environmental SODIS method Scienceto disinfect and pipedTechnology water are five aero-desalinators operating in the Guaji fromin 2001 the in Amaguana Quito, also community demonstrated and non-piped the effective wara region and there is a Government contract with Juan Carlos Borrero to establish forty more. Rincón-- versityMartínez of and Colombia Durán-Hernández who developed (n.d.) a alsosolar cited desali the- hadter from been the exposed San Pedro to sunlight, river (Sáenz the wateret al n.d.). was Afterana- nationwork of prototype engineering made students of recyclable at the materials. National 1 UniThe lyzedplastic to bottles determine filled the with presence the two of samples fecal coliforms. of water prototype generates half a litre of water an hour using seven kilowatts of energy harvested from solar - The first set of four bottles with piped water that cise was to solve the problem of water scarcity in setwere of exposedbottles containing to sunlight non-piped reported water 51 FCU/100 reported ml thisexposure region. in The La Guajira.apparatus The has objective two primary of this compo exer- before exposure and 0 FCU/100 ml after. The second- ter exposure, with the exception of one bottle that parabola and the process is based on the principles 284 FCU before exposure to sunlight and 0 FCU af nents: the focus (or energy concentrator) and the the saline water. After evaporation and separation reportedNicaragua 1 FCU. of therefractive salt and optics other and undesirable concave reflection constituents, to heat the Sandoval (n.d.) reported on the use of a photovolta- vapor is cooled in the condenser and droplets of ic system to purify brackish water for the cleaning freshwater collected. The indigenous community in of bivalve molluscs intended for human consump-

accessible materials and become directly responsi- converts solar energy to electrical energy to power bleLa Guajira for managing can now their replicate water thesupply. model using easily tion. In this case, the water purification apparatus water. Ecuador a UV lamp, which eliminates bacteria in brackish-

Disinfection (SODIS) as part of a community-based the Theequipment Institute because for Training, of water Research quality andconcerns Envi Sáenz et al (n.d.) explored the use of Solar Water- andronmental the high Development cost associated (CIDEA/UCA) with connecting purchased to the DIS is a low cost process for treating drinking wa- power grid. The apparatus was installed in the com- terresearch using projectultraviolet in the rays village and heatof La from Concordia. the sun SO to - munity of Aserradores on the Pacific coast where - le collection. Approximately three million units of mangrovethe main livelihood cockle are is harvested fishing and each mangrove year from cock es- 1. http://agenciadenoticias.unal.edu.co/detalle/article/desali nizador-solar-purifica-agua-en-la-guajira.html WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ENERGY 153

tuaries making it the most consumed mollusc in the - ation alone. has been compromised by the water quality where infects water more efficiently than solar irradi country. Unfortunately, the safety of the delicacy- provide energy via solar panels for decontami- vealed estuaries in western Nicaragua contained 3. nationSolar electrificationprocesses that systems:require a limited These systemsamount Escherichia.colithe cockles are bacterialocated. Aabove 2007 permissible study by CIDEA levels. re of electrical energy. developed in other countries but limited research Venezuela has Shellfishbeen done purification on the decontamination systems have been of the widely man- The Academy of Physical, Mathematical and Natu- grove cockle, Anadara spp (Anadara tuberculosa - and Anadara similis). The process adopted involves ing and Habitat (n.d.) summarized the Venezuelan experienceral Sciences ofand using the National renewable Academy energy of to Engineer provide Filtration of the brackish water to remove the potable water in primarily remote, rural areas. Al- threesuspended stages: solids which can interfere with the though having some of the world’s largest oil re- 1. serves, Venezuela’s energy mix comprises approx-

theUV lightbacteria; treatment and in stage two; - 2. SubmersionExposure of ofthe the water cockles to UV in lighttreated to eliminatewater for imately 70% hydroelectric energy with the main partinstallations of the country. such as Notwithstanding the Guri, Caruachi the extensive and Ma 3. usecagua of plantsclean energy, located there in Bolivar have statebeen invery the few southern publi- 48 hours for cleaning. - fective and could now be adopted more extensively toThe ensure system the usedsafety by of CIDEA mangrove has provencockle industry.to be ef cations on its use for water purification. - taic Ininstallations 2005, the Governmentand other alternative initiated energy the ‘Sowing solu- Peru tionsLight’ suchprogram, as wind which energy involved in isolatedthe use of rural photovol communities. The program included the installation of - Rodriguez (n.d.) noted that there has been research- as pumping facilities for crop irrigation using sur- programssity of Tumbes at the on Nationalthe use of Engineering renewable energy Universi to facewater and purification underground and sources.desalination systems as well improvety, the University water quality. of Lima Several and the patents National have Univer been - awarded. The main object of the research was to de- - Another program implemented by the Govern- robust and easy to use and maintain. There was a plyment, drinking entitled water ‘Planting to indigenous Electricity’, communities involved mi in particularvelop water focus purification on the need systems to supply that are clean efficient, water cro-electrification, pumping and treatment to sup- to isolated, rural populations with limited access to stalled solar powered infrastructure for water energy, chemical inputs and technical personnel. treatmentisolated, border on the areas.river island, The Government Fajardo, and alsois look in- ing into incorporating wind technology. Venezuelan universities have also investigated - renewable energy options for water treatment in Technologies were categorized as follows: - 1. whichOptical involve systems evaporation to increase andthe efficiencysteam conden of so- sationlar energy: to minimize These include salt content, desalination as well systems, as so- rural areas. For example, the Simón Bolívar Univer- lar disinfection systems to treat water in rural ductedsity (USB) research developed on low a desalination temperature plant thermal prototype solar areas. energyusing multiple-effect systems. humidification and also con Another energy source for potable water supply carbon and titanium oxide systems for disin- 2. fectionNon-optical in disaster systems: areas These where include access activated to safe which is commonly used in the design of aqueducts. water is limited. In the case of titanium oxide, Thisidentified is considered in the Venezuelan a renewable case energy is position form, energy, which when placed in the sun for a few hours, it dis- is rarely recognized. This utilization of gravity has 154 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ENERGY

resulted in less fossil fuel consumption and carbon which has installed solar capacity at its reverse os- - mosis facility but has entered into a ‘buy-all, sell- ating costs. dioxide emissions and significant savings in oper Caribbean Power.all’ arrangement (indirect electrification) with the The use of alternative energy to improve water country’sIn addition, electricity there utility,are plans Barbados to incorporate Light andso- quality is a relatively new concept in the Caribbean distribution facility in Kingston, Jamaica. The Na- - tionallar electrification Water Commission at the Mona is looking water treatment into erecting and according to Andre Quesnel, Technical Director of panels over the Mona reservoir in order to generate opportunitiesEcohesion, a sustainable for business water as well infrastructure as research com and enough energy to power the facility as well as sell to developmentpany based in in Barbados. the Caribbean. There are therefore many the grid. The inclusion of renewables is now recog-

Karlis Noel, designed and manufactured a mobile, step in establishing a sustainable business model solar-powered,A St. Lucian fishermandesalination and unit self-taught that neutralizes inventor, fornized water by the management. Jamaican Government as an important

Energy and Wastewater Treatment villagethe brine where waste the product, inventor the is first from, of andits kind the technolglobally.- Wastewater pollution is a serious threat to sustain- The self-sufficient system now benefits the Laborie- percentage of the volume of wastewater generat- ogybadly has affected also been by salineexported intrusion to the intosmall its Pacific ground is- edable is watercollected, management. and an even Generally, smaller percentage only a small is waterland of supply. the Republic of Nauru, which is now very Another example of alternative energy for wa- - treated. In the Dominican Republic, for example, tem developed by the Florida-based company Sun thatonly institutions 38% of the responsible wastewater for collected water and is treatedsanita- Freshter purification Water in collaboration is the solar water with distillationThe Centre sysfor tion(Tio tend 2017). to This invest situation more resources underscores in water the findingsupply than in wastewater treatment. Wastewater treatment facilities that can now be recentlyAdvanced secured Engineering two patents Design for and its novel Development optimal considered as exemplars of the new energy-water concentrationat the City University distillation of New prototype, York. The which company will nexus include bio-digesters and other forms of bi- be marketed primarily in the Caribbean. The scal- ological systems. These systems either produce re- able unit is a portable, low-maintainance and inex- newable energy or use sunlight for the processing pensive solution for potable water production and is particularly suitable for remote areas. The heat transfer system was piloted in Florida and it was of wastewater and do not require electrification, - which means they are particularly energy efficient. mosis. Planned improvements include the incor- energyBio-digesters production. are now They being utilize used micro-organisms in the Dominican to porationfound to beof morenanotechnology, energy efficient which than is projectedReverse Os to digestRepublic and and break Ecuador down inorganic waste waste management in an anaer and- obic environment. The end products are biogas, a litres per square metre per day . The next step for form of renewable energy, and a nutrient rich deriv- Sunenhance Fresh freshwater Water will production be to secure to greaterfunding than to op 14- ative, which can be used as fertilizer. timize, manufacture and distribute a commercial - unit. The company also intends to establish a water public experience, which involves the treatment of farm comprising thousands of units in a Caribbean pig McFarrenslurry and (n.d.) cattle summarized dung. McFarren the Dominican noted that Re in community as part of a case study to be conducted a small digester that was installed to produce meth- technology. Monción, in the Sánchez Ramírez Province, there is by theThere Global is also Water the Partnership case of Freshwater on the efficacy Ionics inof operation, it now provides enough energy to pre- ane gas from 40 head of cattle. After five years in-

Barbados, a desalination plant owner and operator, pare 66 meals per day at the Las Carmelitas Con WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ENERGY 155

Box 1. Treatment Using the Photo-Fenton Process for Industrial Effluent in Morelos, Mexico

Antonio E Jiménez and Claudio A. Estrada*

In the state of Morelos, Mexico, water resources face serious pollution problems due to effluents, first from the industrial, agricultural, rural and municipal sectors and, second, due to the lack of drainage in much of the state. The latter forces much of the municipal and rural sector to discharge its wastewater directly into the ravines and rivers in the region. Consequently, nowadays over 70% of the surface waters of Morelos contain some degree of contamination. In Mexico, treatment plants process approximately 45% of the municipal wastewater produced. Likewise, the level of water treatment from the industry is 35%, which provides a great opportunity to recover a large percentage of water. These statistics show how far the country lags behind in wastewater treatment systems and legislation, since most of these waters converge, without any treatment, directly into rivers and ravines. These figures represent a great opportunity for the development, innovation and use of more efficient systems for the treatment of their wastewater installed in an appropriate place in each industry, capable of degrading recalcitrant pollutants before the effluent is channeled and discharged into receiving bodies of water, mainly rivers, which is how this is usually done. Given that industry is the sector that most pollutes water, Mexican regulations on wastewater discharges stipulate that a Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of more than 200 mg/L is classified as heavily polluted water. The state of Morelos has industries whose wastewater has extremely high levels of contamination, with a COD level of over 2,000 mg/L. In the IER-UNAM (www.ier.unam.mx/), advanced oxidation processes for the treatment of wastewater using concentrated solar energy have been studied. Early studies made it possible to reduce sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate in aqueous solution using a parabolic solar concentrator with titanium dioxide as a catalyst. Up to 94% of the contaminant was removed [1]. For several years, various studies of photocatalytic degradation with solar concentration were undertaken [2, 3, 4]. An alternative methodology for wastewater treatment has recently been developed through the photo-FEN- TON process, using photocatalytic reactors integrated with Parabolic Compound Cylinder solar concentrators (CPC) and geometric concentration ratios of 1 sol. This has made it possible to degrade effluents from the textile and pharmaceutical industry to levels of pollutant removal of over 80% in terms of COD and Total Organic Carbon COT, which is an extremely encouraging result. Work is being done to optimize experimental parameters that increase the level of degradation processes. A scaling study is proposed to be presented to the industries involved, so that a photocatalytic degradation plant can be installed on the premises of each company before they discharge their effluent into water-receiving bodies.

1. Jiménez A.E., Estrada C.A., Cota A.D. & Román A. Photocatalytic Degradation of DBSNa Using Solar Energy. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells 60 (2000) 85-95 2. Bandala Erick R. & Estrada Claudio. Comparison of Solar Collection Geometries for Application to Photocata- lytic Degradation of Organic Contaminants. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, February 2007, Vol. 129, 22-26 3. Velázquez Martínez S., Pineda-Arellano C.A., Salgado-Tránsito I., Silva-Martínez S., Jiménez González A.E. Modi- fied sol-gel/hydrothermal method for the synthesis of microsized TiO2 and iron-doped TiO2, its characterization and solar photocatalytic activity for an azo dye degradation. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry 359 (2018), 93-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2018.04.002. 4. Pineda Arellano C.A., Jiménez González A., Silva Martínez S., Salgado-Tránsito I., Pérez Franco C. (2013). Enhanced mineralization of atrazine by means of photodegradation processes using solar energy at pilot plant scale. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology A: Chemistry, Volume 272, 21-27.

*Institute of Renewable Energies (IER), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Temixco, Morelos 62580, Mexico. 156 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ENERGY

Table 1. A summary of water technology using renewable energy in the Americas Country Technology Stage Proponent Argentina Solar stills Commercial Aero-desalinator (wind-powered) Commercial Colombia University Solar desalination (small scale) Engineer Solar water disinfection Research University Institute University / Research Ecuador Photovoltaic system to purify brackish water Research Nicaragua Commercial

University (shellfish purification system) Peru Commercial (Patents) Optical systems: oxidedesalination, systems solar disinfection Non-optical systems: Activated carbon and Titanium University Photovoltaic and wind energy installations for water Solar electrification systems: solar panels Commercial

Government Venezuela purification systems Desalination (multiple-effect humidification) Research University Aqueducts using position energy Commercial Water Authority Low temperature thermal solar energy systems Research University Commercial Caribbean Inventor (St. Lucía) Solar-powered Desalination (St. Lucia and Barbados) - - Solar Water Distillation Private Sector (Barbados) search to Commercial sity Collaboration Transitioning from Re Private Sector and Univer

vent. The biodigester also fuels a small cheese and by gravity (so no conventional energy is required) sweet production facility and has the potential to and the plants harness energy from the sun, making

- run a 4,000Kw power plant. - it a natural, low-maintenance and energy efficient Ecuador had 38 bio-digesters in operation in facility. The Dominican Republic also employs oth study2013, treatingconducted wastewater during the from processing livestock of pig and waste gen er energy efficient, natural systems as summarized- erating energy, as outlined by Sáenz et al (n.d.). A- searchby Tio (2017).is required These to include achieve anaerobic better use lagoons of natural and cha province, revealed that a biodigester with a liq- conditionsfacultative inponds. wastewater Tio (2017) treatment. notes that further re on a commercial farm in Rumiñahui Canton, Pichin-

uid volume of 9 cubic metres generated approx Findings and Conclusions imatelyOther 3 cubicforms metresof wastewater of biogas management per day, with sys a- temsmethane in the content region of include 52%. horizontal dry wetlands, which use biological processes to purify wastewa- as the sun and wind are effectively inexhaustible, ter as part of primary treatment. This system has andUnlike therefore fossil fuels, can be renewable utilized as energy the basis sources for an such in-

Domingo Maíz Community and replicated in Jaraba- coabeen and implemented in Vallejuelo, in theSan Dominican Juan Province Republic (described in the greenhousedefinite energy gas strategy. emissions Renewable in operation, energy and also there has- by McFarren (n.d.). Aquatic plants are used to pro- bythe mitigating very important the impact benefit of of climate producing change, negligible which vide oxygen to the system through the roots and now appears to be an existential threat to much of also absorb non-organic materials such as heavy human civilization and the natural environment. metals and agro-chemicals. The technology works An approach that integrates alternative energy WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ENERGY 157

with water treatment technologies strengthens the and research in their countries, and across the re- adaptive capacity of the region by providing po- gion. Some universities (in Peru, for example, have table water where resources are contaminated or secured patents for their designs and have part- now limited due to climate-related impacts such as nered with the private sector to develop and roll- drought and saline intrusion. out solutions for the energy-water sector. In Vene- - zuela, government policy has been the main driver nology are now relatively mature technologies, but of the adoption of renewable energy in the water thereElectric are other power options from that solar, do windnot require or hydro-tech electric- sector. In the Caribbean, individual ingenuity and ity to operate; including photo-catalytic reactors private sector innovation are the main drivers, and (e.g., activated carbon and titanium oxide systems) the region is now in the early stage of the develop- and optical systems. Position energy, associated ment of a sophisticated, commercially-driven busi- with gravity-based systems such as aqueducts, is ness model. also a form of renewable energy, but its potential - ated from wastewater treatment using with bio-di- Recommendations gesters,has not beencan make explored. an important Biogas, which contribution, can be gener particularly in agricultural areas. The management of water requires a combination The cases reviewed in this book have high- of preventative and end-of-pipe solutions, inte- lighted the increasing cost-effectiveness of these grated in a comprehensive policy approach aimed cleaner solutions, sometimes because no exter- at meeting water quality targets. The main recom- nal power is required, and sometimes because no chemical inputs are needed. There are particularly • Developing regulations for non-point sources important applications of alternative energy in con- mendationsof pollution for water (such managementas agro-chemicals); include: junction with water treatment facilities in remote, • sparsely populated areas where there is limited ac- monitoring and research program, a compre- cess to clean water or a reliable electricity supply. hensiveEstablishing set of anrobust independent standards waterand the quality insti- The technology is also very useful in disaster ar- tutional capacity required to deliver improve- eas, where centralized power and water distribu- ments and enforce standards; tion grids have been damaged and cannot provide • Implementation of zoning policies and inte- electricity and clean water to people in the affected grated watershed management; areas. The Nicaraguan case also demonstrated the • Incorporating eco-centric and precautionary applicability of the energy-water nexus in ensuring principles in water quality management, especially as it relates to the use of toxic substances. - nitiesfood safety in remote in the areas fisheries being sector. able to In replicate Colombia, the theso- With regard to the energy – water nexus, the larsocial desalination benefits were model clear, using with recyclable indigenous and commu easily accessible materials and therefore taking direct re- • sponsibility for their water supply. main recommendations include: This situational analysis of work across the Research and development collaboration at the- Americas has shown that the majority of interregional level: This can be facilitated by IANAS ventions to integrate alternative energy into wa- Associationin partnership (CWWA) with the and Global other Water water Partnerand enter quality solutions mainly focus on water treat- ergyship (GWP),institutions Caribbean in the region.Water and Wastewater ment, with limited applications in the wastewater • to be made available in order to develop and manufactureFinancing for the nexus technology initiatives: needed Financing to solve has investmanagement in water field. supply This systems finding than is in in line wastewater with the the problems in the region. In the case of the management.overall finding that there is a greater propensity to - A number of universities and research institu- - tions have championed technology development sistancesuccessful to St.conduct Lucian the inventor, feasibility the study Global as Envi well ronmental Fund (GEF) provided small grant as 158 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ENERGY

as to develop the technology, and it has now sustainable approaches to ensuring water se- reached the point where it has been exported to solve water problems in another small for clean technology and polluter-pays disin- - curity. This could include financial incentives port, which could take the form of a dedicat- used in energy supply and water treatment. edisland window developing in the development nation. This banks financial offering sup • centives for old, inefficient technologies still- low-interest credit, or shareholdings, should be quires investment, but measures to improve ef- extended to both researchers and the private Wastewater management: Water supply re- - ly important, and commensurate investment quired to bring a prototype to market. mustficiency be focusedand reduce on wastewater leaks and theft treatment. are equal This • sector, particularly where the financing is re comprehensive approach will deliver both the - mentGovernment needs to incentives be developed for to integrating encourage watermore and energy technologies: The policy environ water and the energy efficiency gains required to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.

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- - rales de Venezuela y Academia Nacional de la dez (s/f). Energía renovable y desarrollo de la Academia de Ciencias Físicas, MatemáticasAldeas inteligentes, y Natu Rincón-Martínez,calidad del agua José en M. Colombia. y Diana M. (Documento Durán-Hernán in- energías sostenibles y uso del agua. (Documento édito). Colombia. inédito).Ingeniería Venezuela. y el Hábitat (s/f). Experiencias y prácticas efec- Flores-Díaz, Adriana C. et al. Calidad del tivas en el uso de energías alternativas para me- agua en México. Rodriguez,jorar la Juancalidad (s/f). del agua: el caso de Perú. (Doc- Academia Mexicana de Ciencias. (2018). Franco, J. (s/f). Una (Documento experiencia deinédito). desalinización México: Development of Advanced Materials and Nano- del agua mediante energía solar en el norte de umento inédito). Lima, Perú: Center for the Argentina. - versidad Nacional de Salta. technology, Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería, (Documento et al. inédito).Calidad Argentina: del agua Uni en (s/f).Av. Tupac Calidad Amaru del agua210, Rimac, y energía Lima, en Perú.las Américas: Venezuela. (Documento inédito). Venezuela Sáenz,un caso Melio, de estudio Felipe Cisnerosde Ecuador. y Ricardo(Documento Izurieta in- González Rivas, E.J.Guía hacia(2018). un futuro energético sustentable para las Américas. Uso de un sistema fotovoltaico IANAS-IAP (2016). paraédito). purificar Cuenca, el Ecuador: agua salobre Universidad utilizada de para Cuenca lim- McFarren, Tim (s/f). Experiencias Mexico: de tecnologías IANAS. Sandoval,piar los Erick moluscos (s/f). bivalvos destinados al consumo utilizadashttps://www.ianas.org/docs/books/eb01.pdf en la República Dominicana para mit- humano en el municipio de Aserradores-Chinan- igar los efectos del agua contaminada mediante dega, Nicaragua. (Documento inédito). Mana- la tecnología apropiada. (Documento inédito). Estatus de plantas de trata- Mitchell, Kerry, Martin S. Forde, y Allan Neptune mientogua, Nicaragua: de aguas Universidad residuales (PTAR) Centroamericana. en la Repúbli- RepúblicaWater Dominicana. Quality in the Americas – Grenada. Tió,ca Roberto Dominicana. C. (2017). Dominicana. (2018). (Documento inédito). República (Documento inédito). St. George’s, Grenada: St. George’s University WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 159

Chile

Chile is a land of contrasts as regards water resources, with average annual per capita runoff of 500 m3 from the metropolitan area to the north, where shortages prevail, and over 7,000 m3 in the south. Chile has achieved high levels of sanitation and access to potable water for the region and has also made considerable progress in the knowledge and protection of water quality. However, the pressures of urban, mining, agricultural and industrial development, coupled with various hydrological and geochemical conditions, pose significant challenges for water quality as regards compliance with the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development, in dimensions that go beyond sanitation and access to drinking water.

Cochrane Lake in the Patagonia region, Chile © iStock 160 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

Water Quality in Chile: Progress, Challenges and Perspectives

Pablo Pastén, Alejandra Vega, Paula Guerra, Jaime Pizarro and Katherine Lizama

Abstract

Although a great deal of progress has been made in the knowledge and protection of water quality in Chile, various hydrological and geochemical conditions, coupled with urban, agricultural, industrial and mining pressures, make Chile an interesting case, creating multiple

to drinking water. challenges for complying with the 2030 Agenda in dimensions beyond sewerage and access 1. Introduction -

Between 1990 and 2015, Chile showed a positive evolution in the indicators of access to drink healthing water and and the sanitation environment, associated and socioeconomic with the United development. Nations Millennium The country Development now has Goals the (MDG) (2001). This positive evolution in drinking water treatment provided benefits for both- - er,commitment whether directly to advance or indirectly, the Sustainable water quality Development plays a Goalskey role (SDG) in other agreed goals in theand 2030 indicators Agen da (ONU, 2015). SDG 6 proposes goals and indicators directly related to water quality. Howev quality is therefore also linked to water resource management, the resilience of communities andassociated cities, agricultural,with the SDGs, mining beyond and accessindustrial to drinking development, water, the sanitation viability and of ecosystems, hygiene. Water and

This chapter seeks to describe the main spatial and temporal trends in water quality in Chile,equity highlight and environmental some of the justice advances (e.g. inEvans the knowledge& Kantrowitz, of the2002; processes VanDerslice, that 2011).control water quality and identify challenges for the future. Special emphasis is placed on thematic and problematic characteristics of the country such as the mineral enrichments that have given rise to extensive mining activity in the past and present. This chapter begins by presenting the objectives and goals related to water quality, in

the water quality monitoring and information networks existing in Chile. It subsequently describesboth the MDGs water and quality the SDGs,in Chile, and identifying their evolution the spatial and baseline and temporal for Chile. macrotrends It then describes of key water quality parameters for surface and groundwater. Afterwards, it explain distinctive aspects of water quality for selected regions and watersheds, highlighting key issues for Chile - namics and control of pollutants. Aspects of governance and regulations framing the control and emphasizing the main scientific advances regarding the occurrence, distribution, dy

Pablo Pastén [email protected] Chapter coordinator. Centro de Desarrollo Urbano Sustentable (CEDEUS) and Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Department of Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering, Santiago, Chile. Alejandra Vega [email protected] Centro de Des arrollo Urbano Sustentable (CEDEUS) and Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Department of Hydraulic and Environmental Engineering, Santiago, Chile. Paula Guerra [email protected] Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Valparaíso, Chile. Jaime Pizarro [email protected] Universidad de Santiago, Department of Geographical Engineering, Santiago, Chile. Katherine Lizama [email protected] Universidad de Chile, Department of Civil Engineering, Santiago, Chile. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 161

- The systematic implementation of interceptors, - wastewater pipes, and sewage treatment and dis- andes are protection summarized, of water emphasizing quality are the then need briefly for scien ad- posal plants favorably impacted public health in- dressed. Lastly, the main conclusions and challeng dicators. The implementation of this public policy, the development of public policies for the improve- which in this case, was undertaken under the sys- menttific and and technological protection of development,water quality. together with tem of concessions to private individuals, is asso- - ciated with an increase in the amount of hectares drography, hydrology and urban water in Chile in watered with water suitable for agriculture, the the Readerstwo earlier can volumes find additional of this seriesinformation published on hy by availability of water suitable for complying with IANAS.1 international food security stands for agricultural export products, more favorable conditions for tourism and the possibility of recovering energy in 2. Water quality in Chile in relation However, sanitation statistics include disposal to the MDGs and SDGs anaerobic digestion systems (United Nations, 2017). Performance for MDG - targets and indicators terthrough was disposed underwater of through outfalls. underwater In November outfalls, 2014, init The main goals and indicators associated with wa- was found that nearly 30% of municipal wastewa-

Table 1, including their variation for Chile between 33 systems using this alternative, resulting in near- ter quality contained in the MDGs are presented in aryly 250,000,000 treatment. Thus, m³ per good year performance of wastewater in Target being - dumped into the ocean (SISS, 2014) without second- 1990 and 2015. Water quality in the MDGs is mainly- fer of wastewater to marine ecosystems. related to MDG 7, particularly Target 7C and Indica 7C ofAlthough the MDGs it occurs has been partly suggested at the cost that of the well-de trans- torsand sanitation.7.8 and 7.9. Accordingly, aspects of water qual signed underwater outfall systems can be safe ity in the MDGs focus on access to drinking water et al - Water quality and SDG dence that underwater outfalls alter coastal sys- goals and indicators (Roberts ., 2010), there is overwhelminget al evi Water quality is a fundamental aspect for several preventstems (Gibbs its andreuse, Miskiewicz, a fundamental 1995; Roth aspect for., 2016). arid of water for all depends on the quality in relation to andIn addition, semi-arid the regions final disposal in northern of sewage and central in the Chile. sea itsSDGs, use. beginning Direct indicators with SDG of 6, water where quality the availability are asso- In regard to potable water, the percentage - of compliance with values of parameters estab- - lished in the drinking water quality standard ciated with Goals 6.3 and 6.6. For the latter, indica sizetors 6.3.2of ecosystems (proportion related of waterbodies to water over with time) good enare vironmental water quality) and 6.6.1 (change in the (NCh409Of.2005) and its sampling until 2016 was Noncompliance99.2% in the urban with sector parameters with a positive such as evolutionchloride, willspecifically be discussed considered. for Chile The later list ofon. indicators for the nitrate,over time total (Ministerio suspended del solids, Medio sulfate Ambiente, and arsenic2017b). SDGTables 6 targets 2a is and available 2b show at UN the Water evolution (2017a) of y andthe is mainly concentrated in drinking water systems in drinking water and wastewater indicators for Chile, northern Chile (e.g. Copiapó, Alto Hospicio, Calde- comparing values with those for the region. These ra, Tierra Amarilla and Chañaral), an aspect that is - addressed through the change of sources and tech- lution of drinking water and sanitation indicators, nologies in the development plans of the sanitary andtables achieved confirm an that outstanding Chile has seenperformance a positive in evothe companies, under the supervision of the Depart- ment of Sanitary Services (SISS). Notwithstanding the foregoing, there should be a periodic review of context of Latin America and the Caribbean. the parameters and values regulated in relation to the evidence of risks to human health. For example, 1. www.ianas.org/docs/books/Diagnostico_Agua.html, p. 169 and www.ianas.org/docs/books/Desafios_ Agua.html, p. 152. 162 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

Table 1. MDG. Identification of objectives related to water quality and their goals and indicators for 1990 and 2015

Indicators associated with Target 7C and their values for Chile from 1990 to 2015

Proportion of the population with access to improved drinking water supply sources* 100

Rural 0

Urban 60

Total of total population total of 40 sources of drinking water supply supply water drinking of sources Indicator 7.8: Access to improved to improved Access 7.8: Indicator 10 15 2000 2005 2010 2015

Proportion of the population with access to improved sanitation services** 100

0 Rural

Urban 60

sanitation services sanitation Total of total population total of 40 access to drinking water and basic sanitation services by 2015 by services and basic sanitation water to drinking access Goal 7C: To halve the percentage of people without sustainable without people of the percentage halve To Goal 7C:

Indicator 7.9: Access to improved to improved Access 7.9: Indicator 10 15 2000 2005 2010 2015

- Source: Compiled by the authors based on MDG Indicators, consulted at http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx on June 4, 2018. improved*Improved secondary sources of supply drinking source. water Wells, supply unprotected correspond springs, to a facility water which,from tanker due to trucks its design, and bottled is protected water, from water external taken directly contamina from tion, particularly contamination of fecal origin. Bottled water users are only considered to have adequate access when they have an hygienically prevents contact between excrement and humans, animals and insects. It includes toilets and latrines connected to sew- rivers, ponds, streams, lakes, reservoirs or irrigation canals are not included. **Improved sanitation service is defined as a facility that include public or shared facilities, bathrooms with direct discharge into open drainage or ditches, latrines without platforms, bucket erage, septic tanks, latrines with a platform of any material that covers the pit except for the discharge opening. Unimproved services

latrines, hanging toilets or latrines, and defecation in the open air, fields or water bodies. boron is not included in the primary drinking water a high percentage of potable water and sanitation quality standard, but in the North Macrozone (see Figure 1), there are water sources with high boron - . recommended by provision in 2015. However, national figures do not the WHO. -1 fully reflect the efforts that are yet to be made in ru values,Table well 3 presentsabove the baselines 2.4 mg L and goals for several inral Tables areas where 1, 2.a and12.7% 2.b. of the population lived in 2015 (InstitutoThe supply Nacional of drinking de Estadísticas, water in rural2015), areas as shown is or-

of the SDG 6 indicators, presented in the Diagnosis- outside the system of concessions of sanitation com- and Implementation of the 2030 Agenda Report and paniesganized that through focuses Rural on urbanPotable areas. Water These (APR) are systems, the or- the Sustainable Development Goals in Chile (Gobi ganizations (committees, cooperatives) that obtain Agenda.erno de 2Chile, 2017), associated with the work of the operating permits from the Ministry of Health, to National Council for the Implementation of the 2030 which the regulations concerning concessionaires At the national level, the figures indicate 2. The following participate in the National Council for the Im- functions are: To advise the president on the implementation and - monitoring of the 2030 Agenda, and coordinate the Implementa- plementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: tion and Follow-up of the Agenda and the SDGs at the national and the Ministry of Economy, Development and Tourism, the Minis which is chaired by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. "Their main regional level" try of Social Development and the Ministry of the Environment, (Exteriores, M.d.R., 2016). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 163

Table 2.a: SDG. Evolution of the main performance variables of Indicator 6.1 of SDG 6 related to water quality Chile Latin America and the Caribbean North America and Europe

2000 2015 2000 2015 2000 2015 Population (millions) 1,040,132 73 15,170 17,948 526,890 634,387 1,096,280 % Urban % population86 with availability90 of drinking75 water 80 76 At least basic 100 - - 1 1 0 0 95 90 96 99 99 0 2 1 1 National Limited Surface water 0 0 3 1 0 0 Unimproved 5 6 Annual change rate in basic 0.32 0.02 At least basic 72 100 71 0.38 - - 2 2 1 0 86 96 97 0 3 2 Rural Limited Surface water 0 0 10 0 0 Unimproved 28 16 6 Annual change rate in basic 6 At least basic 100 1.84 0.97 0.05 - - 0 0 0 0 99 97 99 99 99 1 0 3 1 0 0 Urban Limited Surface water 0 0 0 0 0 0 Unimproved Annual rate of change in basic 0.07 0.14 0 % population using improved water supplies Managed safely Accessible in the home 92 98 61 65 89 94 Available when needed 72 74 - National 92 99 82 93 91 94 Free of contamination 94 99 98 Channeled 100 95 98 61 65 96 98 2 0 4 94 83 91 94 95 Safely managed ------Unchanneled 8 6 5 Accessible in the home Available when needed - - Rural 53 95 53 79 78 90 Free of contamination ------67 93 56 61 Channeled 100 72 10 0 62 54 82 89 Safely managed 77 77 - Unchanneled 19 16 15 8 Accessible in the home 100 98 98 96 Available when needed 77 77 Urbano 98 91 91 96 96 Free of contamination - 100 99 99 99 99 Channeled 100 99 98 92 93 0 0 4 3 2 2 99 93 96 98 98 Safely managed: Drinking water from an improved source that is located in dwellings, Unchanneled available when needed and free of fecal or prioritary chemical contamination. Basic: Drinking water from an improved source for which collection Source:time does adapted not exceed from 30 WHO minutes and UNICEFper round (2017a; including 2017b). queuing. Limited: Drinking water from an improved source for which collection time exceeds 30 minutes per round including queuing. Unimproved: Drinking water from an unprotected well or spring. Surface water: Drinking water taken directly from a river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal or irrigation canal. 164 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

do not apply (the SISS is not involved in their op- Table 3). It should be noted eration), although they must comply with technical that only six systems were considered (associated standards, such as the drinking water quality norm. withestablished six monitoring for 2030 stations),( including two river

management internalizes the technical advice of the outlet), two aquifers (Cachapoal and Tinguiririca) Law 20,998 of 2017 regulating rural health service sections (Maipo in Cambimbao and Biobío at the-

APR in the Ministry of Public Works. In recent years,- and two lakes (Villarrica and Llanquihue). Sub-in tionsthe Ministry in northern of Public Chile Workswith high has levels made of significant As. How- dicator 6.6.1.c has more details related to Indicator- investmentsever, broad, systematic in the APR monitoring system, especially has yet to in be loca car- 6.3.2, although a reconversion should be considered ried out not only of compliance with water quality refersto reflect to a the percentage fact that indicatorof good-quality 6.6. refers water to bodies a per parameters, but also of the cost-effectiveness of the centage of change over time, while Indicator 6.3.2 solutions adopted. fact that methodologies and guidelines for calculating(UN the Water, indicators 2017b; UNwere Water, only 2017c).recently Considering established, the it First steps in baselines and goals is encouraging that there are already estimates for for water quality indicator six bodies of water, the necessary establishment of new secondary water quality standards will allow the calculation of indicators for other waterbodies For Indicator 6.3.2 of the SDGs, a baseline of 67% of good-quality water bodies and a target of 80% were

Table 2.b: Evolution of main performance variables of Indicator 6.2 of SDG 6 related to water quality Chile Latin America and the Caribbean North America and Europe

2000 2015 2000 2015 2000 2015

Sanitation (% population) At least basic 100 0 0 4 1 1 92 75 86 96 97 0 11 4 2 Limited 5 National Open-air defecation 2 0 10 3 0 0 Unimproved 6 6 Annual rate of change in basic 0.7 0.1 Annual rate of change of open- 0.54 -0.44 0.00 air defecation At least basic -0.15 47 0 0 3 1 1 67 99 68 89 94 0 20 10 Limited 5 Rural Open air defecation 3 1 11 0 0 Unimproved 29 15 5 Annual rate of change in basic 2.12 1.41 0.32 29 Annual rate of change of open- -1.21 -0.01 air defecation At least basic -0.16 100 0 0 4 1 1 96 84 90 98 98 2 0 4 1 1 Limited 5 Urban Open air defecation 2 0 3 1 0 0 Unimproved 8 Annual rate of change in basic 0.01 Annual rate of change of open- 0.28 0.38 0.00 air defecation -0.15 -0.15 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 165

% population using improved sanitation systems Safely managed 27 10 22 74 In-situ disposal - - - - 85 78 0 0 - - - - 6 5 Wastewater treatment 21 10 22 74 National Emptied and treated off site 1 11 80 78 Septic tank 7 17 17 10 10 Latrines and others 5 9 6 5 Connection to sewerage 47 9 Safely managed - - - - 42 47 80 90 60 79 82 In-situ disposal ------Wastewater treatment 3 20 2 42 47 Rural Emptied and treated off site 13 20 22 14 5 Septic tank 32 Latrines and others 28 16 Connection to sewerage 11 22 14 28 63 18 28 29 Safely managed 47 12 27 9 45 50 In-situ disposal 2 1 - - - - 81 86 87 0 0 - - - - Wastewater treatment 12 27 Urban Emptied and treated off site 1 0 3 3 45 80 86 87 Septic tank 3 2 13 4 4 Latrines and others 8 5 Connection to sewerage 72 16 Safely managed: 91 98 60 91 92 where excreta are properly disposed on site or transported to off-site treatment systems. Basic: - holds.Source: Limited: adapted Improved from WHO facilities and UNICEF shared (2017a; by two 2017b). or more households. Unimproved:Use of improved facilities that are not shared with other households and latrines. Open air defecation: Use of facilities that are not shared with other house Use of latrines without a platform, hanging latrines or bucket Disposal of human feces in fields, forests, bushes, open bodies of water, beaches and other spaces or with solid waste. of interest throughout the country. According to the which include the state of aquatic environments, Atlas del Agua 2016 pressures and biodiversity conservation efforts, - (Dirección General de Aguas, 3 and the 2016), Chile has 101 hydrographic basins, 1,251 rivers,- such as the National Biodiversity Strategy (Comis- toring12,784 lakesstations and ( Figurelagoons 1 and). The 24,114 recent glaciers, adoption with of a ión Nacional de Medio Ambiente, 2003) secondarytotal of 829 water fully-functioning quality standards water and quality surveillance moni environmentalGreen Growth Strategyaccounts (Ministerio is considered del Medioin the AmNa- plans for priority basins in Chile will be an import- biente, 2013). A more comprehensive approach to ant input for increasing coverage of the water qual- thetional institutional Environmental and operational Accounts Planimplementation (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2016). This plan establishes- Towardsity indicators a more for SDG comprehensive 6. calculation of pressures and interactions ofresponds the Integrated to the need System to advance of Environmental, integrated Ecosyssystems of water quality oftem statistical and Economic production, Accounts in order (SICAEE). to respond The SICAEE to the - “ tainability indirectly related to water quality. Chile 3. The Council of Ministers for Sustainability (CMS) recently ap- hasThe promotedMDGs and initiatives SDGs also oriented consider towards aspects coordiof sus- nating efforts and reports on sustainability aspects proved the National Biodiversity Strategy for the period 2017- 2030 (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2018). 166 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

growing national and international demands for co- - herent and consistent environmental information, integrated into economic and social information Report on the Status of the Environment (Ministe respond to the environmental measurements in therio delmost Medio emissions Ambiente, into surface 2017b) waternotes bodiesthat in were2015, the United Nations statistical program (ODS) and" and the the activitieselimination reported of residues to the and RETC wastewater, which created san- commitmentthus " to international organisms such as the - OECD, European Union, United Nations and CBD”. In - itation and similar activities (56.6%), copper ex approach (Driving forces-Pressure-State-Impact-Re- emissionstraction (16.5%) into groundwater and aquiculture were beverage and related produc ser- sponseregard to pressure on water quality under a DPSIR vices (14.7%), whereas those that created the most- servation of meat, fruit, pulses, vegetables, oils and is currently) (European operating Environment (Ministerio Agency, del Medio 1999), Ambi thetion (48.7%), the production, processing and con Pollutant Emission and Transfer Register (RETC) - fat (27%) and livestock raising (13.3%). ente, 2017a), integrated into theis a National database System designed of 3. Water quality monitoring network to:Environmental capture, collect, Information systematize, for compiling conserve, environanalyze andmental disseminate accounts. informationThe RETC “ on emissions into the General Directorate of Water (DGA) air and water, waste and transfers of contaminants Monitoring network that are potentially harmful to health and the environment, produced in industrial or non-industrial the Ministry of Public Works which operates the in- activities landThe DGAwater is qualitythe state network, agency underincluding the surfaceauthority (riv of- location and magnitude of emissions into surface ers, lakes) and groundwater. The distribution of and groundwater”. The RETC by productive provides information activity. The on Third the -

829 water quality stations, together with a sum

Table 3: 2030 Baselines and targets for SDG 6 indicators Goal Indicator 2015 Base 2030 Goal Notesa Tier I; MI; National 6.1 100 valueb 6.1.1 Proportion of the population with safely managed drinking water 97.95 Tier I; MI; National 6.2 supply services (%) 100 services, including a hand washing facility with soap and water. value 6.2.1 Proportion of the population that uses safely managed sanitation 96.53 Tier II; MI; Nation- al value 6.3 6.3.1 Proportion of safely treated wastewater (%) 99.89 99.98 Tier III; MI; See Note c and Indica-

6.3.2 Proportion of good quality water bodies 67 80 N/I - tor 6.6.1c Municipal Tier III; MN 6.4.1 Change in the efficiency of water use over time NA Tier III; MN 66.42 Industrial Tier III; MN Energy 5.22 0.83 6.4 1.47 2014, National proportion of available freshwater resources. Tier II; MN; Year 6.4.2 Stress level due to water scarcity: extraction of fresh water as a value Municipal NA Tier II; MN Tier II; MN 0.19 Industrial 0.03 Tier II; MN Energía 1.25 Agricultural Tier II; MN

3.25 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 167

6.5 30 Tier II; MI (0-100) 6.5.1 Degree of application of integrated water resource management 13.5 Tier II; MI N/I NA 6.5.2 Proportion of area of transboundary basins with an operating See note Tier III; MI; See arrangement for cooperation in the field of water. 0 undefined d Note c 6.6.1 Change in the extent of water-related ecosystems over time N/I NA Tier III; See Note e 6.6.1.a Change in the spatial extent of the aquatic ecosystem (km²) Lake Villarrica-South Coastline 176 N/I Lake Llanquihue-Octay Port 870.5 21 6.6.1.b Change in the amount of water in the aquatic ecosystem Lake Villarrica-South Coastline (km³) NA Tier III; See Note e Lake Llanquihue-Octay Port (km³) 152.9 6.6 Maipo River in Cabimbao (m³/s) 111.55 Cachapoal Aquifer (SHACf) Pelequén-Malloa-San Vicente de Tagua Tagua N/I Biobío river at outlet (m³/s) 954 Tinguiririca Aquifer (SHACf) Tinguiririca Superior N/I N/I 70 6.6.1.c Change in water quality Tier III; Corre- Lake Villarrica-South Coastline (%) sponds to Indi- NA Lake Llanquihue-Octay Port (%) 97 47 Maipo River in Cabimbao (%) 90 Note e Cachapoal Aquifer (SHACf) Pelequén-Malloa-San Vicente de Tagua Tagua 100 cator 6.3.2. See Biobío river at outlet (%) Tinguiririca Aquifer (SHACf - ) Tinguiririca Superior (%) 81 Source: adapted from Gobierno de Chile, 2017. Notes: a) Corresponds to the classification of the International Statistical Commission of SDG Indi forcators. which Tier there I: Conceptually is no established clear indicator, methodology established and standards methodology or methodology/standards and available standards are and being data developed/tested. produced regularly b) by Includes the countries; the categories Tier II: Conceptually clear indicator, established methodology and available standards but data not produced regularly by the countries; Tier III: Indicator

Pelequén-Malloa-San"Public Network" and Vicente "Well"; de Excludes TaguaTagua) "River, and slope, the Tinguiriricalake or estuary", Aquifer "Tanker (SHAC truck" Tinguiririca and "Other Superior) source". are reported.c) Lake Villarrica d) Values (south incorporated coast station); in each Lake Llanquihue (Puerto Octay station); Maipo river (Maipo station in Cabimbao); Biobío river (North outlet station); the Cachapoal Aquifer (SHAC

sub-indicator. e) Data are only available for specific water bodies. National indicator pending. f) SHAC: hydrogeological system of common use. N/I: No information. NA: Goal not defined. mary of the demographic and hydrological char- - acteristics of the four macrozones of Chile (North, siders areas of water scarcity, high population den- Center, South and Southern) is shown in Figure 1. sity2016). and The areas distribution of anthropic criterion pressure. of the It stations is designed con to have stations that make it possible to identify the

Approximately 61% of the basins have water quality to identify the effect of pressure on water quality. groundwatermonitoring stations,4 roughly 85% of which monitor "natural state" and stations that make it possible surfacemonitoring waters network while exists the remaining to evaluate 15% the monitortrophic the natural state is for dissolved salts and metals in (Dirección General de Aguas, 2014). A manyHowever, Andean in practice basins, it given is difficult that natural to determine enrichment what and mining operations ocurr in the headwaters of condition of 20 lakes and lagoons, three of which these basins. are located in the Central Macrozone and 17 in the Sampling takes place four times a year (one Southern Macrozone (Dirección General de Aguas, 4. This statistic does not consider stations in the minimal lake network. or four times in previous years. For groundwater, per season) for surface water since 2017, and three 168 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

sampling is carried out twice a year, in autumn and Other sources of water quality information from public institutions small proportion of hydrometric stations that have a. Surveillance plans associated with second- multiparameterspring (Gobierno sensors de Chile, which 2017). continuously There is adeliv very- ary environmental quality standards (NSCA) er information through the satellite platform. Wa- of waters. NSCAs seek the protection or conservation of the environment. To this end, they determine surveillance areas where systematic ter quality sampling is carried out by DGA staff,5 Once and the resultsanalyses of are the performed analyses are by available, the DGA staffthey centralare en- - laboratory, which has ISO 17,025 accreditation. mentarymonitoring observation of specific parametersnetwork to isevaluate carried outthe performanceon a control network of the NSCAs. and also The define oversight a comple plans tered into the BNA database (National Water Bank) associated with the NSCAs are designed by the and made available to the public through the CIRH (Water Resources Information Center) platform. - ty andThe dissolved parameters oxygen, measured whereas by the DGAparameters in the partSuperintendency of the water ofquality the Environmentdatabase. If reports (SMA). measuredfield are temperature,in the laboratory pH, include electrical a wide conductivi range of determineThey are implementedthat the standard by the is DGAnot met, and a form sat- metals, anions, nutrients and an aggregated organ- urated zone is declared and a decontamination ic parameter (chemical oxygen demand) (Dirección plan established, whereas if a parameter com- - plies and falls below the established limit, yet

General de Aguas, 2014). The Environmental Labo latent area and a prevention plan is established. ofratory the ofparameters the DGA currentlycontained measures in secondary 60% ofwater the Theexceeds NSCAs 80% of of the this following value, the basins area isare declared current a- regulated parameters and plans to measure 80% analyses and the availability of resources prevent thequality analysis standards of other by parameters2022. The centralization that require ofmore the ly in effect: Serrano (2010), Llanquihue (2010),- - coMaipo and (2014),Valdivia Villarrica are under (2013) development. and Biobío6 (2015), b. Environmentalwhile Aconcagua, Mataquito, Impact Assessment Elqui, Rapel, Huas Sys- expeditious analysis, such as BOD5. The list consid tem (SEIA) of the Environmental Assess- listers of the progressive basic parameters monitoring proposed parameters by UN are Water not ment Service (SEA). A wide range of new in- included.(2017b), whereas Considering other the relevant pressures parameters on water on qual theity that could be relevant in some basins, the moni- undergo an environmental impact analysis.7 vestmentThose that projects may have or potentialtheir modifications impacts on must water quality require the establishment of a base- alkalinity,toring of the turbidity, DGA reported suspended by Dirección solids, hydrocarbon, General de line of potentially impacted systems in the sit- pesticides,Aguas (2014) volatile does not organic consider compounds, parameters emerging such as uation without a project and a monitoring plan contaminants or microbiological parameters. How- during implementation and operation. This in- ever, as a result of the progressive implementation formation is publicly available in the electron- of the secondary environmental quality standards, these parameters will be part of the surveillance - - ic file of the evaluation of each project in theed water bodies, consistent with the concept of pro- SEIA and through the files of the SMA, respon gressiveplans according monitoring to the parameter. needs identified in regulat sible for monitoring the Environmental Qualifi -

6. The NSCA of the Valdivia river basin was in effect from Decem ber 2014 to September 2016, but was canceled after a claim was and in December 2017 it was undergoing a process of public filed with the Environmental Court. Its drafting was resumed consultation. laboratories to prove that they operate competently and gener- - 5. ISO/IEC 17025 - Testing and calibration laboratories, “enables - sociated regulations determine which projects must undergo an 7. Law 19,300 of General Bases of the Environment and its as environmental impact assessment. ate valid results, thus promoting confidence in their work na tionally and around the world", https://www.iso.org WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 169

Figure 1. Distribution of the DGA water quality monitoring network and general description of the four macrozones defined by the DGA

Atlas of Water

Source: compiled by the authors based on the (DGA, 2016) and the 2017 census. Available at: https://www.censo2017.cl/ 170 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

conditions, as in the basins of the Aconcagua and et al c. SISS.cation It Resolutions supervises the(RCA) sanitary defined service at the conces end ofet al - sionsthe evaluation that operate in the in SEIA. urban areas, controlling (Gaeteten et al ., 2007), Maipo-Mapochoet al rivers, fed by compliance with drinking water quality stan- theet al Yerba Loca estuary (Montecinos et al., 2016; Pas dards and the discharge of treated wastewater. general, .,the 2015; high Segura concentration ., 2006), of dissolvedRapel (Pizarro salts It also monitors compliance with regulations in northern., 2003) basins and Mataquito is due to (Tapiaa combination ., 2009). of high In for the discharge of liquid waste into surface evaporation with hydrothermal vents, acid drain- and marine waters. -

4. Macrotrends in water quality age and the outcrop of brackish groundwater. Lat er, the case of arsenic in the basins of the Lluta, Loa parameters in Chile detail, as cases of enrichment by metals and metal- loidsand Elqui from rivers natural is presentedcontributions and discussedand sources in moreasso- The study by Vega et al - ciated with mining. Towards the south, the geologi- ysis of trends in water quality parameters and the cal framework changes, saline tributaries decrease following sections use it (2018)as the undertakesbasis for discussion. an anal and pluvial and nival runoff increases, creating cur- Since this study has integrated data from stations rents with lower concentrations of dissolved salts. The average concentrations of nitrate are high well as data from different years, it does not neces- for three basins in the Central Macrozone (Acon- in different tributaries per basin since the 1980s, as parameters positively impacted by improvements insarily sanitation. reflect current quality, as can be seen in the Incagua, a smaller Maipo range, and three Rapel), basins and threein the basinsSouth Macro in the- Northern Macrozone (Copiapó, Huasco and Elqui). Surface water: rivers and estuaries with respect to other basins further south (Toltén zone (Itata, Biobío and Imperial) have enrichment- of surface water in the rivers and estuaries of se- sociated with diffuse pollution in urban areas and Figure 2 presents a graphic summary of the quality agroindustrialand Valdivia). Enrichmentpractices and by livestock nitrate in (e.g., water Fernan is as- and the methodology of Vega et al dez et al et al et al lected basins using the DGA water quality database The concentrations of COD8 show high values with two basins in the Northern., Macrozone (2018). with in two basins,., 2017; Fuenteswhen compared ., 2014; with Ribbe the rest., 2008).of the exceptionallypH values low generally values, vary which between have been 6.5 andassoci 8.5,- ated with acid drainage present in the basins of the - et al et al cordcountry. discharges In the Central of untreated Macrozone, or minimally the BOD showstreat- et al et al., high values in the River Maipo Basin, due to the re Lluta River (Guerraet al ., 2016a; etGuerra al ., 2016b; etLeiva al ., 2014) andet al the Elqui river (Espejo ed wastewaters, mainly into the Mapocho River, 2012;The Flores electrical ., 2017;conductivity Oyarzun in general., 2013; Oyarzunshows a hasprior permitted to the sanitation previously plan unthinkable of the 1990s. initiatives, (Pflieger, trend., 2012;from Ribeirohigh values ., in 2014). the North Macrozone to 2008). The dramatic change caused by this plan exceptionally low values in the South and Southern Mapocho river channel closer to the urban popula- Macrozones. In the Northern Macrozone, there are tion.such asThis the consists Mapocho of 42Ka system Project, of whichintegrated brings parks the , for example, in the Salado river with a cycle-path on the banks of the river (Iturria- -1 ga et al values of 15 mS cm andin the boron Loa river (Dadea basin, et al which receives wateret al from the ., 2013). El Tatio geothermal field, an important source of As- trical conductivity, As and., 2001; boron. Romero Although ., Andean2003). The Lluta river basin also has high values of elec - mineral enrichments continue towards the Central tion of organic compounds, whose degradation creates dissolved 8. Chemical Oxygen Demand. Aggregate measure of concentra Macrozone, the contributions of dissolved salts and oxygen consumption, which is expressed as oxygen demand (mg metals are diluted by more favorable hydrological -1

O2 L ). The value of the COD can be seen as an oxygen “debt”. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 171

Figure 2. Graphic summary of surface water quality in selected watersheds

Source: Compiled by the authors on the basis of data from the DGA. 172 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

Surface water: lakes, lagoons and reservoirs sorption, coagulation with ferric chloride followed are three lakes with mesotrophy and two with hy- The results of the DGA for 20 lakes show that thereby filtrationNitrate and and dissolved inverse osmosis salts in (e.g., the AracenaNorthern & peratrophy,There is while overwhelming all the rest evidence are oligotrophic that there (Gen is MacrozoneMuñoz, 2017; come SISS, 2013).from a combination of geologi- enrichmenteral Water Directorate, of metals and 2016). metalloids in a number cal formations and arid hydrological environments, of lakes and reservoirs in Chile (e.g., Contreras et whereas in the Central and South Macrozones, it al et al et al would be locally associated with urban pollution Pizarro et al - and diffuse agricultural pollution (Arumi et al umns., 2015; in Galleguilloslakes and reservoirs ., 2008; can Pizarro provide a histor., 2003;- Donoso et al et al et ical record of., sources2009). The of contamination,analysis of sediment as well col as al et al ., 2005;- evidence of the transfer of pollutants between sedi- tions of sulfate,., 1999; chloride, Fernandez nitrate and/or., 2017; Fuentes As in the ments and the water column in rural and urban en- North., 2014; and Yevenes Central Macrozones., 2016). The raise high a challenge concentra of et al sustainability in the production of drinking water in cities in northern Chile (e.g. Arica, Iquique, Co- vironments (e.g., Hansen, 2012; Thapalia ., 2010; piapó, among others), where it is necessary to in- fromYang &sediment Rose, 2003). to the In water particular, column it is (e.g. important oxide-re to- vest in technologies that demand the use of energy ductionrecognize gradients the links that between can reductively the flows dissolve of metals iron and reagents to achieve the limits established in the - drinking water quality standard. trients, organic matter, hydrological conditions and oxides or oxidative sulfides) with the cycles of nuet al., 5. Pollution and decontamination waste discharge (e.g., Tapia & Audry, 2013; Vega processes at a regional scale Groundwater 2017). Metals in basins of the Northern from north to south, as do boron and chloride. The and Central Macrozones of Chile aridElectrical basins conductivity of the north follows are characterized a downward by trend the - presence of environments with high evaporation, nently exposed to the natural and anthropogenic functioning as a salt concentrating mechanism pollutionBasins in of central their waters. and northern An example Chile of arethe permaformer which, together with the evapotranspiration gen- is the high level of As, which has affected popula- erated by agriculture, is associated with high con- tions since ancient times, as borne out by the anal- - co). It has been established that aquifer waters et al., inductivities desert areas (e.g. Lluta,such asSan the José, Pampa Loa, Copiapó,del Tamarugal Huas ysis of the mummified remains of the Chinchorro- (near Iquique) obey regional circulation patterns cultureing activity (7000-2000 in the north, years which BCE) creates (Bundschuh wealth and that bring water from the northeast to the south- national2012). One progress, example yet of theat the latter same is the time intense is a factor min west, passing through saline environments, while of concern for potential contamination due to ac- low salinity waters may emerge due to fault zones cidental and diffuse discharges in surface waters (Magaritz et al and aquifers. This produces an impact on the health in the of the inhabitants, and the deterioration of aquat- groundwater9 .,of 1990). the North and Central -1Macro- ic and terrestrial ecosystems, as well as metal-rich zonesAs (aquifers has levels in ofthe approximately north zone of 10Santiago). μg L This waste. has forced a number of sanitation companies and An analysis of the water quality of water riv- - ers in the north and center of Chile (Pizarro et al.,

APR to implement As removal systems through ad 2010b),, which shows is much that higher in the than Elqui the river, level theestablished average 9. Limit for As in drinking water recommended by WHO and concentration-1 of As of recent decades is 1.705 μg maximum limit established by NCh409 /1.Of. 2005. L WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 173

Table 4. Historical average of concentrations in 12 rivers in the North and Central zones of Chile. DGA data, for 21 years (1987-2008) As Cu Cr Hg Cd Mo Pb SO 2- Basins 4 (μg L-1) (μg L-1) (μg L-1) (μg L-1) (μg L-1) (μg L-1) (μg L-1) (μg L-1) 814 2,440 9 26 60 ND Copiapó 77 Endorheic 483.6 28 148 77 60 483.6236.3 Huasco 10 123 31 60 6 93 60 148 360.2 ND ND 175.6 817 60 292 147 Los Choros 1,705 6,082 60 3 28 70 817 445.7175.7 41 30 77.1 Elqui 26 3 35 60 Choapa 14 Limarí 6 4 43 138 60 Petorca 43 ND ND 182 78 25 3 63 63 110.6 ND ND ND ND 54 68 52.8 Aconcagua ND Ligua 54.4132 789 68 87 175 54.4 Maipo 12 1,293 25 9 35 463 80 115,1 119.3 21555 281 45 215 167 215.6 100 200 100 1 10 10 Rapel 45 281 119.3 et al NCh1333.Of78 5.000 250 Source: Adapted from Pizarro ., 2010b. NA: not available; in bold, amount in excess of NCh1333.Of78 for irrigation. Table 5. Average annual concentration of NO3- -N and PO43--P of nine rivers in the Central and South zones of Chile. DGA data, for 23 years Rivers Rapel Mataquito Maule Itata Biobío Imperial Toltén Valdivia Bueno NO - -1) 0.21 0.4 0.11 0.31 PO - -1) 0.23 0.24 0.41 0.23 0.23 0.1 0.12 3 -N (mg L 1.57 0.55 0.49 0.35 0.18 et al., 2010b). 4³ -P (mg L 0.29 0.15 Source: adapted from Pizarro by the Chilean Standard for water quality require- - heavy metal contamination on the food chain and ue is attributed to the development of gold mining pling, the intensification of studies on the effect of mentsin the basin,for irrigation which has(NCh1333.Of78). seen intense Thisactivity high since val theNutrients biodiversity and of eutrophication local flora and fauna. in average concentrations of As higher than those rec- basins in the Central and South the 1980s. This study shows another six rivers with- Macrozones of Chile The concentration of nitrogen (N) and phospho- Theommended concentrations by this standard: of certain endorheic metals alsobasins> exceed Co rus (P) has increased six and ninefold, respective- thispiapó> standard Petorca> (Table Los 4 Choros>). Aconcagua> Rapel. ly, from the time prior to industrialization, in the The water shortage in the North and Central et al et areas and the decrease in rainfall due to climate al et al change tends to aggravate the availability of water world’s main rivers (Boyer ., 2006; Dumont in both quality and quantity, affecting the activities are., 2005;no exception Meybeck, to 1982;this trend. Smith The increasing., 2003; Smith, con- that take place in the basin. These conditions raise tribution2002). Rivers of N in and the CentralP affects and water South quality zones ofand Chile in- the need to implement water monitoring programs creases the process of eutrophication. Depending - on the basin, these nutrients come from forestry, lutants, the improvement of the frequency of sam- agricultural, wine and livestock activities, which that consider the quantification of emerging pol 174 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

have increased greatly in recent decades. These slight variations, whereas in those where the basin rivers are important as regards the availability of has been intervened in more as a result of the increase in forest, tourist and/or agricultural activi- precipitation and the melting of snow and glaciers ties, these nutrients tend to increase (Pizarro et al., duringwater for the the spring-summer area, with flows period. controlled by annual - The record concentrations of N and P of cer- phication lakes naturally undergo. tain basins are shown in Table 5. The use of sta- 2016), which could accelerate the process of eutro- tistical models showed that the concentration of trients in the rivers does not show substantial dif- - ferencesLastly, from the thevariation concentration in the concentration of the latter ofin nuthe world’s main rivers. It is impossible to rule out the andN and Maule) P has of increased the basins in sixanalyzed, (BioBío, respectively Bueno, Im fact that, if the increase in water continues, rivers (Pizarroperial, Maule, et al Rapel and Valdivia) and two (Rapel could acquire the status of contaminated systems in the near future. Special attention should be paid activity of agri-food., 2010a). Theand averageagricultural concentration industries, of to the management and planning of activities in the andN in the markedRapel river increase is the inhighest tourism due in to the the area intense and lake basins which, although currently considered population density. However, the greatest increase oligotrophic systems, in the event of a rapid expan- - sion of agriculture, livestock breeding and intensive ia rivers, whose levels of concentration failed to tourism, these waters could be provided with ex- has been recorded in the Biobío, Bueno, and Valdiv cess nutrients that accelerate the degradation process, which is currently relatively controlled. These analyzed.show an increase The concentration in the first ofyears P only in the shows study, an yetin- studies could serve as a reference for future moni- experienced a major variation in the last 10 years- toring programs and pollution mitigation projects at the basin level. acrease certain in thestability last decade in the concentrationin the Rapel and of MauleP. Howev rivers, while the Biobío, Itata and Valdivia rivers have be explained by the forest development achieved in 6. Pollution and decontamination er, in the Itata River, there is an increase that could processes at local scale: the case evolution of these nutrients should be observed, whichthe basin could during make the it decade possible from to detect1990 to the 2000. effects The of As in three Andean basins of population growth and the impact caused by As is a toxic element mobilized through water, soil agro-industrial, livestock, forestry and tourism ac- and air both anthropically and naturally. Its main tivities in the area studied. origin is geological deposits rich in elements of Water quality behavior must also be considered economic interest, whose exploitation has accel- in the lakes in this area, water bodies that are in- erated the availability of As. Moreover, the hydro- timately related to rivers, either because the latter thermal natural sources associated with volcanic are tributaries or constitute their natural discharge The dynamics of As in three basins located in arid activities in the basin and provide information on activity constitute significant contributors of As. theforming biogeochemical rivers that flow changes into thecaused sea. Lakesby natural witness or Figure 1) will be presented below. Theseor semi-arid cases servezones toof measurethe north: the the complexity Lluta, Loa and challengesElqui rivers in (understanding the speciation of pol- anthropogenic disturbances, and the effluent water lutants, especially metals and metalloids, which is they form is the means of transport that influences a determining factor in their fractionation between withthe final low destination levels of chlorophyll of the results and ofhigh these transparen changes.- solid and dissolved phases, which in turn deter- Lakes in the area are monomictic and oligotrophic mines their bioavailability. The concentration of N and P in the past two decades,cy (Soto, 2002;in lakes Soto whose & Campos, basins 1995). have not under- Lluta river basin - dency to maintain native forest, has shown very masl), from which hydrothermal sources rich in gone significant changes in land use and with a ten The basin originates in the Tacora Volcano (~5,500 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 175

metals, metalloids and salts emanate (Capaccioni precipitates, thereby increasing the settling velocity et al and improving the removal of As (Arce et al where., 2011). deposits To oneof tailings side of and the rocks volcano exposed stands to wathe- ., 2017),et terTacora and Sulfurair produce company, an acid abandoned drainage since stream the known 1960s, al(2) hourly variations in the flow due to freeze-thaw- et al edcycles solids cause dissolve variations (Figures in dissolved3a and 3b As), while (Guerra hours ., 2016b). When the Azufre River thaws, suspend- as the Sulfur River, is the (Leiva main source., 2014). of water pollution lutes the salts and provides OH- ions for the precip- This tributary,-1 with pH <2 and concentrations later, the increase in the Caracarani river flow di- of Asthe > diversity2 mg L and complexity of biological, geo- geneous mixture that occurs in the vicinity of the chemical,in the basin. hydrological The Lluta river and hydrodynamicbasin is a clear processexample- itation of theFigure mineral 3c phases) generates of iron, local (3) pointsthe hetero that es that control the fate and transport of pollutants. favor the precipitation of iron phases and retention Four hundred meters from the source of the Azufre confluence ( - et al orof Asdecreases due to the depending pH and iron on concentrationshow particles (Guerramigrate etRiver al there is a wetland where biogeochemical pro- from., one2016a), chemical and (4) environment the particle sizeto another, also increases there- cessesidize As occur from that arsenite modify to thearsenate, speciation a less of toxic As (Leiva spe- by determining whether As remains suspended in cies .,that 2014); is morefor example, prone toextremophilic being sorbed bacteria onto iron ox the aqueous phase or settles on the river bed, de- oxyhydroxides, present in the wetland as orange pending on the particle size achieved. The concep- et al tual model of these processes is shown in Figure processes, dissolved As almost entirely disappears 3d, which is discussed in detail later. sludge (Leiva ., 2014). As a result of these local- Hydraulic infrastructure can also impact the cesses is essential to identifying the determinants destination of these pollutants. Models have pre- ofwithin water a quality, few meters. providing Understanding a fundamental these control pro dicted that the accumulation of sediments rich in As point to improve or protect the resource. in anaerobic environments can lead to the release of reduced species of As, as could happen in the Chironta reservoir (Contreras et al hydrologicalAt the confluence and hydrodynamic of the river interactions Azufre and occur the thatCaracarani promote river the (pHformation 8.6) a seriesof iron of and geochemical, aluminum the Caracarani river with the Colpitas., 2015), river). currently How- oxyhydroxides, modifying the dissolved and solid ever,under the construction presence of in sulfur the Lluta in anoxic River (confluenceenvironments of may contribute to the immobilization of arsenite on - fractionation These precipitates of As (Abarca tend et toal., settle 2017; Guerrain the riveret al.,- ras et al 2016a;bed, reducing Guerra etthe al., concentration 2016b). of As and metals sulfideIn additionphases such to highlighting as mackinawite the importance(FeS) (Contre of understanding., 2015). local processes in critical nodes of total As decreases by half. Concentrations of As of in the water: 100 m downstream have of beenthe confluence, measured hydrological and hydrodynamic interactions, with in deposits in the Caracarani-1 river bed, much high- the system, the case of the Lluta River shows the between 90 and 900 mg kg ) hydraulic infrastructure works and water quality. -1 specific consequences for the interaction between thater than natural the baseattenuation range inprocesses sediments exist (5-10 in river mg kgsys- Loa river basin (Smedley & Kinniburgh, 2002). This example shows the bed is a repository or source of pollutants. driest place on earth, and is the only permanent sur- tems, where sediment sampling can reflect whether The Loa River flows through the Atacama Desert, the main tributaries are the Salado, San Pedro and San This process of attenuation at the confluence Salvadorface water rivers. tributary Its water in the has Antofagastarestricted use Region. due to Itsits can be modified by the presence of other elements poor quality (high salinity and high concentrations ofand organic local andmatter temporary (present changes in natural in systems the flow as rate. hu- - micStudies substances) on the same increases site show the that:size of (1) oxi-hydroxide the presence - of Boron and As), particularly in the vicinity of An tofagasta, a situation intensified by the low availabil 176 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

ity of water resources and the aridity of the region. as a result of the presence of iron oxi-hydroxides The presence of As in the basin is mainly due to and because of the precipitation of minerals similar to loellingite (FeAs ) (Alsina et al

two factors: (1) The basin is located in the porphyry 2 ., 2014). - Ascopper due tobelt, the where meteorization the Chuquicamata, of the deposits El Abra and andthe The confluence of the Salado River with the Loa- presenceRadomiro of Tomic mining deposits tailings contribute (Pell et al to the flow of River in the upper part of the basin also causes a de the Salado river tributary rises in the geothermal mouthcrease ofin theAs, river,mainly its due concentration to dilution remainseffects (Rome within ., 2013), and (2) ro et al., 2003). However, from, which the upper is attributed part to the to et al conditions that do not favor-1 the adsorption of ar- springs of El -1Tatio, which has As concentrations of- asenate limited and range the oflack 1-2 of mg tributaries L that contribute over 20 mg L (Landrum ., 2009). As in the case to the dilution of As, in addition to the high evap- ofTatio. the OneLluta of River, these there is the are immobilization a series of biogeochem of As both et al ical processes that control the speciation of As in El oration rates (Orellana, 1985; Romero ., 2003).

Figure 3. Arsenic dynamics in the Lluta river basin

a b

c d

- stream; (b) shows how particles dissolve when the river Sulfur, an acid tributary, thaws; (c) incomplete mixing causes the formation of different particles,(a) and which (b) areChange heterogeneously in the concentration distributed; of suspended(d) conceptual particles diagram due of to As the regulatory thawing processes.of the Azufre As is River released (a) shows by natural the particlesprocesses before (e.g. hydrothermal thawing up vents) or the oxidation of mining waste (e.g. sulfides) and can be subsequently immobilized/mobilized by various physical and chemical processes. Source: a, b and c, authors’ own photos; d, compiled by the authors. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 177

of As, - et al-1 Moreover, the San Salvador Riveret flows al into the Loa tionsFlores of et As al are in the rangeet of al 0.01-0.1 mg L andRiver algae in the are middle important part of for the the basin, formation also contrib of As with a pH of approximately 8 (Espejo ., 2012; uting As to the system (Romero ., 2003).et al Plants Conceptual., 2017; model Oyarzun for the., fate 2013). and The latter can accumulate As, achieving concentra- transport of As in Andean environments repositories (Orellana, 1985; Romero of As., 2003).in the Arsenic in Andean systems comes mainly from acid case of the hyperaccumulating species-1 Chladopho- waters produced by the exposure of mining de- tionsra sp.(Pell of between et al 182 and 11,000 mg kg posits and fractured tailings to water and oxygen, - as well as from geothermal waters. The examples lagua oasis, rich., in2013). aquatic They plants can also and contributeorganic mat to- presented above show the existence of a series of ter,the whichaccumulation has a high of Asenrichment in sediments, of As as in in sediments the Quil processes that contribute to the attenuation or en- compared to Tranque Sloman, which lacks macro- richment of the concentration of As throughout - them, including the physical processes of sedimen- gueño et al tation-resuspension and chemical reactions of ox- phytesHigh and concentrations has low organic of As matter in the content basin have (Bu ide-reduction, precipitation-dissolution of mineral caused serious., 2014). health problems in the population phases and adsorption-desorption, which can also et al be affected by hydrological and hydrodynamic con- has required the installation of treatment plants ditions, the presence of other chemical components such(Ferreccio as the & Cerro Sancha, Topater 2006; Plant. Smith This seawater., 2011). This de- and biota, as synthesized in the conceptual diagram salination plant has been essential to supplying the in Figure 3d. - This conceptual model clearly demonstrates the cient quantity and free of As for human consump- complexity of pollutant dynamics in river systems, tion,region assuming with good the quality increase drinking in the watercost of in water suffi meaning that control and sampling methodologies when using this type of technology. should consider more variables and, in some cases, pay special attention to spatial and temporal exten- Elqui river basin sion, in order to adequately capture what happens in each site and be able to establish the most appro- geochemically complex system where the composi- priate control measures. This model also constitutes Thetion Elquiof water river and basin, sediments in the isCoquimbo dominated Region, by hydro is a- the basis for the production of models which, in the - future, will make it possible to evaluate the impact ing area, a chemically reactive zone that produces of hydraulic works, alteration in hydrological pat- acidthermal drainage activity with and highthe legacyconcentrations of the El Indio of pollut min- terns, and the effect of other contaminants that may ) (Oyarzun et al - enter the system (e.g. nutrients), thus highlighting ings erosion in the Talcuna-1 mining area is another the connections between infrastructure works, so- sourceants (e.g. of Asreactive > 1 mg sediments L with high., concentra2013). Tail- cioeconomic activities and water quality. of As), which occasionally enter the drainage network-1 during pe- tions of pollutants (up to 340 mg kg 7. Water quality management As in the examples presented above, along the and challenges basinriods ofthere flooding. are processes that contribute to the reduction of dissolved metals and As levels, mainly due Institutional and regulatory aspects Several state institutions have important competencies and areas of action for water quality man- to the dilution of the flow originating in the El Indio agement. There are eight institutions directly in- arearea good with quality other tributaries (Floressuch as et the al La Laguna, volved (environmental institutions indicated above Incaguaz, Estero Estrecho and Claro rivers, which ., 2017). - responsible for water management issues in vari- For example, when the Turbio River meets the in addition to DGA and SISS), and other institutions Claro River (creating the Elqui River), concentra 178 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

ous contexts such as the Health Authority of the three rivers, with another six under development. - It is obviously a major challenge to establish secondary environmental quality standards for water, Health Ministry, among others. Environmental institutionality was defined on the basis of Law 20.417 of 2010 (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2015). Insti limitsconsidering on the thatdischarge the DGA of waste has approximatelyinto surface water, 100 quantitytutions such of water as the resources DGA and and SISS the perform management specific of sewagebasins in networks its cadastre. and Emissiongroundwater. standards It should include be theroles sanitary such as concession the quantification system, respectively. of the quality and

and implements political and regulatory guidelines, state-ownednoted that there mining is a specificcompany emission Codelco standard dumps liqfor- includingThe Ministry aspects of of the conservation Environment and (MMA) sustainable defines the Carén estuary – into which El Teniente from the- development, under the guidelines of the Council of denum values than for other parts of the country. Ministers for Sustainability (CMS), which proposes Althoughuid effluents the constitutionality- allowing higher of sulfate this rule and has molyb been policies to the president. One of its functions is to extensively questioned, the Constitutional Court handle standard drafts, including secondary water - threwMajor out challenges the appeal filedfor wateragainst it. environmentalquality standards. deterioration The SEA isby responsible public and private for ad quality management projects.ministering The the evaluation SEIA, a system of the projectsdesigned and to prevent admin- The following is a summary of the challenges which - it seems necessary to address to advance the goals stituting an important source of environmental in- - istrative acts of the SEIA are publicly available, con thors. From the perspective of a systemic approach, of the 2030 Agenda, from the perspective of the au- formation. Projects that undertake Environmental ter quality issues. projectImpact and Studies lists (EIA),the approved which areconditions approved for byits op the- some of the challenges extend beyond specific wa eration.SEIA, produce Appeals an againstRCA that the describes requirements the approved estab- Institutional and regulatory framework - for integrated water management isters. The SMA is responsible for the control and Over the years, water governance in Chile has been sanctionlished in anof EIAenvironmental are seen by breaches,the Committee for example, of Min plagued by institutional fragmentation, with at - ing in the generation of public water policies, the Supremeensuring thatCourt the are terms responsible established for resolvingin the RCA envi are- least 12 central government institutions participat met. Lastly, the Environmental Courts under the- ronmental Court recently decreed the annulment commonhighest number objective in to the advance region towards (OECD, in 2012). a coordi This- ronmental disputes. For example, the Third Envi natedfragmentation fashion. However, has made progress it difficult has tobeen establish made in a Valdivia river, in response to an appeal submitted byof theentities Secondary which Normconsidered for Water themselves Quality affected in the - by this norm (Tercer Tribunal Ambiental de Chile, recent years. In 2009, an interministerial committee- teewas of established Water Ministers, to coordinate coordinated the definition by the Ministry of pol issuing the norm, beginning with the point that was oficies Public for water Works issues and (OECD,comprising 2011) theand ministriesthe Commit of challenged.2017). This forced the resumption of the process of The most relevant regulations for water quality consider primary, secondary and emission stan- the Environment, Agriculture, Energy and Mining, dards. Primary quality standards include water was set up. In 2012, the National Water Resource quality standards for drinking water, irrigation, andStrategy sustainable 2012-2025 management, was established improving (Ministerio institu de- mineral water and recreation with direct contact. tionality,Obras Públicas, addressing 2012), scarcity, with five social core ideas:equity efficient and in- Secondary standards are much more recent (as of formed citizenship. During the next administration, - dards for the waters of two lakes and the basin of del Interior y Seguridad Pública-Delegación Presi- 2010), and only include environmental quality stan a National Water Policy was defined (Ministerio WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 179

ment systems, among others (Ministerio del Inte- - rior y Seguridad Pública-Delegación Presidencial dencial para los Recursos Hídricos, 2015) with four acore regulatory ideas: the framework state as a responsiblefor water resourcesand participa and strengtheningtory agent, measures the participation to address of the social water organiza deficit,- Definitionpara los Recursos of science-based Hídricos, 2015). public tions. Despite having different nuances, these pub- policies for water quality management lic policy documents recognize that the multiplici- The physical, chemical and biological processes that control water quality in Andean systems and - determine the transport, transformation and fate dinationty of institutions and management, with influence and over accordingly water resource they - management is an obstacle to efficient water coor- ly known. This is especially worrying in a context of global pollutants change, in aquaticwhere there systems is a growing are insufficient demand nowassign necessary a fundamental to advance role into binding Integrated measures Water thatRe for water resources, an increase in population and willsource effectively Management implement Water this (IWRM). concept However, at the insti it is- a wide range of anthropogenic compounds released tutional and regulatory levels. into the environment. The pressures that affect A key initiative that would facilitate integrated water quality in Chile are manifold and distribut- 10 modify- ed throughout a variety of aquatic environments - whose functioning is only beginning to be known. temmanagement of water rights is the inbill Chile, submitted recognized in 2011, as one of the Water quality is a central aspect of major con- ing the Water Code of 1981. This establishes the sys agendas, in which multiple actors and institutions most pro-market systems in the world (OECD, 2017).- intervene.flicts over The water interdependencies resources and that sustainability occur in so- ertyIWRM characteristics is therefore limitedthat are by negotiable. the pre-eminence This limits of cio-environmental systems require public policy to water use rights (WR), which have private prop consider the links between water quality and ener- long-term vision with a common welfare perspec- gy, food, ecosystem services, environmental heri- tive.the Government's It also prevents ability public to andestablish private a coordinatedactors from tage and environmental justice. The lack of public - - ter resources and jointly assuming responsibility able development and increase the tension associ- becoming involved in the definition of national wa atedpolicies with that mining consider developments, an IWRM canagricultural affect sustain activ- Although the regulations contemplate the existence ity and urban expansion. This tension is currently offor user the trade-offsorganizations, implied they by are IWRM for sections (OECD, of 2017). rivers, and fail to consider the dynamics that occur at Chile, where the largest known copper reserves in the basin level and the relationship between sur- theexemplified world are in located the Andean in the headwaters Cordillera of of the Central most face and groundwater. The proposals to modify the populated basin (Sistema Maipo-Mapocho), the re- Water Code seek to reinforce the nature of water as sources of which are used for drinking water and a national good for public use, and include aspects irrigation. Figure 4 proposes an approach for water quali- a function of public interest through their tempo- ty management, where science plays a fundamental rarysuch reductionas: limit the and temporary redistribution, extension establishing of the WR hu as- role as support for decision making. The continu- man consumption and sanitation as priority uses in ous improvement of knowledge and the monitoring of the water quality of Chile’s aquatic systems requires the participation of multiple actors to the provision and limitation of WR, forbidding the achieve a common vision, such as that presented by granting of WR in National Parks and Virgin Region- Reserves and restricting in other protected areas,- continuous feedback between conceptual models, enabling the DGA to temporarily reduce the exer quantitativethe SDGs in themodels 2030 and Agenda. water This quality is also monitoring, based on cise of WR and demand the installation of measure - derstanding of the functioning of the environment. 10. It includes substitute indications introduced by the Executive the time of preparing this document. Thewhich, development as a whole, ofshould conceptual reflect andthe commonquantitative un Branch in 2014. These were still under discussion in Congress at 180 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

models is the basis for achieving a transition from should establish robust support in the long term. more fundamental and, at the same time, operation- ment and adequate financing of these strategic lines althe understanding “statistical description” of the processes of water that quality determine to a A more comprehensive water it. The integrated, systemic vision of the processes quality monitoring system constitutes one of the bases for building adaptive Monitoring and oversight of water quality is an es- and resilient systems that adequately manage risks sential part of water quality management (Figure and pressures. The participation of different actors 4). Monitoring and surveillance should be insert- (e.g. citizen participatory monitoring) in the devel- ed into an institutional and regulatory framework opment of conceptual and quantitative models, as - well as surveillance networks, also grants greater tent with the vision, objectives and goals associat- legitimacy to the results and contributes to the de- edwith with clear the purposes sustainability associated agenda. with There IWRM, must consis also velopment of a common understanding of the sys- - tem that should serve as the basis for management. The national strategy for research, development programs,be substantial, human long-term capital trainingfinancing and with the public-pri establish- - mentvate partnerships of integrated for information the implementation management of R+D+i sys- ter resources (Consejo Nacional de Innovación para tems. This must be complemented with the partic- and innovation (R+D+i) for the sustainability of wa ipation of various actors, who will provide viability - and legitimacy for a common understanding of wa- el Desarrollo, 2016) proposed four strategic lines: (1)- ter quality, with participatory monitoring programs R+D+i for the understanding of hydrological pro and self-regulating programs for the industry, in cesses; (2) R+D+i for integral water resource man theagement sustainability ; (3) R+D+i of for water the understandingresources. The of develop aquatic- SISS, SMA, MMA). ecosystems; and (4) technological development for addition to oversight by state institutions (e.g. DGA,

Figure 4. Proposed approach for decision making and public policies designed to improve and protect water quality

VISION, COMMON AGENDA, 2030 Agenda OBJECTIVES AND GOALS Sustainable Development Goals

Spheres of action Continuous improvement of water quality tools and knowledge Actors for better understanding and legitimacy

Participatory Research and Normative monitoring development funds regulation Planning for water quality Monitoring Public Regulators Monitoring and and surveillance institutions surveillance by Human capital Public Decision state agencies training policy making Integrated Sanitary Industrial information Community Companies monitoring and system self-control Conservation Water and protection Education quality Conceptual Quantitative Academia Industry model model

Research Development and innovation Risk analysis Uncertainty analysis Decision support system

Source: compiled by the authors. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 181

The analysis of the characteristics of the quali- d. Nutrients. - ty monitoring network and the pressures on water tial to determining the loading capacities of lo- quality in Chile, together with international practic- tic systems,Understanding which will very their possibly flows is involve essen es, makes it possible to identify certain parameters adopting higher standards of nutrient removal that should be considered in the short and medium for sewage treatment plants. Measuring the dif- term in order for them to be incorporated into monitoring campaigns for water bodies either in the na- - waterferent formsbodies, of especiallynutrients intowards surface the water lakes flows in theis necessary coastal zones to determine of Chile. The the main flows sources towards of a.tional Total network alkalinity. operated by the DGA or in the fol nutrients to the rivers are typically diffuse ag- lowing NSCA surveillance plans: ricultural and urban sources, together with the by government agenciesThis parameter in developed quantifies coun the- discharge from wastewater treated in plants tries.capacity It is to important resist acidification for Chile because and is measured of the la- that do not remove N and P. The growth of pho- tent potential for the generation of acid drain- tosynthetic algae in natural waters is limited age in the northern and central basins due to by the availability of nutrients; its increase ac- the enrichment and mobilization of metal sul- celerates eutrophication and the occurrence of - cesses, as well as current and historical mining increased turbidity. fides. Acid drainage is caused by natural pro e. Chemicalperiods of qualityanoxia, leadingof sediment. to fish mortalitySediment andcan b. Fractionation between total and dissolved be a repository of pollutants in water bod- metals.activities The (e.g. toxicity the Lluta and and mobility Elqui river of metals basins). in ies, especially for metals in northern and cen- water is controlled by their chemical specia- tral Chile. Sediment has the potential to epi- tion, in other words, the chemical form in which sodically release accumulated contaminants, they occur. Dissolved metals (i.e. the fraction hydraulic works management (e.g. opening are more mobile and bioavailable than those sluices,triggered dredging), by hydrological or processes events that (e.g. alter floods), the associatedthat can pass with through particles. a membrane The latter of can 0.45 be μm) de- chemistry of sediments (e.g. spills and eutro- posited in river beds and removed under favor- phication). This is clearly seen in the cases of able hydrodynamic conditions, or temporarily accumulated in lakes and reservoirs. Manage- in previous sections, and further south, notably ment strategies for metals therefore rely heavi- the Lluta, Loa and Elqui river basins discussed ly on their fractionation between solid and dis- f. Perchlorate. This pollutant occurs together solved phases. within the nitrateAconcagua, in hyper-arid Maipo and environments,Rapel river basins. in- c. Turbidity. This is associated with the degree - of transparency water loses due to the suspension of inorganic and organic particles and is cluding desert soils (Calderon et al., 2014; Jack- used to evaluate the state of waterbodies, espe- son et al., 2015; Jackson et al., 2010; Lybrand et cially in relation to the capacity to sustain eco- ofal., northern 2016; Parker, Chile 2009; that Renner,are raw 2006). materials and, esfor systems or for recreation. Although turbidity desertpecially, fertilizers in caliche (Jackson and brine et from al the salt flats may have a natural origin, it may also indicate water quality deterioration processes, such as the thyroid gland when ingested .,at 2015; low concen Parker,- the discharge of liquid waste, neutralization of trations2009). This in drinkingcompound water alters (Crump the functioning et al of acid drainage or growth of photosynthetic al- Tellez et al gae. It can also indicate soil erosion process- Since it is highly soluble and not very., 2000;reac- es or diffuse pollution effects of urban origin. tive, it can remain., 2005). in surface and ground waters enriched by natural and anthropic processes lakes, lagoons and reservoirs, its use in surface (e.g. diffuse contamination caused by fertilizer Although it is measured in the network of 14 -

water flows is recommended. use), and is not significantly removed by typi 182 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

cal drinking water treatment processes (Srini- currence, and manage emerging contaminants, for example, through primary and/or second- contaminants, methodologies for its detection ary regulations. This involves a triple chal- vasan & Viraraghavan, 2009). As with emerging- - possible to associate occurrence with effect, so and quantification at trace levels are unavail- thatlenge: its (1) management collecting evidence is based that on riskwill andmake na it- able. In California, USA, a public health objec - concentrationstive of 1 ppb was challenge established the analytical(California perfor Envi- low measurements to be made with adequate ronmental Protection Agency, 2015). These low analyticaltional data; performance (2) have analytical and at methods an achievable that al g. Emerging contaminants. There is increas- - ingmance evidence of perchlorate of the occurrence quantification in waters methods. and/ nologies adapted to the national reality. To ad- or sediments of chemical substances with po- dresscost; andthese (3) challenges, have cost-effective the work of control universities tech tentially negative effects on human health and water systems (Petrie et al - + i policy plays a key role. ing pollutants are not considered priority pol- and research centers within an assertive R + D lutants because they are .,not 2015). included Many emergin the Sustainable technologies for water monitoring protocols, or analytical techniques quality improvement and protection are unable to detect trace concentrations, and Conventional activated sludge systems have proved therefore records of their occurrence in aquat- a good alternative for wastewater treatment in cit- ic environments are scarce (Murray et al pollutant loads in a small space (Kadlec & Knight, sewage treatment plants, industrial discharg., 2010).- ies, since they are capable of treating high flows andes,Emerging urban runoff,pollutants rainwater come fromand wasteeffluents leachate from native for rural areas, where they have sometimes (Wilkinson et al. been1996), abandoned but they are due not to necessarily operating, the maintenance best alter Once they have been discharged to the environment, they are, 2017). transported and/or undergo to evaluate other, more sustainable options in keep- chemical transformations, sorption reactions (on ingand with financing local conditionsdifficulties. and It is the therefore availability necessary of per- particulate matter, plastic microparticles, sedi- sonnel required for its operation and maintenance. ments) and bioaccumulation, and are degraded One option is natural systems which, unlike by photochemical reactions, volatilization or mi- conventional systems, are based on the interaction crobial reactions (Wilkinson et al., of their natural components (soil, vegetation and The propagation of genetic material associ- micro-organisms), for the removal of pollutants ated with resistance to antibiotics2017). is a particu- (Crites et al larly urgent issue (Carraro et al - lower investment and operating costs. Moreover, et natural systems., 2014), are ascharacterized a result of whichby using they renew haveal ., 2016; Carval able energy sources and, therefore produce fewer healthho & Santos, problem, 2016; but Martinez, it also limits2009; theVikesland reuse of greenhouse gas emissions, making them a more treated., 2017). water Not andonly digested is it a public sludge and from economic sewage sustainable alternative compared to conventional et al systems with more intensive energy use based on Murray et al fossil fuels. treatmentcontaminants plants that (e.g. have Bondarczuk been widely found., 2016). in - aquatic environments. (2010) into three organize categories, emerging for lands that imitate natural ones to treat water and each of which there is evidence of occurrence haveNatural been widelysystems used include in differentbuilt or artificialparts of wet the - used in secondary and tertiary treatment of domes- personalin Chile: care (1) industrial products. compounds, (2) pesti ticworld wastewater, (Kadlec &and Wallace, are able 2009). to remove They a are variety mainly of cides,It is and therefore (3) pharmaceutical necessary for compoundsmonitoring and pollutants including suspended solids, oxygen de- surveillance systems to systematically collect manding material, nutrients, pathogens, metals and information to identify and characterize the oc- metalloids. These systems have been successfully WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE 183

8. Conclusions implemented at the household and community lev- The complex interaction between hydrological, el, mainly for sewage and gray water treatment in geological, biological and human factors creates extremely heterogeneous hydrochemical characteristics throughout Chile. While the arid and hyper-arid various parts of Chile. Examples include a system environments of the Northern Macrozone are char- andwhose another effluent system will be that used treats to irrigate gray water an ecoplaza from a acterized by natural enrichment by dissolved salts, in San Pedro de Atacama, in the Atacama Region, metals and metalloids from hydrothermal vents, municipal level, there is a pilot system that treats metallogenic fringes and evaporite environments, school in Rungue, in the Metropolitan Region. At the to the south, the lower frequency of these sources, et al in addition to higher rainfall and runoff, generates applicationswastewater fromhave 20,000recently inhabitants been researched of Hualqui, at the in greater dilution, leading to waters with a low con- laboratorythe Biobio level,region such (Casas as wastewater Ledón from., 2017). the Local pork tent of dissolved salts and metals in the South and - Southern Macrozones. - The geomorphology of the country creates typi- lendeindustry et al(Plaza de los Reyes & Vidal, 2015) and wa cal runoff from east to west, from the headwaters of feasibleters contaminated to use them with in Chile.As and Moreover, metals (Lizama further Alef- the basins in the Andes mountain range to its outlet forts are required., 2014). This to advance evidence its indicates implementation that it is with applications other than wastewater, primarily Andean mining activity exerts pressure on the qual- considering local conditions and target quality. ityin the of the Pacific. water In resource, the North locally and Central creating Macrozones, conditions Constructed wetlands can also achieve other that encourage the mobilization of metals and met- goals, such as the recovery of ecosystems. A good example is the sentinel wetland, slated for con- in dissolved salts. The development of agricultural struction in the Carlos Anwandter Nature Sanctu- activitiesalloids, the and acidification the location of ofwaters urban and and an industrial increase centers in valleys in the Center-South zone leads to repair environmental damage due to liquid res- to an increase in the concentrations of nutrients idueary in discharges the Los Ríos from Region, the pulp as part industry. of the Themeasures main and anthropic pollutants that impair the quality of - lakes and lagoons, creating mesotrophic and eutro- pact of the waste disposal of this industry, since it phic conditions, especially in lakes and lagoons in objective of the wetland is to receive the first im coastal areas. Towards the Southern Macrozone, treatment plant before it is dumped into the Cru- low population density and socioeconomic activ- will receive tertiary treatment effluent from the ities produce waters of exceptional quality. There, incorporate representative species from the Cruces aquaculture exerts some of the greatest pressure at ces River. The wetland isTypha already angustifolia designed and(cattail) will the local level, and there is also localized pressures and Scirpus californicus (California bulrush). from livestock, mining and urban centers. RiverOther wetland, sustainable such as treatment systems corre- - spond to desalinating membrane technologies that itation in the country are high, managed through - a systemLevels of of sanitary access to service safe drinking concessions water inand urban san tive membranes to recover bioenergy (hydrogen) areas that serve the bulk of the population. Com- fromuse solar wastewater energy (Suárez(Prieto et& Urtubia,al 2016) or bioac pliance with drinking water quality standards is the high energy requirements of conventional sys- high, and there are plans to improve gaps in com- tems and the increasing water., demand2016). In by addition industri to- pliance in northern Chile through desalination. Ap- - ofal activity,rivers and the lakes implementation can encourage of Secondary the search Envi and proximately 30% of the wastewater is disposed of- implementationronmental Quality of Norms environmentally (SEQN) for thefriendly protection tech- movalthrough of submarine nutrients. Inoutfalls addition into to the improving Pacific Ocean, these nologies that will improve and protect water sourc- aspects,while only there 5% ofis treateda constant water challenge contemplates for the the san re- es for different uses. itary industry and its regulator, the SISS, to prog- 184 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CHILE

ress towards greater adaptability, resilience of the tinuously improving and legitimizing this common urban sanitary infrastructure, together with more - sustainable performance and lower rates. In rural ing and implementing more comprehensive water areas, although Chile's performance at the regional qualityunderstanding monitoring for and decision monitoring making; plans, (2) which develop in- level is good, there is still a long way to go to achieve volves improving the density, frequency and quan- full access to potable water and safe wastewater tity of parameters in a manner consistent with the management. dynamics of natural and anthropogenic pressures The development of national strategies and pol- on water quality and the responses of aquatic sys- icies for water management in recent years consid- tems. A clear example of this is the dynamics of - metals and metalloids that have natural sources come limitations arising from the fragmentation of and can be mobilized by mining activities, exerting competenceser IWRM as a and fundamental agendas between pillar, seeking different to overState pressure on the resources used to supply cities, ag- institutions. Additionally, the pursuit of common riculture and sustain aquatic ecosystems. It is also necessary to characterize the occurrence and trans- - formations of emerging pollutants with potential lishedwell-being in the with Water a long-term Code, which vision have through private IWRM prop- - conflicts with the pre-eminence of the WRs estab- velop technologies to improve and protect water cations to the Water Code under discussion will be qualityrisks for in human more sustainableand ecosystem ways, health; considering and (3) thede crucialerty characteristics to a binding, andeffective are tradable.and operative The modifiimple- water-energy-food nexus in order to have more mentation of the vision of water as a national good adaptable, resilient systems. for public use. In addition to an institutional and regulato-

there are other major challenges for the improve- 9. Acknowledgements mentry framework and protection compatible of water with quality, IWRM which in Chile, can - ence-based public policies where there is a com- monbe summarized understanding in three of the areas: processes (1) definition that regulate of sci This article was supported by the FONDAP 15110020 water quality, where the use of conceptual and and FONDECYT 1161337 projects. We are grateful for- quantitative models together with monitoring and the information provided by the DGA and SISS. We- surveillance programs are crucial to building, con- viewwould and also preparing like to thank some Guillermoof the tables Arce and and graphs. Pab lo Moya of CEDEUS for reviewing the document re

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Colombia

Colombia is one of the countries with the greatest abundance of water in the Americas. However, this enormous amount of water is located in the jungle zone of the Pacific coast and the Amazon, where barely a third of the Colombian population lives. The other two thirds of the population live in the three Andean mountain ranges and the Atlantic coast, the region where most agricultural, industrial, mining and deforestation activities are undertaken. Moreover, the industrial and domestic wastewater of 48,000,000 inhabitants is discharged untreated into rivers, raising major challenges for the future.

Mompos river margin in the district of Bolivar, Colombia © iStock 191 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

Water Quality in Colombia

Gabriel Roldán-Pérez, Claudia Patricia Campuzano Ochoa, Diego Alejandro Chalarca, Francisco José Molina Pérez, Diana Catalina Rodríguez Loaiza, Carlos Augusto Benjumea-Hoyos, Silvia Lucía Villabona-González and María Isabel Ríos-Pulgarín

1. Introduction

Colombia is located in the northwest corner of South America. It is the fourth largest coun-

try in the region after Brazil, Argentina and Peru. It is the only country in South America- with 1,600 kilometers of coastline on the Caribbean Sea and 1,300 kilometers on the Pacific country,Ocean and meaning is politically-administratively that pressure on the water divided resources into 33 of departments these cities is and fairly 1051 high. municipali ties. However, 70% of the population live in only 10 of them, which are the main cities in the be seen in Figura 1 whichFrom in turna hydrological are divided point into ofHydrographic view, Colombia Zones comprises and subdivided five hydrographic into Hydrographic areas, as Sub can- (1-Caribbean, 2- Magdalena-Cauca, 3- Orinoco, 4- Amazon and 5-Pacific), - zones (HIMAT, Resolution 0337, 1978). so thatThe itconcept maintains of water a balanced quality ecosystem is based onand the meets Water certain Framework ecological Directive quality of objectives, the Euro pean Community (EU, 2007), which defines it as the conditions that must be met in water In Colombia, the assessment of the status and trends in surface water quality conditions andwhich the go pressures beyond evaluating on pollution the potentially requirements exerted for aon particular the water use systems (IDEAM, and 2015). water bodies of -

the country has been developed by the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmen tal Studies ( IDEAM) within the framework of the National Water Studies (IDEAM, 2010 y 2015)

Gabriel Roldán-Pérez. [email protected] Chapter Coordinator. Member and Director of the Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, Medellín, Antioquia. Claudia Patricia Campuzano Ochoa. Docente, Institución Universitaria Colegio Mayor de Antio- quia, Medellín, Antioquia. Diego Alejandro Chalarca. Independent Health Engineer, Medellín, Antioquia. Francisco José Molina Pérez. Research Group in Environmental Management and Modeling (GAIA), Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Antioquia. Diana Catalina Rodrí- guez Loaiza. Professor, Sanitary Engineering Coordinator, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Antioquia. Carlos Augusto Benjumea-Ho- yos. Assistant Professor, Research Group in Limnology and Water Resources, Universidad Católica de Oriente, Rionegro, Colombia. Silvia Lucía Villabona-González. Assistant Professor, Research Group in Limnology and Water Resources, Universidad Católica de Oriente, Rione- gro, Antioquia. María Isabel Ríos-Pulgarí. Limnology and Water Resources Group, Limnology Laboratory, Universidad Católica de Oriente, Rionegro, Antioquia. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 192

This evaluation has been developed on the ba- Figure 1. Hydrographic areas of Colombia sis of the physical, chemical and biological characteristics, based on the systematic monitoring of variables measured in the national reference net- Mar caribe concentrations and loads of metals in sediments, work of the IDEAM, which includes the analysis of Panamá ammoniacal nitrogen, percentage of oxygen satu- Venezuela ration, nutrient imbalance and the Water Quality Caribe

Index (ICA) (IDEAM, 2015). Magdalena-Cauca

2. Institutional authority and governance Orinoco 2.1 Legal framework - Pacíﬁco sive and have developed since the National Code Environmental regulations in Colombia are exten Amazonas Brasil of Natural Resources in the year 1974 (Decree-Law delegated the responsibility for guaranteeing the Ecuador quality2811/1974). of water In this for document,human consumption the Colombian and for State the activities in which its use is necessary. This raised the need to control water quality, through period- Perú ic analyses of its physical, chemical and biological characteristics, in order to be suitable for the purposes for which it is intended. gestion-integral-del-recurso-hidrico/p Source: http://www.minambiente.gov.co/index.php/ aspects of water, both marine and continental, relat- Law 9 of 1979, called the Health Code, regulates- ed to the quality of water for human consumption ored whichto its purification may affect and,human in general,health. Theto issues regulatory relat by an entity of the highest administrative hierarchy, - which would be able to respond adequately to the mandates of the new Political Charter, as well as relateddecree ofto thisliquid law, discharges, 1594 of 1984 which (Compiled has been in partly Reg to the international commitments assumed by the ulatory Decree 1076 of 2015), regulates everything - repealed, by Decree 3930 of 2010 (Compiled in the country (IDEAM, 2002) - anSingle instrument Regulatory that Decree allows 1076 monitoring of 2015) and in relation pollution to try’sLaw environmental 99 of 1993 created management, the Ministry responsible of the Envi for the regulation of Water Resource Management as ronment (Art. 2) as the governing body of the coun environmental sanctioning procedure governing all recovery, conservation, protection, management, environmentalcontrol. Likewise, infringement Law 1333 of processes. 2009 established the usedefining and exploitation the policies of and renewable regulations natural to whichresources the - and the environment must be subject in order to en- - sure sustainable development. It organized the SINA rectlyThe to Politicalthe environmental Constitution issue, of 1991 thus contains raising the ap - environmentalproximately 60 issueprovisions to constitutional related directly rank. orIn viewindi ordination of the Minambiente, comprising the set of the environmental responsibilities assigned by of(the guidelines, National Environmentalstandards, activities, System), resources, under the pro co- the Constitution, the Colombian State considered grams and institutions that allow the development it necessary to create an environmental system led of the principles and rules contained in this law. 193 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

Figura 2 presents a consolidation of the information mentioned above by hydrographic area. Of of waterDecree resources 1640 of 2012as a legal (Compiled function in Decreeof the Insti 1076- - of 2015) establishes the monitoring and follow-up - Magdalena-Caucathe 476 sites where Hydrographic water quality Area has (AH),been whichmoni tute of Hydrology, Meteorology and Environmental tored in the country, 77% were carried out in the Studiesthe regional (IDEAM) level, and and INVEMARurban environmental at the national author lev- itiesel, of and regional disaster autonomous prevention corporationsand response (CAR)agencies at validated.corresponds It isto worth81% (2609) noting of that, the totalof this monitoring last per- at the local level in accordance with the functions centage,undertaken and between although 2010 AH andMagdalena 2014, which Cauca could is the be

the information had not been consolidated in the 2.2established Monitoring in Decree Water 1323 of quality 2007. in Colombia most highly monitored area in the country, 44% of- According to a study carried out by the CTA (Tech- ity information generated in the country has not beenSIRH, disclosed showing thatto the a high public. percentage of water qual carried out an evaluation, validation and consoli- The problem of monitoring water quality at the dationnology of Center water ofquality Antioquia) information in 2015, in thelotic IDEAM water national and regional levels lies in the limited coverage of measurement points of physicochemical variables in the various water bodies in the coun- bodies of Colombia (IDEAM, 2015b), in which two- main sources of information were considered: the- and monitor the possible effects caused by anthrop- first was created at the national level by the IDE ictry, activities. which is insufficient to have a baseline, evaluate byAM the through reference the National network Water established Resources for the Monitor water - qualitying Plan component (PNMRH) (2010-2022 and the National Plan) and Water supported Study IDEAM currently operates and maintains a to tal network of 4667 monitoring stations for water- 2014 (IDEAM, 2015a). The second, was compiled at resources, of which 3091 are meteorological (66%),- the regional level, with the database from 2010 to 1327 are hydrological (29%), 96 are hydro-meteo 2014 consolidated in the Integrated Water Resource- rological (2%) and 153 analyze surface water qual System (SIRH) based on the information reported- ity (3%). These stations are distributed among the- mentalby the CARs, Authorities together for with a period the information of evaluation consol from ter11 operating quality monitorings areas covering were the carried entire out, country. of which At idated from different databases from the Environ these 153 stations, between 2010 and 2014, 476 wa- - 2010 to 2013, which had not yet been reported to the 77.0% were conducted in the Magdalena-Cauca Hy SIRH. The regional information was compiled, pro- drographic Area (HA), 15.0% in the Orinoco HA, atecessed statistical and validated analysis byof surfacethe National water University quality. Con of- 4,0%The in theabove Caribbean shows that Hydrographic one of the mainArea problems and 2.0% Colombia within the framework of the “Multivari forin the determining Pacific and the Amazon status HA. of surface water quality - in Colombia is the limited coverage of the sites for AMtract consolidated 428-12” project water (IDEAM quality and UN,information 2014). from monitoring the physicochemical, microbiological From the databases mentioned earlier, the IDE and hydrobiological variables in the various water - 4195 specific monitorings carried out in the country- baseline, evaluate and monitor the possible effects between 2010 and 2014. However, only 77% of the in bodies of the country, which is insufficient to have a formation, in other words, 3229 monitorings under- Pollution pressures on the country's water sys- ed,taken presented in 476 sites, information distributed that in could 108 Hydrographic be validated temscaused and by water anthropic bodies activities are analyzed (CTA, 2017). on the basis of forSubzones its potential of the 311future into use. which Some the ofcountry the validation is divid criteria were aspects such as georeferencing and by the industrial, domestic, livestock slaughter and coherence in the ranges of variation of the results coffeethe estimation processing of specific sectors. pollutant This estimate loads isdischarged made for reported for some of the physicochemical variables each of the variables comprising the Potential Al-

(IDEAM, 2015b). teration Index of Water Quality (IACAL): Biological WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 194

from the water supply system of a population after COD, Total Suspended Solids TSS, Total Nitrogen TN - andOxygen Total Demand Phosphorus BOD, TP. Chemical Oxygen Demand - having been modified by different uses -in domes ing in gold and silver mining and the chemical sub- thetic, industrialsewerage andsystem community to be sent activities- to a wastewa (Rolim,- stancesLikewise, used in the agriculture pressure is from also determined. mercury dump ter2000), treatment which plant are subsequently (WWTP). Proper collected wastewater through In Colombia there is a lack of coverage of labo- treatment and disposal requires knowledge of its physical, chemical and microbiological characteristics and the effects these can have on the receiving ratories accredited with IDEAM for the analysis of- certain water parameters under the NTC-ISO-IEC- In Colombia, the most up-to-date, comprehen- 17025:2005 norm. By 2016, there were 138 accredit bodysive assessment(Romero, 2004). of the discharge of wastewater Caribbeaned laboratories, HA, four 123 (89%)in the of Orinoquía which are HA in theand Mag one - dalena-Cauca HA, six in the Pacific HA, four in the - formationinto water used bodies has was gaps conducted and corresponds in the 2014 to Nadif- establishedin the Amazon in the HA. ICA Of (dissolved these 138 oxygenlaboratories, saturation, only tional Water Study (IDEAM, 2014). However, the in total15% havesuspended accredited solids, the chemicalwater quality oxygen parameters demand, total nitrogen/total phosphorus ratio, pH, electrical wastewaterferent years from (2008 coffee for domestic processing wastewater, and livestock 2010 slaughter),for industrial which wastewater, constitutes 2012 fora limitationthe discharge when of This raises the need to strengthen the infra- evaluating the problem of wastewater in Colom- structureconductivity and and equipment fecal coliforms) required (CTA, for regional 2017). wa- bia. At the same time, the National Development ter quality monitoring. This includes strengthening the accreditation process of water laboratories and to increase the percentage of treated wastewater establishing protocols and procedures that comply Plan 2010-2014 “Prosperity for All” was designed - (Superintendencia de Servicios Públicos Domicili- tems in the country. from 27.5% to 36% during this four-year period- with the guidelines of the Quality Management Sys tion of new treatment plants, optimization of cur- rentarios plants –SSPD– and 2014). sanitation This would investment entail the plans, construc which 3. Problems that affect water quality would make it possible to improve the quality of the water in receiving bodies. 3.1. Wastewater Wastewater creation is an inevitable product of hu- - bia areAccording domestic to thewastewater National andWater industrial Study (IDEAM, waste- 2014), the main sources of water pollution in Colom man activity. It can be defined as the waters coming Figure 2. Number of sites monitored and number of monitorings carried out in each of the hydrographic areas of Colombia between 2010 and 2014

Número de sitios monitoreados 2010-2014 Número de sitios monitoreados 2010-2014

IDEAM SIRH Otros 21 IDEAM SIRH Otros 1206 1143

262 260 43 2 42 12 10 66 0 2 0 3 3 0 1 46 0 24 0 4 21 0 2

AH Pacíﬁco AH Orinoco AH Caribe AH Amazonas AH Magdalena- AH Pacíﬁco AH Orinoco AH Caribe AH Amazonas AH Magdalena- Cauca Cauca

Source: CTA, 2017. 195 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

water, mainly from cattle slaughter, coffee process- 2 ing, mercury dumping in mining, chemical use for warning signal for each case. crops and the use of agrochemicals, where most of shows the values in each classification and the the components present usually consist of organic - matter, nutrients, metals, microorganisms and sus- According to studies conducted by the IDEAM pended solids. (2012), the WQI of 153 water courses was calculat ed in 226 stations in Colombia, within which 36% Water Quality Index (ICA) of the water flows yielded ICA values between 0.71- 0.83, indicating that they are sources of acceptable water; 41% of the water courses obtained a WQI of ratesAccording the water to IDEAM quality (2011), of a surfacethe Water stream, Quality in termsIndex between 0.51-0.70 indicating average water quality;- (ICA) is the numerical value between 0 and 1, which 22% of the water flows obtained a WQI of between 0.27 and 0.50, indicating poor water quality condi physicochemicalof human well-being, variables regardless recorded of its in use. monitoring Based on tions; and lastly 1% obtained a WQI classified as- the measurements obtained for a set of five (or six) very bad, corresponding to Bogotá River current at- sociatedthe Alicachín with eldischarges Salto station. from The dumps Bogotá in largeand Sog cit- chemicalstation j at oxygen time t, demand,the WQI calculationelectrical conductivity,includes the amoso rivers showed low WQI values, which is as weighting of six (6) variables: dissolved oxygen,- ies. Conversely, the highest WQI (0.86) was found Tabletotal suspended 1. solids, pH and NT/PT ratio (IDE in Sombrerillos River, in the San Agustín sector of AM, 2014). The weights in each case are shown in ElIndex Huila. of the potential alteration of IACAL water quality The final results are classified according to the - value obtained by the WQI of 0 -1, where valuesTable - close to 0 are indicative of poor water quality while The Potential Alteration Index of Water Quality (IA those close to 1 indicates good water quality. CAL) refers to the pressure on water quality con

Table 1. Variables and weights of the six variables for ICA Variable Unit of Measurement Weighing Dissolved oxygen (DO) 0,17 Total suspended solids (SST) 0,17 % saturation Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 0,17 mg/L NT/PT - 0,17 mg/L 0,17 pH Electric conductivity (CE) μS/cm Ph Units 0,15 Source: IDEAM, 2011. Table 2. Water quality rating according to the final results of the WQA ICA result Water quality classification Warning sign Very bad Poor Orange 0,00 – 0,25 Red Average 0,26 – 0,50 Acceptable 0,51 – 0,70 Yellow 0,71 – 0,90 Green 0,91 – 1,00 Buena Blue Source: IDEAM, 2011. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 196

Figure 3. Design flows and treatment in the main departments of Colombia

10000

000

6000

Caudal (Ls) 4000

2000

0 Cauca Choco Tolima Guajira Córdoba Atlantico Antioquia Santander

Valle del Cauca Valle Departamento

Source: Modified from SSPD, 2014 ditions in the country's surface water systems. It On the other hand, to date only the department is evaluated on the basis of the average of the hi- erarchies assigned to the pollutant loads of organic treatment plants is greater than the design (Figura matter, suspended solids and nutrients, produced 3of), Córdoba which requires has recorded investment that the plans flow for treated infrastruc by theture to guarantee its adequacy and improvement. - The other plants in the remaining municipalities nicipalitiesby the domestic and the sector agricultural in 1099 municipalitiessector (coffee and - the industrial sector (to 4 ISIC23 digits) of 186 mu ation since it can guarantee the treatment of dump- Overview of wastewater treatment in Colombia ingstill for do anot few exceed more years,the design which flows, means a positivebetter condi situ- cocaAccording crops) (IDEAM, to the Superintendency2011). of Public Do- tions for water quality. - nicipalities have wastewater treatment systems, and industrial and coffee sectors (Figura 4) was mestic Services (SSPD) (2014), in Colombia, 492 mu- The total BOD load generated by the domestic was removed through wastewater treatment. This equivalent to only 44% of the total number of mu- meansestimated that at the 819,235 biodegradable tons per year,organic 11% load of which dis- itation,nicipalities handling (1,122 of municipalities discharges and registered water quality in the of DANE in 2012), reflecting a serious problem of san charged into water systems in Colombia in 2008 the receiving bodies. These 492 municipalities have amounted to 729,300 tons, equivalent to 2026 tons 620 treatment plants, of which: 29 are preliminary per day. The domestic sector contributed 65% of treatment plants, accounting for 4.68% of the total, the total BOD contaminant load; industry, 29%; and with an average treated volume of 69.30 L/s; 86 are demandthe coffee (COD) sector, discharged 6%. The domestic into the sector country's removed wa- primary treatment plants (13.87% of the total), with 16% of the BOD. The total load of chemical oxygen an average treated volume of 109,933.84 L/s; 365 are secondary treatment plants (58.87% of the total), ter bodies in 2008 was estimated at 1,618,200 tons, with an average flow of 12,735.88 L/s; 2 are tertiary equivalent to 4,500 tons/day. Of this pollutinget al load, areplants no longer(0.32% operating.of the total) with a flow of 2.80 L/s; Thethe industrydomestic contributed sector (municipal 39%; the wastewater)domestic sector, ac- and, finally, 138 plants do not record information or 58%; and the coffee sector, 3% (Orjuela ., 2010). 197 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

counts for most of the dumping of the organic load Phosphorus and Potassium). One of the possible in the country, followed by the industrial sector. impacts caused by the uncontrolled demand for fer- This panorama, accompanied by the low reductions tilizers when the latter reach water bodies due to of these contributions for wastewater treatment, creates the need for enormous future efforts in the causing a decrease in dissolved oxygen and the dewater sanitation sector, not only in the construction teriorationrunoff, is the of eutrophication aquatic fauna. of surface water flows, of new infrastructure, but also in the optimization of existing infrastructure and the application of new - paradigms such as wastewater recovery and use. The ENA (2014) has determined two indicators - associated with water quality: the Potential Alter - theation Figura Index 5. of Water Quality (IACAL) and the Water ry dischargedIn 2012, in 179into municipalities soil and water (of was the estimated, 1100) locat of Quality Index (ICA), whose results are observed in ed in 15 departments, a load of 205 tons of mercu- 3.2 Agrochemicals - Historically, agriculture has been the main axis for mentswhich 27.5%with the corresponds highest gold to andits use silver for productionsilver pro cessing and 72.5% for gold processing. The depart- - riculturethe development contributes of countries to the general(Pingali, development2006). In this are Antioquia with 42% and 53% respectively, fol respect, the World Bank (2008) emphasizes that ag lowed by Chocó with 37% and 24% and Bolívar with- means of subsistence and an environmental service 6% of gold, Caldas with 3% of gold and 13% of silver. of nations in three ways: as an economic activity, a- Likewise, the highest use of mercury for gold pro cessingThe isestimated found in potentialthe departments demand of for Bolívar fertilizers (304 provider. In 2012, Colombia consolidated its posi t.), Chocó (195 t) and Antioquia (170 t) (MADS, 2012).- tion as the fifth largest economy in Latin America - and,In in terms this context, of water agriculture resources, accounted the main pollutants for 7% of in 2012 was about 2,516,084 tons in solid presen atthe the country’s agricultural GDP (OECD,level are 2014). animal waste, antibiot- tation and 2,915 thousand liters in liquid formula tions, mostly (37.5%) NPK compounds (Nitrogen,

Figure 4. Polluting loads potentially discharged into water sources in Colombia (t/year), year 2012

1.00.000

1.600.000

1.400.000

1.200.000

1.000.000

00.000

600.000

Cargas taño Cargas contaminantes 400.000

200.000

0 DBOS DQO SST NT PT Café 20.54 26.5 16.663

Industria 213.5 626.00 4.00 20.216 2.24

Doméstico 522.43 1.021.21 1.034.323 106.13 2.66

Source: IDEAM, 2015. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 198

Figure 5. Indices associated with Water Quality in Colombia

Potential Alteration Index of Water Quality Water Quality Index

Source: IDEAM, 2015. ics, hormones, fertilizers and pesticides used to fu- - cides, used for the eradication of pests that attack the Ongoal the of other reaching hand, 75% illegal of containerscrops require collected the appli in- cropsmigate and fodder animals. crops Thus (FAO, Colombia 2012), as is well positioned as insecti as 2019 (OECD, 2014). one of the main consumers of chemical fertilizers in in the crop itself and in the efforts to eradicate them. - Acation good of example significant is aerial amounts and of manual agrochemicals, fumigation both of coca crops using glyphosate. In coca crops, an appli- forLatin crops America, is lost, where mainly it isthrough estimated runoff that and approxi leaching,mately which 70% results of the innitrogen an increase and phosphorus in the eutrophi used- cation of pesticides of 344,000 k powder and 677,000 reform, VAT for fertilizers and pesticides was elim- liters in liquid form was estimated for 2012 (IDEAM, inated,cation ofleading water to bodies. the excessive Moreover, use in of thethese 2012 prod tax- there2015). isPesticides obviously used no accuratein drug precursors information are available illegally ucts, creating a subsidy with a negative impact on trafficked from Ecuador, Peru and Brazil; for which - sectors(Ministry to of the the environment,Environment, 2000).contributing, among the environment (OECD, 2014). In 2007, the regula Livestock activity is among the most harmful- packagingtion called “Extendedand expired liability pesticides. of the This REP regulationproducer” lombia, according to the Agustín Codazzi y Corpo- obligeswas implemented, producers toinitially remove in used the fieldcontainers, of pesticide with other aspects, to water pollution (FAO, 2012). In Co

ica Geographic Institute (2002), about 45% of the 199 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

area or consumption per region or department. et al - territorytion has led is usedto the for elimination cattle activity, of forests, 96.2% causing extensive an - andenormous 3.8% intensive impact on (Cuenca the environment . , 2008). particularly This situa These information gaps make it difficult to identify because of the application of fertilizers and pesti- risksTabla and prioritize3 presents solutions the production (Ministry and of sale the in Envi Co- cides to control pests that affect pastures. ronment, 2000). - ing to their presentation in powder or solution, in- Production and sale of chemical pesticides lombia of pesticides and fertilizers for 2013 accord for agricultural use production is sold in powder and solution in Co- Data provided by the Colombian Agricultural Insti- lombiadicating respectively; that on average, the remaining 63% and 73% percentages of pesticide are tute (ICA) make it possible to measure the degree intended for export. - At the same time, an analysis of the evolution of istics of rainfall, richness of the water system and Fig- of pesticide use in Colombia. Given the character- ura 6) shows that historically, the most commonly lihood that these substances reach water bodies, soldthe sale presentation of pesticides is liquids, in the perhapsperiod 2008-2013 because of ( the bothways surfaceof using and pesticides, underground. there is A aclear significant example like of ease of handling and application, compared with this is the chemical characteristics of pesticides, the solid presentation, which requires more expen- which makes them persistent pollutants that resist sive prior preparation. photochemical, chemical and biochemical degrada- Tabla 4 shows the percentage share by use for tion to varying degrees, meaning that they can have the chemical pesticides produced and sold in Colom- a long average life in the environment (Malato et al., are commercialized in solid form, whereas herbi- cidesbia in are 2013. mainly This commercialized table shows that in mostliquid fungicidesform. to2001, identify Albert, the 1998, behavior and Tomin, of pesticides 1997). However, with respect in the toavailable consumption statistics, per there crop, are consumption no specific indicators per unit Tabla 5) in- The main active ingredients classified by type of use and marketed in Colombia in 2013 (

Table 3. Production and sale of chemical pesticides and fertilizers for agricultural use in 2013 Powder or granular (kg) Solution (L) Input Production Sale Production Sale Pesticides Fertilizers 16.593.118 10.458.747 61.876.753 45.384.728 1.429.851.104 1.671.955.457 1.802.289 2.617.340 Source: ICA, 2014.

Figure 6. Evolution of sale of pesticides in Colombia 2008-2013

50.000.000 40.000.000 30.000.000

20.000.000 10.000.000 0 200 200 2010 2011 2012 2013

Polvo (kg) Solución (L) WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 200

Table 4. Classification of pesticides produced and sold in Colombia by type of action in 2013 Solid presentation (%) Liquid presentation (%) Type of action Production Sale Production Sale Fungicides Insecticides 24,73 88,74 63,66 24,97 17,48 Herbicides 0,34 11,04 10,64 22,28 14,99 49,94 63,64 Source: ICA, 2014. clude active substances such as Chlorpyrifos, Man- Table 5. Main active ingredients sold in Colombia in 2013 - Action Active ingredient kg L phosphorus insecticide, considered a neurotoxin Insecticides Chlorpyrifos thatcozeb irreversibly and Glyphosate. inhibits Chlorpyrifos the Acetylcholinesterase is an organo 1.707.363 2.961.488 Paraquat - the central nervous system in humans and insects. Glyphosate 126.294 9.606.238 Mancozebenzyme (AChE), is a low-cost essential fungicide for the with functioning a high action of Propanil Herbicides 2.920.678 spectrum, frequently used in soils for growing veg- 2,4-D 96.394 1.696.440 etables and certain tubers. Its main environmen- Aminopyralid + 2,4-D - 24.264 3.296.486 tal problem is that it rapidly degrades into a more Picloram + acid 2,4 D - 2.744.117 - 2.246.066 Fungicides Mancozeb cinogenic, teratogenic and mutagenic characteris- ticstoxic (Domínguez metabolite: et Ethylenethiourea al (ETU) has car 2.786.243 3.108.146 a herbicide commonly used for the eradication of Source: ICA, 2014. coca crops. ., 2009). Lastly, glyphosate is

Environmental impact phates, carbamates and dithiocarbamates, pyre- - throids, among others). Accordingly, pesticides Accordingtected in water to the currents National in areas Water near Study its (IDEAM,applica- used as indicators should usually be selected on 2015),tion, increasing a greater presencethe risk ofof poisoningpesticides viahas water been defor the basis of their use, physical-chemical properties et al., The mainland Caribbean region in Colombia re- human consumption and affecting flora and fauna. andis that persistence the amount in theof theseenvironment pollutants (Narváez transported the population, industry and major crops (pota- to2012). the waterAnother body restriction is usually on small monitoring and its concentra pesticides- toes,ceives grasses, approximately plantain, 90% sugar of thecane, liquid coffee waste and fromveg- tions are at the level of traces and sub-traces and, etables), whereas the Cauca and Magdalena river lastly, pesticides can degrade in natural environ- basins concentrate the population settled in the ments forming degradation products, due to hydro- - lysis, photolysis, rust-reduction and biodegradation - et al - trientsAndean (Nitrogen and Caribbean and Phosphorus)regions (Ministry creates of the eutro En- dition to monitoring parental substances, to eval- phicationvironment, processes 2000). In while this region, the misuse the excessof pesticides of nu uate(Narváez the main., 2012).degradation It is therefore products essential, of the inpesti ad- negatively affects non-target control species (Min- cides selected as indicators, because in many cases they are more toxic and persistent than the original substances. Monitoringistry of the Environment, alternatives 2000). The qualitative and quantitative evaluation of pes- 3.3 Eutrophication ticides in water bodies is a complex task because a - wide variety of substances are used (organophos- systems are enriched with nutrients from main- Eutrophication is the process whereby aquatic eco 201 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

ly domestic and agricultural sources, the most im- Possible solutions portant of which are nitrogen and phosphorus The point is to prevent the entry of nutrients into (Figura 7). aquatic ecosystems through proper watershed management. for waters to be full of nutrients, because that could lead At to first higher sight, primary it might productivity, seem that it wouldbut the be situa good- show the status of eutrophication in order to ap- tion is not that simple. The problem is that if there Limnological studies should be undertaken to are excess nutrients, phytoplankton and aquatic plants grow in abundance, leading to an imbalance dangerply corrective of intoxication measures. for These large include: areas havethe use been of of respiration and photosynthesis in the ecosystem, proven–,weed killers the mechanical –even though removal their inefficiencyof vegetation-so and with oxygen loss at night and over-saturation in the aeration -which in large areas is neither effective organic matter, which requires heavy oxygen con- norfar thepractical most ( effective,Figure 10 but). expensive-and artificial sumption,day. Excess which biomass produces leads to gases the decompositionsuch as methane of Impact of eutrophication on the structure of environments, which prevent the normal develop- planktonic communities in Colombia and hydrogen sulfide, causing bad odors and anoxic Tropical aquatic ecosystems are naturally susceptible to eutrophication processes when subjected Eutrophicationment of aquatic fauna Sources (Roldán and Ramírez, 2008). to high average annual temperatures, which pro- Most eutrophication sources are the result of an- mote periods of intense, constant biological activity thropic activities such as domestic and industrial wastewater, pesticide sprays, fertilizers in agricul- Studies on the lentic ecosystems of the country ture, aquaculture practices and mining activities subjected(Northcote, to 1991). eutrophication processes by direct and (Figure 8). indirect impacts such as urban, industrial and agricultural discharges and processes of land clearance, Effects of eutrophication Some effects of eutrophication are the mortality planktonic communities with low taxa representa- deforestation and the alteration of flows, have found the invasion of lakes and reservoirs by aquatic veg- - etationof fish dueand to phytoplankton the lack of oxygen blooms. during Due the to night,these tivelytiveness occupy (phytoplankton: a broad spectrum 21 species, of niches zooplankton: and mo- 10 species), dominated by a few species that effec

problems, numerous cases of fish mortality have nopolizeThus, available phytoplankton resources taxa (Rodríguez-Sambrano associated with eu- recently occurred in Colombia, mainlyFigure in 9 the). River trophicand Aranguren-Riaño, conditions such 2014). as Coelastrum microporum Magdalena, Betania Reservoir, Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta and the River Porce ( Figure 7. Types of eutrophication in lakes and reservoirs Oligotrophic lagoon Mesotrophic reservoir Eutrophic lagoon Hypereutrophic reservoir

Photos: G. Roldán. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 202

Figure 8. Eutrophication sources in lakes and reservoirs Wastewater Aerial spraying * Aquaculture Alluvial mining

Photos: G. Roldán. *Aerial spraying photo: fumigacionesx.blogspot.com/p/consecuencias.html

Figure 9. Effects of eutrophication on lakes and reservoirs

* Fish mortality Development of aquatic vegetation Phytoplankton Bloom

Photos: G. Roldán. *Source: Internet. Figure 10. Some remedies for eutrophication

Physical and chemical studies Study of vegetation Control with herbicides * Mechanical removal Aeration

Photos: G. Roldan. *Source: Internet.

(Clorophyta), Euglena sp., Trachelomonas volvocina Microcystis and Scenedesmus - Ceratium furcoides ( Dinophyta) Within zooplankton, density, in generaland in some (Vásquez, cas- (Euglenophyta) (Rodríguez-Sambranoet al Dactylococcopsis and Aran esAriza biomass and Pinilla, has been 2006) dominated have been found.by rotifers such acicularisguren-Riaño, (Cyanophyta), 2014), as well as genera such as as Asplanchna girodi and Keratella tropica, cla- (Bustamante-Gil ., 2012) and 203 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

Figure 11. Food webs show that the flow of energy, carbon and nutrients may be stored in phytoplankton

Photographs of zooplankton: Silvia Villabona González, Mónica Tatiana López and Cristina Gil, Universidad Católica de Oriente.

docerans such as Bosmina longirostris (possibly et al - B. freyi) and Ceriodaphnia cornuta and copepods - such as Metacyclops mendocinum and Thermocy- ., 2015, López-Muñoz, Ramírez-Restrepo, Pala clops decipiens cio-Baena, Echenique, De Mattos-Bicudo and Par- cantlyra-García, limits 2016). the totality of the ecosystem services (Guevara, Lozano, Reinoso and Villa, theseThe aquatic impact systems of eutrophication can provide, obviously in response signifi to 2009, Rodríguez-Sambrano and Aranguren-Riaño,- the gradual loss at a spatio-temporal level of the po- 2014, Villabona-González, Buitrago-Amariles, tential of the water supply and the hydrobiological Ramírez-Restrepo and Palacio-Baena, 2014, Villabo resources that may be generated. zooplanktonna-González, biomass,Ramírez-Restrepo, especially Palacio-Baenathat of microcrus and- taceans,Costa Bonecker, is affected 2015). by Iteutrophication has also been reportedprocesses, that as 3.4 Ecological effects this increases with the trophic state and at the same Hydrology is a very important factor in the integrity time, coincides with the increase in phytoplankton of aquatic ecosystems, since it determines aspects biomass (Villabona et al of the hydraulics, geomorphology and physico- - chemistry of the waters and, therefore, the ecology ., 2015). of the system. Some studies on water resources in storedRegarding by phytoplankton food webs, itis wasmainly found oriented that it isto pos the Colombia have shown the importance of this factor detriticsible that pathway the flow and of dissolvedenergy, carbon substances and nutrients and that in the conservation of both water and aquatic eco- therefore the latter are the main source of carbon systems, as well as the extent of the threat it fac- for zooplankton (Figura 11

) (Villabona-González es. The Humboldt Institute (Colombia anfibia, 2016) WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 204

assessed the degree of transformation of Colombi- et al regarding the response patterns of the various local - aquaticRíos-Pulgarín communities ., (2016). has led This to lackthe ofgeneralization information ancially wetlands, in the center-westshowing that of 24.2% the country, (corresponding and iden toof patterns found in other systems, which fail to 7,332,656 ha) of these have been transformed, espe take into account regional particularities and create demand, pollution, land overuse and loss and/or a lack of congruence between the scale of ecological tifying four major drivers of transformation: water- knowledge and the scale on which management efforts, and river management, conservation and res- correspondmodification to of this the lastecosystem. driver, which,The impacts according associ to theated study, with ishydrological the main one change in the (alteration Colombian of interior flows) Other environmental variables associated with wetlands, particularly the inter-Andean valleys and thetoration water are cycle, undertaken such as dissolved (Ríos-Pulgarín, oxygen, 2015). are heav- the plains of the eastern plains, followed by coastal lagoons and mangroves. - In the neotropical Andean rivers, little is known nomena,ily influenced which by affects the cyclical regional occurrence hydrological of condi the El- tions,Niño and with La complex Niña / Pacificeffects Oscillation on fresh water (ENSO) ecosys phe- chemical variables associated with the water cycle et al. (aboutFigure the 12 ), relative except for influence a few studies of the such physical as those and tems (Blanco, 2003). Studies by Ríos-Pulgarín et al et al (2016) conclude that climatic variability related to by Lowe-McConnell, 1979, 1999; Rivera-Rendón water,ENSO isin associatedAndean piedmont with a substantial rivers, but withvariation specif in- ., (2004); Pouilly ., (2006); Domínguez the flow, temperature and chemical composition of and Fernández (2009); Ríos-Pulgarín (2015) and

Figure 12. General model of the relationship between the variability of the flows in an Andean river and certain ecological aspects defining the structure of the aquatic community throughout the water cycle Disturbio Hidrológico 50 Lluvias Sequía

35 Transición: inestabilidad Transición:

Conectividad lateral y longitudinal, 30 Exposición de sustrato acceso a vegetación rivereña

seg Incremento de hábitat en el canal 3 Incremento de hábitat marginales

m Incremento de las temperaturas 25 Disminución de temperaturas Disminución de velocidad, arrastre y abrasión Incremento de velocidad, arrastre y abrasión 20

Condición A de la comunidad acuática Condición B de la comunidad acuática 15

10 Resistencia

Composición, estructura y función 5 de la comunidad acuática

Resiliencia 0 Ene Feb Mar Abr May Jun Jul Ago Sep Oct Nov Dic 205 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

ic characteristics for torrential rivers in basins with volcanic deposits. limits the colonization of more unstable substrates to the frequency or etmagnitude al of the flood, which - Regarding its biological effects, it has been- ity(Blanco, due to 2003, the Biggschange of., species,2005). However, which alters for many the shownversity thatof benthic floods invertebratesduring the wet in phase both Andeanof the ENSO riv- compositiongroups, diversity depending values doon notthe reflectadaptations the variabil to dif- (La Niña) phenomenonet al reduce the number and di ferent conditions, but it does not affect the wealth of species. ers (Ríos-Pulgarín ., 2016) and those in Nuevo onMéxico the local (Moles, frequency 1990), of and the that latter. the One recovery of the ratefew 3.5 Deforestation studiesafter floods carried by theout communitiesin the Andean seems region to on depend these In Colombia, deforestation has increased in recent effects was undertaken on a dry forest stream in the Colombian western mountain range during the to expand. Some of the activities associated with thisyears goal due include to the “needs”the expansion and human of the beings’ agricultur drive- et al al frontier, the establishment of monocultures, the ENSO events of 1997-1999 (Blanco, 2003) and the food needs associated with population growth, the study by Ríos-Pulgarín . (2016) in the Guarinó overexploitation of mineral resources and the es- foundRiver, inspatial the foothills variability of the in centralthe response mountain of associ range,- tablishment of illicit crops. The expansion of the ationsduring of the aquatic ENSO organisms. period 2007-2010. In particular, These the studies study agricultural and livestock frontier, together with et al - Colombia, altering the climate and the water, car- by Ríos-Pulgarín . (2016) identified changes in- colonization, account for 73% ofet deforestation al in riod,the associations but with different of fish, macroinvertebratesresponses between benthicand pe The deforestation of tropical forests obvious- andriphyton ichthyofauna that were communities. directly related Maximum to the ENSO values pe of lybon poses and nitrogenan enormous cycles threat, (Romero with adverse., 2008). conse - quences for all levels of the ecological relationship - with which it interacts. These include the physico- tivelyabundance stable of hydrological ficoperifiton conditions, and macroinvertebrates less depth and chemical and biotic quality of the water in the var- lessoccurred turbidity, during which El Niño promotes (2009-2010), photosynthesis due to rela and ious basins affected by this problem. It is striking - how various studies by the environmental author- - ities - the Institute of Hydrology, Meteorology and fectedhigher thetemperatures. benthos due Although to increased high flowstrawling. encour The aged fish due to increased habitat supply, they af - Environmental Studies (IDEAM), the Alexander increase in flows specifically affects abundance due von Humboldt Research Institute of Biological Re

Table 6. Evolution of deforestation in Colombia Surface Covered Deforested Annual Deforestation Period by Natural Forest (ha) area (ha) Average (ha/yr)

2000 1990 64.128.972 2000 2.654.584 265.458 61.474.388 61.811.060 1.578.176 315.635 2005 60.232.884 1.410.137 2010 2005 60.449.256 2010 282.027 59.039.119 2012 60.036.759 2012 332.139 166.070 59.704.620 2013 58.936.251 120.934 120.934 58.815.317 Source: IDEAM (2014) WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 206

Figure 13. Map showing deforestation in Colombia between 1990 and 2016

1990 2016

Source: IDEAM, 2014. sources and other agencies concerned to natural regional trend detected by the early warning sys- sources – show a rise in deforestation rates in the country (Figure 13 tem for deforestation shows that in 2014, 70% was- ) Table 6 shows the evolution of concentrated in seven departments: Putumayo, deforestation between 1990 and 2013. - Caquetá, Nariño, Meta, Chocó, Antioquia and Guav uralAccording forest with to anthe annualized IDEAM, in averagethe period of betweenapproxi- sectorization,iare (IDEAM, 2015). indicate annual deforestation rates in 1990 and 2013, the countryTabla lost 6,095,3126). ha of nat Some other studies, with a more specific level of- Data generated by the Forest and Carbon Mon- eas of high population growth of the high Putumayo mately 265,000 ha a year ( the Colombian Amazon of 3.73 and 0.97% in the ar deforestation rate has decreased, the most critical in the relatively sparsely populated areas of the in- itoring System (SMBYC), shows that the annualized and Macarena, respectively, and 0, 31, 0.23 and 0.01%- - doperiod et al being 2000-2005, which saw a loss of -0.52%, digenous population (Armenteras, Rudas, Rodrí- as opposedThe Forest to -0.21% and Carbon registered Monitoring in 2012-2013 System (Galin (SM- moteguez, Suasensing and andRomero, geographic 2006). Theseinformation figures systems. amount ., 2014). to a Deforestationtotal area of 4,200,000 in Colombia ha, identified is a process through that has re Warning for Deforestation (AT-D), a tool for taking been galvanized by various direct or indirect caus- actionsBYC and to IDEAM)reduce deforestation periodically in releases Colombia. the These Early es. The determinants of this phenomenon are main- reports are drawn up on the basis of images from ly economic and related to processes of adjusting remote sensors. At the departmental level, the re- -

the productive forces in the country, namely: pas 207 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

tures, and the expansion and control of illicit crops, been produced due to forest separation in the past to deforestation; 482 tons (T) of sediments have agroindustrialIn Colombia, expansion, the departments among with others a magnitude (IDEAM, INVEMAR, SINCHI, IIAP, IAvH, 2016). three decades. Erosion rates in the Magdalena Cesar, Caldas, Córdoba, Cundinamarca, Santand- drainage basin increased by 33% between 1972 andof erosion of more than 70% of their total area are: vere2010, erosion increasing conditions the sediment due partly load ofto the riverremoval by 44 of T/year. Much of the river basin (79%) is under se er, La Guajira, Atlántico, Magdalena, Sucre, Tolima, islandQuindío, area Huila of Colombia-and Boyacá. have In somegeneral degree terms, of 40% soil moreAll than these 70% allochthonous of natural forests contributions between 1980 of sedi and- degradation-equivalent todue 45,379,058 to erosion. ha Of ofthis the part mainland of the affect and- ments2010 (Restrepo, lead to a Kettner,decrease Syvitski, in the environmental 2015). and physicochemical quality of the water sources. This is associated with the high levels of turbidity pro- ed territory, 20% (22,821,889 ha) has slight erosion, duced in the receiving sources and the ecological, 17% (19,222,575 ha) moderate erosion, 3% (3,063,204 physical and chemical repercussions related to a studiesha) severe describe erosion the and increase 0,2% (271,390 in sediment ha) extremely contribu- greater magnitude in variables of environmental in- tionssevere in erosion the various (IDEAM, basins MADS, of the UDCA, Colombian 2015). AndesOther terest such as suspended solids, conductivity, avail- - ability of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), and an increase in the demand for biological and chemi- in the past 30 years, all associated with deforesta tion processes (Restrepo and Escobar, 2016). Recent studies have estimated that 9% of the cal3.6 oxygen Heavy (BOD5 metals and COD, respectively). sediment load in the Magdalena River basin is due The load of solids associated with deforestation processes is not the only source of contamination Figure 14. Mining map of Colombia (2016) that can affect water quality; depending on the type of land use, various concentrations of other pollut-

of mining, an activity that contributes a consider- Mar caribe ableants mayamount flow of into heavy the watermetals course. to the Thiswater is thesources case

Panamá adjacent to the extractive process. The presence Venezuela of heavy metals and complex organic substances, among others, in water resources has been responsible for innumerable situations of impact on the aquatic ecosystem and public health in general

In Colombia, several studies have been carried out(Thomann, to quantify 1982). the concentrations of heavy metals

- in water, sediments and fish tissues. Some of the best studies have been undertaken by Galiano-Se wastedano (1976,pollution, 1977), in the Research waters onof Colombian mercury content, rivers. Brasil and Galiano-Sedano (1979), Studies on industrial Ecuador - Other studies, such as the one by Pulido (1985) and the University of Antioquia (1988) on the Cau Perú mercury found in water and sediments, especially inca theRiver Cauca basin, Antioquía describe region, the high where concentrations contributions of

of sediments were found. In the Amazonian terri- of metallic mercury of 270 kg/day and 9.553 ton/day Source: www.portafolio.co/negocios/mapa-minero-en-colombia-2016-501060 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 208

Figure 15. Gold mining scene in Chocó

Source: https://www.noticiasrcn.com/nacional-regiones-pacifico/mineria-ilegal-e-informal-amenaza-los-rios-del-choco tory, the total mercury concentration was evaluat- environment, or possible consequences, have largely gone unnoticed, causing environmental problems different trophic levels in four localities in the Co- and health risks. These compounds are scattered in lombianed in water, Amazonia. sediment Total and mercury fish species values samples in water of the environment and have been detected in water - supply sources, groundwater and even drinking water. They are relatively little known compounds, which,did not in exceed light of 0.001mg/l. international In sediment, standards, the is concenrecord- in terms of their presence, impact and treatment. In edtrations as a lowwere risk between effect 0.0016(Núñez-Avellaneda, and 0.0591 mg/kg Agude Hg,- most cases they are unregulated pollutants, which Figura 14 shows could be the object of future regulations, which the mining map in the country while the Figura 15 warrant further research on their potential effects showslo and a Gil-Manrique, mining scenario 2014). in the The Chocó. on health and monitoring of their incidence. Some Mainland contributions resulting from soil ero- of the main ones are pesticides, pharmaceutical sion and leaching due to the indiscriminate felling of forests in the Magdalena-Cauca, Sinú-San Jorge, et al Atrato and Orinoco river basins, gold mining, oil products, illicit drugs,et al “lifestyle” compounds and- exploitation, agricultural activities and agricul- personalphosate is hygiene now the items most (Gil commonly ., 2012). used weed-kill- ture and the growing industrial activity of the cap- er inThe the article world, bywhich Gil has .seen (2012) a dramatic mentions increases that gly ital cities, as well as the port cities, have begun to in its use in agriculture since the introduction of gly- create extremely diverse environmental problems phosate-resistant crops. Microbial degradation pro- - duces amino methyl phosphonic acid (AMPA) and it has been proven that AMPA causes health prob- (Mancera-Rodríguez, Álvarez-León, 2006). It is es lems. The high solubility in water of glyphosate and timated that between 1980 and 2000, colonization in the Magdalena River basin alone has destroyed In Antioquia, in a study carried out in the mu- stations,3.5 million concentrations hectares of forests, of heavy sediment metals transport (cadmi- nicipalityits metabolite of Sanhas meantPedro, that the analysisuse of ishigh-toxicity difficult. um,amounts iron, tomercury, 133,000 lead, tons/year zinc) exceed and, in the several permitted river - levels in natural waters (National Planning Depart- pesticides such as Lorsban (Chlorpyrifos), Ráfa andga (Chlorpyrifos), (Cypermethrin) Látigo is a cause (Chlorpyrifos), for concern. NeguvonThey are 3.7ment, Emerging 1995). contaminants subsequently(Metrifonate), washed Furadán away (Carbofurán), by the rains and Ganabaño end up There is currently a growing interest in emerging in wastewater and rivers. - origin and chemical natures, whose presence in the pollutants (EC), as they are compounds of various In Colombia, a study conducted at the Universi dad del Norte Hospital in Barranquilla, found that 209 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

al physicochemical and biological treatments, ad- and subsequently into the river, contained substanc- vanced oxidation processes, ozonation and osmo- effluentses of pharmaceutical discharged origin, into the showing city's that sewer wastewa systemsis must be used. However, most treatments do not ter treatment systems must be reframed. The most include them due to their high costs, which means commonly used substances in hospitals in this cat- that both drugs and metabolites are released into surface water and even drinking water. as diclofenac, ibuprofen and other medicines such Other emerging contaminants include hor- asegory aspirin, are analgesics, antiseptics anti-inflammatory such as triclosan, drugs hormones such mones, caffeine and nicotine, ingredients used in such as estriol and estrone, stimulants such as caf- personal hygiene products, disinfection by-prod- feine, and other legal drugs in hospital centers such ucts, industrial compounds and food additives, but as morphine. An analysis of the chemical and bio- there is not much data or information on them. logical content of the hospital's waste revealed the Although the country has resources for the con- presence of heavy metals (mercury, platinum, gad- struction of plants and reactors for domestic and olinium), anesthetics (alkylphenol, propofol), cyto- industrial wastewater treatment, the search for ef- - fective treatments for the removal of emerging pol- tory drugs, contrast media and absorbable organic compounds.statics, disinfectants, analgesics and anti-inflamma of occurrence and transformation of these sub- Since both illicit drugs and their metabolites are stances.lutants (EP) That lacks is why information the research on proposedthe mechanisms in this highly resistant to elimination using convention- -

regard should focus on finding ways to adapt exist Figure 16. Distribution of risk levels by department and municipality in Colombia, 2015

Departmental Municipal

Source: Sistema de Información de la Vigilancia de la Calidad del Agua para Consumo Humano (SIVICAP), Grupo Calidad de Agua-DRSP, Instituto Nacional de Salud. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 210

ing water treatment technologies in advanced pro- and the incorporation of hydrogeological informa- cesses for removing emerging pollutants. tion available in the area -such as vertical electric soundings, geology and hydraulics- showed that 3.8 Salinization there is a incipient state of possible salinization in The threat of rising sea levels in Colombian coast- the coastal aquifer of the Plantain Hub. This is exac- certain areas, but also includes coastal erosion and where there is currently no intensive exploitation surfaceal and island and groundwater areas is not salinization.limited to the flooding of oferbated underground specifically water in resources,the northern but sector, where an in areapre- - ventive and management terms, continuous moni- zation can be seen in the impacts on the Ciénaga toring mechanisms and a hydrogeochemical evalu- A specific case of this phenomenon of salini- ation should be undertaken of the coastal aquifer of tain its water balance, this lagoon must receive waterGrande from de Santa the rivers Marta lagoonthat run complex. down from To main the both salinity and other processes that may affect the - qualitythe Plantain of waters axis ofin Urabá this area the (Paredes processes, et to al measure ers, agricultural companies and inhabitants of the bananamountain area range. began However, to use them since disproportionate the 1990s, farm- ., 2010). ly for their economic activities, dramatically reduc- 4. Social and economic aspects ing the volume of fresh water. During the summer - 4.1 Health - As for the quality of water for human consumption, months,ume returns irrigation to natural districts drainage, capture loaded 80% of with the agav- - rochemicals.erage flow of Thisrivers. increase Only 40% in salinizationof the captured and volthe istry of Health produces a consolidated national - reportthe Environmental where the main Health indicator Directorate is the of risk the index Min tions for reproductive cycles, which added to the decrease in water inflows interrupted fish migra showing the degree of risk of occurrence of dis- and illicit methods (dynamite or nets such as bowl- easesof water related quality to non-compliance for human consumption with the physical, (WQRI), increase in fishing pressure and the use of harmful chemical and microbiological characteristics of water for human consumption. ing), reducing the number of fish and other species.- Figure 16 ilidad.semana.com/medio-ambiente/articulo/It is not known how many remain of the 126 species that once lived in that ecoregion (http://sostenib calculated from, drawn samples from collected a 2015 study from (Minsalud, the sup- ply2016) networks based onof service the departmental providers in consolidations, the respective cienaga-grande-enferma-cronica/33752). municipalities monitored by the health authorities, of Antioquia.Another case This is aquifer,the coastal covering aquifer approximately of the Banana Hub of Urabá, located north-west of the department • part of the mainland and having a coastal strip that shows that: 1,030 km² (103,000 ha), is characterized by forming 10.0%, corresponding to three departments supply for the banana industry and urban and ru- (Quindío, Arauca, San Andrés and Providencia), receives marine influence. It is the main source of- • were classified at having no risk, with a range- tive wells in the area, mostly to meet the demand of 0.0-5.0. - forral communities.plantain cultivation, There areone approximatelyof the country’s 550 main ac 26.6% is equivalent to seven departments (An- export products. The hydrochemical characteriza- tioquia, Atlántico, Cesar, Córdoba, Cundinamar ca, Risaralda, Santander) and Bogotá DC, classi • fied as having a low risk level corresponding to tion of the Plantain Hub of Urabá was based on the- a range of 5.1-14.0. tersampling and a ofsample 26 groundwater of surface water,points distributed(consisting ofover 16 46.7% corresponds to 14 departments (Bolívar,- deep wells and 10 piezometers), a sample of seawa er,Boyacá, Sucre, Caquetá, Vaupés, Cauca, Valle delCasanare, Cauca Guainía,and Vicha La- the groundwater samples in the study area, aid- Guajira, Magdalena, Meta, Norte de Santand eda area by theof 8,916 evaluation km². The of certainanalysis ionic and processingrelationships of da), classified as having a medium-level risk of 14.1-35.0. 211 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

• - ed considering the percentage of acceptability of the riño, Tolima and Putumayo) were observed to main microbiological and physicochemical charac- In 16.7%, five departments (Caldas, Huila, Na E. coli, color, turbidity, pH, • have high risk levels (35.1-80.0). teristics: total coliforms, - recorded.Departments with WQRI classified as having izationCRL, and of considering the number, the since relative these risk are ofthe each minimum one of an unviable health level (80.1-100.0) were not characteristicsthem within the that WQRI must indicator be evaluated and the by thestandard health In the SIVICAP system, there were reports of authorities of all the providers of the independent - aqueduct service of the population supplied. Figura 17 1,017 municipalities (92.2%). The general munici Quality of water consumed pal WQRI ( ) reported 279 municipalities in Colombia in 2015 (27.5%) classified as risk-free, complying with the Table 7 shows the result of the water ladder required potability standards; 177 with a low risk - (17.4%) and 264 with a medium risk (25.9%). 280 municipalities were classified at the high risk level,- (Minsalud, 2016). Considering the total popula- (27.5%) and 17 (1.7%) were non-sanitary. The latter tion (43'173,748) surveyed in 2015, it showed that were located in Antioquia (Algeria, Cisneros); Bolí 30,201,730 inhabitants (70.0%) drank drinking wa var (Norosí, Santa Catalina, Santa Rosa Del Sur);- ter, reflecting an increase over the year 2014 when Caquetá (Morelia); Cauca (Piamonte, San Sebastián, 29,423,817 inhabitants did so (67.28%). A population Castillo);Timbiquí); Nariño Cesar (Magüí, (Tamalameque), Olaya Herrera) La Guajira and Tolima (Dib drankof 4,889.175 water (11.3%) with little had safeor no water treatment (includes while low (Villarrica).ulla); Magdalena (Sitionuevo, Zapayán); Meta (El and medium risk). 5,496.013 inhabitants (12.7%),- ter directly from the source (unviable samples, as Basic microbiological and physicochemical regards2,586.829 health). inhabitants (6.0%) may have drunk wa characteristics in Colombia Water-born Diseases in Colombia Studying water-borne diseases in Colombia shows According to the Minsalud report (2016), in 2015, the extent to which lack of access to drinking wa- 45,948 samples were analyzed in Colombia, 27,418 ter affects the health of the population. An import- fromof which the werecollection collected site. inThe the samples urban area were and evaluat 13,805- ant input for studying them is to determine the inin the rural area, with 4,725 samples without data

Figure 17. Acceptability of microbiological and physicochemical characteristics, 2015

100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 Aceptabilidad (%) Aceptabilidad (%) Aceptabilidad 20 20 10 10 0 0 Coliformes totales E. Colli Color Turbidez pH CRL

Departamental Urbana Rural

Source: SIVICAP, Grupo Calidad de Agua–DRSP, Instituto Nacional de Salud. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 212

Tabla 7. Ladder of water for human consumption in Colombia 2015 Health Surveillance Water for Human Consumption Colombia

PCM Method Improve Water Unimproved Water Not reported Calidad del agua Potable Segura Entubada Directa fuente

No information Risk level No Risk Low Risk Medium Risk High Risk Unfeasible on risk

Level Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. 1.2 7.3 2.4

Urban 35,952,0167,221,732 78.8 28,346,731 1.0 439,271 9.1 3,265,027 2,614,644 3.6 1,286,342 894,919 NationalRural 43,173,748 25.7 30,201,7301,854,999 509,36970,099 15.4 4,379,8051,114,778 39.9 5,496,0132,881,369 18.0 2,586,8291,300,487 36.4 5,029,6574,134,738

Source: ICA, 2014. cidence of these diseases in the country. However, and the only way to reduce poverty is by having ac- the burden of morbidity related to them is currently cess to clean water, says Professor Saldarriaga. Why unknown due to the large number of diseases com- do poor people end up buying the most expensive prising this group, which are analyzed independent- water? Where does the problem lie? This does not ly. This is the case of hepatitis A, typhoid and para- happen in cities, the problem is in scattered rural areas where obtaining water is expensive and qual- giardiasis and leptospirosis, among others. There ity is less than optimal. It is expensive because it is typhoid fever, cholera, EDA, cryptosporidiosis,- carried in wagons, donkeys and mules, and people mental risk factors associated with diseases, which buy water in cans and buckets. Thus water is much isare essential also difficulties to determining in researching whether they the environare wa- more expensive in cubic meters than in the highest ter-borne. Table 8 shows the incidence rate of dis- noticias/medio-ambiente/unica-forma-de-re- As can be seen, the highest incidence rate in Co- ducir-pobreza-tener-acceso-agua-potabl-articustrata of cities (https://www.elespectador.com/- easeslombia directly is associated related with to water acute in diarrheal Colombia diseases, in 2015. In Colombia, despite the fact that poverty and lo-645702). 4.2mainly Poverty in Amazonas, Bogotá and Quindío. - extreme poverty gradually decreased from 2009 cess to drinking water,” according to Professor Juan to 2015, the change is still not significant. Poverty “The only way to reduce poverty is to provide ac- decreased by 21.6% during that period of time and- ference of Water Distribution Systems (WSDA), lionextreme in extreme poverty poverty. by 9.1%. However, in June 2015, 13 Saldarriaga of the Universidad de los Andes (Con million inhabitants still lived in poverty and 3.6 mil- ican countries, Colombia has greater poverty and a Cartagena, July 27, 2016). The country is one of the greaterIn comparison number of withpeople the at average risk of fallingfor Latin into Amer pov- richest in terms of water, our rivers produce 50,000 erty, which, added to the inequity in access to water However,m³ per person the amount annually, of those water of wastedGermany in 2,000distribu andresources and, therefore, to access to water unsuit- traditionally dry places, such as Egypt, barely 1,000, able for human consumption, has serious conse- of what is captured at the water source is lost. This quences for the population (Figure 18). tion networks in Colombia is extremely high: 48% That is why ensuring water availability is an- - other of the objectives posing an enormous chal- is a worrying figure given that the acceptable rate lenge for Colombia. The recent phenomenon of of loss is between 10% and 20%. Colombian law es intablishes scattered a ceiling rural ofareas. 30% Theloss, best indicating way to that increase there have had visible social and economic repercus- people’sis an 18% health gap. Coverage is to bring is extremelydrinking water low, especially to homes sions,El Niño including has entailed price increases major consequences, and water shortag which- 213 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

Table 8. Incidence of diseases directly related to water in Colombia in 2015 Rate of incidence Rate of Mortality rate General rate Rate of Rate of of typhoid and incidence of Territorial Entity from ADD in of incidence incidence of Incidence of IRCA paratyphoid Leptospirosis Under-5s of ADD Cholera Hepatitis A fever WQRI Amazonas 103,2 0.00 NN Antioquia 0.00 3,2 191,8 7,9 9,18 NR Arauca 120,2 0.00 1,1 NN 1,1 22,6 63,7 5,3 1,29 6.88 0.00 3,0 10.20 35,5 1.51 1,7 100,1 0.00 1,2 0,04 0,4 Atlántico 4,6 59,1 0,08 2,8 0.00 1,7 22.13 Bogotá 7.35 NN 0.00 2,7 NN 0,1 Bolivar 33,9 49,5 0,6 0,05 Caldas 0.00 2,7 0,40 Boyacá 50,5 28.03 0.00 0,2 NN 12,6 50,2 0,6 54.26 Casanare NN 44,2 0.00 NN 0.00 Caquetá 18,4 56,0 0,6 14.98 Cauca 0.00 14.72 2,5 19.34 Cesar 0.00 0,1 13.37 37,5 45,3 4,8 0,57 0,5 Choco 334,7 30,4 0.00 0,4 0,3 81,5 55,4 0,9 0,19 Córdoba 0.00 1,3 NN 1,58 NR Cundinamarca NN 0.00 0,07 0,4 7.07 5,5 37,6 0,9 9.97 37,2 0.00 NN NN 58,8 0,9 102,0 0.00 NN 1,1 Guainía 382,6 4,8 16.66 0.00 NN 77,4 Guajira 66,1 3,6 18.31 Huila 0.00 1,7 Guaviare 69,4 38,0 10,8 NR Magdalena 0.00 0,2 52,6 54,3 5,5 0,86 45.53 Meta 0.00 50,4 48,5 1,9 0,87 28.67 Nariño 0.00 2,7 1,4 42,6 68,7 4,8 1,53 0,93 32.15 Norte de Santander 0.00 3,7 0,7 18,2 65,8 0,68 50.27 Putamayo 0.00 2,0 NN 7,9 55,0 6,00 17.16 NN 77,7 0.00 NN 4.21 50,6 52,6 0,8 50.49 0.00 3,2 0,31 13.34 Quindío 2,5 0,8 San Andrés NN 0.00 NN NN 1,3 Risaralda 78,9 62,6 3,9 Santander NN 0.00 0,24 1,01 53,8 2.08 Sucre 47,4 0.00 1,4 41,9 1,6 9,48 Tolima 0.00 0,07 48,9 2,9 0,35 15.25 Valle 0.00 2,4 0,24 2,0 7,9 57,4 2,8 1,9 42.52 Vaupés NN 22,7 0.00 NN NN NN 5,5 62,1 14.86 Vichada 0.00 NN 0.00 18.52 National 995,729,6 63,3336,4 0.00 2,62,8 0,54 1,62 23.4023.52 No risk Medium risk High risk No report

Low risk Unviable - 0-5 5,1 - 14 14,1-35 35,1-80 80,1-100 NR newNote: cases/population ADD: Acute Diarrheal at risk Diseases; per 100,000 WQRI: inhabitants. Risk index The related incidence to water rate quality of ADD for is humanestimated consumption; at 1,000. NN: did not notify; NR: did not report in formation. *Indicators of morbimortality: Mortality rate is equal to number of deaths/population per 1'000,000 inhabitants; incidence is equal to WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 214

Figura 18. Pobreza en América Latina y Colombia es (https://www.dinero.com/economia/articulo/ Riesgo Pobreza Indigencia pobreza-desigualdad-america-latina/215261). - , ties Forobtaining example, water, the accordingrecent situation to Oneida in La Pinto, Guajira the , is critical. People are experiencing serious difficul- cause this not only occurs in this region, but many , , othergovernor municipalities of La Guajira. around “This the is country just one have case, water be shortage problems. Without drinking water, it is impossible to live, which requires an immediate intervention that will permit access to water”. , , to mitigate water scarcity, it is essential to protect andThe recover UNDP the (2005-2015)ecosystems statesrelated that to this “If resource, we want such as forests, mountains, wetlands and rivers. It Colombia América Latina also requires more international cooperation to la-pobreza-en-america-latina-y-colombia / Fuente: Oxfam, cálculos Dinero. http://www.elcampesino.co/ technologies in developing countries”. stimulate water efficiency and support treatment water systems currently supplying the Colombian populationAccording show to IDEAM high vulnerabilitystudies (2015), to many maintain of the- 4.3 Education ing their water availability. According to the general estimates for average hydrological conditions, equitable and quality education and promoting lifelongAccording learning to the opportunitiesUNDP, guaranteeing is one anof inclusive,the main urban areas is exposed to water supply problems - becauseapproximately of the 50% conditions of the population of availability, of municipal regula- - tion and pressure that exist on the water systems pleissues. dropped Between out 2010 of the and formal 2014, theeducation number system of en that serve them. This situation becomes even more comprisingrollees was reducedstudents byat 6.5%.the preschool, Nearly 720,000 elementa peo- ry middle and high school levels. This is an issue alarmingcritical in due dry toyears, the lack when of thiswater; figure However, can amount this is achieving an inclusive, quality education for every- notto 80%. the onlyAccording thing thatto these worries figures, us, sincethe situation shortages is that warrants attention, because “the objective of or periods of scarcity add to the contamination of is one of the most powerful and proven engines for guaranteeingone is based onsustainable the firm conviction development”, that educationaccording children every day due to diarrheal diseases” (Mo- water sources, causing the deaths of around 6,000 This situation is basically due to the fact that to the UNDP. linares-Hassan and Echeverría-Molina, 2011). connect to the aqueduct service, since the Colombi- Figure 19. Evolution of graduates in Colombia anthe State, population for example, does not despite have havingsufficient a clear income policy to Growth of enrolment of subsidies, which helps pay the fees of users cat- Source: DANE (2014). Enrolment. Enrolment. - to subsidize demand for the majority of the most - vulnerableegorized in populationstrata 1, 2 and in the3, does country not havewhose enough plots Colombia has a National Environmental Educa of land are beyond the reach of water service. The tion Policy led by the Ministry of Education. The En- population is divided into socioeconomic stra- vironmental Education Program has enabled many- lemsof the related School to Environmentalwater resources Projects in different (PRAE) parts re of - thegarded country. as significant Through toits explaintraining the strategy, various the prob Pro- ta ranging from 1 to 6, with 1 corresponding to the poorest population and 6 to the highest level (Mo linares-Hassan and Echeverría-Molina, 2011). gram seeks to ensure that PRAE will contribute to 215 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

Figure 19. Evolution of graduates in Colombia

11.200.000 0,3 3,0 0,1 -0, 11.000.000 -0,

10.00.000 -2,4 10.600.000 -0,

10.400.000 -2,5 Matrícula 10.200.000

10.000.000

.00.000 2006 200 200 200 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Matrícula 11.014.5 11.052.045 11.062.2 11.00.4 10.6.22 10.02.4 10.641.243 10.540.11 10.2.211

Source: DANE (2014).

the search for solutions to the environmental prob- the visualization and evaluation of women's work lems of the context (local-global), and in the case of as a subject which, from a private perspective, could the status of water in Colombia, from understand- contribute to the implementation of public policies, ing the interactions established between the com- with a two-way task of constructing a social frame- ponents of the natural and socio-cultural system, to work within the State and the recognition of the describing their evolution and possibilities of trans- identity of the latter The above shows an overview formation, in terms of quality of life and environ- based on the amount of freshwater available from mental sustainability. In the future, this will enable nature without being affected by other variables us to have a population with a deeper commitment such as pollution, population or available infra- to water. -

4.4 Gender structureIn Colombia, (Molinares-Hassan the state policy and in Echeverría-Moli favor of women hasna, 2011).had a number of positive aspects. It includes, progress in access to basic sanitation services has for example, the creation of Counseling for the been“Worldwide particularly progress slow in accessand the to goal potable is unlikely water and to be achieved, which will have serious consequences for women and girls, particularly those living in Equality of Women and laws such as the 1009 Law effectiveof 2006, designedthey have to reducebeen (Molinares-Hassan discrimination against and to drinking water affects women and infants in par- women. However, it is important to reflect on how ticular,vulnerable since situations” it is they who(Molina, are 2016).responsible Lack of for access pro- If access to water by marginal communities viding water in rural and urban areas, fetching it at remainsEcheverría-Molina, limited, even 2011). if there is an inclusion poli- great distances and in precarious conditions. cy in favor of women and they participate in deci- The death of children due to the contamination sion-making regarding how to administer and op- of water sources is an event that directly affects the erate aqueducts and fresh water sources, this will performance of women’s work in the private sphere affect their human rights, since the role they assume within the domestic administration of this re- which they is subjected together with children, and source will make their health and workload great- correlatesof the home, with since the itneed reflects for water. the vulnerability The discourse to er than that imposed on men. In other words, the on the progress of welfare rights of the State could different directives of international organizations, be reoriented from a gender perspective, based on and the internal rules regarding service manage- WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 216

ment show that this is not a question of discrimina- in four Colombians in urban areas is affected by tion against women, but rather of low coverage and poor quality service. This only affects women and girls because of existing gender relations in relation poverty, in the rural area, the ratio is 1:2. Poverty is to the administration of water (Molinares-Hassan concentrated in the Pacific and Caribbean regions,- where departments such as Chocó, Cauca and La - Guajira - with large Afro-descendant and indige enand from Echeverría-Molina, Wayuu communities 2011). must walk long dis- centnous ofpopulations the Colombian - have population poverty rateslives inabove rural 50%, set- tancesThere - at are least cases three such times as La a dayGuajira, - in orderwhere to wom look five times the rate found in Bogotá. Twenty-five per for water for the survival of their families, since climate change has caused a major impact on the tings and 47% of them lack access to drinking water,- country. The last few years have been very dry and erty94% ratehave amongno access the to displaced sewerage population and sanitation, is three and times12% are higher illiterate. than Tothe make national matters rate and worse, the theextreme pov temperatures, as a result of which the Wayuu and Jagüeyesup to 12 months reserves have have elapsed dried withup, forcing no rain women and high to Colombia’s progress enabled it to lead the pro- poverty rate four times higher (UNDP, 2015). - look further afield for water. posals to define the 2030 agenda and the Sustainable Paradoxically, a dam costing $270 million USD Development Goals (SDGs), and the Peace Agree was built in this area in 2010 with the aim of taking water to nearly 400,000 people. It stores 93 million Figure 20. Inclusion of SDGs in the Territorial communitiescubic meters ofcontinue water with to lack a discharge water. rate of 7,760 Development Plans litersJust per as second. there are But complex the aqueducts cases suchremain as drythe andone

- La Guajira en have achieved great success in accessing public San Andrés, Provincia in La Guajira, there are successful cases where wom- y Santa Catalina Atlántico Cesar en managers of public assets, a participatory expe- Magdalena services. One of these is the experience of “Wom Venezuela

Norte de Santander Bolivar Córdoba whichrience thein gender determination and water and in drive El Hormiguero, of women made Valle itdel possible Cauca, Colombia” to undertake (García the andwater Bastidas, supply 2003), project in Antioquía and for them to become part of important posi- Santander Arauca tions in water user associations, and for men to as- Chocó Caldas Boyacá Casanare sume non-directive positions, giving strength to the Risaralda Cundinamarca Vichada shared community work between men and women Quindio Bogota Tolima to provide basic services to its population. Valle del Cauca Meta

Huilo Guainía Cauca

Guaviare 5. Achieving Sustainable Nariño Vaupés Development Goals Putumayo Caquetá

- Ecuador Brasil

According to the UNDP report on the Millenni Inclusión ODS en PD Amazonas madeum Development the most progress Goals (MDGs)in this area. of 2015, However, Colombia sig- is among the Latin American countries that have Alto Medio - Perú General mousnificant differences challenges persist remain. in levelsThe advances of well-being have notbe- tweenbeen homogeneous population groups throughout and regions. the country. While Enor one

Source: DNP, 2016 217 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

- ments and actions that seek to generate social and land use planning and the conservation of the eco- economicment incorporates conditions 68 for SDG the goalsconsolidation through commitof peace systemsefficient, that effective regulate management the water andsupply, use, regarding linked to water as a factor of economic development and social welfare, and implementing equitable and inclu- managementand the guarantees of water of non-repetitionand sanitation (DNP,for all,” 2017). is con- tainedObjective in the Peace 6, “Ensure Agreement availability within and the sustainableframework National Policy recognizes the role of water as an sive participation processes”: In other words, the - This project was implemented under the coop- of the Comprehensive Rural Reform (DNP, 2017). - integrating element of the territory (CTA, 2017). - Of 63 territorial plans analyzed (32 departmen mous Corporation of the Negro and Nare river ba- tal and 31 capital cities), 100% of the Territorial De eration agreement between the Regional Autono velopment Plans (PDT) included the SDGs and, on Antioquia Science and Technology Center Corpora- average, the PDT included 30% of the SDG targets sins (Cornare), the municipality of El Retiro and the applicable at the territorial level (110). Figure 21), which 6. Successful experiences in istion, part between of the SeptemberOriente region 2016 of and the May department 2017. of The municipality of El Retiro ( improving water quality and quantity 6.1 Comprehensive Water Antioquia, is located in the Valles de San Nicolás- Management Plan in the municipality de Cornare Subregion. It has 21 lanes distributed of El Retiro (Antioquia) throughout 24,283.53 ha that border the municipal coordinateities of Rionegro, system, La the Ceja, municipality Montebello, is delimited Caldas and by plans are framed within the National Policy for the Envigado. Geographically, in the MAGNA-SIRGAS Integral Water Resource Management (IWRM) the followingThe general coordinates: objective was 1,150,964.76-1,173,168.94m to formulate the Com- Integral Water Resource Management, whose aim North and 832,140.59-849,111.07m East. is “to guarantee the sustainability of water, through Figure 21. Map of the Municipality of El Retiro prehensive Water Resource Management Plan of the strategiesMunicipality required of El Retiro for its in management order to determine and ef- the status of water at the municipal level and define- nomic and social dynamics of the municipality. ficient use in harmony with the environmental, eco was carried out in order to collect information on the Incurrent order environmental to achieve this and objective, socioeconomic field work sta- - isting cartography, maps of vegetation cover and areastus, in of both special urban management, and rural areas. water Based supply on and the enex- - nerability index and water use index were prepared (Figurevironmental 22). flows, a water regulation index, vul Water quality studies were also conducted, contamination sources determined and water samples analyzed to determine their physical and chemical status. The Tabla 9 shows the water quality indexes reported. The quality of the ecosystem services offered by the region was also determined. Several working groups were organized with the community and a description made of the various sectors and WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 218

Table 9. Water quality indices reported Sampling point ICA ICOMO ICOSUS ICOTRO Year Amapola School (Pantanillo basin) Average

Good Excellent Eutrophic 1997 Truchera Pantanillo Average Average Rochera Amapola (Pantanillo basin) Good Good Excellent Eutrophic 1997 Good Eutrophic 1997 Average Bocatoma Pantanillo Good Excellent Excellent Eutrophic 1997 Average Puente colorado La Fe Good Excellent Eutrophic 1997 2003 Puente La María La Fe Good Excellent Eutrophic 1997 Mesotrophic 2004 Pantanillo, estación Guarango Good Good Excellent Eutrophic Average 2004 Pantanillo, Guarango1km past PuroCuero Good Good Excellent ------Pantanillo River, near the La Fe reservoir Good Excellent Eutrophic Bocatoma acueducto AguaPlan Good ------March2009 2011 Estación Hierbal (after the municipal WWTP Villa Good Elena and before the La Fe reservoir)

Figure 22. Coverage and special management areas of the municipality of El Retiro a) Plant cover b) Special management areas

actors that use water and have an impact and may Finally, a prospective study was undertak- be affected by decisions on water management. An - analysis of governance was also undertaken in the sign future scenarios for the sustainable use of wa- municipality. teren inresources the municipality and, thus of be El able Retiro to drawin order up ato plan de 219 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

for integral water resource management in the source management including basin management, municipality. the education of the population regarding water One of the fundamental characteristics of the use and saving and the recovery of municipality project was the participatory process, so several wastewaters. meetings were held with the mayor and other ad- The management plan not only became the main project of the municipality, from which the majority study and draw up an action plan to guide the mu- of the decision-making for the sustainability of the nicipality,ministrative in the officials short toand discuss medium the term, results the imple of the- latter is derived, but also serves as a reference for mentation of works that will make it possible to re- other municipalities in the region. cover its waters and forests, in order to become an environmental sustainability model. Several meet- 6.2 Water Quality Monitoring ings were also held with the community in order to Protocol in Colombia publicize the results of the study and the programs the municipality should develop in the future for the good of the community (Figura 23). meetThe National the need Water for systematic, Resources coherentMonitoring and Program appropriate(PNMRH) monitoring is the instrument to support identified the implementation by PNGIRH to Results of Management and monitoring of the policy, together with the oth- Plan and Recommendations In accordance with the approach to the vision and integrated water management developed in the er programs in the National Hydrological Plan 2010-- present study, a number of recommendations were mental2022 (IDEAM axes in and water UN, 2016).resource monitoring, togeth- put forward to complement the aspects developed er withIn the surface PNMRH, water, water groundwater, quality is one lentic of the bodiesfunda in the programs and projects. The recommenda- and wetlands, bioindication and sediments. Water - quality monitoring is crucial because it provides agement and conservation, b) responsible commu- information on the quality conditions of currents, nitytions commitment, focused on the and following c) wastewater areas: treatmenta) basin man and rivers, groundwater and aquatic systems, showing recovery. how these conditions vary over time at the nation- The previous results were delivered to the al, regional and local levels, and in what way natural - factors and human activities affect these conditions sion in which they broadly discussed what actions wouldmunicipal be taken,authorities in order of El forRetiro the inmunicipality a special ses to successfully implement comprehensive water re- framework(WMO, 2013). that integrates and links the strategies andThe actions PNMRH to improve is therefore the constitutedgeneration withinof knowl the- edge and information for integral water resource Figure 23. Socialization of the project with the management at the national and regional level in community of El Retiro (2017) the country, and is the reference that guides and - itor the behavior of the water cycle in Colombia, in termsdefines of the quality route andto follow quantity, to determine in accordance and monwith -

the In National order to Integrated comply with Water this, Resource it is necessary Manage to strengthenment Policy the (PNGIRH) monitoring (IDEAM of water and UN, quality 2016). in Co-

- toringlombia water within quality, the framework through a road of the map PNMRH. socialized To this end, the IDEAM designed a protocol for moni A summary of the contents of this road map is given in FigureNovember 24. 2017, which began to operate in 2018. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 220

Figure 24. Summary of roadmap for monitoring surface water quality in Colombia

Información Objetivo Meta 2020 y conocimiento • Desarrollar y fortalecer redes regionales, así • Se han ajustado herramientas e instrumentos para como, articular acciones y estrategias para la incorporar la información de calidad al SIRH.

consolidación del sistema de observación y 2022 • 50% de las redes regionales de monitoreo establecidad medición continua. y operativas. • Integrar el sistema de observación, medición y • Implementación de la red nacional de monitore de la

vigilancia SIRH. 2030 calidad del agua.

Objetivo Meta • Investigar y divulgar nuevas tecnologías para el • Proyectos de investigación de nuevas tecnologías Investigación e monitoreo de la calidad del agua. formulados y aplicados. innovación • Validar la nueva informaciónproporcionada por • Validación de los nuevos datos e información entregada 2030 estas tecnologías. por las nuevas tecnologías de medición. • Desarrollar estrategias para el monitoreo en • Definición y puesta en marcha de las estrategias para el los sistemas lénticos. desarrollo de monitoreo en sistemas lénticos.

Objetivo Meta • Desarrollar estrategias para la acreditación de • El IDEAM contará con personal capacitado en el manejo

laboratorios. 2022 de herramientas para el acceso a información sobre • Implementar acciones estratégicas para calidad del agua. Fortalecimiento fortalecer capacidades del IDEAM y de las • Entidades responsables del monitoreo cuentan con de capacidades autoridades ambientales. laboratorios acreditados.

• Implementar acciones estratégicas para 2030 • Entidades del SINA cuentan con las capacidades para el fortalecer el SINA. monitoreo sistémico y continuo.

Objetivo Meta • Definir instrumentos de comunicación efectiva, • Herramientas para incorporar la participación de actores

articulada y permanente con los distintos 2022 sociales en el monitoreo desarrolladas. usuarios que participan en el monitoreo y calidad del agua. • Estrategias y herramientas de comunicación definidas Cominicación • Definir mercanismos de participación que cumplen con los estándares definidos por el IDEAM

y participación ciudadana para el monitoreo de la calidad del 2030 y autoridades regionales. agua.

Objetivo Meta

• Alinear instrumentos, políticas, herramientas • Se han realizado los ajustes normativos e instrumentos

Generación y institucionales y normativas para la 2022 políticos para la implementación del PNMRH. articulación consolidación del PNMRH. Marco Regulatorio

Source: CTA, 2017.

each activity creates products designed to achieve the goal within the stipulated planning horizon. The road map begins with the five strategic Planning horizons have been established in the belines achieved defined by in undertakingthe PNMRH (IDEAMactivities and to beUN, carried 2016), outfor eachin a coordinated of which objectives manner within are defined different that time can short (2020), medium (2022) and long term (2030). The first two horizons are aligned with the PNGIRH frames. Each objective has an associated target and and the PNMRH and, the last one, with the SDGs. 221 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA

7. Conclusions and Recommendations

Colombian rivers and seas receive and transport pollutant loads of water used in the various socioeconomic processes and mostly discharged withof 205 tons of mercury was discharged into the soil out prior treatment. They also receive high volumes andThe water, subzones of which most 27.5% severely corresponds affected to by silver the of sediments originated by erosion processes, ei- mercuryprocessing discharges and 72.5% associated to gold processing. with gold process- ther of natural origin or as a result of human action - These actions are steadily increasing due to ing correspond to: Magdalena (Brazo Morales), population(Colombian growthEnvironmental and economic System -SIAC-).activities, and BajoFlow Nechí, alterations Sucio, Bajo will Nechí, have the different Taraza, effects Man, Qui de- constant monitoring and control is required to take pendingto, Cajón, on Tamaná the habitat, rivers theand regionSan Juan and (SIAC). the charac- the necessary actions to address this problem in or- - der to reduce its impact on natural and social pro- cult to offer general predictions about the response cesses, particularly human health (SIAC). ofteristic communities of the flow or thattheir is persistencemodified, making or resilience. it diffi Water quality analysis is supported by the mea- -

information from economic sectors which system- adequateGiven that use Andean and riversmanagement are under would significant be for pres con- aticallysurements collect undertaken water quality by the data, IDEAM represented Network and cessionssure to regulate and licenses the flow, to thebegin best with way eco-hydraulic to guarantee spatialized in indicators of water quality, and the and biological studies and studies on the alteration potential threat of contamination. (SIAC). of previous habitats, which consider the interaction or synergy between hydroclimatic changes and ar- discharged into water systems after treatment in - In 2012, the biodegradable organic load (DBO5) - tificialThe regulation polluting processes,contributions ensuring of distributed the perma or Colombia amounted to 756,945tt/year, equivalent diffusenence of origin true “ecological associated flows” with agriculturalin our rivers. expan - to 2,102 t/day. Industry accounts for 28% of this to- sion activities, mining and others related to defor- tal, the domestic sector 69% and the coffee sector estation can ostensibly be reduced through forest 3%. Eighty per cent of the BOD5 load was contribut- areas on the banks of streams. Forest restoration ed by 55 municipalities, mainly by the metropolitan programs with native species must be implement- Cúcuta,areas and Villavicencio major cities and in Manizalesthe country: (SIAC). Bogotá, Me ed by the competent authorities, because this is the dellín,The Cali, total Barranquilla, national load Cartagena, discharged Bucaramanga, into the bod- best way to contribute to the restoration of forests ies of water of chemical oxygen demand (COD), and, therefore, to the protection of the hydric resource associated with them. Paying special attention to the regional hydro- after treatment, is 1,675,616 t/year, equivalent to climatic variability and the different geomorpho- 4,654 t/day, of which the industry contributes 37%, logical characteristics in each basin is essential the domestic sector 61% and the coffee sector 2%. when making decisions in context, so that they not As for Total Suspended Solids, 1,135,726 t/year are only guarantee the physicochemical quality of wa- dumped, equivalent to 3,154 t/day. The industrial- ter, but also its availability for aquatic communities sector contributes 7%, the domestic sector 91% and and their ecosystemic services to society. the coffee subsector 1%. In 2012, in 179 municipal ities located in 15 departments, an estimated load WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COLOMBIA 222

8. References

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Costa Rica

Costa Rica is a land of contrasts: on the one hand, the country has been acknowledged for its efforts in the environmental field and conservation, as a result of which it is widely considered a green country and it has also achieved excellent drinking water coverage. On the other hand, however, the country has severe pollution in most of its urban and some of its rural rivers. Fortunately, although a great deal of work remains to be done, significant efforts are being made to address these problems.

Reserva de Monteverde, provincia de Puntarenas, Costa Rica © iStock 227 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA

Water quality in Costa Rica

Hugo G. Hidalgo, Monika Springer, Yamileth Astorga, Eddy Gómez, Ingrid Vargas and Édgar Meléndez

1. General Introduction

1.1 Background, context and main problems

In Costa Rica, water has been used for human consumption, agriculture, tourism, industry, transportationAs happened and in otherhydroelectric parts of generation.the world, the The supply first fourof drinking of these water uses throughhave the the greatest cons- potential to significantly alter the quality of the resulting water.

truction of aqueducts was possibly the first step in the construction of infrastructure for water resource management in Costa Rica. The Guayabo National Monument, in the city of- Turrialba, contains an aqueduct used from 1000 BCE to 1400 CE. In the 17th century, water was used for domestic supply, livestock raising and agricultu century,re. During water the 18thwas century,mainly used livestock in coffee activity and developedbanana monocultures in the North and Pacific, for washing whereas gold in the as partCentral of the Valley, mining water process. from rivers The watercourse and streams of (streams) rivers served was usedas a means in agriculture. of transport In the for 19th colonizing the northern zone, while the high water potential contributed to the generation of hydroelectric power. However, the type of agricultural production technology, coupled with the lack of awareness on the part of the population led to the deterioration of the quality of

Perhaps the most obvious example of water pollution from agricultural causes was co- water resources, particularly surface water (Vargas Sanabria, 2001). health, this pollution was strenuously opposed by the population, which created an envi- ffee activity (the leading Costa Rican export product for many years). Due to its impact on a problem for a long time, affecting many rivers, until a series of actions were implemented ronmental conflict (Montero Mora and Sandí Morales, 2009). This pollution continued to be - terto halt of Health the dumping to enforce of coffeelegal actions products to defendinto waterbodies, national waters which due include to contamination Resolution No. by the210 coffeeof July processing2, 1997, in which agroindustry. the Office of the Attorney General of the Republic ordered the Minis

Hugo G. Hidalgo [email protected] Chapter coordinator. Centro de Investigaciones Geofísicas y Escuela de Física, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica. Monika Springer Escuela de Biología y Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica. Yamileth Astorga Instituto Costarricense de Acueductos y Alcantarillados; Escuela de Tecnologías en Salud, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica. Eddy Gómez Escuela de Química y Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica. Ingrid Vargas Escuela Centroamericana de Geología y Maestría en Hidrogeología y Manejo de Recursos Hídricos, Posgrado en Geología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica. Édgar Meléndez Former Vice-Minister of Public Works and Transport, Costa Rica. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA 228

the installment of sewerage networks, collectors often an agent of death since it transported bacteria Due to the lack of quality control, “Water was and sub-collectors for 11 of the San José cantons, such as cholera, which caused nearly 10 000 deaths- from 4.2% wastewater sanitation coverage in 2014 in 1856” (Vargas Sanabria, 2001). The first modern to 12.4% in 2018. In 2016 the National Wastewater- aqueduct was inaugurated in 1868 in San José (Var Sanitation Policy was approved (AyA, MINAE and thegas city Sanabria, of San 2001).José, renowned In 1915, five scientist years beforeClodomiro the MS, 2016), accompanied by a National Plan for In Picadoconstruction Twight, of together the first with water his treatmentcollaborator plant Fran in- madevestments to comply in Sanitation with 2016-2045the Millennium (AyA, 2017b). Develop - In recent years, significant efforts have been and physical-chemical analyses of drinking water cisco Sancho, undertook the first microbiological sanitationment Goals and and hygiene the Sustainable service. AlthoughDevelopment the situaGoals- (SDGs), including the provision of drinking water, for this city (Picado Twight, 1915). better or similar to that of countries in the Central mainThe cities first of Valle sewerage Central, works at the were beginning inaugurated of the Americantion in Costa region Rica (given with therespect country’s to these achievements aspects is in 1911, and were subsequently constructed in the in aspects such as drinking water supply, adequate - basic sanitation to eliminate open fecalism and gen- 1940s (Mora-Alvarado and Portuguez-Barquero,- der issues), serious problems related to the quality 2016).tunately, The the treatment treatment system plants was in Valle then Central built throu were of surface water in rivers have yet to be solved. Mo- gh stabilization ponds in Guanacaste (1959). Unfor reover, more studies are required to determine the increasing the organic contamination of the basin extent of groundwater contamination more accura- abandoned in 1963 (Mora-Alvarado, 1992), thereby tely. The differences in the quality of drinking water thanks to an agreement between the government available, as well as the wastewater in urban and andformed the Nationalby the Virilla Institute and ofTárcoles Aqueducts rivers. and However, Sewers, rural areas is also an aspect requiring further study - built in a number of cities outside Valle Central, and tion systems in rural and urban aqueducts, b) natu- known as AyA (1972-1975), facultative ponds were ralat the conditions national of level. surface Factor and such groundwater as: a) administra sources, et al c) sources and types of contamination, and d) the the Limón Submarine Emissary was inaugurated in- prevalence of different sanitation systems (sewa- 2004 (Araya ., 2009). Yet despite these works, ge system, septic tank or septic tanks), account for Costa Rica ranks nearly last in treatment with con- the differences in water quality in urban and rural radoxically,ventional systems according in Latin to the America Joint Monitoring(Reynolds, 2002, Pro- - Mora-Alvarado and Portuguez-Barquero, 2016). Pa- cently made to measure the quality of the country’s areas. The first inter-institutional efforts were re gram of the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNI there is a large body of legislation related to the CEF) and the World Health Organization (WHO),- quantitywaterbodies. and Lastlyquality as of will water be seen resources, in later althoughsections, Costa Rica occupies one of the highest places in the in practice, these laws and regulations are often not WHOregion concept as regards covers the the concept disposal of “Improvedof excreta, Saniwhe- enforced, due to several factors, including the low thertation through Instruments”. sanitary This sewers, is because untreated the UNICEF/sewage, capacity for control of the authorities in charge, and septic tanks or latrines, and does not focus on wa- the lack of human and economic resources. ter treatment In contrast to the large percentage of drinking 1.2 Chapter objectives (UNICEF and WHO, 2006). The main objective of this chapter on water quality most serious and visible problem of water quality water supply coverage nationwide (93.5%), the • To provide a diagnosis of the current and histo- treatment and the resulting contamination of ri- in Costarical Rica status is: of water quality in the country. vers,in Costa particularly Rica is the in lowurban percentage areas. In of the wastewater past four • • Providing a vision of the laws and regulations relatedSpecific to objectives water quality. include: years, significant efforts have been made, including the start-up of the Los Tajos Treatment Plant and 229 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA

• Identifying the main problems impacting water - quality in the country. try of Health must guarantee the quantity and qua- • - lity ofThe drinking Law stipulates water in thatworks the constructed AyA and the partially Minis mic impacts. or totally with funds from the Treasury or another • Relating water quality to its social and econo form of guarantee from the government. Facilities, • Providing examples of challenges and success- buildings or works included in areas close to the fulVerifying experiences the country's in the country. compliance with SDGs. supply sources that affect the physical or chemical composition of water are prohibited. The focus of the chapter is to summarize histo- General Health Law - rical and current information on the main challenges in the country and the way they are addressed. every person must also (Lawbe diligent No. 5395, in 1973):complying Arti The aim is to provide an overview of the situation, withcle 148 personal of the Generalhygiene Healthpractices Law designed (LGS) statesto prevent that by way of a comparison with the results in the other the“ emergence and spread of communicable disea- American countries included this book. The idea is ses; preventing the contamination of vehicles of in- to seek or provide experiences that can be replica- fection such as water and food, the infestation and ted in other parts of the continent. contamination of movable and immovable property and the formation of foci of infection”. The law thereby implies that water pollution must be avoided 2. Institutional authority by all people. and water quality governance This law contemplates permit requirements for 2.1 Legal framework Detailed information on the laws, executive decrees industrial or scientific activities to prevent water- and other regulations in the country is available in cecontamination a decrease in by the natural quality or orartificially aesthetics radioactive of water, orsubstances. make this Environmental good unusable, alterations affecting possiblethat produ fu-

the Costa Rica System of Legal Information on the- Water for Attorney General’s Office at http://www.pgrweb. humanture uses, use health, and consumption flora or fauna, and are the also duties prohibited. and res- go.cr/scij. The Costa Rican legal framework on wa trictionsTitle toIII, which Chapter people I of arethe subjectLGS entitled in the “matter” in ter qualityWater includesLaw the following laws: - water is a public good and its lations related to water use and concessions. A new use for human consumption will have priority over (Law No. This law has all the regu anyArticle other 264 use states that “ - but the Constitutional Tribunal described it was in- ded as drinking water, the requirements of drinking viablelaw was due voted to the on procedure by Congress used in for November its approval. 2017, water systems”. Thisand whichchapter institutions defines what are isrespon regar- - sible for their administration and supervision. It is cessionaire of the latter must build public works explicitly forbidden to contaminate water supplies suchArticle as bridges 114 of and the culverts, Water Law and states if they that cross the other con and add anything foreign to water (except elements aqueducts, they should not modify their quantity or that improve water quality); water quality is regu- quality. lated for diverse various such as food production, General Drinking Water Law the operation of spas, crenotherapy establishments, it is the responsibility swimming pools and similar establishments. of the Ministry of Public Health and the (Law AyA No. to select 1634, it is prohi- and1953). locate Article the 3 watermentions destined that, “for the pipeline servi- bited for any natural or legal person to contaminate ce, the type of treatment of the latter and the type of surface,Article ground 275 of or this territorial chapter waters, states thatdirectly “ or indi- potable water system to be built. It will also be res- rectly, by means of drainage or the voluntary or ne- ponsible for the recommendations that must be given gligent discharge or storage of liquid, solid, gaseous, from the health point of view including the design, radioactive or non-radioactive waste, wastewater or construction, operation and maintenance of drinking substances of any nature which, by altering the physi- water systems”. cal, chemical and biological characteristics of water, WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA 230

make it dangerous for the health of people, and te- rious waterbodies, including springs, streams, ri- rrestrial and aquatic fauna or unserviceable for do- vers, lakes and reservoirs as a measure to reduce mestic, agricultural, industrial or recreational uses”. the impact on water by preserving the forest cover Solid or liquid polluting waste may only be dischar- near water sources. ged with permission from the Ministry of Health. - person who owns real estate must provide the ne- These protection areas are defined by the wa- cessaryContamination drainage of so watersheds that water is does prohibited. not become Every a terbody and the inclination of the terrain as follows: source of infection. Owners must guarantee proper metersa) 100 metersin urban measured areas on horizontallyeither side of around riverbanks, per excreta and sewage disposal. manent springs; b) 15 meters in rural areas and 10 Organic Law of the Environment (measuredstreams and horizontally) streams if theon the terrain banks is of flat lakes and and 50 water is in the public domain, and its conservation (Law No. meters in the event of rough terrain; c) 50 meters and7554, sustainable 1995): Chapter use III,are entitled of social “Water”, interest states”. Certain that reservoirs built by the state. The limits for the re- criteria“ must be adopted for the conservation of wa- chargenatural areasreservoirs, and the as aquifers well as inof theartificial springs lakes are and deter resources, such as the protection and conserva- termined in the complementary regulation to this tion of ecosystems and the maintenance of the equilibrium of the water system. These criteria must be Biodiversity Law used in the design and implementation of any water lawLaw. mentions payment for environmental services resource management, the granting of concessions (including actual or potential (Law No. water 7788, services), 1998): This au- and permits for the use of the resource and soil and thorizing the collection of costs from users for thewater conservation practices and works. se services. It includes wild protected areas such as geographic zones dedicated to the conservation of that the state, municipalities and other public ins- natural, cultural and ecosystem resources (inclu- titutionsChapter will XV, prioritize entitled the“Contamination”, establishment stipulates of servi- ding water resources). ces such as excreta, sewage and rainwater disposal. A number of executive decrees (regulations) In order to prevent water contamination, the com- related to the issue of water quality are described petent authority shall regulate and ensure that wa- below. In these decrees the various activities are ter“ management and use do not alter the quality and regulated and the actions to be taken are detailed, quantity of this resource, according to the limits set together with the respective methodologies. In ad- in the corresponding regulations was- dition, each one establishes the entities responsible tewater of any origin must receive treatment befo- for its implementation and the composition of the re being discharged into rivers, lakes,”. Moreover, seas and “other technical committees in charge of reviewing and bodies of water; in addition, it must reach the quali- modifying each of these decrees. ty established for the receiving body, according to its Wastewater Discharge and Reuse Regula- current and potential use and its future use in other tion activities”. In any water management or use, the res- importance of water and the fact that its contami- ponsibility for the treatment of discharges corres- nation (Decree is one ofNo. the 33601, problems MINAE-S, with 2006): the greatest Given thene- ponds to whoever produces the pollution. Indivi- gative impact on the environment, this regulation duals, legal entities, public or private are obliged to stipulates that wastewater discharges from any ensure that watersheds are not contaminated. source must receive treatment before being dis- Forest Law - charged into rivers, lakes, seas and other waterbo- tions the protection of water for urban, rural or hy- dies. They must also achieve the quality established droelectric use (Lawas one No. of 7575,the uses 1996): of This forests. law Itmen esfor the receiving body, according to its current and implement actions and potential use. projects designed to reduce pollution and the dete- The regulation establishes the obligation of po- riorationtablishes of a forestrenewable fund natural to “ resources (soil, air lluters to treat wastewater and prepare operational and water) - reports. The universal and complementary physi- tection areas that constitute fringes around the va- cal-chemical parameters to be measured are man- ”. Article 33 of this law defines the pro 231 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA

harmful effects on water, related ecosystems, human biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen de- health and productive activities datory.mand, hydrogenUniversals potential, include thefats following: and oils, settleableflow rate, all the details related to the procedures for enforce- solids, total suspended solids, methylene blue ac- ment of the fee, and states that”. theThe resources decree defines deri- tive substances and temperature. Complementary parameters required in particular applications in- takingved from into it willaccount be administered environmental by theand MINAE sanitation and - priorities.implemented, after consulting a Board of Directors, formsclude: and total color. nitrogen, Tables phosphates,are included with heavy the metals, maxi- Regulation for Drinking Water Quality (De- mumcyanide, limits phenols, allowed hydrocarbons, for universal sulfides, and complemen fecal coli- to tary parameters. establish the maximum levels of components or cha- There is one chapter on the conditions and clas- racteristicscree No. 38924-S, of water 2015): that This may decreepose a riskis designed to the heal “ - th of the community and problems for the preserva- describes the regulations related to sampling and tion of water supply systems for the benefit of public analysis.sification There of wastewater is also a standard reuse and for anotherthe content, that health”. To achieve this objective, the recommended procedure, preparation and signing of operational and maximum admissible values are established reports. for the various physical, chemical, biological and Regulation for the Evaluation and Classifi- microbiological parameters in their aesthetic, or- cation of Surface Waterbodies health. The minimum frequency of analysis and the tools for evaluating the quality of(Decree the surface No. 33903, wa- numberganoleptic of aspectssamples, as as well well as as their the dosessignificance for disin for- terbodiesMINAE-S, 2007):in the Thiscountry, decree with proposes an emphasis the technical on lo- fection are also indicated. tic bodies (rivers and streams or streams), based on the measurement of physical-chemical parameters and the analysis of benthic macroinvertebrates, 2.2 Public institutions - vely. It establishes the methodological details for ta- kingusing samples, the Dutch analyzing index and them, the BMWP-CR,and calculating respecti the Costa Rica has a series of institutions that govern the administration and control of water resources:- - The person responsible for water in Costa Rica tersindices to beand measured the ranges and for the the variousclassification classes of accorwater- executionis the Minister of natural of Environment resource and and environmental Energy (MI dingquality. to theIt also ranges defines obtained, the complementary as well as the potential parame protectionNAE), since policies his brief of the includes government, the planning as well as and direction, control, supervision, promotion and deve- responsible for its implementation is the Ministry uses for each of the five possible classes. The entity Water Directorate, and the Ministry of Health (MS) lopment in this field, specifically as regards surfaceof Environment and Energy (MINAE), through its ce-Ministryand underground of Water water. and theThis Water is based Directorate, on Law 7152this Regulation of the Environmental Fee for Dis- ministryof the Constitution, allocates waterissued concessionsin 1990. Through for various the Vi charges(MINAE/MS, 2007). - uses, charges for water use and discharges and su- an econo- pervises the quality of surface and groundwater bo- mic instrument (Decree for No. environmental 34431, MINAE-S, regulation, 2008): In based Arti - oncle the4 of ‘polluter this decree, pays' this principle, fee is definedwhich seeks as “ the social design and objective of achieving a healthy, ecologically balan- implementdies. The mission the conceptual, of the Directorate technical of and Environmen legal tools ced environment, in accordance with the provisions fortal Qualitythe definition Management of strategies of MINAE and public is to “ policies re- of Article 50 of the Political Constitution, through the garding environmental quality that promote the pre- payment of a fee in cash, to those who use the envi- vention, mitigation and reversal of the degradation ronmental service of waterbodies, a public good, for of water, air and soil. It also establishes the monito- the transport, and elimination of liquid waste ori- ring and control mechanisms that guarantee com- ginating at the point of discharge, which can cause pliance with the latter”. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA 232

The person responsible for ensuring the quali- - ty of water for human consumption and the quality pany in the province of Heredia which manages pu- of wastewater discharges is the Minister of Health, blicstate, resources the ESPH and is a whoselegal hybrid: assets acomprise municipal all com the - aqueducts in the associated municipalities. - - tributionsaccording toinclude the Organic everything Law relatedNo. 5412 to of the the policies Minis andtry of technical Health, 1973.norms This and is exercising due to the jurisdiction fact that his and at its outsetThe National as an institution Service ofwith Groundwater, a strategic role Irriga in technical control, as well as undertaking the actions watertion and management, Drainage (SENARA) both at the was level conceived of its direct from and activities to ensure public and environmental participation and in coordination with other insti- health. This is achieved through the Directorate of tutions in the agricultural and environmental sectors. It promotes agricultural development in the The AyA, in accordance with its constitutive country, helps implement agricultural develop- Protection of the Human Environment. ment projects, and attempts to create the rational, for drinking water supply and wastewater sanita- - tionLaw, services is the technical as well as governing their operator. body Its responsible mission is gh the creation of irrigation districts. With regard ensure universal access to drinking water and sa- democratic modification of land ownership throu nitation in a manner that is committed to health, the sustainabilityto “ of water resources and the economic andto groundwater, their recharge SENARA zones atis thethe country technical-scientific level. and social development of the country”. Wastewa- bodyOther that institutionsresearches, definesrelated andto water protects resources aquifers in ter collection and treatment is the responsibility of - the AyA, in places where it provides water supply tute, the Climate Change Directorate, the National MeteorologicalCosta Rica include Institute, the Costa the RicanMinistry Electricity of Agricultu Insti- - mentservice. and Its disposalConstitutive of domesticLaw stipulates liquid that waste; the AyAde- Authority. is responsible for: the collection, evacuation, treat- re and Livestock and the Public Services Regulatory tworks, collectors, treatment plants and everything 2.3 Relations with NGOs and universities requiredfining the to sanitary receive, transportsewer system and treatas collection sewage pro ne- (scientific research) duced in households or workplaces. - In addition to the AyA, there are three types of entities responsible for drinking water supply and In Costa Rica, most scientific research is conduc - ted at three public universities: the Universidad de- - Costa Rica (UCR), the Universidad Nacional (UNA) trativewastewater Associations treatment of services:Water Supply 1) the SystemsHeredia andPu institutesand the Tecnológico and laboratories de Costa that undertake Rica (TEC, research former Communalblic Services Sewers Company (ASADAS), (ESPH), also 2) known the Adminis as Com- projectsly ITCR). relatedEach of to the the latter country’s have researchwater resources. centers, - - - ismittees responsible and/or for Administrative most of the distributionAssociations and of Rusa- The analytical laboratories of CICA (Center for Re- ral Aqueducts (CAARs), and 3) Municipalities. AyA search in Environmental Pollution, UCR), CEQUIA population). The AyA also has a Sub-Department TEC (Center for Research and Chemical and Micro responsiblenitation in urban for overseeing areas (approximately and supervising 50% the of mathe- biological Services, TEC), IRET (Regional Institute for Studies on Toxic Substances, UNA), and LASEQ of Associations, which provide public service. They (Analysis and Chemical Services Laboratory, UNA)- nagement of ASADAS, entities created by the Law and LAA (Laboratory of Environmental Analysis, relatedUNA), have to water the respective quality analysis accreditations for different of the uses. Cos are non-profits, and apply the rateto provideestablished quality by ta Rican Accreditation Entity (ECA) for various tests servicesthe Public in theService water, Regulating energy, sanitation, Authority infocommu (ARESEP).- - nicationsThe mission and ofother the sectors, ESPH is which to “ contributes value THResearch (School on ofwater Agriculture issues is alsoof the conducted Humid Tropicalat other and development for society through the continuous private universities, such as the Universidad EAR improvement of their management”. In its current and Teaching Center). Region) and CATIE (Tropical Agricultural Research 233 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA

and thereby regulate the appropriate use of water mainly related to the quality of surface waterbo- resources. To ensure public access to the data gene- Research conducted in the field of water is rated from these monitoring, maps are being drawn (e.g. Herrera et al et al - Otherdies, especiallystudies have in thebeen Greater carried Metropolitan out on the effect Area re the results for each of the sites included in the of pesticide use on., 2013;different Mena-Rivera types of plantations., 2017). Planup on will the be DA available website (http://www.da.go.cr/),for consultation. whe (e.g. Castillo et al et al., et al et al., .,et 2000, al 2006; Echeverría - 2012;logical Pérez-Castillo indicators in the evaluation., 2013; Rasmussen and monitoring 3. Main problems impacting water 2016, Carazo-Rojas ., 2018) and the use of bio of the quality of surface waterbodies, both rivers quality in the country et al - et al - The main point of determining the quality of main- andño-Días lakes et (e.g. al Mafla, 2005; Michelset al ., 2006; Fer- land waters continues to be the impact on human nández and Springer, 2008; Stein ., 2008; Sede health, since it is mostly these sources that are used ., 2012; Rizo-Patrónet al ., 2013, Gutiéet al., to supply the country's population. Potability cri- rrez-Fonseca andet al Lorion, 2014; Umaña-Villalobos,- teria prevail when chemical analyses are conduc- 2014; Céspedes-Vargas ., 2016; Kohlmann 2015; Svensson ., 2017; Umaña-Villalobos and Fa- riousrah-Pérez, universities 2018). collaborate regularly with central ted of potential sources of use (Executive Decree- governmentResearchers and with local extensive governments, experience as well from as cer va- cesNo. 38924-S,of contamination 2015). The in cases waterbodies where official are those entities in whichhave identified human health and quantified has been compromised,other possible assour ha- formulation, review and implementation of initiati- ppened in Aguas Zarcas, in the northern zone of the vestain related Non-Government to water resource Organizations management. (NGOs) in the country, due to the natural occurrence of arsenic in

2.4 Monitoring and database groundwater (Mollinedo, 2013). - quality of inland waters in the country have been Since September 2015, the country has had an Given that most of the initiatives to evaluate the- updated regulation for drinking water quality (Exe riods, the need to establish a National Monitoring incutive water Decree sources, No. both 38924-S, surface 2015). and Thisground, regulation as long Programisolated effortsthat includes and specific the periodic studies evaluation for short pe of asclearly they defines are intended the variables for human that consumptionmust be quantified or in processes whose recipient is human beings. Cos- - surface and groundwater quality was identified. withThe the National support Plan of a for group Quality of professionalsMonitoring of andthe ta Rica also has a Regulation for Wastewater Dis- academicsSurface Waterbodies specializing of in Costa water Rica resources was prepared issues, charge and Reuse, the latest version of which was- from public universities and state institutions. This mitspublished allowed in 2017.for the This different regulation types details of wastewater the varia accordingbles that must to the be use quantified they have and had the and maximum the type liof the frequency of the samplings, as well as the pa- receiving body. rametersPlan defines to be the measured monitoring in each sites of andthem, establishes based on - 3.1 Urban waste - As regards surface waterbodies, there are diffe- Decree 33903-MINAE for the Regulation of Evalua rences between the rivers that run through urban tion and Classification of Surface Waterbody Qua areas and those that occur in rural areas. There are lity. It began to be implemented in 2015, with the differences in terms of the contaminants with grea- support of the three public universities (TEC, UCR test visibility, which attract most media attention, andTheir UNA), implementation which undertake is samplingexpected andto generate analysis - baselineof samples information for a five-year (national period. database) to classi- ces of domestic materials, fragments of automotive vehiclessuch as solidand the waste remains of human of building origin: materials, plastics, pie the

fy water quality in each of the country’s 34 basins WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA 234

most obvious example being what happens in the - et al. al., - such as the Moín channels in the Caribbean and Es basin of the Río Grande de Tárcoles, since most of intero areas de Puntarenas with high movementin the Pacific of vessels,(Acuña to trans- its tributariesThese rivers run or throughsmall urban the Greaterstreams Metropolihave been port2004). both Although passengers this is and not rawdesirable, materials. it is expectedThe pre- tan Area (Soto, 2012; Gutiérrez Wa-Chong, 2018). sence of hydrocarbons has also been reported in the waste from the Metropolitan Area, which exem- surface and groundwater sources (Mora-Alvarado used for decades as landfills that receive much of- - ghout the country, as well as the lack of a proper ciated with human error and even negligence. Sites wastewaterplifies the poor collection management and treatment of solid wastesystem. throu This and Portuguez, 2010). These cases have been asso situation is also affected by poor urban planning, - which has permitted the existence of houses on the where hydrocarbons have been quantified include edges of these waterbodies. These homes, the vast dethe Acosta, Quebradas and theRiver aquifer in Pérez supervised Zeledón, bynear the the Public Mo majority of which are illegal, lack waste collection Servicesravia Sites, Company the Llano of reservoir Heredia, in contaminated Orosi, San Ignacio with systems, as a result of which waste is directly dum- gasoline and diesel, which attracted a great deal of ped into rivers. media attention. The majority of these cases have been point pollution events. 3.2 Fecal contamination It is common for unpleasant odors to increase in ri- 3.4 Rural zones vers in the urban area during the dry season, due With regard to water sources in rural areas, the si- to the illegal dumping of wastewater with a high tuation of solid waste is less dramatic, due to the content of organic matter, in many cases with fecal simple fact of having a lower population densi- material of human origin. In this regard, the Natio- ty, but here the problem lies in the fact that many of these sources are primarily for agricultural use. in which it reports the quality of waters in various This competition for water makes it necessary to basinsnal Water in theLaboratory country, ofshowing the AyA the has high issued content reports of - fecal coliforms in many of the sites sampled. For tensive crops in the area, which nonetheless are in- tensivelyresort to produced, groundwater such sources as sugarcane, in these banana, areas. Exoil palm or pineapple, are activities that require the example, in the Tempisque River, discharge from use of an abundance of fertilizers and pesticides. (Mora-Alvaradothe Liberia, Cañas et andal Bebedero rivers contributes In the case of fertilizers, their presence in surface alsoa significant reported amount a high concentrationof fecal matter of into fecal its colifor basin- waters has rarely been studied, for methodological ., 2002). Mora-Alvarado (2004) reasons linked to the high solubility in water of the in estuaries throughout the country were included compounds used. These chemical substances (ni- inms this in thestudy. Río In Grande just under de Tárcoles half of them, basin. fecal Samplings colifor- trogenous and phosphorous) are easily transported by runoff, especially in areas with high precipi- were taken in reservoirs and lakes, the latter two tation, which turns nearby rivers and reservoirs in beingms were the identifiedsites with inthe high best quantities, microbiological and samples quality the recipients of these substances. It is therefore not in the study. Other published studies, such as tho- easy to demonstrate the presence of these sources - of pollution in surface waters, unless the characte- rrantes et al ristics of the waterbody enable their main effect to se by Calvo-Brenes and Mora-Molina (2012) and Ba Metropolitan., Area,(2013) particularlycorroborated the the María high levelAguilar of nutrients in water (mainly nitrate, ammonium and fecal contamination in many rivers in the Greater phosphate)be seen: eutrophication, and consequently the excessivethe growth increase of aquatic of plant species. These conditions may be the best in- 3.3and OilTorres hydrocarbon Rivers. pollution dications of alterations in the natural concentration As a result of human activities related to naviga- of these nutrient substances in water, while seaso- tion and electric power generation, the presence nal monitoring is the best way to record these va- of hydrocarbons in coastal sites has been reported, riations (Jones et al et al

., 1993, Umaña ., 1999). 235 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA

mum allowed. To this end, the AyA has embarked report, Castillo et al - - Despite this difficulty, for the State of the Nation re groundwater is free of the element, supply the presumably of agricultural. (2012) origin, compiled in various the most bodies re affectedon the task communities of finding withnew areasnearby to aqueduct drill wells waters whe oflevant surface information and groundwater. on the quantification The presence of of nitrate, nitrate and dilute drinking water to bring the concentra- was reported in wells in areas devoted to agricul- tion below the maximum allowed (Mora-Alvarado, ture in both the Caribbean region and in Chorotega - In recent years, the effort to resolve this situa- lous presence of this nutrient was also measured tion2011, hasCórdoba, not only 2017). focused on designing new aque- (Guanacaste). In terms of surface water, the anoma

concentrationsin rivers and streams of nutrients in Cartago, in some Guanacaste streams and ducts, such as the new aqueducts Cañas-Bebedero riversLimón. in Guevara the canton and of Herrera San José, (2014) although reported because high and Bagaces. In addition, six specialized plants were they are rivers located in the urban area, the mis- thebuilt AyA. for The the removalAyA has also of arsenic embarked in La on Cruz, the search Cañas management of domestic wastewater may be alte- forand technologies Bagaces, among that can other remove projects arsenic developed from the by ring the natural concentration of these substances ground sources used, in association with state uni- rather than agricultural activities.

3.5 Arsenic, an important areversities. at least For three example, registered in the projects Vice-Rector’s related to Office the case in public health for Research of the University of Costa Rica, there Due to the geological context of the country, characterized by volcanism and active faulting, arse- subject (Vicerrectoría de Investigación HYPERLINK nic of natural origin exists in the groundwater in "http://www.vinv.ucr.ac.cr/sigpro/web/"3.6 Presence of pesticides ). certain regions in the north. The origin of arsenic This issue has been important in recent years, since evidence has been found of the contamination of - has been studied by Alpízar and Vargas (2017) in- a research project undertaken at the University of cantonaquifers of in Siquirres. crop areas, This specifically aquifer was in thecontaminated communi projectCosta Rica, characterizes through the the Specific zones of Agreement Aguas Zarcas, on Te in byties bromacil, of Milano, a Cairo,herbicide La Francia used in and the Luisiana, cultivation in the of chnical Cooperation with the AyA (2013-2016). This pineapple. Due to the high dilution power of this herbicide and its toxicity, its use was prohibited in the province of Alajuela; Cañas, Bagaces, Los Chiles - toand the La World Cruz, Healthin Guanacaste. Organization This elementand the Drinkingis highly ged the AyA to supply drinking water to the popu- toxic, both cumulatively and specifically. According lationthe country with tankers in June and 2017. to Thisbuild contamination a new aqueduct obli for - them, capturing more distant sources of water wi- Water Regulation of Costa Rica, the maximum limit thout risk of contamination from the cultivation of allowed for water for human consumption is 10 mi pineapple. incrograms both wells per and liter. surface By 2013, sources. 24 populations The communities affected by the presence of this element had been identified,- - For The State of the Nation report, Ruepert are located in the provinces of Guanacaste and Ala- all(2011) in the compiled Caribbean the existingzone of theinformation country. Accordingon the in juela: and include Aguas Zarcas, Cañas, Bagaces and tocidence this study, of pesticides in a project in surfaceon the quality water untilof surface 2010, threeLa Cruz kilometers (Mollinedo, north 2013). of the Arsenic town appearsof Aguas naturaZarcas, water and sediments in rivers, conducted between wherelly in a theresection is ofa faultthe Aguas zone Zarcaseroded River by water in Lomas, from bromacil, chlorpyrifos, diuron, fenbuconazole and be discussed in section h. of this document. Since endosulfan,2008 and 2011, compounds the presence related of substancesto the cultivation such asof thethis discoveryriver. The offindings this pollutant, regarding the groundwater main concern will of the pineapple and banana, was detected. The same state entities has been to ensure arsenic-free drin- report indicated that in monitoring conducted be- king water or, at least, with limits below the maxi-

tween 2009 and 2011 of the Jiménez River, Limón, WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA 236

the presence of the ametryn and diuron was found products. The technology used to identify it is ex- in surface waters, both pesticides being linked to tremely costly and it is only as a result of the colla- - boration between the state and public universities thepineapple presence crops, of seven whereas pesticides in the Madrerelated de to Diosthe cul Ri- ver,tivation also ofin pineapple, the Caribbean, rice and between bananas 2010 was and identi 2013,- that3.7 Emerging these important contaminants findings have come to light. - se of the recent interest they have elicited in the in- andfied. Caletas-Ario),Their incidence where was thealso mortalityrecorded ofin aquaticseveral Emerging contaminants are defined as such becau organismsparts of the or country intoxication (Matina, of humans Bagaces, was Puntarenas, demons- substances on which research had not focused, be- trated, all of which are related to the presence of causeternational they exist scientific in very community. low concentrations, They are mostlybelow micrograms or even nanograms per liter. It is only the advance of analytical techniques that has made pesticides. The information compiled by Ruepert it possible to focus on them. This analytical interest studies(2011) was was subsequently presented in addedwhich tothe by presence Castillo of and a has been accompanied by the interest in determi- largecollaborators amount of (2012), pesticides since in more various data bodies from of other sur- ning their effect on human health and other organisms that are in contact with them, mainly aquatic organisms. Agriculturalface water in Practicesthe country in wasPineapple identified. Production in These substances comprise a broad spectrum the InNorth June Zone 2018, project, within implementedthe framework by of the the Center Good disinfectants, perfumes, hormones, bactericides, - of chemical compounds: personal care products, for Research in Environmental Pollution (CICA) of are no regulations in the country on the presen- the University of Costa Rica (UCR) and the Phyto cesurfactants, of these substances fire retardants in water and antibiotics.bodies. Moreover, There ofsanitary pesticides Service was of reported the State in (SFE) the Pital, of the Aguas Ministry Zar- casof Agriculture and Venecia and de San Livestock Carlos water (MAG), sources. the presence In this has been due to initiatives in academia, since state - entitiestheir detection lack the is technological expensive and capacity their identification to quantify them, even though they are a substance that is wi- project, 22 surface water samples and 10 well wa- dely distributed in the environment. quentlyter samples reported were collectedsubstances, between although 2015 metalaxyl, and 2017. carbendazimBromacil, ametryne and hexazinone and diuron were were alsothe mostdetected fre this subject. In a study by Spongberg et al - samplesThere of are surface very few water, publications both fresh in andCosta brackish, Rica on versity had detected the presence of bromacil and were collected throughout the country. Doxycycline. (2011) 86 ametryne(O'neal Coto, residue 2018). in Through the waters CICA, and that sediment same uni of - - ced by the cultivation of pineapple and rice (O'neal was found in 77% of the samples, sulfadimethoxi- Térraba-Sierpe Wetland, an area strongly influen ne in 43%, acetylsalicylic acid in 41%, triclosan in- Problems related to the presence of pesticides gram34% and per caffeineliter), followed in 29%. byCaffeine doxycycline, was the ibuprofen, substan inCoto, both 2017). surface and groundwater sources are exa- ce found was in the highest concentration (1.1 milli- cerbated by the fact that many of the substances der of micrograms per liter. The highest incidence remain in the environment for a very short time, gemfibrosil, acetaminophen and ketoprofen, in or - nal analytics, which are based on the collection of of these substances occurred in effluents near the- making it difficult to determine them by conventio- Golfito Hospital, the treatment plant in Liberia, near onthe human Manuel health Antonio and National whether Park they and are the also Río present Gran somesamples of thatthese do chemical not reflect substances. the immediate Another or spefac- inde drinkingde Tárcoles. water The is actual still unknowneffect of these in the substances country. torcific that situation, conspires but againstrather thean adequatecumulative response nature toof What is known is that academic initiatives exist to the presence of these substances is that there is no increase the number of sampling sites, substances and regions in the country, in order to have a clea- state entity that systematically quantifies all these 237 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA

rer picture of what is really happening with these - chemical compounds that are discharged into water bodies. 2. Contamination from inorganic substances: niet altrates have been reported in the La Libertad 3.8 Groundwater pollution etspring al by SENARA-BGS (1988) and by Losilla - . (2001), and in the Barvaet aquifer al (Reynolds water is used for different purposes, such as public North., 2006).zone of Pesticides the country in areagricultural undoubtedly areas one of waterIn Costa supply, Rica, ascrop in otherirrigation, parts tourism of the world, and industry. ground ofthe the Atlantic most zonecommon (Ruepert non-point ., sources, 2005) and while the bromacil is one of the main compounds in Cairo human consumption in the country is groundwater, and Milano in Siquirres, in Veracruz in Pital de obtainedAccording from to the springs MINAE, and 80% wells. of the water used for - The study of groundwater quality in the country se pollutants are associated with anthropoge- has focused mainly on determining the potability of nicSan activities.Carlos and Certain in Río Cuartoother chemical de Grecia. elements All the water intended for human consumption. This work have been reported as anomalous in ground- is undertaken by the entities that administer public water, such as manganese and iron, mainly occurring on the Caribbean slope and northern subslope; these elements appear naturally due supply systems. AyA is the entity that supplies 50% to the reducing conditions found in the aquifers of the national population, ASADASs cover 30%,- of these regions. ringmunicipalities water quality 15% in and surface the ESPH water 5%. bodies Although seeks it tois - establishtrue that aDecree baseline 33903, in different MINAE-S, parts 2007 of thefor country,monito mined the origin of arsenic from hydrogeoche- a legal loophole exists regarding the monitoring of micalMollinedo and hydrogeological (2013) and Arayainformation (2018) deterin the groundwater quality. There has been very little research on this issue due to the high cost of chemical analysis. The relationship between surface and Aguas Zarcas and Los Chiles, Alajuela regions groundwater should be studied in detail, becau- respectively.et al Arsenic in the areas of Bagaces- se pollution in rivers is increasing on a daily basis and Cañas, in Guanacaste, has been studied by due to the inadequate disposal of solid and liquid Ramoscentury, such. (2014).as salinization Other types due to of saline contami inwaste, which can reach aquifers when rivers are in- nation have been reported since the early 21st-

trusion problems in several North Pacific bea fluent (hydraulically connected to groundwater). ches (Arellano and Vargas, 2001, Arias-Salguero- thatThe encouragesstudy by SENARA-BGS the vertical (1985)migration notes of pollutantsthat there ductivityand Vargas, and 2003). chloride Another levels casein water is Tamarindo, have been intoare influent groundwater, sectors which of the calls Virilla for River, permanent a condition con- detected,Guanacaste, due where to excessive increases extraction in electrical of ground control of the possible adverse effects this could cause. water by pumping wells near the coast (Astor- Although efforts are being made to collect wastewater in the metropolitan area through the sanitary sewer system and to improve its treatment, its dis- pollutionga, 2018, personal by hydrocarbons communication). has also been found posal remains inadequate. 3. Contamination by organic compounds: Point Sources of groundwater contamination are both point and non-point. Pollution by type of compound gasin two station places; that thehad AB-1089had a spill, well, which belonging is why the to the ESPH, located in Barrial de Heredia near a

can becoliforms classified have as follows:been detected in excavated or well was disconnected from the system in 2005. 1. artisanalBacteriological wells that contamination: capture shallow total aquifers and fecal in sitesAnother have case had is tothe be Moín intervened aquifer, inwith the remedia RECOPE- rural areas, since these are often located near tionsite inprocesses. Limón studied Although by itGuzmán is impossible (2006). to Both rule the septic tanks of houses, in addition to being out the existence of other contaminated sites in the country, they have not been detected due used as dumps. to the lack of groundwater monitoring. Studies prone to flooding, and are often abandoned and WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA 238

on the chemical composition of water in spe-

ching 98% coverageet al of water from indoor pipes and cific aquifers, include the SENARA-BGS study 99% with improved drinking water sources in 2012 (1985) undertaken in Valle Central, where the- (Hidalgo-León ., 2015). One of the most pressinget al., waters of the Barva and Colima aquifers were problems in terms of water quality in Costa Rica, studiedcharacterized the hydrogeochemical chemically and isotopically. characteristics Gó systemsidentified for in sewageprevious and studies gray (Hidalgo-Leónwater treatment in mez and Arredondo (1994) and Vargas (2015) 2015), is the problem of low coverage of sanitary explored the hydrogeochemical features of a positive step was achieved in sanitary sewer co- of the Tempisque aquifer; while Vargas (2017)- verage,metropolitan with wastewater areas. It is treatmentworth noting increasing that in from2016, lity of the groundwater in other aquifers has beengroundwater sporadically in the studiedRio Grande through basin. graduateThe qua Although wastewater treatment coverage must and postgraduate theses on geology. However, be4.2% greatly in 2014 improved, to 14.4% goodin 2018 coverage (AyA, 2018). in terms of ac- more research is required and projects for the cess to drinking water and the basic health system adequate instrumentation and permanent mo- mean that the incidence of diarrheal diseases, par- nitoring of groundwater quality must be consi- ticularly of diarrhea-related mortality, is still relati- dered at the country level to prevent and detect vely low with respect to other countries in the re- contamination that may affect the groundwater et al sources used in public supply in an early stage. causes of death in infants due to infectious and pa- gion (Hidalgo-León ., 2015). The percentage of- - pply Plans (PAS), in which users requests support rasitic diseases is 1.6%, while for respiratory cau fromSENARA to conduct is currently research developing on selected Sustainable aquifers and Su ses it is 4.3% (INEC, 2013). It should be noted that begin a continuous process for water resource ma- diseases of the digestive system in Costa Rica are nagement. Two projects of this nature have already rarely fatal in childhood. For example, in 2011, the percentage of deaths of children under 5 from these - allcauses the causeswas 0.01 of perdeath thousand, for this agecompared range (Ministrywith the beente, in which carried the out: quality one inof thegroundwater Parrita region is characte in the- death rate of 2.21 per thousandet obtained al by adding Central Pacific and another in Santa Cruz Guanacas neither diarrhea nor hepatitis feature among the of Health, 2011, Hidalgo-León ., 2015). In fact, rized (Ramírez, 2018, personal communication). 4. Social and economic aspects ten leading causes of death in children under 5 in ofany diseases of the years associated from 2012 with to water 2015 isevaluated shown in in Hidal INEC- 4.1 Health (2015, seeet Table al 7.12). The incidence of other types- The World Health Organization (WHO) has suggested that diarrhea is a symptom of infectious disea- relativelygo-León constant. (2015). over In Costa time. Rica,Deaths the from mortality diseases ra oftes the of thedigestive first five system sources (a fraction of death of have which remained may be Factors that can contribute to reducing the number related to water quality) amount to a third of the ofses, diarrhea usually casesspread include by water access pollution to water (WHO, for human 2000). diseases due to the leading cause of death in the consumption, improvements in the health system, country (problems of the circulatory system). For good personal and food hygiene, and health educa- reference, the average mortality rate for those years due to certain infectious and parasitic diseases is Diarrhea deaths are common among the poor, espe- tion on how diseases are transmitted (WHO, 2000). approximately four billion cases of diarrhea in the death0.81 deaths in the per country. 10 000 For inhabitants the case of (INEC, diarrhea 2015) in parand- cially in developing countries. Every year, there are it does not figure among the ten leading causes of - levelsworld (WHO,in terms 2000). of drainking water coverage, rea- ticular, the average mortality rate from 2008 to 2015 Costa Rica has achieved extremely satisfactory is 0.1 deaths per 10 000 inhabitants, the great majo rity of whom are over 75 (Ministry of Health, 2016). 239 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA

4.2 Poverty ral and industrial threats is also mentioned. In or- In terms of poverty, the average percentages for the der to achieve sustainable development, the coun- - try needs to improve many aspects, such as the

period 2012-2015 of the population living in non ex rational exploitation of marine resources, waste posestreme, a extreme social challenge and total in poverty many respects, are 16.4%, but 7.3% al- management,following: the adaptationconservation and of mitigation water resources, mechanis the- thoughand 23.7% the respectivelycountry faces (INEC, an increasing 2015). This number in itself of ms in the face of climate change, land use planning, challenges to maintain its basic services, no study clean energy use to reduce dependence on fossil has shown that the limitations of the lowest socioe- fuels and strengthen culture and environmental conomic group regarding access to drinking water, It will also be a major cha- basic hygiene education or basic health systems llenge to enforce the Law and ensure that the institu- tionaleducation framework (PND, 2014).achieves “ better environmental ma- correlations between social stratum and the preva- nagement, in which the link between environmental lencehave beenof disease sufficiently outbreaks influential related to to clearly water identifyquality. sustainability and economic and social development For example, in the case of diarrhea, there does not is a central aspect seem to be a correlation between the index of social education has been mentioned among other priority services that must” (PND, be evaluated 2014). Environmental at schools so that they can be improved and thus promote better todevelopment the quantity and of waterthe rate available of diarrhea and the (Table presence 19 of education and the permanence of students in edu- ofthe breeding Ministry grounds of Health, for 2016). vectors Other transmitting diseases related disea- cational centers. In fact, environmental education ses such as Dengue, Zika and Chikunguña, do seem is regarded as the core of the curriculum and institutional(from elementary management school to tostrengthen diversified education education) for theseto have communities, a tendency to the produce quality significant of support outbreaks services life that will encourage creativity and innovation to isin ruralusually municipalities more limited (Ministry and the of population Health, 2018). living In in poverty may be more socially vulnerable. With respect to indigenous populations (accounting for enhance4.4 Gender human development (PND , 2014). -

2.4% of the totalonly population 7.6% of indigenous of the country people in have the Gender issues have been associated with water su- no2011 shortcomings. census), according The main to shortcomings the Unsatisfied are related Basic patedpply in in certain the construction cases. For example, of aqueducts, Rico (1998)yet are notes rele- toNeeds productive method, development, “ food security, marketing gatedthat women in terms in ofCosta the Ricapercentage have traditionally who participate partici in possibilities, access to drinking water, basic services project administration. The health statistics related and all kinds of infrastructure development (health, to various diseases are differentiated by sex in the education, production and social). In indigenous po- information provided by the Ministry of Health, but pulations, the concepts of poverty and vulnerability to our knowledge, no statistical analysis has been differ substantially from those use for the non-indi- undertaken of the incidence of all kinds of diseases genous population for men and women separately in order to determine the causes of the possible differences (there is an 4.3 Educational" (PND,attainment 2014) in communities. Education programs et al and curricula analysis of the incidence of hepatitis B, dengue and- - blemalaria for ensuringby sex in INECequal conditions., 2010). In for Costa women, Rica, theal- cludes, among many other goals, the strengthening National Institute for Women (INAMU) is responsi ofThe community National Development water management, Plan (NDP) as 2015-2018 well as the in et al increase in wastewater collection and treatment though significant gaps exist in some respects, such - as4.5 access Rural to and employment urban areas (INEC ., 2010). ty of the road, energy and public service systems (PND,(water, 2014). sanitation, The need health) to address to natural, the vulnerabilisocio-natu- In Costa Rica, excreta disposal systems are based on the use of septic tanks (76.9%) and treated and WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA 240

Policy for Wastewater Sanitation, which will allow provided by the AyA (although it is also present in the development of the improvement projects and untreated sewage (21.1%). Most urban services are The AyA has spent nearly and municipalities, while ASADAS usually serve ru- eight years investing in the environmental impro- rural regions) and to a lesser extent by the ESPH vementnew systems of the required.cantons in “ the Greater Metropolitan administered by AyA, nine fail to comply with the Area, through a loan of more than $300 million USD ral regions. Of the 21 wastewater treatment systems- from the central government, the Japanese Bank and the Inter-American Development Bank Wastewater Discharge and Reuse Regulations, spe cifically in the determination of total BOD. For its- urban sanitary sewage and wastewater” (AyA, treatment 2017a). part, the ESPH administers five treatment systems, The goals are as follows: by 2036 it is hoped to have- municipalitiesfour of which comply and ASADAS with the (Mora-Alvarado total BOD. Informa et al., tation and wastewater treatment in the remainder tion is unavailable on the 32 systems operated by in the priority cities covered and by 2045, rural sani - ment2016). systemsInformation for water for the supply period have from an November average of 1, of the urban area (AyA, 2017a). By 2030 it is hoped- 2012 to October 31, 2015, indicates that urban treat- llionto invest will $1082be invested million in to the benefit coastal more tourism than 580 region, 000 - people in the Greater Metropolitan Area, $127 mi- 5.4% of treatment compared to 1.3% in rural sys llion will be invested to repair current systems to ruraltems. systemsLikewise, (Mora-Alvarado urban systems ethave al 94% of insta benefiting more than 69 000 people, while $435 mi thellations episodes with of disinfection contamination compared in the country, to 38.8% the in- re have been cases of anthropic chemical., 2016). contami Within- benefit more than 235 000 people (AyA, 2017a). The- nation (especially with hydrocarbons) and natural entire national investment plan for 2045 will total chemical contamination (particularly arsenic). A the$6.224 expansion billion, including and implementation $3.654 billion of for wastewater wastewa list of the occurrence of these incidents is available ter treatment in urban areas and $2.569 billion for in Mora-Alvarado et al treatment in rural areas (AyA, 2017a). 4.6 Investment in water. (2016). quality programs 5. Meeting Sustainable Development separate fecal matter from direct contact with peo- Goals (Goal 6: Ensure water ple.For overHowever, 90 years, although basic the sanitation basic system has managed reached ra to- availability and its sustainable by septic tanks which in many regions is unsuita- management and sanitation for all) tesble ofand 97% creates in 2017, an enormousapproximately risk of70% contamination are covered of surface waters and underground layers (AyA, 5.1 Compliance with SDG soapy or wastewater, due to direct disposal from nearby2017a). Ashouses a result, or the many poor rivers drainage and ofstreams septic tankscarry Costa Rica has made significant efforts to meet not only the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs),- but also the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). implementation(AyA, 2017a). is the responsibility of following beingTargets much 6.1 and more 6.2 preciseof Goal and6 refer having to drinking more varia wa- In Costa Rica, wastewater treatment and project ter provision, sanitation and hygiene, with the SDGs However, the high design and investment costs of all, promoting the elimination of inequalities in ser- theoperators: sanitary AyA, sewer ESPH, infrastructure ASADAS and and municipalities. wastewater vicebles. levels.SDGs promoteHygiene isuniversal, also included, equitable which access had notfor treatment plants, mean that they must be covered by the central government budget. The cost of supply service is conceptualized as safe, affordable maintenance and operation of these systems is co- waterbeen considered and sanitation in the is conceptualizedMDGs, while drinking as adequate, water eliminating open fecalism and paying particular at- country created a National Investment Plan in the tention to the needs of women and girls and people shortvered andby utility medium rates term, (AyA, in 2017a).response Accordingly, to the Public the in situations of vulnerability. 241 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA

The processes and systems to monitor and re- - the protection of water resources and the streng- theningaim of “achieving of the capacities access ofto thedrinking actors water related through to the view SDG6 trends are being coordinated by the Se provision of the service, to contribute to the heal- cretariat of Sectoral Planning of the Environment, th, welfare and development of the country”. The in which the National Center for Geoenvironmental - ThisInformation Secretariat (CENIGA) has the and technical the National support Institute of the MI of- vernance of the potable water sector, investment Statistics and Censuses (INEC) provide the inputs. instrategic infrastructure axes of thisand Policy service are: and water environmental culture, go AyA and the Interinstitutional Technical Committee management in the drinking water sector. A Natio- NAE Water Directorate, the Ministry of Health, the

5.2comprising Drinking MINAE, water AyA supply and SENARA. nal Program for the Improvement of the Quality of Drinking Water Services 2017-2030 (AyA/MINAE/ the priority use among other uses, in addition to the MS,5.3 Basic2018) is sanitation also in place. recognitionIn Costa Rica, of accessdrinking to waterdrinking has water been anddefined sanita as- -

Basic sanitation in the country was promoted throu supplytion as servicea Fundamental as a public Human rather Right, than aas private stipulated ser- gh the 1973 General Health Law. By 2017, 70% of the viceby the has United been conceptualizedNations in 2010. and Since framed 1961, inthe various water population had a septic tank, 14.4% with sanitary laws and, above all, in the constitution of the AyA, sewerage and a water treatment plant, 13.4% with which has been given the authority and responsibi- sanitary sewage without treatment plants, 1.6% with latrines and just 0.5% without toilets. This drinking water, and sewage and liquid industrial means that the country has achieve Goal 6 of the wastelity to “providecollection the and inhabitants disposal services”.of the country This withmis- SDGs,Moreover, where the in proportionorder to promote of people advanced who practice sani- sion complements it for the entire national popula- tationopen fecalism for major is citiesalmost and nil coastal(AyA/MINAE/MS, areas with a2016). high - Municipalities. tion Policy was constructed in a participatory man- tion with the work of the ASADAS, the ESPH and the influx of tourists, the National Wastewater Sanita-

justiceThe criteria, Law Establishing taking into theaccount AyA stipulatesthe social stra that,- ner (AyA/MINAE/MS, 2016), with five axes: 1. Insti- ta“Rate and setting the area should to which be based users on belong, distributive so that social tho- tutional and regulatory strengthening, 2. Integrated- se with the greatest capacity to pay subsidize those sanitation management, 3. Infrastructure and inwith less capacity”. Moreover, the service must be at plementedvestment, 4. by Financial the National sustainability Plan of Investments and tariff mo in cost through an affordable rate for families. del and 5. Citizen participation. This policy is com- This public service model implemented in Costa captureSanitation and for treat the periodwastewater 2017-2045, from in cities which through an in seweragevestment ofand $6.224.000.000 treatment plants, has andbeen wastewater calculated toin Rica achieved the universalization of water supply rural areas through septic tanks or another type of services, increasing coverage from 70% in 2000 to alternative technology. 94.5% in 2017. The AyA covers 47%, ASADAS 29% , The Communal Associations for water supply ofMunicipalities the population 14%, that ESPH receives 5% and totally other safe entities drinking 5%. water,Indoor free coverage of microorganisms is 97.6%, corresponding and dangerous to 91.8% che- have the AyA delegation to provide these services. Inand order sanitation to strengthen are official these organizations, organizations, the which Po- - licy for the Organization and Strengthening of Com- llymical high elements coverage, (AyA, with 2018). continuous equitable servi- munity Management of Drinking Water and Sani- ce. InWater order supply to ensure service this in managementCosta Rica has model genera of tation Services was launched, which has a digital public water supply services, the National Policy et Support System), which is collecting information on al theunified status instrument of ASADAS (ASADAS-SAGAaqueducts, as well Management as the risk for the Potable Water Sub-sector 2017-2030 (AyA ., 2018) was constructed and launched, with the WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA 242

level of the systems and sources used. ASADAS ca- Three of the institutions with competence in pacities are being built by the National Continuous water resources comprise the Institutional Techni- Training Plan. cal Committee (CTI), which conducts hydrogeological studies and monitors the country’s aquifers. The - aim is to determine the amount of water available Integrated Water Resource Management is also - fromreflected the inPolitical the National Constitution, Water Policywhich andstates the that, Na mes to be exploited, thus ensuring the sustainable tional Water Strategy, launched in 2009, derived- managementand to have scientific of groundwater data on bodies.the permissible volu habitants of the country, by organizing and stimu- lating“The State production shall seek and the the greatest most appropriate welfare for distriall in- - proveAlthough the indicators Costa related Rica has to sanitation. undoubtedly The mademain a healthy, ecologically balanced environment”. The progress in complying with SDGs, it has yet to im bution of wealth,” where, “everyone has the right to - for the political leadership and stewardship of wa- tionhurdles systems to maintaining with chemical and even elements improving for human SDG 6 terMinister resources. of Environment and Energy is responsible consumption,involve investing the inprotection water treatment of water andsources, purifica sustainable watershed management using participa- 5.4 Legal Framework tory processes and continuing to invest in wastewa- With regard to the general legal-regulatory fra- ter collection and treatment. mework for integrated water management and in- organizations including Ministries, Autonomous 6. Recurrent Problems and Successful tersectoral action in Costa Rica, there are over 15 Experiences in Improving Water Institutions and Local Governments with authority Quality otherover Water laws andResources. decrees Thus, that governthere is water a Water in CosLaw- dating from 1942 and over 100 instruments among Box 1: Sustainable management of the Nimboyores aquifer, Santa Cruz, ta Rica. This is why, since 2001, a bill for Integrated Guanacaste spheresWater Resource of authority. Management This bill has yetbeen to promoted,be appro- vedwhich by is the an National integrative Congress. law with a clear definition of By Yamileth Astorga Espeleta an inalienable good, which must be managed in a As a result of a crisis caused by a project designed to sustainableWater is definedfashion, as considering a good in the thepublic hydrologi domain,- capture water from the Nimboyores aquifer to su- cal and hydrosocial cycle. It is the responsibility of pply coastal areas, there is a need to promote a par- the state to use concessions or permits to authori- ticipatory process with various strategic socio-ins- ze the use of water, which is charged through the titutional actors to ensure sustainable groundwater management in the Nimboyores area. This process ground source, according to the volume and type of was coordinated by institutions responsible for wa- Environmentally Adjusted Use Free by surface or- man consumption or hydroelectric. It also has a dis- Institute of Aqueducts and Sewers (AyA), the Wa- chargeuse: commercial, rate which industrial, is calculated tourist, according irrigation, to the huvo- ter resource management, such as the Costa Rican lume and pollutant load discharged into a surface - waterbody. ter Directorate of the Ministry of Environment and For wetland ecosystems, there is a National theEnergy Ministry (MINAE), of Health the National (MS), the Groundwater, Ministry of Agricul Irriga- tion and Drainage Service (SENARA), supported by- orderWetland to Policycontribute 2017-2030, to national with the development. aim of integrally Wet- Aqueductsture and Livestock (ASADAS), (MAG), the Integral the Institute Development of Rural DeAs- landmanaging ecosystems the wetland account ecosystems for seven of per Costa cent Rica, of the in sociations,velopment (INDER),local government, the Associations academia of Communal (National country (Mora-Rodríguez, 2017). University) and the private sector. 243 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA

Box 2. Integrated Water Resource Management at the level of the Purires River Microbasin, El Guarco, Cartago

By Yamileth Astorga Espeleta

actors and invite them to be part of a participatory of Knowledge Project for the use of Integrated Wa- process,The first since step the was image to win of publicthe trust institutions of the various has The University of Costa Rica promoted the Dialogue been severely discredited for various reasons. It - was therefore decided to work together on several ter Resource Management as a strategy for water- fronts, such as the measurement and monitoring of vesustainability of this initiative at the was level to contribute of the Purires to the River collecti Hy- the status of the aquifer, the analysis of water balan- vedrographic use of integrated Basin in Cartago,water resource Costa Rica. management The objecti as ce data, the development of a sustainable manage- an integrating strategy for actors and communities ment plan for the aquifer and the conceptualization of an infrastructure project to supply water to va- process of exchanging knowledge, experiences and rious communities. This effort culminated with the sustainablebased on the water Purires use and River management microbasin, practices. through a - This project is the continuation of an earlier sion for the Sustainable Management of the Nim- process, based on the mapping of strategic actors in boyoresconsolidation Aquifer of and an organizationCoastal Aquifers called of Santa “Commis Cruz the microbasin and the promotion and consolidation of a platform, with the representation of local actors, community organizations, and public Costa (CONIMBOCO)”, formalized by Executive Decree No.- blic-community41094-MINAE. agreement with ASADASs on the project incorporated the building of the organiza- coastalIn this zone experience, of Santa Cruz, the AyA where signed the AyAthe firstbuilt pu an tionalRican stateand integrated and local governmentwater resource institutions. management The aqueduct using water from the Nimboyores aquifer Microbasin (ComPurires), culminating in a formally constitutedcapacities of Association the Commission with legalfor the status Purires designed River throughand transporting a macro-meter it to 16 and communities charged on allthe supplied basis of to lead and maintain the integral management pro- by 14 ASADAS. Water is delivered to each ASADA- cess of water resources in the micro-basin. - The project also included the assessment of lateda new on tariff the definedbasis of bythe the average Public cost Services of the Regulaservice the vulnerability of water resources in production providedtory Authority by each (ARESEP), operator, called while block ensuring water, the calcu eco- areas, the sources used and the discharge of was- nomic sustainability of each ASADA. The commit- tewater from various users, such as the Adminis- - service. ge Systems (ASADAS), household and agricultural ment of each ASADAS is to ensure efficient, quality userstrative and, Associations in general, of theAqueduct ecosystem and Ruralof the Sewera Purires that have undergone salinization processes, by re- ducingCONIMBOCO or eliminating seeks the to extraction restore coastal of their aquifers waters microbasin, with the active participation of mem- and consuming water from the Nimboyores aqui- bersRiver of and ComPurires. its main tributaries in the Purires River fer, a non-coastal aquifer. This inter-organizational body is also responsible for implementing the ma- and middle school students, were trained to take nagement plan for the Nimboyores aquifer, where waterLocal samples actors from in the river Commission, for the evaluation elementary of - the physical-chemical quality and macroinvertebrate samples for evaluation through biological indica- ofthe the extraction water will of bewater reserved is limited in the to aquifer, the flow and establi con- tors of the quality of the aquatic ecosystem. To this trollingshed by landthe water use in balance areas with study, the ensuring greatest waterthat 60% re- end, they also produced maps, guidelines and other charge. This guarantees the quantity and quality of types of educational material to continue monito- the aquifer water. ring water quality in the microbasin. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA 244

The project also incorporated continuous mo- purposes, which are the source of deforestation and nitoring for approximately seven years at six points the loss of plant cover, which reduces infiltration, the- along the course of the microbasin, in keeping with reby increasing run-off, the risk of floods and the dragging of sediment. It states that liquid [sic] effluent from sewerage is discharged untreated into the river, the provisions of the Regulation of the Evaluation since only 45% of the basin population have untrea- wereand Classificationtaken for the ofanalysis Surface of the Waterbody physical-chemi Quality,- ted sewerage, which leads to the deterioration of the Executive Decree No. 33903. Twice a year, samples- quality of the surface and groundwater in the basin, creating unhealthy conditions and contaminating cal quality of the water and the Water Quality In the water sources. It states that this problem is a re- anddex (WQI)Ammoniacal was used, Nitrogen, which inincludes addition the to percentage other phy- sult of unplanned growth, deforestation, lack of fore- sical-chemicalof oxygen saturation, parameters. Biochemical Macroinvertebrate Oxygen Demand sam- sight regarding the impacts of urban use and igno- rance of the capacity of the storm sewer system”. index. plesIn were order taken to reduce to use the the vulnerability BMWP-CR of biological the water resources in the micro-watershed, solution Thethe Resolution necessary ofactions the (Court)be taken Constitutional immediately strategies were implemented, such as the installa- toChamber, comprehensively Vote 5894-2007 eliminate of April the sources27, 2007 of ordered conta- tion of collectors to harvest rain at education cen- minationthat, “ that exist throughout the basin of the Río - Grande de Tárcoles - ter treatment, the production of organic fertilizer - usingters, dry agricultural leach fields waste, and bio-digesters reforestation for in wastewathe areas tors, in both the public”. Fulfilling and private this sectors, mandate a combi requi- of water recharge and riparian protection areas, so- nationred the of joint wills efforts aware of of athe significant severity ofnumber the problem of ac lid waste collection in the river bed, environmental - and repair processes for the damages caused to the - and the continuity of long-term actions. Reversal- tershededucation, Category. educational fairs and the use of the Eco mental management that emphasizes participatory logical Blue Flag Award V Hydrographic Micro-wa andBasin sustainability must be initiated, aspects. through From integralthis perspective, environ Box 3: Water problems affecting the - Río Grande de Tárcoles Basin: Seeking - solutions Integral Management of the RGT Basin must be fra med in integrality, at least in two respects: 1) by en By Édgar Meléndez Managementcompassing the that geographical contemplates totality the inclusion of the Basin, of all anthropicin other words, factors the that 37 cantons;generate 2)changes through or Integral disturbances in the natural environment, whether positi- of the seven provinces in the, including the upper vely or negatively. The Río Grande de Tárcoles Basin (RGT) covers five Once the excess pollution affecting the river - was determined, as a direct consequence of inade- sideredpart of thethe Greatermost polluted Metropolitan river in Area Central (GAM). America The quate solid and liquid waste treatment, the imple- RGT flows into the Pacific Ocean and has been con mentation of all corrective measures contemplated - by current laws and decrees becomes indispensa- dertaken(State of the by Nation,the Abt 2017). Associates Inc. consultancy ble and impossible to postpone. The most obvious The RGT Watershed Managementet al Program, un- method for solving the problem is Integral Waste This Basin has entered a downward spiral firmof degradation in 1999 (Abt that Associates threatens Inc. not only., the1999), sustaina decla- bilityred that, of the “ natural resources present in it, but also Management (IWM). Article 6 of Law 8839 defines the quality of life of its inhabitants and that of futu- educational,its nature as planning,“the coordinated, monitoring inter-related and evaluation set of re generations. The logical causes of this problem in- actionsregulatory, for waste operational, management, financial, from administrative, its production clude rapid, disorderly urbanization as well as the opening up of areas for agricultural and industrial integration with its actors as well as the different to final disposal”. IWM means that the geographical 245 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA

uses of the water factor must be considered with an of the problems is obviously the cost of investing in overall vision, because they are interdependent. As the infrastructure required to treat wastewater, but pointed out, the administration of water resources there is also very little environmental awareness will require a long time to reduce the causes of the among a certain sector of the population. Althou- severe pollution affecting the river and its tributa- gh in recent years many of us have learned to value ries. There are still conditions to initiate processes drinking water more and avoid the waste of clean of reversion and repair of the damages caused to water, we are usually unconcerned about what ha- - ppens to wastewater, which is why there is still a gement that establishes an emphasis on participa- high degree of contamination by solid and liquid torythe Basin,and sustainability with an integral aspects, environmental which is essentially mana waste in rivers (particularly in urban basins). Awa- - waste. source Management in the communal committees confinedWith toregard the municipal to the production sphere in of terms sewage of solidthat reness could be raised by the Integrated Water Re regions are addressed. It is essential to create more ofaround these the committees basins, where throughout the problems the country of specific and affects the RGT Basin, the San José, Heredia and strengthen existing ones. Alajuela sewers in the Great Metropolitan Area The country requires more research on the the(GAM) rivers have of systems the basin. which It should only collect be noted sewage that and, the subject of surface and underground water quali- in practice, dispose effluents without treatment in ty, so studies focused on monitoring water quality San José, involves primary treatment with complete should be strengthened, for which rivers and aqui- sludgeLos Tajos treatment. AyA Wastewater The recent Treatment establishment Plant, west of this of fers should be equipped with devices to measure le- plant will at least partly reduce the high existing vels of water and electrical conductivity, fecal coli- contamination rate and the deterioration of water forms and nitrates as indicators of anthropogenic pollution. Proposed recommendations for solving the pro- The institutions of the national water sector resources in the RGT Basin. - must join forces to carry out studies in areas whe- nicipal level will be successful if these local gover- re demand has been growing and/or is expected to nmentsblem include ensure the accurate, following: prompt 1) IWM compliance Plans at the with mu on issues linked to the physico-chemical characte- rizationoccur in ofthe water, future. while Research plans shouldto prevent be increasedpollution explorethe obligations whether, established through public in Article works 8 concessionof the Law should also be drawn up. contracts,for Integral sewage Waste Management;and wastewater 2) It treatment is advisable sys to- tems can be built. The costs of these works should to the needs of the management and responsible be seen as investments rather than merely expen- use Aof modern water resources. Water Law New is required legislation that should will adapt pla- ses because from an economic perspective, with the ce greater importance on water and guarantee its collection of fees for services rendered, compensa- - - - nagementsupply, protection of water andresources, quality. since But ait lawmust alone be ac is- tertion pollution, is guaranteed; which 3)overwhelms it is important us today to raise and couldawa not enough to guarantee a significant change in ma havereness serious to reflect consequences on the imminent for future problem generations. of wa for its implementation and supervision. A chan- gecompanied is required by insuitable the way mechanisms water has been and financingmanaged in recent years, especially with regard to the time 7. Conclusions and Recommendations horizons needed for proper planning. Increases in demand, associated with population aspects, chan- - ges in household use, industries and agriculture, as gress related to the supply of drinking water, to ex- well as climate variability and change, have the po- Costacreta disposal Rica has to historicallya lesser degree made and significant only in recent pro tential to impose restrictions and create challenges - regarding the availability and quality of water re- ter treatment. However, much remains be done. One sources in the short, medium and long terms. There years has it made progress in the field of wastewa WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA 246

is also a need to establish an effective mechanism who will serve as a link between physical and social - sion makers. To this end, universities should inclu- institutions related to water is also required, parti- to transfer technical/scientific information to deci cularlyfields. Effectiveas water coordinationbecomes increasingly between scarce. the various de degree courses to train professional “managers” 8. References

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- - fancia) & OMS (Organización Mundial de la Sa- - UNICEF (FondoProgreso de las Naciones para la Infancia:Unidas para un balan la In- Proyecto 802-BO-513 Vicerrectoría de Investiga ce sobre agua y saneamiento. ción. CICA, Escuela PropuestaCentroamericana del modelo de Geolohidro- lud) (2006). geológicogía, SENARA, conceptual Costa Rica. para la estimación de la dis- New York, USA. Vargas,ponibilidad I. (Ed.) de(2017). agua subterránea y análisis de la Vargasen el Sanabria, período indígena A. (2001). y Elen manejo los siglos histórico XVI, XVII, de vulnerabilidad de los acuíferos en la zona oeste los recursos hídricos en Costa Rica con énfasis- del Valle Central, cuenca del río Grande, Alajuela. - XVIII y XIX. AnuarioManejo de Estudios sostenible Centroamerica de la zona nortenos, 27(1), del acuífero59–81. Tempisque. Informe final del Proyecto 113-B2-515 Vicerrecto Vargas, I. (Ed.) (2015). ría de Investigación. Escuela Centroamericana Informe final del de Geología, CICA, SENARA, Costa Rica. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | COSTA RICA 252 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA 253

Cuba

The Cuban archipelago and its main island have particular features for integral water management: it is elongated and narrow, with a central watershed, which leads to the formation of several small, superficial basins. Moreover, its eminently karstic geology encourages very dynamic links, in quality and quality, between surface and ground waters and between the latter and coastal waters. Its economic development, with a predominance of agricultural activity and the main cities, which are also industrial nuclei, influence the type and scope of the negative impact on inland water quality. Organic and microbiological pollution, eutrophication, aquifer nitrification and saline intrusion have been classified as between moderate and high.

Valley of Viñales, Cuba © iStock 254 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA

Water Quality in Cuba

Joaquín B. Gutiérrez Díaz and Jorge Mario García Fernández

1. General introduction1

- ribbean Sea and south of the Tropic of Cancer, is the largest island in the Antilles. Cuba is an Cuba, located between 19°49' and 23°16' N and 74°08 'and 84°57' W, placing it north of the Ca - archipelago comprising over 1,600 islands, islets and cays, with an area of 109,¿ 884.01 km², with the mainland accounting for 106,757.60 km², and adjacent cays in 3 126.41 km². The Is land of Cuba is the largest, with 107,465 km², followed by Isla de La Juventud, with 2420 km².- In 2011, a new Political-Administrative Division was established in Cuba, organizing it into 15 provinces and 168 municipalities, including Isla de La Juventud. It has a resident pop- land,ulation which of approximately is followed in 11 importance 239 000 inhabitants, by the provincial according and to municipal data from capitals.the last census taken in 2015.It has Its complex capital is geology, Havana, mainly with a onpopulation the Island of of 2 125Cuba, 320 with inhabitants, ancient rocks the largest from theon theJuras is- sic and Cretaceous periods, especially in the mountainous areas, and from the Paleogene to

- mon.the Quaternary The relief iseras both in thecomplex rest of and the diverse, territory. consisting Carbonate of rocksmountains, predominate heights in and over plains 60% ac of- countingthe territory, for two influenced thirds of by the climate territory. action and topography, where karstic features are com In most of Cuba, the climate is predominantly warm and tropical, with a rainy season in

and semi-continental features. the summer. In general, climate is tropical and seasonally humid, with a maritime influence

2. Overview of the water cycle and water resources

In the case of Cuba, it is essential to consider certain premises determining the strategies

ofto thebe adopted archipelago, to guarantee (ii) the central a water watershed supply with along sufficient the main quantity island that and delimitsquality forthe various forma- tionuses, of in numerous the context small of integrated basins, and water the predominanceresource management of karst in(IWRM): underground (i) the aquifers,vulnerability (iii)

1. Cf. Anuario Estadístico de Cuba 2015 in ONEI, 2016.

Joaquín B. Gutiérrez Díaz. Chapter Coordinator, [email protected] National Council of Hydrographic Basins (CNCH) -INRH. Jorge Mario García Fernández. National Council of Hydrographic Basins (CNCH) -INRH. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA 255

the dependence of water resources on the behavior sea, leading to saline intrusion, which is sometimes of rainfall, (iv) the predominance of farming and the - agri-food industry, (v) climate change and adapta- ministration of these sources. Due to the above, tion and mitigation measures, and (vi) the natural thereintensified is also by an the intense inadequate quantitative exploitation and qualitative and ad variability of the weather. relationship between surface water and aquifers, Since Cuba is an island system, the water cy- which results in an underground recharge through cle is governed by rainfall, the archipelago’s only sinkholes, hollows and other means. - nite strategic resource, essential for the sustainable 2.2 Rainfall and available water resources developmentsource of annual of the renewable country. water. It is a limited, fi both spatial and seasonal, in the Cuban climate. by the location and physical-geographical charac- Rain is the element with the greatest variability, teristicsThe hydrologicalof the archipelago, regime with is heavilya relief influencedcharacter- - ized by a succession of broad plains and mountain curs,There and are mostly two clearly dry, from defined November seasons: to April,rainy, whenfrom systems, which, as a result of their position, block theMay remaining to October, precipitationwhen 75-80% takesof the place.annual Spatially, total oc the passage of humid air masses and the regulatory action of karst on surface runoff, mainly in the Western and Central regions of the country. variousAccording regions to studies have been published defined in previous with different years types of rainfall, as shown in Figure 1. During the summer, daytime temperatures can ex- The average temperature is approximately 25°C. (INRH, 2002), Potential Water Resources (PWR) from rainfall have been estimated at 38 100 million ceed 30°C, whereas in winter, the weather cools to m³; comprising 6.4 billion m³ of groundwater in 165 veryan average little due of approximately to the elongated 21°C. shape Solar ofradiation the land. is hydrogeological units and 31.7 billion m³ of surface- Thehigh, highest ranging values from are 5.16 registered to 5.96 kW/h/m², in the eastern varying re- er,water, results located from in the 642 most hydrographic recent study basins. on rainfall Average in annual rainfall amounted to 1375 mm/year. Howev- - gion of the country. The island enjoys between 10 Cuba, covering the period 1961-2000 (National Hy annualand 12 hoursaverage of sunshineevaporation, a day, from depending a free surface, on the drological Service, 2006), show that the average an- varytime fromof year. the Given western these to conditions,the eastern the region, ranges from of nual rainfall is 1335 mm/year, less than the previous actionsfigure, meaninglinked to thatthe passage current of figures the National could potenWater tially be lower. Updated figures are included in the 2.11600 Water to 2400 basins mm/year. and underground aquifers indexPolicy basedin December on rainfall 2012 and(INRH, the 2012).number of inhabi- The long, narrow shape of the land, together with The Water Availability Index from the RHP – an the layout and structure of the relief, create a cen- year for all uses and is evaluated as low (between tral watershed along the main island in the direc- tants - is approximately 3400 m³ per inhabitant per northern slope and the southern slope. 1000The and development5000 m³ per inhabitantof hydraulic per year),infrastructure ranking tionThe of itsfact longitudinal that rainfall axis, is the with main two factor slopes: deter the- 105th out of a list of 182 countries (Allan, 1993). mining runoff, together with the extraordinary ex- to meet economic, social and environmental de- tent and intensity of the karstic phenomena pres- has made approximately 57% of the RHP available ent in Cuba, explains the predominance of relatively from the hydraulic infrastructure created, amount - mands. The Available Hydraulic Resources (AHR), are surface and the remainder groundwater. The ac- small catchment areas. In the archipelago, 642 sur tualto 13 (average)667 million Water m³, of Availability which about Index 9150 per million inhabi m³- orface internal basins drainage with an (endorheic).area of over 5 km² have been tant per year for all uses, on the basis of the built identified,Aquifers 10 are of whichgenerally correspond located into karstic closed formabasins- tions and mostly in a hydraulic relation with the hydraulic infrastructure, is approximately 1220 m³ (INRH, 2002). 256 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA

Box 1. The Law of Inland Waters was passed try, together with the duty of citizens to contribute by the National Assembly of Popular Power to its protection. Other legal instruments comple- (ANPP) - Unicameral Parliament of Cuba ment and extend the current legal basis regard-

In 2012, the National Water Policy was approved by ing water, such as Law No. 81 on the Environment the Council of Ministers, providing a suitable frame- (1997). Decree Law No. 138 of Inland Waters, in force work for updating and prioritizing existing legal in- - from 1993 to 2017, has since been repealed. struments. Prior to this, an extensive consultation The INRH, founded in 1962, was ratified by De process was carried out by all the social actors and cree-Law 114 (1989) and subsequently confirmed by citizens in general, through meetings, electronic me- State Administration body responsible for direct- Decree-Law 280 (2011), with the level of the Central dia, workshops, mass media and other means, with ing, implementing and controlling the application the aim of updating, extending and expanding the of state and government policy related to the inte- scope and hierarchy of inland waters to raise their le- grated, sustainable management of inland waters, gal status to that of Law of the Nation. It was even- understood as the coordinated evaluation, plan- tually passed by the 9th Period of Sessions of the VIII ning, use and protection of this element, the land Legislature of the ANPP, held on July 13 and 14, 2017 and its resources, to maximize economic and social (Law No. 124, 2017). well-being, without compromising the health or conservation of vital ecosystems. There is a system of Cuban Standards that are closely linked to the assessment of the quality of 2.3 Water use inland waters for different uses, which have grad- Inland waters in Cuba are governed by the Nation- ually become key legal instruments for materializ- ing what is contained in the Constitution, laws and through a rigorous and concerted process with the decree-laws. al Institute of Hydraulic Resources (INRH), which,- ing into account the forecasts for the availability of mainthis resource. users, draws The Planup an is annual divided Water into provinces, Use Plan, takter- The aforementioned Law contains 12 titles, 36 ritories and also into river basins, and is one of the closelychapters, linked 17 sections, to the protectionthree provisions of the andquality a total of in of- Figure 1). land127 articles waters; (ANPP, maintaining 2016). Its their content quality; includes drawing articles up and perfecting the corresponding norms according maintainedguidelines of an the upward National trend Economy and, after Plan the ( Nation- to their use or provisions; regulating and controlling Until 2013, water demands for the economy their use and management; dumping waste; reus- adjustment and compliance with consumption reg- ing water; encouraging the use of clean production al Water Policy was approved in 2012, a process of- technologies; establishing protection zones around - water bodies, underground sources and recharge ulations has taken place, meaning that the total fig areas which, due to their importance, require this ure for recent years has been approximately 7 bil- and adopting measures to protect natural stream tenselion m³. drought event, with unfavorable hydrological channels, lake beds, lagoons and reservoirs from the aspects,Between negatively 2014 and affected 2017, the the physical presence availability of an in dangers of excessive siltation due to erosion. of both surface and groundwater. 3.2 Institutional organization The existing institutional structure for the exercise 3. Authorities and governance of water governance mechanisms in Cuba is based

3.1 Water governance the environmental (Ministry of Science, Technology and legal framework on the INRH system. Its work is closely linked to- istry of Public Health, MINSAP) authorities, the close connection between water and the sustain- and Environment, CITMA) and public health (Min ableArticle economic 27 of the and Cuban social Constitution development recognizes of the coun theof Physical Planning (IPF), among other key insti- Ministry of Agriculture (MINAG), and the Institute WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA 257

Figure 1. Isohyet map 1961-2000 (mm/year)

Western region

Central Region

Eastern Region

Key Annual Rainfall

400-600 1200-1400 2400-3000 600-00 1400-1600 3000-3500 00-1000 1600-2000 3500-4000 400-1200 2000-2400 4000-4400

Source: National Hydrological Service, 2006. Annual Rainfall Period 1961-2000 tutions and agencies, as well as the provincial and - municipal governments in the country. ities of each institution, and creating synergies and - spacesthat end, for without coordination replacing and the integration. specific responsibil tional and territorial companies and laboratories, Thus, in a perfectible process that could achieve whichINRH implement has a system and ofcontrol provincial what delegations, is established na - in the National Water Policy, as well as the annual ipated in cooperation programs with the Techni- performance objectives and indicators, which ful- greater results, for many years, INRH has partic remaining institutions and instances, it promotes, bornecal University fruit in ofterms Havana of water(CUJAE), management. particularly Since with fill its mission. At the same time, together with the- the Center for Hydraulic Research (CIH), which has supported the strengthening and development of use,encourages based on and its protection controls the and fulfillment good management. of the re the early 1980s, it has promoted, encouraged and sponsibilities related to rational, efficient water - 3.3 Relations with non-governmental the activities of the Hydraulic Engineering Society- organizations, universities and other rects(SIH) andof the develops National national Union of and Architects international and Con ac- institutions struction Engineers of Cuba (UNAICC). It also di Since its inception, the Cuban institutional organization responsible for governing inland waters, tions through the Cuban Committee of the UNESCO trainingInternational issues Hydrological with the national Program system (IHP-UNESCO). of univer- developing and promoting close relationships and sities,Likewise, which offers it has a expandeddegree course its collaborationin hydraulic en in- workingthe INRH, links has beenwith characterizednon-governmental by establishing, organiza- gineering and others related to water management, such geography, chemistry, biology and meteorol- civil society organizations, and both provincial and ogy, to mention some of the most important ones. municipaltions, scientific territorial and technical governments. societies, universities, It also maintains extensive links with other There has been an understanding that the ful- - - quantity and quality of water for the sustainable de- organizations in the United Nations system, in fillmentvelopment of theof themission country, of the requires Institute facilitating to ensure and the cluding: the United Nations Development Pro enhancing the participation of all actors to achieve gram (UNDP), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 258 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA

4. Main quality problems Most of the hydrobiological studies that re- of inland waters sulted in methodologies for classifying the trophic levels of reservoirs were developed in temperate climates. In order to offset the differences in the - methodologies used, the former Pan American Cen- ber of sewage and treatment systems in communi- - ties,From cities a general and towns, point ofcoupled view, thewith insufficient the existence num of - industries without proper treatment of their waste- ter for Health Engineering and Environmental Sci water and other causes, has led to a situation in forences the (CEPIS), evaluation together of eutrophication with several in Latin tropical Ameri hot - can countries, developed a simplified methodology ters inland waters has compromised their use. Most - ofwhich the thehydrographic flow and load networks of the thatwastewater cross our that main en lakes between 1981-1990, also used for reservoirs, cities and towns are used as receiving bodies for raw adapted to the conditions of the Latin American cli or partially treated wastewater, creating unfavor- themate. one Its that final has version, been publishedapplied in inCuba 2001 for and this known type able hygienic-sanitary situations for the normal de- ofby studies.its acronym LACAT (Salas and Martino, 2016), is velopment of economic and social activities, with a The application of this model in some reservoirs et al In the Cuban national context, there is a pre- dominancepotentially negativeof domestic impact sewage, on health industrial (INRH, sewage 2002). (Laiz ., 1979) in the central and western region- from the agri-food sector (agriculture, livestock, toof (Pb) Cuba and -Lebrije Pedroso (Le), (Pe), Higuanojo the latter (Hi), in the Zaza province (Za), ofTuinucú Mayabeque, (Tu), Avilés in the (Av),west Abreusof the country-revealed(Ab), Paso Boni chemical and mining sector and mixed sewage that according to the average P, the reservoirs stud- (usuallyfood, sugar, a combination fishing), industrial of domestic chemicals and other from types the ied have trophic levels ranging from oligotrophic, of waste). These discharges produce the following mesotrophic to eutrophic, where a single reservoir, Pedroso, obtained a hypertrophic evaluation (see in the saturation concentrations of dissolved oxy- Figure 2). negativegen, an increase effects inin theorganic, receiving dissolved bodies: and a suspenddecrease- - - phic and hypertrophic) have obvious signs of eutrophication,Reservoirs which with are trophicassociated classifications with the presence (eutro turbidity,ed matter, color reflected and insuspended a rise in thesolids, Biological an increase Oxy and abnormal growth of aquatic vegetation, espe- ingen the Demand concentration over five ofdays nitrogen (BOD5); and an increasephosphate in cially water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes. and therefore problems of eutrophication, a greater presence of bacteria of fecal origin, an increase in 4.2 Agrochemicals and nitrification of aquifers of metals and organic compounds, among others. Cuban soil has characteristics that encourage the salinity, nitrification of aquifers, and the presence intensive use of fertilizers, pesticides and herbi- 4.1 Eutrophication cides. Data corroborating this use have been ob-

the biological effects caused in natural aquatic eco- and its Institute of Soils (IS). The agricultural area Thesystems term by “eutrophication” increasing nutrient is used concentrations, to characterize typ- tained from the Ministry of Agriculture (MINAG) ically phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N). Since the Cuban agricultural soils have a variety of conditions - limitingof Cuba istheir approximately use and productivity. 6.7 million hectaresIn particular, (ha). nomenon induced by man, and has been registered asmid-20th a problem century, in water it has bodies been in recognized various countries. as a phe low fertility, meaning that extensive agriculture re- - quires70% have the very use oflow fertilizers, organic content linked towhile pesticide 45% have and crease of nutrients P and N in water bodies, main- herbicide use, as well as soil improvement and con- ly reservoirs,Eutrophication which incontribute Cuba is domestic caused by or the mixed in servation measures. waste, agricultural waste and drainage from inten- - sive agriculture (use of inorganic fertilizers). Data and estimates of fertilizer use in Cuba (Ro dríguez, 2015), during the period 1960-2010, indicate WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA 259

that the intensity of the use of fertilizers in the agri- Figure 2. Trophic levels in Cuban reservoirs according to LACAT 1,0 cultural area increased steadily between 1980-1990,- 0, reaching an estimated maximum of 190 -220 kg/ha; Ab approximately 60% of which were nitrogen fertiliz Mesotrophic after which it began to rise again (Figure 3). 0, ers, Thedecreasing excessive sharply concentration until the beginningof nitrates of in 2000, the Pb Oligotrophic Eutrophic 0, groundwater of Cuba is associated with diffuse and HI point sources of contamination. Diffuse sources are 0,6 mainly due to the application of fertilizers, chemi- Ultra Hypertrophic 0,5 Oligotrophic cals and organic to agriculture, this being the main cause of the increase in nitrate concentrations in 0,4 LE groundwater. Point sources are the contributions 0,3

Probability Distribution Probability TU treatment systems, agricultural waste and indus- 0,2 Za triesto the with soil discharges of: raw domestic rich in nitrogen waste, effluents compounds. from 0,1 PE systems, which are vulnerable to pollution. An anal- 0,0 Groundwater is predominantly linked to karst 0.0 0.4 0. 1,2 1,6 2,0 2,4 2, fertilizer applications nationwide were between 1 10 mg - Pm3 100 1000 ysis of the period 1960-1990 shows that nitrogen et al ), com- Figure 3 Source: Laiz ., 1979. 40-100 kg/ha, reaching high values from 1980 to- plication1990 of approximately rates obviously 100 changed kg/ha ( the dynamics of Figure 3. Trends in the intensity of fertilizer theparable nitrogen to figures cycle inin developedthe soil and countries. raised the These concen ap- application in Cuba tration of nitrates in aquifers by increasing it in per- Intensity of fertilization (kgha) by cultivable area colated waters. The presence of nitrate is considered a priority 200 N 10 Total in Cuba, particularly in terms of health. The maxi- 160 mumin terms permitted of defining concentration the quality of nitratesof drinking according water 140 - 120 to the current potability regulations is 45 mg/l (Na 100 kgha tional Standardization Office, 2012). 0 The National Water Quality Control Network in groundwater. The results obtained indicate that 60 (RedCal) monitors the concentration of nitrates 40 in groundwater have evolved, as can be seen from since the 1980s, variations in nitrate concentration 20 a trend, in the years analyzed, the nitrate concen- 0 the behavior of the 1983, 1991, 2010 and 2014 data. As- 150 160 10 10 10 2000 2010 2020 tration range between 0 and 10 mg/l decreased, increasing slightly between 10 and 20 mg/l and 20 and Source: Prepared by D. Rodríguez, 2015. 40 mg/l.The highest Seasons applications with values ofover nitrogen 45 mg/l fertilizers have re since the decrease in nitrogen fertilization applied mained virtually unchanged (URA-INRH, undated). the nitrate concentration of aquifers occurred grad- - uallyoccurred and in between terms of 1985 tens and of years. 1995. In The general increase terms, in istfrom countries, the 1990s together onwards. with the resurgence of the a rapid reduction of nitrates has not been observed With the disappearance of European social-

commercial, economic and financial blockade im 260 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA

saltwater moves inland during periods when there is still in force, as can be seen in Figure 3, since the is a lower recharge of the aquifer and retreats to- posed by the US government against Cuba, which wards the sea when the recharge increases. This far-reaching change in fertilizer use due to the lim- mechanism attempts to strike a balance between 1990s, Cuban agriculture has undergone an intense, freshwater and saltwater, which depends on several An intense search was conducted for sustain- hydrogeological conditions, among which the vol- able,ited financial organic andand technological other alternatives resources and available. technol- ume of fresh water contributed to the sea is usually ogies to ensure food sustainability in the country. the most important. When groundwater extraction New sources of nutrients were developed and ap- increases, sometimes reaching overexploitation plied on the basis of agricultural production, such levels, the volume of fresh water discharged into as compost, earthworm humus, biofertilizers and biopesticides. in the entry of seawater into coastal areas. In these Demonstration Polygons for Soil, Water and For- cases,the sea theis reduced, freshwater-saltwater allowing a significant interface increase tends est Improvement and Conservation were also de- to achieve a new equilibrium. If the volume of extraction is greater than the natural recharge of the sites designed to implement integrated technol- aquifer, the process of saltwater intrusion is con- ogiesveloped for (Rodríguez,soil, water 2017).and forest They resource are conceived manage as- tinuous and sustained. Within a certain time, wells ment, through intervention in plant health and other close to the affected area will increase their salinity, means. The main objective of these sites is to build due to the mixture of freshwater and seawater, as a capacities in communities, productive sectors and result of exploitation. local governments to address the effects of climate Marine intrusion in Cuba, mainly induced by change, through a sustainable agricultural approach, poor groundwater management and exploitation in which farms are considered the basic manage- practices, is present to a greater or lesser degree in ment unit and watersheds a geographical physical coastal karst aquifers subjected to intense use, es- space to be protected. The use of polygons as priori- pecially irrigation and potable water supply. Among ty areas for soil, water and forest conservation lent a climate change effects, rising sea levels will lead to new dimension to the work being carried out in Cuba the penetration of the sea inland, which in turn will through the National Soil Improvement and Conser- - vation Program (Spanish acronym PNMCS). water intrusion in Cuba. cause a significant change in the dynamics of salt 4.3 Marine intrusion and soil salinization change on the possible advance of marine saline Marine intrusion is a phenomenon that occurs in intrusionProject in 13 coastal “Estimation aquifers of ofthe Cuba”, impact is partof climate of the coastal aquifers. It is a dynamic process, whereby

“Coastal Hazard and Vulnerability (2050-2100)” Figure 4. Map (1:250000) of 2009-2010 saline intrusion

Marine intrusion area in the year 2017

Source: INRH (GEIPI, GEARH y EIPH, 2011). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA 261

Macroproject implemented by CITMA. As part of - pected range, which was attributed to the contact between(Ni). Only water 9% of andresults metals showed in the values water above pipes. the exNo the project, INRH specialists produced a model and contamination sources, whether natural or anthrop- map of the curve of total solubleFigure salts (TSS)4. Work of 1con g/l,- on a scale of 1:250 000 (GEIPI, GEARH and EIPH, These studies indicate that Cuban surface and 2011). This result is shown in undergroundic, were identified water in supplythe vicinity sources of these are notsources. affect - 4.4tinues Heavy on estimates metals for the 2050 and 2100 scenarios. ed by metal pollution, and that their natural level is Studies on metals in water were developed at the relatively free of the metals considered. same time as the analytical capacity for their detection grew, with the advent of the atomic absorption graphite furnace and new generations of ICP equip- 5. Programs designed to spectrometer and its subsequent development: the ment. This high-cost technology is a constraint for control negative effects developing countries that do not have access due to the availability of funds or the development of spe- on inland water quality cialized personnel. Cuba was not exempt from these constraints 5.1 Water quality monitoring network - To control the quality of inland waters and the sorption spectrometry and initiate large-scale stud- impact of wastewater discharge into surface and and in the 1970s, it was possible to use atomic ab - - - ies of heavy metals in natural waters. In 2012, the groundwater basins, the INRH designed and oper concentrationsCuban Standard to NC-827:2012 be met by (Nationalthe supply Standardiza sources, in ates the National Network of Water Quality Obser tion Office, 2012) came into effect, establishing the watervations quality (RedCal). in order to categorize the country’s - waterIts resources;main purpose ii) determine, is to: i) collect by monitoring basic data wa onother words, the maximum admissible limit (MAL). ter quality, the suitability of the sources intended evaluateThe RedCalmetals in conducted the main twogroundwater special metal sources, as for various purposes, especially those used in the insessments. both the Thedry firstand rainyspecific season, study was to monitor undertaken and public water supply, iii) classify the country’s water et al resources by quality in order to optimize their use a relatively large number of stations located in the - western,in 2003 (Mora central and., eastern2003). It regions included of the the country. use of bodiesand efficiently in order manage to identify them; current iv) specify dangers and and quan fu- (Co), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead turetify the risks, negative and therefore influence takeof the the pollution appropriate of water ac- The metals identified were: cadmium (Cd), cobalt- tions, v) determine the effectiveness of wastewater sults yielded values above the expected range, ac- control and treatment measures, vi) identify wa- cording(Pb), iron to (Fe) the andestablished nickel (Ni). standard, Only 5% which of the were re ter quality trends and implement the appropriate attributed to problems of sampling or contact with alarm and action system and vii) prepare and oper- metal agents (pipes, connections), since there were ate a national information system on water quality. no nearby sources of contamination. The second study, which was extremely import- observation to date and its number of stations has ant since it included the sampling of both surface RedCal has more than 30 years of systematic and underground water supply sources for the pop- - fluctuated between 2400 and 3500 per year. In the- past 10 years, the number of stations per year has ulation, was conducted in 2016 (GEARH, 2016). A to been approximately 2700, including approximate tal of 2620 sources were examined during the first- groundwaterly 75% basic stations and the andremainder 25% monitoring for surface stations. water. miumstage and (Cd), 310 chromium in the second (Cr), to manganese re-sample (Mn),suspicious cop- MostBetween monitoring 75% and stations 80% of arethe basicfor surface stations water, are forin- perresults. (Cu), The zinc following (Zn), lead metals (Pb), wereiron (Fe)identified: and nickel cad cluding wastewater discharges. 262 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA

5.3 Forest cover - The world community is increasingly aware of the cial level. The national laboratory undertook more importance of the goods and services provided by complexINRH analyses has 14 water requiring laboratories specialized at theequipment provin forests. Forest-soil-water relationships are cru- to determine metals and organic compounds. The cial to the health of productive and conservation results of its operation, especially the data and in- - - for the entire country. estationecosystems. Program. One of It the was first a response programs to of the the status Rev formation generated, constitute an official source olution, launched in 1959, was the National Refor with the provincial delegations and the business systemINRH in charge, functional prepare directorates, annual bulletins in conjunction and hy- century,of the country’s forest cover forests. amounted Estimates to indicate approximately that, at drological reports at the end of the dry (November the time of the Spaniards’ arrival in Cuba in the 15th- to April) and rainy (May to October) seasons, used sult of the development of sugarcane agriculture. In for making decisions and evaluating their behavior 90%, which had declined to 50% in 1900, as a re over time. - 1959, it was no greater than 14% (Herrero, 2017). - 5.2 Water quality assessment In 1979, the reforestation program was perfect The main water quality assessment tools used by reforestationed and developed of watersheds through and a Government the establishment Agree ment (Agreement 509/1979), oriented towards the the quality parameters monitored at the stations National Assembly of People’s Power of Cuba, the andthe INRHtheir comparison are the systematic with the determinationsprovisions of cur ofof forest strips to protect water bodies. In 1998, the - highest body in the country, approved Law No. 85- rent legal regulations. Water Quality Indices (WQI) (Forestry Law), which raised these actions in a hier are also used (García and Gutiérrez, 2015) together archical, executive manner. In 1999, the Cuban Stan ofwith reservoirs, other instruments, albeit to a lesser such extent as self-purification and less fre- dardAs NC-23 a result “Forestry of all Beltsthese ofactions, Protection by the Zones end for of quently.models ofWater currents, quality and bulletins the trophic are systematically classification Reservoirs and River Channels” was adopted. developed. 2015, forests in Cuba occupied an area of 3 184 000 ha, 2 656 000 of which correspond to natural forests

Table 1. Woodland Indices in Basins of National Interest (2015) Basin Potential Basins of National Interest WI % WI % WI % WI % WI % Area WI

Name (ha) 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 (%) Cuyaguateje 70,3 70,1 70,3 Almendares-Vento 40 200 20,4 21,2 22,1 33,2 79 500 69,1 69,6 87,0 Ariguanabo 17,7 19,3 22,8 Ciénaga de Zapata 29 500 18,2 18,7 18,7 19,1 35,6 7,20 7,70 10,3 500 000 55,8 55,9 56,1 56,1 56,2 57,0 Hanabanilla 41 41,0 Sagua la Grande 218 416 Zaza 241 300 11,7 28 747 40,5 40,8 40,9 41,9 Cauto 17,3 21,0 8,3 8,7 8,3 9,1 9,5 Mayarí 37,3 43,3 954 020 17,6 18,3 18,6 19,5 Toa 126 40 34,6 35,0 36,4 38,0 234 700 24,7 106 100 92,2 92,4 92,6 93 93,0 94,4 Guantánamo-Guaso 24,8 25,2 25,4 25,5 28,6 Source: Herrero, 2017. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA 263

Box 2. Inventory of polluting sources of inland distribution by categories, Water and Soil Protect- waters, a tool for monitoring and controlling and 528 000 to plantations (Herrero, 2017). In the their quality This category includes natural and planted for- ing Forests account for 30% of the total. ests on the banks of water bodies known as gal- INRH records of recent years show that approxi- lery forests, those located at the headwaters of the mately 2,260 main pollutant sources of inland wa- rivers, water recharge zones and lands with steep ters have been identified, particularly water supply slopes located mostly in the upper section of the sources for the population, of which approximately basins. 72% of the wastewater produced is treated. The main polluting sources are agrifoods, accounting for near- forests is important in that it decreases erosion and ly 700, followed by mixed and household waste with Expanding the area of soil and water protective sediment transport, and nutrient concentrations, 254 and 712, respectively, and industry with 594. while at the same time, it will increase sunlight penetration, dissolved oxygen and the self-purifying capacity of rivers, all of which improve water quality. Table 1 shows the increase in the Woodland In- - dex (WI) in the basins of national interest. Compar- - ing the WI with the potential WI shows the effort “Wastewater discharge into inland waters and sew that remains to be made. erage.According Specifications” to data (National presented Standardization in the Statistical Of fice, 2012). 5.4 Inventory of polluting sources of inland waters Yearbook of the National Bureau of Statistics and Pollution source inventories are used as a reference dischargedInformation into of the Cuba environment, (ONEI) (2016), mainly provided inland wa by- ters,CITMA, and in in 2015, relation the pollutant to the main load polluting of organic sources origin and technical resources, monitoring and follow-up, amongfor control other and activities, inspection, at thethe locationlevel of ofprovinces, financial municipalities, watersheds or any other unit select- considered in the inventory, was 157 547 tonnes of ed. This working instrument has been institutional- BOD5/year.5.5 Wastewater treatment ized and perfected in the country, by both the enti- There are no records of the design, construction ty responsible for the Cuban environment, CITMA, and operation of wastewater treatment systems in

the Cuban government and specialized institutions, andThe the Nationalcharacterization Institute ofand Hydraulic physical-chemical Resources athe process country began before in 1959.the early As a yearsresult of of the the triumphconcern of and(INRH), bacteriological responsible formonitoring controlling of inlandwastewater is, above all, a responsibility of the entity that gener- wastewater treatment systems to protect the qual- ates it, according to the legal instruments in force. itythe of Revolution inland waters, to train in thehuman context resources of the economicand build This characterization is an essential activity for de- and social development the country experienced. termining the impact of wastewater discharge and its probable effect on the receiving body, in terms of concentration units and pollutant load. The en- to adoptIn the and period build 1971-1976,stabilization Cuba ponds, was initially among thefor vironmental authorities are responsible for grant- householdfirst countries waste in Latintreatment, America and and subsequently the Caribbean for ing environmental licenses, with the participation the treatment of livestock, sugar mill and food inof the water and health authorities, and other agen- quality requirement for discharges and the corre- dustry waste. In late 1997, there were approximately- cies. The license has a specific point referring to the ties,1800 mainly ponds intendedoperating for in household the country, waste administered treatment. characterization of wastewater and the entire pro- by the INRH (300), other organisms and communi cesssponding of granting monitoring environmental for carrying licenses, this out. in Both relation the - In 2014, there were approximately 3000 of these ponds (Gutiérrez and García, 2015). ONEI (2016) re to water pollution, is contemplated in the NC-27 ports that there are 561 localities in Cuba benefiting 264 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA

- that improve water quality at the national and local levels, whether directly or indirectly. from sewerage systems, with a total of 787 waste In addition to the above, for example, the actual operating,water treatment most associated systems administered with tourist bycenters INRH. and spending of investments allocated for environmen- the Inremainder 2017, 15 compact in urban waste areas treatment of the country’s plants werecapi- tal. Total treatment capacity of the plants is rough- - tal protection in the 11 Basins of National Interest the wastewater produced in the country is properly in the period 2011-2015 amounted to approximate- treated.ly 70,000 m³/d. In general, approximately 55% of ly 799.8 million pesos, oscillating annually between From a general point of view, wastewater from of118 total and annual229 million, investment with an for annual the environment). average of ap In the tourism industry, not linked to sewage systems, proximately 160 million pesos (an average of 32,4% is treated in compact plants, most of which use the - 2016, it amounted to 184.84 million in investment ing on their reuse. Pig breeding and fattening facil- waterexpenses management and 12.3 million annually in current throughout expenses the coun- activatedities have sludgeconventional process, wastewater with final polishtreatment depend sys- try (sewerageAs a trend, networks, approximately wastewater 85% was treatment allocated and to equipment for quality control and water pollution and lagoon systems. in the basins). tems:In barsugarcane racks, grit agriculture, chambers, foranaerobic years, digestersthe con- Table 2 lists the expenditure for environmen- - out with the wastewater generated in sugar mills, tegral watershed management expenses. trolled fertigation of its fields has been carried tal protection between 2011 and 2016, including in through lagoon systems, and preventing high pollu- tionsugar loads refineries from affecting and distilleries, rivers and disposing estuaries. of them 7. Millennium Development Goals. Sustainable Development Goals 6. Investments in water quality programs Assembly approved the Millennium Declaration, whichIn September comprehensively 2002, the addresses United Nationsand expands General on -

Data from ONEI indicate that environmental invest the agreements signed at the United Nations world shownments oscillatedin Table 2 , annuallywater has in been the the 2011-2015 largest period, recipi- summits in the 1990s. ent,from with 482 a to percentage 562 million contribution pesos. Of the of approximate components- Through the National Institute of Economic- tionsResearch system (INIE), on inthe close development collaboration of millenniumwith ONEI, enabling actions and programs to be implemented Cuba submitted periodic reports to the United Na ly 50% of total environmental investments per year, indicators, available for consultation on the ONEI

Table 2. Investment expenses for environmental protection (units in thousands of pesos) Environmental Sectors 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Total 482 454,8 488 452,6 517 267,0 562 621,3 534 820,6 Water

309 354,1 240 948,6 230 435,8 258 398,4 298 054,3 Atmosphere 127 300,0 Land 18 146,9 18 473,6 23 61,0 32 172,5 11 233,5 Forest resources 10 253,4 123 262,5 55 961,3 36 723,8 Solid waste 12 307,3 74 661,6 71 445,0 122 140,5 126 590,6 91 667,5 13 924,9 10 484,8 24 862,1 17 425,2 Remainder 20 073,9 1 957,2 3 295,1 64 646,4 79 716,2 Source: ONEI, 2016. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA 265

Table 3. Millennium Development Goals 2014 (Goal 7C) Indicator Goal 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Official Indicators

7.8 Proportion of the population with access to improved drinking water supply sources (%) 72,20 77,20 74,70 Urban Zone 81,90 96,30 96,30 98,30 93,90 Rural Zone 68,80 75,70 7.9 Proportion of the population with access to improved sewerage services (%) Urban Zone 96,10 97,00 97,90 98,40 94,60 Rural Zone 68,20 83,20 86,00 82,50 81,10 Source: ONEI, Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio (2015).

- peoplewebsite without (www.one.cu). sustainable INRH access was into chargedrinking of wathe- INRH, the institution responsible for organiz information on Goal 7C: “To halve the percentage of ofing, water planning and sanitationand supplying for all” information and its eight on targets, goal 6, is“Ensure working availability on this to andoffer sustainable national data management and infor- ter and basic sanitation services by 2015”. - mation, in keeping with the commitments already The high figures and coverage reached by Cuba- adopted. have been achieved in difficult economic circumstances due to the financial, commercial and eco organizations.nomic blockade of the US Government and with 8. Successful experiences out According collaboration to the from Anuario international Estadístico financial de Cuba 2016 - 8.1 Environmental management ulation with access to drinking water in the urban in watersheds (ONEI, 2017), chapter 2 “Environment”, the pop public service2 3 - - area reached 98.3% (household connection 85.6%,- Based on articles 110 and 111 of the Environmental ported in the rural 2.9% area), and whileeasy accesssewerage 9.8%. in the Simi ur- Law 81 of 1997, the Executive Committee of the Coun- lar percentages of 40.4%, 10.7% and 35.4% were re cil of Ministers of Cuba (CECM) adopted Agreement - 3139 that same year and created the National, Terri ban area reached 98.4% (sewerage 46.3%, pits and torial and Specific Councils of Hydrographic Basins. latrinespriority 52,placed 1%) byand the 92.2% country in the on ruralthe disinfection area (sewer of distributedThe Regulations throughout of the the Councils country came have into been effect ap- waterage 3.5%, intended pits and for humanlatrines consumption. 88.7%), supporting the proved,in August on 2007.the basis Eleven of basinstheir economic, of national social interest and

7.1 2030 Agenda for of provincial interest, adopted by agreements of the Sustainable Development respectiveenvironmental provincial importance, governments. together with 50 basins From the outset, through concrete work programs, indicators for integrated basin management conceivedIn September as a2015, new, the more 2030 comprehensiveAgenda for Sustainable plan of in the basins have enabled their permanent evalua- Development was adopted at the United Nations, - - - action. This new 2015-2030 vision transformed the tertion. resources They include: (quantitative (i) environmental and qualitative protection networks, in Millennium Development Goals: it has 17 Sustain potablevestments water in the and Basins sanitation of National coverage, Interest, maintenance (ii) wa able Development Goals (SDGs). 2. Public service involves water service by water trucks, and us- of hydraulic infrastructure, (iii) water use planning ers have to haul water inside and outside the home. by watershed, (iv) soil improvement and conservation, (v) reforestation (total cover, forest belts and

3. Easy access: requires fetching water from distances of up to 300 meters. Both definitions appear in the reference cited. forest farms), (vi) fire control and management, 266 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA

(vii) cooperative surveillance of natural resources, dissemination is a means of conveying experiences to others. In particular, the publication of seven pollution load, (ix) studies and sustainable use of bi- books with the stories, poetry and experiences of ological(viii) the diversity, fight against (x) environmentalpollution and reduction education of and the the winners, has achieved an enormous impact. participation, (xi) science and technological innova- - tion, and (xii) Territorial Management plans. tained increase in the number of circles of interest The steady work of TRAZAGUAS has led to a sus mentioned above (see Box 1) and the adoption of its The passage of Law 124/2017 on Inland Waters- dedicated to water throughout the country. In 2016, elementary,there were 173 middle of these and circles,high school bringing and specialtogether ed a- Regulationshierarchy, everything has strengthened related to the water role management and respon ucation,total of 2876who childrenreceive the and technical adolescents attention enrolled and in andsibilities its quality of the inBoards. the basin Now, will with continue greater to scope develop. and and other institutions linked to water management. 8.2 Education and public awareness. guidance of specialists in the various INRH entities “Water is Children’s Friend” Project In order to increase knowledge and develop a culture 9. Conclusions and Recommendations of water care as a natural resource for Cuban chil- Now that the status of water quality in Cuba has been described, Table 4 shows a causal chain of the dren, in 1999, the INRI formed the National Water is Children’s Friend Group, which has had the support of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the themain corresponding problems identified, national proposed authorities, by theparticularly authors. Hydraulic Engineering Society of the National Union- the Inauthorities the past responsible50 years, the for government, inland waters, through have of Architects and Construction Engineers of Cuba systematically promoted the tasks related to the (UNAICC), the Cuban Committee of the Internation- diagnosis, detection, evaluation, legal instruments tional Hydrological Program in Support Program of (IHP), the Fight the against Cuban Desert United- and institutional arrangements to assess the quali- Nations Association (ACNU), the Country Associa- ty of the waters in the country. There is a profound vironment Agency of Cuba, and other institutions, as knowledge of these fundamental characteristics wellification as local and governmentsDrought (OP15), in eachcoordinated province. by the En and others, as already described, which not only en- The central mission of this group has been to sure the safe supply of the proper quantity of water, develop work initiatives with the population ages but also its quality. - dren, adolescents and young people from all the provinces5 to 24, to instrengthen the country, the inhealth aspects education related ofto chilwa- • ThisIsland has status, been achievedvulnerability in a and specific, negative complex im- ter –such as its importance for hygiene and health- contextpacts marked of climate by a variety change of oncauses, water such resources. as: with a view to developing a sense of duty towards Cuban hydraulic development is an important this resource, as regards its proper use, saving and protection, emphasizing the need to develop the • - necessary hygienic habits. nomicachievement and commercial of the Revolution. blockade against Cuba. The activities carried out include the growing • DecisionStiffening by of the USgovernment Government’s to annually financial, spend eco participation of children, adolescents and young millions of dollars on investment in and maintenance of water management and hydraulic - infrastructure in the country. people in the TRAZAGUAS contest, which achieved • Development and implementation of plans and contributionsits XVIII annual were edition received in 2017. in Itsthe extensive different nationmodal- programs directly and indirectly designed to itiesal dissemination (drawings, stories, meant thatpoetry). that Inyear, each a total edition, of 5789 the organizers of the contest have printed posters with • National Hydraulic Plan; - •improve Plan theto Combatquality of the inland Contamination waters, such of as: In- forts of the children and young participants, this land Waters; the awarded works. In addition to reflecting the ef WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA 267

Table 4. Causal chain of water quality problems Impact Pollution problems Sectors Immediate cause Root cause Assessment Increase in nitrate concentrations in Moderate- High use of nitrogen Agriculture groundwater. High fertilizers. Eutrophication Increase in nitrate concentrations in Moderate- High use of nitrogen Agriculture groundwater. High fertilizers. Nitrification of aquifers City planning especially rivers that cross large High infrastructure and Loss of qualityurban in centers. surface currents, wastewaterLack of sewage treatment. Urban pollution Industrial and agro-food Industry contamination that receive wastewater discharges. moderate wastewater treatment. Loss of quality in surface streams Low- Absent or deficient Pollution related to the Increase in transport rates of Agriculture Poor soil and forest erosion of soils and suspended solids in surface streams Moderate (soils and forest) management. channels and reservoirs. Saltwater intrusion Overexploitation of aquifers. Agriculture Increase in salinity in groundwater. Moderate pollution Poor control of extractions. Mining and Mining Activity Heavy metal pollution Increase in metal concentrations Natural pollution Low Geology Source: INRH, prepared by the authors of this chapter.

• Investment and Maintenance Program, for the number of parameters to be detected sys- the relative increase in water availability tematically, especially organic compounds for the economy, society and the environ- linked to their use in agriculture. ment, increased coverage of drinking wa- • Increase the frequency of monitoring in sec- ter and sanitation; tions of rivers affected by wastewater discharg- • Hydrometry program in drinking water es and incorporate hydrobiological variables, networks and pipes and channels and wa- in order to study the status of the most import- ter transfers between basins; ant aquatic ecosystems. • • Strengthen existing cooperation relationships use and reducing losses from pipes; - • Program for increasing efficiency in water - searchwith national related scientificto water andquality, educational and take insti into metalsImprovement and organic of RedCal compounds; with an increase in accounttutions, whichtheir resultsundertake with specific a view studies to adopting or re • the number of identifications, especially of- pertinent actions. logical Network to evaluate and control SaltwaterRehabilitation Intrusion; program of the Hydrogeo • Soil Conservation and Improvement Pro- Acknowledgements gram, which includes the development of water, soil and forest polygons; • in hydrographic basins and hydro-regula- The authors are grateful for the contributions of: toryNational fringes. Reforestation Program, especially MSc Orlando Laiz Averhoff, EIPIH - INRH (IV.1); MSc- ría,Dagoberto Directorate Rodríguez of Forests, Lozano, Wild Director Flora ofand Soils Fauna, and In this respect, it is recommended that continued Fertilizers, MINAG (IV.2); Dr. Juan Herrero Echevar-

• MINAG (V.3); Amneris Carreras Rodríguez, Nation effortsaffected should by be industrial made to: discharges, and increase al Coordinator, Water is Children’s Friend Group, Extend the monitoring of sediments in areas Directorate of Innovation and Technology, INRH (VIII.2). 268 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | CUBA

Bibliographical references

Ministerio de Justicia. Gaceta Oficial de la Repúbli- for water otherwise our hydropolitical futures ca de Cuba. Allan J.A. (1993). Fortunately,Priorities there are for substitutes water resources allocation and management. GO No. 51 Extraordinaria del 16 de would be impossible. In: noviembre de 2017. Ley 124/2017 (GOC -2017-715- London: EstudioEx51). ISSN-1862-7511. del contenido de metales en las prin- evaluarODA. pp. la 13-26. calidad de los recursos hídricos su- Mora,cipales I.; Muñoz, fuentes M.; de Hernández, abasto de S.; Cuba. Matos, A. (2003). García, J. M. y Gutiérrez, J. (2015). Un índice para Centro Nacional de Hidrología y Calidad de las Revista Voluntad Hidráulica La Habana: perficiales en cuencas hidrográficas (ICA sp 2014). Exposición No. sobre 113 los de Aguas, Rama 1003.Los Objetivos de Desarrollo del 2015.trabajos ISSN relacionados 0505-9461. con el cumplimiento a los OficinaMilenio Nacional – Cuba. de Estadísticas e Información GEIPIproyectos / GEARH 13 y/ 9, EIPH del Megaproyecto (2011). sobre el Cam- (ONEI) (2015). bio Climático en la República de Cuba. Present- AnuarioLa Habana: Estadístico ONEI Edición. de Cuba 2015. ación. Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas e Información - (ONEI) (2016). La Habana: INRH. Resumen ISBN: 978-959-7119-62-3.Anuario Estadístico de Cuba 2016. Grupodel Empresarialpesquisaje de de metales Aprovechamiento pesados en delas los aguas Re Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas e Información decursos las fuentes Hidráulicos de abasto (GEARH) para consumo (2016). humano. (ONEI) (2017). NC 27- Informe preliminar. - 2012.Capítulo Vertimiento 2. Medio de Ambiente. Aguas Residuales a las Aguas OficinaTerrestres Nacional y al Alcantarillado. de Normalización Especificaciones. (2012). DocumentoManual interno. de La lagu Ha- NC 827- bana:nas de INRH. estabilización. - 2012. Agua potable requisitos sanitarios. Gutiérrez, J. y García, J.M. (2015). Oficina Nacional de TallerNormalización de Alianza (2012). Regional para La Habana: Instituto Na Centro América, México y el Caribe. Prioridades cional de RecursosBosques Hidráulicos en cuencas (INRH). hidrográfi ISBN- Rodríguez,hacia un D. Manejo (2015). Sostenible del Suelo. 978-959-300-115-1.cas de interés nacional. Situación actual y per- FAO. Herrero,spectivas. J.A. (2017). La Habana: suelos, aguas y bosques en la protección y con- Forestal, Flora1er. Tallery de Fauna de Gestión Silvestre Integrada / Ministerio de Rodríguez, D. (2017). La función de los polígonos de Cuencas Hidrográficas. La Habana: Dirección - servación de cuencas. Logros alcanzados. 1er. de la Agricultura. ISBN 978-959-247-156-6. Taller de Gestión Integrada de Cuencas Hidro Instituto Nacional de Recursos Hidráulicos (INRH)Revista gráficas. CUBAGUA 2017. LaMetodología Habana: Ministerio simplifi- Voluntad(2002). LosHidráulica, recursos hidráulicos en cifras. cadade la Agricultura.para la evaluación ISBN 978-959-247-156-6. de lagos cálidos tropi- Edición Especial 40 Aniversario INRH. Salas,cales. H. y Martino, O. (2001). Política NacionalAño 2002. del Agua ISSN 0505-9461. - Instituto Nacional de Recursos Hidráulicos (INRH) La Habana: CEPIS. (2012). La Habana:- Servicio Hidrológico Nacional (2006). NuevosRevis Lo- INRH. - tagros Voluntad en el EstudioHidráulica de la Pluviosidad en Cuba. Laiz,ban O.; reservoirs.Quintana, I.; Int. Blomqvist. Rev. Hidrobiology P.; Broberg, A.; Infan Mapa Isoyético para el periodo 1961-2000. te, A. (1979). Comparative limnology of four Cu No. 98, pp. 2-14. 79 (1) 17-45. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 269

Dominican Republic

The quality of Dominican waters today negatively impacts on health, as well as creating extreme climatic incidents, overcrowding and marginality. Food production is compromised by the salinization of soils, eutrophication due to the use of agrochemicals, the irresponsible use of antibiotics in veterinary science and the biodiversity of the island. The population consumes an excessive amount of bottled water due to its distrust of water from the aqueducts. The current legal framework suffers from serious deficiencies and requires a new institutional reorganization to optimize the quality of water as both a resource and a service.

El Limón Waterfall, Dominican Republic © iStock 270 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Water Quality in the Dominican Republic

Eleuterio Martínez, Roberto Castillo Tió, Luis Reyes Tatis, Pedro de León and Luis Salcedo

1. Introduction

Water quality is a priority concern for the Dominican Republic, amply reflected in its current legal system, from the Constitution (2015), to adjective laws; as well as the National Development Strategy (2010-2030), the Regulation for Water Quality for Human Consump tion,Although Decree No. the 42-05 legal textsof 2005 show and that several the greatest Environmental interest Normsin water on quality surface lies (2012), in the ground supply for(2004), human coastal consumption, (2012) and as wastewater will be seen (2004) below, quality. given the diversity of uses of this resource, there is an enormous demand to sustain the development activities the country requires and the natural mechanisms to guarantee its permanent natural recovery. This variable must therefore be approached using the same regulatory frameworks designed to counteract the - nization of agricultural soils, the effects of return water in certain regions, eutrophication ofinfluence water bodies exerted and by deforestation the powerful inagricultural the middle and slopes mining and highsector, mountains which results of the in country. the sali

1.1 Problem of water quality Water quality is the main challenge for its different uses, not only because of the alteration of its composition, but also because of the type of management used in water preservation -which warrants an institutional rearrangement-, water management and water service provision for human consumption and public health. At present, the quality of Dominican - eases), extreme climate incidents, overcrowding, marginalization, food production (soil salinization,waters reflects degradation, substantial eutrophication direct and recurrent due to the health use impactsof agrochemicals (epidemic in and horticulture emerging anddis - biotics in veterinary medicine) as well as effects on the island’s biodiversity. Another aspect relatedfloriculture), to quality intensive is aqueduct livestock management, farming (bovine, which poultry,creates distrustswine, irresponsible in the water supplieduse of anti by

- them, expressed in the intensive use of bottled water (78% of the population) for human consumption. The current legal framework -described later- reflects the overlapping of in

Eleuterio Martínez, [email protected] Chapter Coordinator.Forestry Engineer with a Specialty in Ecology and Environment; Vice President of the Academy of Sciences of the Dominican Republic; Professor at the Autonomous University of Santo Domingo; IANAS Focal Point. Roberto Castillo Tió, Hydrology engineer, Water Quality Specialist, Water Board (MEPyD). Luis Reyes Tatis, HydrologyEngi- neer, Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources. Pedro de León, Hydrologist, National Institute of Drinking Water and Sanitation. Luis Salcedo, Hydrologist, Santo Domingo Water and Sewerage Corporation. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 271

- (mainly in the management of pollutants), social rently in the legislative chambers (National Con- aspectsstitutional and competencies, obstacles to achievinglack of definition optimization of roles in Article 2 of the new Sectoral Law on Water cur- the quality of national waters, raising the need for a new institutional reorganization of the water sector gress) establishes the goal of: “Guaranteeing wa- as a resource and water as a service. ter security in the Dominican Republic, through the availability of water in sufficient quality and quan andtity andquantity)” at the timeis a humanit is required” right, as and established in Article in 4 2. Institutional authority and theit clearly Constitution. establishes that “Access to Water (quality water quality governance which established the National Institute of Drink- 2.1 Legal framework ing TheWater same and occurs Sewerage with (INAPA), Law N° an 5994 institution of 1962, The Constitution contains three articles on water - - monial and strategic nature for public use, and the that provides service to 25 of the 32 territorial de fact(15, 67that and it is75 inalienable, section 11), whichindefeasible establishes and cannot its patri be marcations of the Dominican Republic, while the encumbered. It also states that it is essential for life, theremaining Aqueduct seven and are Sewer served System by the of following Santo Domin laws:- that human consumption has priority over any oth- Law 498 of 1973, which created the Corporation of er use, and that it is the duty of the state to guaran- Corporation of the Aqueduct and Sewer System of tee its quality and quantity. go (CAASD), Law 582 of 1977, which established the - up the Corporation of the Aqueduct and Sewer Sys- Santiago (CORAASAN), Law 89 of 1997, which set In the Framework or General Law on Environ created the Aqueduct and Sewerage Corporation whichment andspecial Natural emphasis Resources, is placed Chapter on preserving III, devoted its tem of Moca (CORAAMOCA ), Law 142 of 1997 which to Water, contains ten articles (from 126 to 135), inwhich established the Aqueduct and Sewerage Cor- lish the right of every person to use this resource of Puerto Plata (CORAAPLATA), Law 385 of 1999, toquality, satisfy particularly their vital articlesfood and 127 hygiene and 130. needs, They avoidestab- - ing activities that may damage, diminish or alter its poration of La Romana (COAAROM) and lastly, Law quality, or preclude the same use by third parties. following428 of 2006, coverage which mapset up by theterritorial Aqueduct demarcation and Sew In view of the fact that the Dominican Consti- erage Corporation of Boca Chica (CORAABO). The tution obliges the State to guarantee compliance All these legal entities share the goal of guaran- teeingshows the domainsquality of of water INAPA supplied and each to of their the CORAS.respective cities. with the Human Right to Water and Sanitation,- althe heritage, National taking Development into account Strategy the Sustainable (END) 2010- De- 2.2 Water quality governance 2030 defines water resources as a strategic nation Judging by the profusion of mandates in legal texts, regulations, rules and administrative provisions, ensurevelopment availability Goals (SDGs), and sustainable particularly management SDG-6 (Water of the issue of water quality in the country would ap- and Sanitation), the overarching aim of which is “to in reality, because of the overlapping of competen- water and sanitation for all” by 2030". - cies,pear asto canhave be an seen excess in Table of goals 1. and to be inefficient datesBoth and the provisions current Water designed Law to and preserve the new water Law Faced with this framework of dispersion and in the legislative chambers establish specific man- - trial Waters and Distribution of Public Waters de- quality. Law 5852 of 1962 on the Domain of Terres- overlapping of functions, the Executive Branch cre- visions that prevent contamination and encourage opment,ated the as Water an inter-institutional Board (Decree 265-16), coordination chaired body by remediation,votes articles the42, 43,creation 107 and of 122 a Waterto establishing Police Force, pro forthe theMinister water of sector the Economy, and related Planning to the andintegrated Devel management of water basins, until the structural of the respective sanctions. and the definition of offenses and the establishment modifications discussed in the preliminary draft 272 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

establish the parameters of analysis and a regula-

cameof the intoSectoral force. Law Institutions on Water thatas a resourceform part and of the Law of the Drinking Water and Sanitation Service tionSet which of defineswater characteristics, the concept of 'waterprimarily quality' deter in- - minedthe following by the terms:values established in the present reg- Water Board include: the Ministry of Public Health ulation of maximum admissible concentrations and (MSP), the Ministry of Environment and Natu- those established in quality guides, which ensure the tuteral Resources of Drinking (MARENA), Water and the Sewerage National (INAPA), Institute the of non-existence of a certain kind of risk or danger in- Hydraulic Resources (INDRHI), the National Insti volving sanitation; as well as proper service, opera- Mines, the Aqueducts and Sewers Corporation of tion and maintenance throughout the supply system, SantoMinistry Domingo, of Agriculture, the Aqueduct the Ministry and Sewer of Energy Corpora andthereby achieving the basic needs and rights of users tion of Santiago, and the corporations of the City of and consumers. Moca, Province of Puerto Plata, of the Municipali- - - shipAs and can surveillance” be seen in the of precedingwater quality table, at Law the No.na- ty of Boca Chica, the provinces of La Romana and 42 of 2001 grants the MSP the function of “steward- CouncilLa Vega, for the Climate Dominican Change Federation and the Hydroelectrici of Municipali- ties, the Dominican Municipal League, the National tional level, a function it fulfills through the appli- - tioncation and of alsoDecree regulates No. 42-2005, any activity which thatestablishes may affect the licty Generationis governed Company. by three environmental standards, waterRegulation quality of inWater the watersheds, Quality for Humanits use for Consump agricul- In short, water quality in the Dominican Repub tural irrigation, as well as the implementation of

the series of Dominican Standards of Quality, which

Figure 1. Drinking Water Service Coverage Map

Puerto Plata Monte Cristi CORAAPLATA Espaillat Atlantic Ocean Valverde CORAAMOCA

Dejabón Santiago Salcedo María Trinidad Rodríguez Sánchez Santiago CORAASAN Duarte Samaná Rep. of Haiti Elias Piña La Vega Sánchez Ramírez CORAAVEGA Hato Mayor San Juan de la Maguana Monseñor Monte Plata Nouel El Seibo

San José Azua La Altagracia de Ocoa Gran Santo Domingo Hahoruco La Romana San Pedro COAAROM San Distrito Boca Chica Cristóbal Nacional CORAABO Independencia CAASD Peravia

Barahona

Caribbean Sea Pedernales

Area under INAPA jurisdiction Other jurisdictions

Source: INAPA-BANCO MUNDIAL, 2016. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 273

Table 1: Diagram of water quality competencies Institution Function Legal framework Nature Overlapping and clashes with:

surveillance of drinking water »INDOCAL, quality.in regulations and Stewardship, regulation, Ministry of Public State (Central surveillance. regulations and wastewater Health (MSP) Health system. »Min.management of the Environment, surveillance. in Law n.º 42-01 Government) »INAPA, in the control, design, authorization and implementation of sewage works. Stewardship, man- - agement, regulation, State (Central - monitoring of the en- »INDRHI, in water management. Ministry of Environ wastewater discharges. vironment and natural »INDOCAL, in regulations on ment and Natural Re Law n.º 64-00 »MSP, in excreta management. resources. Government) sources (MARENA) - - ning and formulation State (Central plementation of the Water and Planning and Devel- Governingof public development body of plan »INAPASanitation and Project CORA, inin Touristthe im Ministryopment of (2017)Economy, policies. Law n.º 496-06 Centers (PASCT). Government) Autonomous National Institute of Control and regulation state public; of water use. Watershed attached to the control, in aqueducts and well »MARENA, due to INAPA water protection. Law n.º Ministry of the water management. Hydraulic Resources 6-1965 (INDRHI) Technical entity Environment of the Dominican »MSP, in regulation and quali- body, provides support ty control of bottled drinking toOfficial ministries standardization for creating Dominican Quality water. technical regulations. Law n.º 166-12 Quality Council Institute (INDOCAL) of (Affiliated to Supervision, design and MEPYD) construction of infra- - Ministry of Tourism State (Central structure works for tour- plementation of sewerage proj- ist complexes through »INAPAects andin tourist CORAS, centers. in the im Law n.º 84-79 (MITUR) Government) - CEIZTUR. sic Political-Ad- »INAPA, due to the implementa- Town Halls Political-administrative Autonomous Ba tion of APS systems. Localcoordination. government. Law n.º 176-07 of the State. ministrative Unit »MSP, in control, design and au- National Drinking thorization of implementation Stewardship, regulation Autonomous Water and Sewerage of projects. and operation of APS State. Attached Institute services. to the MSP (INAPA) Law n.º 5994 aqueducts and control of water year 1962 »INDRHI,wells for humanin the construction consumption. of

Stewardship, regula- »MSP, in the control, design and Aqueducts and Sew- tion and operation of Laws n.º authorization of the implemen- Autonomous erage Corporations APS services in the DN, 498- 73 tation of projects. State. six provinces and one 582-77 municipality. 142-97 of sanitation projects. (CORAS) 89-98 385-98 »MEPYD, in the implementation 512-05 428-06

Fuente: MAPAS – II – D (BM, INAPA, WSP, APS), 2016. 274 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

the rules established in this respect by service providers to the population. sanitation, b. Agricultural development, c. Pro- The environmental standards established by 2. ductionSectoral oforganizations: hydroelectricity, to. Drinkingd. Industrial water sector, and e. Mining, f. Tourism and g. Waterworks. Organizing body of the waters in the country, mandate of the General Law on Environment andwhich would be the highest technical authori- mentalNatural standardResources on (No. groundwater 64-00) are: quality1. Water and quality dis- 3. and discharge control standard, 2003; 2. Environ a resource and for monitoring compliance with thety, responsible guidelines laid for downenforcing by the the stewardship. Water Law as charges into the subsoil, 2004, and Environmental- quality standard for surface and coastal waters, 2012. The Dominican Quality Institute has estab will be the responsibility of the ministerial body of threelished of 14 which national are standards in the preparation of procedure phase. for water publicThe health, Drinking with Water a structure and Sanitation similar to theLaw second (PSA) quality analysis, 11 of which are already in force, and level (public or private service providers), while 2.3 Proposal for institutional the National Institute of Drinking Water and Sew- reorganization erage (INAPA) would be transformed into a regulat- Fresh water is a limited resource that must be maning body and the highest technical authority in the aged according to the water cycle, taking into ac- sector, excluding constructive (building) functions. count the concepts of river basins and hydrological basins leading to the sustainable development of 3. Status of Water in is one of the factors that contributes to water inse- the Dominican Republic thecurity, country. since Init thislimits context, the use the of concept water for of “quality”different uses. Accordingly, there is a regulation for the qual- 3.1 Water availability ity of water, when it is a source for aqueducts (supply systems) and another type of quality for rivers - and surface runoff in its exploitation for other uses, The country has six hydrographic regions with 97 with separate, taxative functions. main basins and 556 secondary basins, as estab- - lished in the National Hydrological Plan (INDRHI,- 2012), which indicates that the surface water avail The Water as a Resource Bill proposes the sepa- ability of the Dominican Republic is 23,497.69 mil- ration of roles at three levels: lion m³ (Mm³) year. Table 2). If 1. Stewardship: This would be under the direc Current (2018) availability of water in the coun tion of MARENA, responsible for the policies, try is 25,966.69 million m³ (Mm³) (see water planning and financing of the sector. 23.497.69 million m³ (Mm³) or runoff (rivers and

Table 2. Water availability in the Dominican Republic (Calculated in millions of cubic meters per hydrographic region) Surface Water Usable Groundwater Actual availability N° Hydrographic Region (millions of m3) (millions of m3) (Million m3) 1 2 Atlantic Yaque del Norte 2,905.46 181 3,086.46 3 4,634.73 216 4,850.73 4 Yuna 3,600.96 236 3,836.96 Ozama/Nizao Este 3,125.95 758 3,883.95 5 4,459.08 457 4,916.08 6 YaqueTotal available del Sur 23,497.694,771.51 2,469621 25,966.695,392.51

Source: Compiled on the basis of PHN-INDRHI (2012) and Fany Vargas (2014). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 275

Cuadro 3. Situación de los recursos hídricos del país (principales Indicadores) N° Características Generales Rep. Dominicana 1 2 Población 2017 Superficie 48,670 km² 3 Precipitación media 10,169,172 habitantes 4 Volumen precipitación 1,500 mm/año Volumen evaporado 73 km³ Volumen disponible 5 51 km³ 7 6 23.497.69 km³ Volumen per cápita 2,310 m³/h Problemas generales 8 Índice de déficit hídrico (OMM) 1,000 m³/h 10 Tensión hídrica 9 Índice del grado de competencia Grado de competencia en sequías Fuente: Elaboración propia con base en informaciones de Héctor Rodríguez (2006) y ONE (2017). minor currents) are added to underground water ditions. However, the information is valid in crisis - - ably increase through saving policies and responsi- availability, which is 2,469 million m³, these 25,966 blesituations, national since water efficient resource water management. use could consider Itmillion is estimated m³ of total that availability average annual are equivalent rainfall into theap proximately 823 m³/s (cubic meters per second). is lost naturally (through direct evaporation and FAO (2015) states that the maximum capacity of- evapotranspiration),country is 1,410 millimeters according and to thatcalculations nearly 70% by the reservoirs is 2,301 million mm³, of which large mostreservoirs part, (thosethese are with multi-purpose over 100 million reservoirs mm³ in (sup stor- If we only take into account the surface water age capacity) store 85% of total capacity. For the movingReynoso through (2017). rivers and other sources, the avail- hydroelectric power), except for a few small reser- voirsply to used the population,only for electricity flood control, generation. irrigation and - ability of easily accessible water would be 2,310 m³ per inhabitant, considering that the Dominican Re- The highest capacity reservoirs are Hatillo (441 public had a population of 10,169,172 inhabitants at- million mm³) in the Yuna River, Sabana Yegua (401- abilitythe end of of groundwater2017, according to to the projections availability by ofthe run Na- million mm³) in the Yaque del Sur River, Monción- tional Bureau of Statistics. But if we add the avail (360 million mm³) in the Mao River, Bao (244 mil inhabitant. Nizaolion mm³) river. in the Bao and Valdesia rivers (185 mil ning water, actual availability would be 2,553 m³ per lion mm³) and Jigüey (167 million mm³), both in the- Groundwater resources ter resources in the country. Seventy-seven per cent are estimatedOn the basis at of4.161 the million same information, m³/year, all consideredFAO (2015) of groundwaterGroundwater comes accounts from for the 60% direct of available recharge wa of aspoints base outflow theor superposition following: “ between surface water and groundwater. The availability of usable ground- - water has been estimated at 2.469 million m³/year”. rain or infiltration from river channels, 15% from- - uousirrigation zones. water returns or infiltration and the re mainingWhen 8% all fromthese lateral data are connections analyzed and with contrast contig- The INDRHI National Water Plan (2012) also es ed with the reality of the country at this times, they whichtablishes considerably that the 35 increasesdams and overallreservoirs water have avail the- - capacity to store approximately 2,144 million m³, ter to supply drinking water for its population and in practical terms this does not happen, because sustainshow that the the main Dominican activities Republic that currently has enough serve wa as thisability information to approximately is only 32,740 valid million in theoretical m³, although con- the basis for its development. 276 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

The current status of water in the Dominican by a factor of two or three, this data includes the Table 3 that detail the prevailing reality in the country. Republic is reflected in the large volume of water lost due to leaks and waste: 3.2 Current status of water use overIrrigated 50% None agriculture, of the APS which institutions has a higher has a water Leak demandCorrection than Plan all asthe part other of sectorsa Loss Control together, Program. requires 3.2.1 Supply deficit (blue ecological footprint) and uses one (footprint) - ecologicala supply of green) 5 m³ per for second,practically of which all crops it wastes under fourirri- Atcit inthe the end supply of 2017 of drinkingand beginning water. ofThis 2018, was the the main case Dominicanof the city of cities Santo were Domingo, experiencing the Dominican a marked capital, defi gation. In other words, water efficiency in irrigation - remainderagriculture beingvaries wasted. between 20 and 25%, and only in where continuity of service does not exceed 10% of exceptional cases has 32% been reached, with the cityhouseholds in the country, (CAASD, has 2017). a similar Santiago situation de los according Caballe 3.2.3 Demand by sector toros reports (CORAASAN, the Academy 2017), the of secondSciences most of the populated Domin- a. Agricultural of Drinking Water and Sewage. There are very few The most recent study on water consumption in ican Republic received from the National Institute - With only slight variations, in the two largest cities inin thethe interior country where - Santo service Domingo is more and efficient. Santia- the Dominican Republic, “Contrast of Water Avail - demandability and for Demand agriculture by Province”in the country (2017), amounts by water to specialist Gilberto Reynoso, establishes that water- go - which currently have a population of 4.5 mil lion people out of the 10,266,149 inhabitants of the- and80%, other while uses. 12% This is assigned situation forcontrasts human with consump global Dominican Republic, water consumption per capita tion and the remaining 8% for tourism, industry exceeds 112 gallons per day, amounting to approx- tionimately of the 425 MSP liters/person/day. establishes the However,minimum Articlelevels for65 foravailability human consumption. and demand, where 20% is assigned for of Regulation 42-05 of water for human consump- agriculture, another 20% for other sectors and 60% b. Tourism cases where there are no specific or regional stud Water demand for the tourism sector will grow con- liters/person/day.ies. Guidelines vary in warm climates and areas with a population of over 150,000 inhabitants to 350 of foreign visitors continues. At present, tourism in 3.2.2 Consumption status siderably in the next few years, if the rate of influx In other words, although the country apparently ex- per year, according to statistical data from the Cen- ceeds the water consumption of developed nations the Dominican Republic exceeds 7 million visitors

tral Bank of the Dominican Republic (2017) and it is Table 4. Projected water demand by sectors (Million m3/año) Sector 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 Drinking Water Irrigation 679.86 760.76 843.80 928.50 1,013.08 6,429.85 4,878.90 3,327.95 2,894.43 2,460.90 Livestock 538.24 835.80 1,133.35 1,430.91 1,728.47 Industrial Ecological 3,675.60 3,675.60 3,675.60 3,675.60 3,675.60 Tourism 43.71 259.10 586.07 659.88 716.80 793.02 Total 11,626.36 10,831.4294.29 9,765.38124.80 9,812.22165.98 9,892.64221.57

Source: INDRHI (2012): National Hydrological Plan. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 277

Table 5. Water Demand in Mining (2005-2030)

Hydrographic Water demand for Mining Subsector 2005-2030 (million m3 / año) Region 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 1.22 3.40 1.11 1.31 Yaque del Norte 3.79 4.06 4.46 13.55 Ozama – Nizao 11.03 11.77 Yuna 0.92 1.53 1.75 1.62 1.07 1.43 3.59 9.91 12.89 1.80 Atlantic 1.27 1.43 1.70 Este 0.75 0.90 1.25 1.98 1.17 4.71 0.48 1.54 1.76 YaqueTotal del Sur 0.827.77 17.580.99 19.80 21.501.36 23.791.56 25.41

Source: United Nations-INDRHI. Table 6. Water Demand by sector (Million m3/year) Sector 2015 % 2020 % 2025 % Drinking Water 7 7 7 Irrigation 47 843.80 928.50 1013.08 11 13 6429.85 50 6429.84 49 6429.84 27 Livestock 1133.35 9 1430.91 1728.47 Industrial Ecological 3675.60 29 3675.60 28 3675.60 Tourism 0.3 0.4 1 659.88 5 716.80 5 793.01 6 Total 12,777.9934.62 100 13,230.5648.91 100 13,724.8584.85 100

Source: MAPAS-RD. Monitoring of the Country’s Progress in Drinking Water and Sanitation II.

c. Mining Mining is a key sector of the Dominican economy as projected that the influx of tourists to the country- regards the gross domestic product and warrants gion,will be where much the higher main when hotel 2018 areas is calculated.of this tourist re- particular attention due to the volumes of water esti- sortThe are drinkinglocated, is water much deficit more inevident the Eastern and since Re mated as a percentage of industrial consumption (pe- the only supply comes from underground sources (aquifers), overexploitation has caused the advance ferronickel and other metallic goods (see Table 5). of the salt wedge due to saline intrusion, which has riod 2005-2030) for the extraction of gold and silver, - ed another set of associated problems. in theThe regions water demandwhere mining for mining activity (2020-2030) takes place, is advancedThat is, more a drinking than 11 kilometers water supply inland, crisis and for creat this waterprojected should at 23.57 be prioritized million cubic as a meters human per right year for and the sector, currently the main pillar of the Dominican surrounding populations. economy, is rapidly approaching, which is why the - d. Fresh water demand by productive sector essary infrastructure for the use of surface water resourcesDominican , Governmentwhich are fairly will abundant,have to create yet thestill nec un- Table 6), of which pota- tapped due to the lack of planning and the almost In the Dominican Republic, six (6) major water uses spontaneous and unusual tourist development that totalhave demandbeen identified for all uses.(see In the case of irrigation, has taken place in this region. If this trend con- ble water is the priority, accounting for 7% of the tinues, supply sources are likely to collapse in the short to medium term. Conversely,water demand livestock was estimated will increase at 50% its share in 2015, of water with a slight decrease for 2020 of 49% and 47% for 2025. 278 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

cause the critical state occurs when availability water consumption is expected to remain virtually - demand from 9% in 2015 to 13% in 2025. Ecological drops below 1,600 m³/inhabitant/year. If this sit 3.2.4constant Water at approximately demand in the 28%. Dominican capital uation is projected to 2020, availability would be 2,485 m³/inhab/year and even 10 years later (2030), it would remain in normal conditions, above 2,300- Existing potable water supply systems contribute sourcesm³/inhab/year. presents more critical scenarios, its esti- an approximate daily flow rate of between 18.0 and matesAlthough are based the on National a much Institutelarger population of Water than Re 22.0 m³ to the National District and the province of - Santo Domingo, to supply a population of over 3.5 distributionmillion inhabitants, network whichlines, in wastes addition between to the 54%lack datathe one to seecalculated which one by the provides National a more Bureau accurate of Statis re- ofand real 60%, macro including and micro leaks duemeasurement to obsolescence systems in tics. It will be necessary to wait for the 2020 census Table 7 shows the current and projected water However, the amount actually used by citizens demandflection of by the sectors situation. with the highest consumption in (CAASD, 2018). - Santovaries Domingo between had 9.0 anda permanent 12.0 million policy cubic of meterscitizen the country, according to the INAPA-WORLD BANK educationper day (Salcedo, oriented 2018).towards All the this saving indicates and respon that, if- (2016) studies, based on the fact that total water de sible use of its waters, associated with an effective mand for all uses in 2015 was 12,778 m³/year, which leak correction program, we would not be talking will be 13,230.56 m³/year BY 2020 and 13,725 m³/ about shortages, as is the case today, even in the year3.2.6 by National 2025. strategy en route to the SDGs worst scenarios (see Table 7).

3.2.5 The Specter of scarcity The same source conducts a specific analysis for In other words, provided water availability at the drinkingthe same periodwater, contrasting(2005-2015) ofit supplywith production (availability), ca- pacitywith respect at the tonational specific level, consumption as detailed (demand) below (See for per year, it is not possible to speak of scarcity, be- Table 8). national level remains above 2,000 m³ per person

Table 7. Water availability and demand in the Dominican Republic Population Projected Availability (Million m3/ Year Availability (Million m3) Demand (Million m3) (inhabitants) inhabitants/year) 12,777 2020 13,231 2015 25,996.7 9,980,243 2,602 25,996.7 10,448,499 2,485 2030 2025 25,996.7 13,315 10,878,277 2,387 25,996.7 11,253,284 2,308 Source: Compiled using data from WB-INAPA Maps -II- RD. Table 8. Water supply and demand and production capacity Potential freshwater supply Year Drinking water demand (m3/s) Production capacity (m3/s) for all uses (m3/s)

2020 2015 745.08 26.76 62.27 32.12 745.08 29.44 65.02* 2025 745.08 68.76* Source: MAPAS-RD. Monitoreo de los Avances del País en Agua Potable y Saneamiento II. * Projected. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 279

Although several scenarios can be drawn from 4.1.2 Millennium objective achievement the preceding table and multiple considerations According to the latest report from the Ministry of can be made, it is clear that the freshwater supply is far higher than the demand the country has for this natural resource and that the capacity to produce it Economy, Planning and Development (MEPYD) on using the current water use systems is also twice as countrycompliance achieved with the the goal United of halving Nations the Millenniumproportion high as demand at this time, and albeit to a lesser ofDevelopment the population Goals lacking (MDGs), access released to potable in 2015,water the in extent, this situation is expected to remain constant - in the following years. These data are very important for the analysis 1991 (33.6%), which involved raising access cover of the current scenario and future situations that theage frompopulation 66.4% withto 83.2%, access contemplated to drinking forwater 2015. ser - may arise in the country in terms of drinking wa- In this document, the MEPyD states that in 2014, ter supply for the population, which much be the starting point to comply with the projections of the vice was estimated at 90.2%, and was expected to National Development Strategy and for compliance rise to 92.6% by 2015. This proportion exceeds the basisoriginal of MDGsthe review (83.2%) and byupdating 9.4 percentage of the method points,- concerning drinking water access and availability ologywhich forwas calculating subsequently the increasedindicator ofto 92.2%,access onto imthe- andwith sanitation. the goals set for the SDGs, particularly SDG -6, - teria. It also exceeded the proportion projected for proved drinking water sources, according to UN cri 4. Main problems impacting trend in drinking water access. 2015 by 0.4 percentage points, reflecting an upward water quality in the country 4.1.3 Water Quality Monitoring 4.1 Service Coverage and - Social Participation lic is the primary responsibility of the MSP, as estab- Water quality monitoring in the Dominican Repub 4.1.1 National coverage through the implementation of the National Water lished by its legal system, which fulfills its mission the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), the According to the 2010 national census, there were- Quality Regulation, for which it has the support of 1,272 aqueducts in the country, 420 of which were public (34%) and 852 of which were communi- World Health Organization (WHO) and the United ty-run (66%). Of that universe, 170 aqueducts were- Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund urban and 1,102 were rural, with an installed pro (UNICEF).4.1.4 Social participation ductionalmost twicecapacity the of actual 62.27 m³population /s, although demand, they actuesti- The greatest social participation in the Potable Wa- ally produced about 46.30 m³/s, enough to supply ter and Sanitation System occurs at the local level, Water Plan. mated at 26.26 m³/s, according to the 2012 National- existing systems are run by the Community Asso- in the operation of rural aqueducts, where 65% of- However, the supply of drinking water was defi nity Water Committees (CAC), as a result, among cient in 2014 due to the fact that average water loss- otherciation causes, of Rural of Aqueductsthe lack of public(ASOCAR) attention and Commu and the in the water supply systems was 54% nationwide, according to the INAPA-World Bank study on Wa by INAPA. ter Supply and Sanitation Monitoring (2016), which decentralizationCitizens’ participation of rural aqueducts in the planning, begun instudy, 1997 drew on the final diagnostic report of wastewater- design, construction and management of drinking and excreta by Leonardo Mercedes (2016). water and sanitation projects is not legally contem- The 2010 census determined that national pota plated, nor is it widespread. All social participation ble water service coverage was 84%, with 67% in occurs, as has been indicated, as a result of local ini- urban areas and 17% in rural areas, while 16% of the tiatives, sometimes institutional and, sometimes – Dominican population lacked this service (7.9% in cities and 8.1% in rural areas). 280 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

in most cases- as a result of grassroots community • organizations. Index in aqueducts controlled by decentral- There is civil society representation on the izedSocial service acceptability companies index: is variable, The Potabilization with an ac- - tional and management model which establishes population. theboards legal of frameworkfive of the sevenon which CORAS, the butPotable the institu Water • ceptable record and is accepted by 22% of the and Sanitation System is based does not institute social participation at any of its decision levels or in ofLevel water of rejectionfrom the aqueductsor social distrust: and, instead, A total con of- the operation of PHC services, which are conceived 78% of the population distrusts the potability as an exclusive function of the state through public • - institutions. forms,sumes fecalbottled coliforms. water (ENDESA 2013). • TheKey continuity, health indicators: quantity Color,and pressure smell, totalof the coli wa- 4.2 Water quality and main pollutants ter service are discontinuous, forcing the poor- Drinking water contaminants alter the quality of est people to have to store water in containers, water for human use (drinking, personal hygiene, which in turn obliges the MSP to engage in an domestic chores) and may vary from region to re- annual campaign of cleaning, disinfection and gion, according to the characteristics of the aqueducts, type of management, geological and soil con- the Aedes aegypti mosquito. ditions. However, the most important ones include • "covered tanks" to prevent the development oftotal and fecal coliforms, pH, temperature and ni- tainable in the long term. Management indicator: The service is not sus analytical methods applicable to water for human 4.2.2 Waste water quality trates. Regulation 42.05 defines the parameters and Organoleptic parameters. Physico-Chemical census, information on coverage and treated water Parametersconsumption: Chemical Parameters. Parameters inAccording domestic to wastewater data from the treatment 2010 national plants population indicates regardingA: unwanted substances. B: Parameters related to toxic C: substances. Microbiological D: parameters. E: - inthat the 70% open of air.the Dominican population uses toilets, tematic accountability. F: 24% utilize latrines or toilets and 6% still defecate In total, there are 69 components without sys 4.2.1 Monitoring parameters The 70% with access to the health service were What elements are taken into account to evaluate tanks,distributed with dischargesamong the into27% caved of the wells. population with water quality in the country? access to sewer networks, while 43% used septic Water quality as a non-standard variable in the the drinking water produced, is recorded in Table 9. - • The status of wastewater in 2015, according to

country is estimated at 98%, determined by sam Drinking water flow: installed capacity: 62.27 pling the basic parameters: m³/s

Table 9. Wastewater Treatment Summary Parameters Q (m3/s) % Theoretical Wastewater Flow reported 31,00 100 Flow Captured in Sewage Networks 3,32 8,76 28 Flow treated at 104 WWTP* until 2015 38 Nominal capacity of 104 WWTP Untreated Flow Captured in Networks 5,44 62 9,41 Flow to be Captured in New Networks and Treated at New WWTP 22.24 72 Restoration of existing WWTP Treatment Capacity 6,09 65 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 281

Table 10: Status of country's treatment plants No. Region Amount Nominal Q (lps)* 1 24 2 Ozama Region 740.75 3 11 North Cibao Region 29 2,784.20 4 4 1,073.00 South Cibao Region 1,243.06 4 Northeast Region 5 Northwest Region 76.00 7 7 6 Valdesia Region 5 974.85 3 Enriquillo Region 261.39 10 8 El Valle Region 500.00 10 7 9 Yuma Region 406.08 HiguamoTotal Region 104 1,350.009,409

*lps: Liters per second. • • regulations and by the designer's criterion. • Drinking Water Flow Produced: 45 m³/ s - which are guided by the thresholds specified in the Nominal Wastewater Flow: 36 m³/ s 4.3 Detail of sewage Wastewater treatment: 38% of the volume cap treatment nationwide Tabletured in10 networksshows the (8.76 WWTPs m³/s) for each of the re- According to the information received at the Acade- my of Sciences and the National Hydrological Plan, - gions comprising the Dominican Republic, as well as the nominal flow, in other words, the design flow whichINAPA are is currently responsible out forof service, operating while 58 the wastewa CAASD rate in lps. There are 104 wastewater treatment- ter treatment plants throughout the country, 16 of icalplants composition with a nominal of domestic flow of 9,409 wastewater, lps. on the - basisFifteen of which key parametersthree types are of identifiedwastewater in theare typ es- operates other 23 in the city of Santo Domingo, - CORAASAN operates eight in Santiago de los Cabal istics are given in Table 11. leros, CORAAMOCA operates one in the city of Moca- tablished: strong, medium and weak. Its character wideand CORAAROM have been onereinforced in La Romana. by several sanitation assumed to have medium concentration and for projectsThese undertaken 91 wastewater in Santo treatment Domingo plants and nationthe in- eachWastewater parameter therein the are Dominican regulations Republic prepared can and be - tions when no studies are available on the receiving terior of the country, such as: Cañada Guaijimía, body.supervised There are by MARENA,other parameters, which limitssuch as concentra tempera- La Castellana Ecological Park and several streams cleaned up by the European collaboration project- others for biological processes. renas-Samana,SABAMAR and theSan WorldFrancisco Bank. de Other Macoris, projects as well have as ture, pH, COD/BOD ratio, treatability indicators andbeen undertaken in San Pedro de Macoris, Las Ter latter two jointly operated by INAPA and CAASD. Biodegradability index (IBD). This index, deter the AlthoughGuaymate tourist and Cayetano centers Germosénin the country plants, oper the- whenmined there by the is COD/BODa risk in the ratio, process, makes as it can possible be seen to ate individualized, collective treatment systems, indefine Table when 12. biological treatment is applicable and - These measurements of the receiving body are cy and coverage. In rural areas, households usually not shown in the designs of the Wastewater Treat- disposethere is noof excretafully documented individually definition through ofthe efficien use of ment Plants (WWTP) of the operating entities,

latrines. According to the study entitled “Capacity 282 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

- This same study reveals that the National Dis- - trict and the Province of Santo Domingo produce a Building Project for the Safe Use of Sewerage in Ag- - riculture” undertaken by FAO, WHO, UNEP, UNU-IN ofWEH, households UNW-DPC, have IWMI no systemand ICID for (2015), excreta 59.8% disposal. of ru amounttotal of 1,169,152.02are collected. m³ The per installedday of wastewater, capacity of rep the ral households use latrines, 33.1% toilets and 7.1% resenting 80% of the total; 113,040.78 m³/d of this

Table 11. Classification of domestic wastewater Concentration (mg/l)* Other pollutants Strong Medium Weak Total solids (TS) 1200 700 Total dissolved solids (TDS) 350 Fixed 300 850 500 250 Volatile 200 525 145 Suspended solids (SS) 220 100 325 105 Fixed 20 350 Volatile 75 55 Sedimentable solids 20 10 275 165 80 400 220 110 5 Total organic carbon (TOC) (DBO5, 20oC) COD 1,000 290 160 80 Organic nitrogen 500 250 Phosphorus (total in P form) 4 35 15 8 Organic 3 1 15 8 Inorganic 10 3 5 Chlorides 100 30 5 Sulfates 30 20 50 Alkalinity (as CaCO ) 200 100 50 100 3 50 Total coliforms (in no./100 ml) Grease 150 50 >400 100-400 <100 107 - 109 107 – 108 106 – 107 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), in μg/ l *mg/l: milligrams per liter. Source: Metcalf and Eddy (1996). Table 12. Index of biodegradability, nutrients, nitrogen and potassium Parameter Ratio Result Highly biodegradable Moderately biodegradable COD / BOD Equal to 1.5 Not very biodegradable COD / BOD Equal to 2 Not biodegradable COD / BOD Equal to 10 BOD / COD Less than 0.2 Total nitrogen Population under 100,000 / population over 100,000 BOD / COD Over 0.6 Biodegradable Phosphorous 1 to 2 Population under 100,000 / population over 100,000 1 to 15

Source: PAHO/WHO. Virtual Health Library. www.bsvdepho.org/bvsaidis/chile WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 283

Table 13. Biodegradability index of wastewater in the WWTP* of the INAPA N° INAPA WWTP COD/BOD 1 2 Pimentel Bayahíbe 2.6 3 San Juan 4.3 2.9 4 1.3 San Francisco de Macorís Las Terrenas - corís comply5 with the physical-chemical parameters indicated in the discharge regulations. The others do not. 2.6 Source: Prepared using data from INAPA. * Wastewater Treatment Plant. Note: The WWTP of Terrenas and San Francisco de Ma

Figure 2. La Zurza Treatment Plant (model) - tuallyCAASD treated. for treatment is 64,960 m³/d, but due to the deterioration of the plants, only 21,960 m³/d are ac 4.3.1 National Institute of Drinking Water and Sewerage (INAPA)

The INAPA submits quality control reports for five of the 19 WWTPs in operation, which correspond to Franciscoeffluents fromde Macorís the Canoa-Bayahíbe, plants; all of which Pimentel, involve San bi- ologicalJuan de latreatment. Maguana, Samaná, Las Terrenas and San of biodegradability of the water for each WWTP, The first criterion is to determine the rate from extremely biodegradable to moderately biodegradable.which ranges from 1.3 and 4.3, in other words,

4.3.2 Santo Domingo Aqueduct and Sewerage Corporation (CAASD) The CAASD reports partial and limited analyses - essary to detect the discharges that reduce biodegradability,In order which for the suggests PTARs to that operate the CAASD well, it shouldis nec of the effluent quality of three of the ten plants it install individual treatment systems for discharge claims to operate (Los Jardines, La Ciénega and Los into sewers. Tres Brazos) and only in two of ten parameters: BOD / COD. 4.3.2.1 La Zurza Wastewater Treatment themWhen as wastewater the COD/BOD that indicator has hardly was beenestablished, biode- This is the largest of the seven treatment plants they were between 2.45 and 2.99, which classifies- contemplated in the Sanitary Sewer Master Plan of graded by biological processes. None of the efflu- pliesents comply with this with parameter. having a COD of less than 150 ppm. Greater Santo Domingo, which is 97% complete and As forThe the data BOD, show only thatthe Los there Tres was Brazos no traceability plant com secscheduled of wastewater. to begin operatingTreatment (October will involve 2018). conven- study and, if it exists, surveillance management is During the first stage, the aim is to treat 1.2 m³/ extremely poor, affecting the quality of the process. sludge treatment line by anaerobic digestion. The It is important to note that the receiving body for planttional will trickling purify filtersthe industrial (biological and waste filters), waters with of a sectors in the northern margin of the National Dis- this effluent is the Ozama River. 284 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

trict and Santo Domingo Norte municipality. This is comply with the regulations and there is poor man- one of the most important public works, which will contribute to the recovery of the Ozama and Isabe- promising signs of good wastewater management la rivers. agement, while recognizing that CORAASAN shows the treatment process. in theThere identification is no evidence of discharges of the usethat ofcould laborato affect- threeThe stages project of investments is implemented are throughto be undertaken financing with Deutsche Bank, and during the first phase, Systems and there is a lack of national parameters to the Master Plan schedule, which has an environ- ry models for the design of Biological Treatment- mentalwith an licenseextension for periodits construction every 10 years, and operation.according water Treatment Plants (WWTP) at the provincial - andcharacterizing regional level. the quality of effluents from Waste

The work will benefit the sectors of Cristo Rey, Vil 4.4 Quantity and quality of return water las Agrícolas, Villa Juana, Villa Consuelo, Ensanche Norte,La Fe, IsabelLa Agustina, Villas, CuestaMiraflores, Hermosa San JuanI and Bosco,II, Cerros 24 ofde Arroyoabril, Simón Hondo, Bolívar, Arroyo Capotillo, Hondo Viejo, Los JardinesAltos de Ardel- andIt is estimatedchemicals thatused return in agricultural water represents practices. a flowThis of 40 m³/s and transports part of the insecticides In reality, return waters represent one of the main royo Hondo I and II, Barrio La Zurza and La Cañita,- sourcesflow affects of diffuse the quality contamination of surface toand be groundwater. evaluated. as well as the extensions and Espaillat, Luperón, in In water statistics, the volume of return water is Santo Domingo Norte, which will benefit Villa Mel recorded by river basin, values that are transcribed 4.3.3la, Los Santiago Guaricanos Water and and Sabana Sewerage Perdida. Corporation (CORAASAN) frombelow, rainwater with a range runoff of 26 from to 46% the efficiency.livestock sector is crucialReturn when water considering in conjunction the equivalent due to population drag-outs AerationIn the CORAASAN WWTPs case,(a variant seven WWTPsof activated are analyzedsludge), (Table 15). oneusing involving laboratory Activated analysis Sludge, reports. two Three Septic Extended ones and 4.5 Water quality of principal Dominican rivers an IMHOFF Tank with a total flow of Q=1,627 lps. The main causes of pollution of river waters include The biodegradability indicator1 (COD/BOD) for erosion, return water (agriculture) and domestic activated sludge processes was between 2.24 and - 2.26. In the case of IMHOFF, the index was 2.43. In ferent uses of the river and season of the year. threethe Septic qualify WWTP, as moderately it was between biodegradable 2.2 and 2.31and andthe effluents, the quality of which depends on the dif lastin the as Aereationscarecly biodegradable. Tank, the index was 7.76. The first 4.5.1 Río San Juan - from extended aeration systems comply with the ricultural production, associated with land uses in The discharges corresponding to the effluents- eightThe micro-basins, San Juan River modifying is the thestrategic quality axis of thefor waag-

COD.parameters Activated for solids,sludge BODplants and only COD, meet with the the stan ex- through instruments for different types of use ac- ception of plant No.7, which fails to comply with the cordingter along to its the 202 particular km journey, stretch and of requiring the river, controls such as a. onlydards meet for COD. the standards Effluent from for suspendedIMHOFF complies solids. with modernization of stations, relocation, new sta- all theIn fact, parameters, there is not unlike enough septic systematized effluents, whichinfor- Physical and technological methods, such as: b. recommendedtions, definition that of parameters two of the existingto be measured. stations mation to evaluate the quality of WWTP effluents. Definition of indicators. Among the first, it is The reported samples indicate effluents that do not - fessor and doctor in engineering Karl Imhoff. newbe located, technology 17 new instruments. hydrometric stations be built 1. Wastewater treatment system named after the German pro and 30 water quality stations be activated, with WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 285

Table 14. Return Water in the Dominican Republic Region Irrigation Volume in million m3 (Mm3) Flow (m3/s)

Yaque del Sur 527.5 16.73 Atlantic Yaque del Norte 492.9 15.63 30.6 0.97 Ozama-Nizao 70.1 2.22 Yuna 92.3 2.93

TotalEste 1,249.836.4 39.631.15

*1 Mm3 = 0,03171 m³/s. Source: Compiled using data from PHIN, INDRHI 2012. Table 15. Pollution expressed in terms of equivalent population Name Weight (kg) Equivalent

Confined cow 500 12-15 inhab. Equivalent Hen 1-2 Confined pig 60 2-5 inhab. Equivalent 0.1-0.2 inhab. Equivalent Source: Compiled using data from PHIN, INDRHI 2012.

4.5.2 Quality of the Yaque del Norte River and limiting their use and increasing risks for hu- - que del Norte river has physical-chemical and bac- In its passage through the City of Santiago, the Ya- man settlements and tourism. The Isabela River is hyacinthsa tributary dragged of the Ozama there annually River and in 15the km rainy from sea its- a.teriological The percentage characteristics of oxygen classified saturation as Class is greater B Wa son.confluence This section lies a is development one of the most area polluted for the waterareas ter - for surface water - as shown below: - in the country. Key factors of pollution in the Ozama and Isabe- b. than 70% in 10 sampling stations, ranging be tween 76.5% and 94%. - a. - Levels for Oxygen Biochemical Demand, with la riversal scour include: in the channel, sedimentation/deposi- a maximum permissible limit of 5 ppm, are ex tionErosion in the in middlethe upper and basin, lower generalbasins. and later c. Fecalceeded Coliforms in 8 out of(FC). 10 monitoring In this parameter, stations the within reg- b. a range of 7.3 ppm to 20 ppm. water hyacinths (Eichhornia crassipes) as a re- - sultEmergence, of organic development matter sedimented and disappearance in the mid of- tionsulation in establishes the urban areaa limit of ofSantiago 1000 NMP range /200 from ml dle and lower basins rich in NPK, creating more and the values measured in 10 monitoring sta damage than good, promoting the development of the Aedes aegypti mosquito, a transmitter of Total2,500 Coliforms to 86,000 (TC), NMP/100ml the range in theis greater CORAASAN than dengue, the roots of which can serve as a habi- reports for the period 2013-2017. In the case of tat for cholera bacteria. c. Floods due to changes in rainfall, increasing 4.5.3for Quality FC, varying of Ozama from and2,600 Isabela to 94,000 rivers MPN/100 ml. - The quality of the Isabela and Ozama rivers is affected by erosion and the dragging of organic mat- maximumthe river flow ordinary and causing water variations level (NAMO) in the and hy ter, which in turn encourages the growth of the wa- draulic section: minimum water level (NAMI), ter hyacinth, causing recurrent impacts every year, affecting existing human settlements. extraordinary maximum water level (NAME), 286 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

d. - • - id waste, industrial, domestic, agricultural and works is treated. livestockPhysical, chemicaldischarges. and biological pollution: sol • Only 20% of the water collected in sewer net throughout the country, which occupy an ap- 4.5.3.1 Sedimentation and Existence of more than 350 open-air dumps eutrophication processes - ofproximate leachate. area of 6 km², which, when it comes ulated, highly polluted basins in the country. There • Waterinto contact resource with management rainfall, produce without about an 90 inte lps- isThe no Ozama integral River management has one of study the most of this densely basin popcon- gral approach. sidering river hydraulics, which would make it pos- • Drinking water service management through aqueducts has low coverage and low pressure current solution to the rapid processes of sedimen- and is discontinuous, creating enormous dis- sibletation, to eutrophicationdefine hydraulic and and contamination channeling works. that Theoc- trust in the population regarding the quality of cur at the mouth of the river are resolved by dredg- water for human intake. ing, with the sludge being deposited in the sea. • treatment. 4.6 Water quality and final • Low proportion of sewage and sewage- disposal of solid waste vice, respectively. • Lack of regulation of water resource and ser • Human resources should be evaluated and re- The surface of open dumps (350 garbage dumps) assignedLow investment on the basislevels. of academic training. in the Dominican Republic is approximately 6 km², method).which, as a result of average rainfall of 1,500 mm/a 4.6.2 Social conflict involving creates an estimated 90 lps of leachate (Swiss mining and the environment 4.6.1 Problems affecting water quality - Water supply and sanitation systems, and bodies tential because of its large deposits of gold (the sec- of water should undergo technical health audits ondThe largestDominican deposit Republic in America), has enormous silver, nickel, mining baux po- and continuous monitoring. With the participa- ite, marble, copper, limestone and granite. tion of society, they should be conducted as part of This sector is still governed by the obsolete water management, currently totally absent in the - country. - The main problems impacting water quality in icanMining State Law to No. explore 146 of the 1971, national which territory,establishes in inorder Ar toticle discover 28 that, deposits “It is of primaryof mineral interest substances to the for Domin their • An economic model with high carbon con- subsequent use and economic exploitation”. the countrysumption, include: coupled with a lack of vision of the As a result of this paragraph, the country has importance of water as an axis of national seen large territorial spaces ruined and countless development. rivers and aquifers contaminated by the Aluminum • of the country. Company (gold and silver), Falconbridge Domini- • Erosive processes in the main mountain ranges canaCompany (ferronickel), of America Dominican (bauxite), Mining Rosario Corporation Maining

smallLow sanitaryand large control aqueducts. of hydrographic basins, • Inappropriatewhich supply drinkingdesigns without water to taking nearly appro 1,300- (copper and gold) and CORDE (salt and gypsum), priate provisions for hydrometeorological toamong the damage other companies caused to the which, environment, for over 70 particu years,- effects. larly,have thedeveloped quality ofin thethe water midst used of social in their conflicts processes. due • - works, which leads to the use of isolated treat- national territory and regulate land uses for the ra- mentLimited systems infrastructure that cause sanitary widespread sewer diffuse net tionalIt isuse necessary of mining to defineresources a suitable with clear regulation rules, toof contamination in soil and groundwater. ensure the well-being of the country. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 287

4.6.3 Relationship between environmental and - social mining conflicts in the new millennium a. After a brief suspension of operations, between supportcan Republic of the and Catholic the UASD, and evangelicalwith the collabora church- es,tion town of the councils Vega Real and Cooperative building authorities and the socialof the

and1998 Placer and 2007, Dome the companies, gold mine severely of Pueblo polluted Viejo, as legislators and grassroots communities. To precariously run by the Rosario Dominicana avoidMonseñor future Nouel risks, and a proposal La Vega forprovinces, the creation as well of crimson water, and creating an extremely acid- the Margajita River, turning the wate red and aquatic life could survive. To control the situ- a National Park was drawn up to protect 98 of- ation,ic pH, witha permanent values of betweenlime application 1 and 3, whereprogram no imouslythe 200 botanicalin the National families, Congress on the Islandand subse of La- was maintained to try to neutralize the pH as quentlyEspañola. postponed The National by thePark president was created until unan the much as possible. - b. There was an oil spill due to a break in the pipe- whenpassage the of Dominican a Law for governmentthe Regulation requested of Nation the over the Carvajal Stream, a direct tributary of al Territory. This conflict was internationalized line (72 km long) of Falconbridge Dominicana- - assistance of the United Nations Development- the Haina River and in an area with high rain- Program (UNDP), to evaluate the biological at fall on its way through Villa Altagracia (2002).- tributes and abundance of water Loma Miran The cost of damage was estimated at $6.8 mil f. Accordingda, which confirmed to the MSP the study, studies on the undertaken outskirts byof legallion USD,claim. and Damage the local to the trade aquatic union biodiversity demand the Academy of Sciences and the UASD. anded $4.3 the millionriver banks USD wasin compensation analyzed by the through Scienc a- es Commission of the Academy of Sciences of cyanidethe Pueblo and Viejo heavy gold metals mine due where to theBarrick pollution Gold - ofoperates, the rivers there in arethe about area, 150including people the affected Mejiíta, by Maguaca , Margajita and Colorado (September the Dominican Republic and the Environmen c. Feartal Commission and complaints of the following Autonomous the oilUniversity spill in g. Falcondo (Falconbridge Dominicana) was tried of Santo Domingo (UASD). at25, the2013). San Cristóbal Court of Inquiry for pol-

the Quinto Centenario community of Piedra- - estBlanca, basin a in few the meters country) from and the the Maimón Hatillo River,Dam luting the Haina River according to numerous which supplies the Yuna River (second larg community complaints from Quita Sueño, sub h. mitted to the Attorney General’s Office during- d. (2008). This case was also documented by the the 2013-2015 period. Academy of Sciences and the UASD. - company,The Ministry built of onEnergy the channel and Mines and closely headwaters mon feredThe MSP from reported food poisoning that 346 asworkers a result and of some con- itored the El Llagal dam from the Barrick Gold sumingof the Barrickcontaminated Gold companyfood and water, personnel although suf the threat of heavy rains from Hurricane Mat- - ofthew the Maguaca River, a rainforest area, due to i. The Dominican government announced it will wereunofficial admitted reports to clinics indicate and that hospitals approximate in Mai- remove (26 Mejita October Tailings 2016). Dam from the operat- ly 600 people received medical assistance and ing center of the Pueblo Viejo Dominicana gold - mon, Cotuí, Bonao, La Vega and San Francisco - e. de Macorís (March 15, 2010); The company re ronmentalmine, administered danger it by poses Barrick to Goldthe province (60%) and of oversumed the operations exploitation in of2011. the nickel deposit Xstra- Goldcorp (40%) in order to eliminate the envi During the 2011-2012 period, a conflict erupted j. - Jan Sánchez Ramírez (March 8, 2016). iedta Níkel by the planned Academy to carry of Sciences out in Lomaof the Miranda, Domini- theMARENA most recent fined oil Falconbridge spill on the banks Dominicana of the the headwaters of 40 springs and rivers stud $164,859 through resolution 0273/2017, for 288 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

- sumption. It is an industrial process subject to good operation and maintenance and, therefore, requires Haina River as it passes through the commu good quality control, with specialized personnel. In nity of Quita Sueño a short distance from the k. Onmain the commercial occasion ofport World in the Wetlands country (BajosDay, The de Haina), on September 26, 2017. - the Dominican Republic, slow filtration plants are lic, warns of the danger posed by the mining riskused of for contamination, small flows and such relatively as surface good water, raw and water, dis- Academy of Sciences of the Dominican Repub infectionand fast filtration plants for water excellent treatment quality plants water. with a high - triangle Barrick Pueblo Viejo (Río Margajita),- 5.2 Impact of water quality on health loMinera Dam, Maimónthe core (Ríoarea Sin)of Anianas and Falconbridge Vargas Nation Do- minicana (Río Yuna), for the Health of the Hatil InQuality other water words, in everythe context dollar of invested human consumptioncan generate 4.7 Economical Park (February impacts 2, 2017). of water quality and sanitation creates benefits at a ratio of 1 to 9. For every dollar invested in water and sanitation, the health of the population. benefits to the economy of up to $9, beginning with the water in the catchment areas deteriorates, in- constitute the main barrier to disease control, since vestmentits impact inon the GDP treatment is $ 4 US. systemsInsofar as becomes the quality more of personalGood hygiene quality prevents water and the sanitation transmission in general of dis- expensive and the adduction distance increases. - tanceeases. for Annex possible V of effects Regulation on health, 42-01 among of the those Health re- 5. Infrastructure and education for latedLaw 42-01 to microbiological defines 59 parameters parameters of sanitary and their impor dis- water quality management eases that can be transmitted by water. According - Sanitary water infrastructure in the aqueduct sys- - to the MSP report, it is estimated that 60% of dis ulation lacking this service has indoor connections 5.2.1eases Reemergence in the Dominican of cholera Republic are water-related. installed.tems should Infrastructure be increased in sewageby 16% networksso that the should pop The island of Hispaniola was free of cholera for - more than a hundred years, until it was introduced - be expandedInvestment so thatin construction 70% of the population is important has sewand musterage beby complemented2030, in other words, through 7 million the continuing inhabitants. ed- later.in Haiti The in dramatic October 2010,cholera from experience which it spread on the Islandrapid ucation of managers, to understand and accept the ofly toHispaniola neighboring has Dominicanput the response Republic capacity three weeksof the separation of roles in the performance of their du- health sector in both countries to the test. ties, training in new design criteria, operation and maintenance, to keep unaccounted for water within reasonable limits and without cross connections. In the Dominican Republic, the Vice Ministry of Additionally, a vigorous health orientation is re- coordinatedEnvironmental the Healthimplementation (ex-DIGESA), of an supported Action Plan by quired for the population regarding water use and UNICEF in coordination with PAHO, prepared and citizen education for payment for drinking water and sanitation services. andagainst response the Cholera actions Epidemiological of the water, sanitation Alert, which and The situation described above, together with hygienedefines prioritysector, which lines, enabled as well asthe theepidemic preparatory to be other elements, constitutes the foundations for the construction of capacities to move towards sustainable development. contained5.3 Educational in its first experiences two years. Whenever citizens become more aware of the im- 5.1 Potabilization portance of water, due to its multiplicity of uses, Water as raw material has to be potabilized in order to be transformed into water suitable for human con- situation that can be observed as time passes and at this is reflected in the empowerment of society, a WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 289

all levels or strata of society. The importance of wa- Among the multiple tests that conducted ter as a resource and its multiplicity of uses must be throughout the country by different sectors that transversally incorporated into syllabuses and cur- have become aware of the water quality-health re- ricula, both in schools at the basic level and at high- lationship, there are two worth mentioning, which er education centers, throughout the country. are detailed below in the Box 1.

Table 16. Slow filtration plants

Location Design Flow Rate No. Aqueduct Province (lps) 1 Dajabón 10.7 2 Dajabón La Gorra 3 Dajabón Restauración 12.5 4 Vaca Gorda 5.0 Arroyo Blanco - El Guanal Santiago Rodríguez 8.8 5 Villa los Almácigos El Pino Santiago Rodríguez 15.0 7 Dajabón 6 Santiago Rodríguez Santiago Rodríguez 80 Valverde 11.0 Vaca Gorda 5 Peralta Azua 8 Entrada de Mao 10 Magueyal Azua 22.0 9 16.0 11 Azua 12 Azua 22.0 Tábara-Abajo 5.8 13 Azua Villarpando- La Bastida 14 Azua La Siembra 8.8 Juan Santiago 30.0 Guayabal 15.0 15 Elías Piña 17 Hondo Valle 30.0 16 Sabana Larga - Potroso Elías Piña 9.0 Elías Piña Cercado San Juan 40.0 18 Loma Babor Babor Elías Piña 8.8 20 Sabana Alta San Juan 19 21 San Juan 15.4 22 San Juan Guanito 8.8 23 San Juan La Zanja 16.0 24 Jínova San Juan 30 El Cacheo 9.0 San Juan 30.0

25 La Maguana 26 El Llano Elías Piña 26.0 27 San Isidro - Copeyito 30 26 El Factor María Trinidad Sánchez 45 María Trinidad Sánchez Majagual 28 Punta Balandra Samaná 4.8 30 Villa Clara - Carenero 29 Samaná 8.8 31 Distrito Nacional 30.0 Samaná 16.0 32 Monte Plata 4.0 Guanuma 33 Monte Plata Centro Boya El Cacique 8.8 290 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

34 Sabana De Payabo Monte Plata Monte Plata 10.0 15.0 Peravia 35 La Gina ‒ Serralle 37 Sabana Piedra Peravia 3.0 36 Honduras ‒ Matadero 5.0 Peravia 14.0 Peravia 38 Yaguarizo 40 Paya Peravia 39 La Montería ‒ Las Caobas 5.6 41 Medina San Cristóbal 10.8 42 San Cristóbal 20.0 5.0 43 San Cristóbal 10.0 La Cuaba 44 Cambita San Cristóbal Los Cacaos Cambita San Cristóbal 3.2 15.0 San Cristóbal 45 47 Monte Negro San José de Ocoa 10.3 46 Medina- La Cuchilla 8.8 Monte Negro San José de Ocoa 4.0 San José de Ocoa 10.0 48 San José de Ocoa 3.2 49 Rancho Arriba San José de Ocoa 3.0 50 Juan Luis San José de Ocoa 51 El Pinar Sonador Monseñor Nouel 52 La Peñita 14.6 Monseñor Nouel 53 35.0 Arroyo Toro Monseñor Nouel 54 Rincón De Yuboa 8.8 Monseñor Nouel 55 2.9 Monseñor Nouel 10.0 56 El Blanco 8.8 Monseñor Nouel 57 Fula ‒ Sabana Del Puerto Monseñor Nouel 58 Fula ‒ Los Paleros, Los Quemados 25.0 Monseñor Nouel 13.0 59 Juan Adrián 6.4 Monseñor Nouel 60 Los Quemados Paleros Monseñor Nouel 61 Los Arroces 16.0 Antón Zapemalo Santiago 62 35.0 Santiago 30.0 63 60.0 Santiago 64 Baitoa-La Lima Santiago 65 Las Placetas- Esperanza 3.5 Santiago 40.0 66 Pedro García 9.0 Santiago 67 Jánico 68 Rincón De Piedra 2.5 70 12.0 69 El Cuey El Seibo 9.0 71 37.0 La Cuchilla El Seibo 72 La Gina El Seibo 73 Vicentillo 30.0 Pedro Sánchez El Seibo 16.0 74 El Seibo Arroyo Grande El Seibo 9.0 75 El Cedro El Seibo 12.5 77 Hato Mayor 76 Los Kilómetros El Seibo 5.0 Hato De Mana El Valle 65.0 78 La Altagracia 5.6 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 291

Sabana De Nisibón 4.4 79 Otra Banda-Macao La Altagracia 36.0 San Pedro de Macorís 80 La Altagracia San Pedro de Macorís 81 Los Hatillos 80.0 Magua Hato Mayor 82 El Puerto- Los Llanos 8.8 Puerto Plata 4.4 83 8.0 Puerto Plata 84 Los Hidalgos-Navas Puerto Plata 85 Lajas De Yaroa 5.5 Puente Camu Puerto Plata 86 Sabaneta De Yasica 5.5 Puerto Plata 30.0 87 4.5 88 Navas- Los Hidalgos 30.0 89 El Tamarindo Bahoruco 12.5 90 Galván Bahoruco 30.0 91 La Filipina Barahona 8.0 Salinas 13.0 92 Las Salinas Barahona Independencia 93 Barahona Independencia 3.2 94 La Descubierta 28.0 Independencia 4.0 95 Pinos del Edén 96 Puerto Escondido Total 1,631.2

Table 17. Rapid filtration plants (The majority require proper maintenance and remodeling)

Ubicación Caudal diseño No. Acueducto Provincia (lps) 1 Dajabón 2 Dajabón Dajabón 100 Corral Grande 15 3 Dajabón 70 4 Dajabón 70 Loma de Cabrera Monte Cristi 100 Partido ‒ La Gorra Monte Cristi 200 5 Guayubín 7 Monte Cristi Monte Cristi 100 6 Guayubín Pepillo Salcedo Monte Cristi 40 Monción 70 8 10 9 Santiago Rodríguez 11 120 La Meseta La Caoba Santiago Rodríguez 15 12 Valverde 3,000 Santiago Rodríguez Santiago Rodríguez 13 Jaibón Valverde 100 Ac. Línea Noroeste (ALINO) 14 Jicomé Valverde 70 Valverde Múltiple Mao Valverde 15 Río Mao 450 17 Municipal de Mao Valverde 16 500 Valverde 100 125 Valverde 18 Esperanza (Nueva) 20 Valverde 19 Esperanza (Vieja) 125 21 Azua Azua 70 Guatapanal 35 22 Azua 40

Canoa ‒ Los Bancos 292 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

23 Azua 70 24 Azua Estebanía ‒ Las Charcas Azua 100 Padre Las Casas 80 70 25 Sabana Yegua 27 30 26 Elías Piña Elías Piña San Juan 30 Pedro Santana ‒ Bánica Elías Piña San Juan 30 28 Carrera de Yegua 30 San Juan 130 29 Las Charcas de María Nova 31 San Juan 30 Las Matas de Farfán 32 San Juan Punta Caña- Arroyo Loro 33 San Juan San Juan de La Maguana 450 34 Jorgillo el cercado San Juan 70 San Juan de La Maguana 500 Castillo-Hostos Duarte Duarte 35 35 37 San Francisco de Macorís (Cenovi) Duarte 36 Villa Rivas 125 San Francisco de Macorís Duarte 1000 250 Nagua (nueva) 300 38 40 200 39 María Trinidad Sánchez 41 70 Río San Juan María Trinidad Sánchez 42 Guayabito, nagua María Trinidad Sánchez 43 Nagua (vieja) 200 Samaná Samaná 600 44 100 María Trinidad Sánchez Salcedo Hermanas Mirabal El Pozo-Los Limones María Trinidad Sánchez Juana Vicenta 40 45 500 47 46 Samaná Las Terrenas Samaná 260 70 48 La Lometa Rincón Molinillo Samaná 160 49 Sánchez Samaná Fantino 100 50 Los Cacaos Samaná 25 Cevicos 51 Sánchez Ramírez Cevicos 52 Sánchez Ramírez 50 30 53 Sánchez Ramírez 25 54 Las Cuevas, Cevicos Sánchez Ramírez Monte Plata 70 55 Guanábano Cruce de Maguaca Sánchez Ramírez 15 Sierra Prieta Distrito Nacional 56 Guanuma Monte Plata 57 35 Monte Plata Monte Plata 58 Yamasá 50 Monte Plata 130 59 75 Monte Plata Monte Plata 130 60 Yamasá Monte Plata 100 61 Monte Plata 62 Sabana Grande de Boyá Monte Plata 200 63 Sabana Grande de Boyá 50 Peralvillo Monte Plata 70 63 Bayaguana Peravia 1000 64 Peravia 30 65 Baní (Nueva) 66 Sabana Larga WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 293

Peravia 30 Peravia 67 Cañafístol San Cristóbal San Cristóbal 1000 68 Baní (vieja) 160 70 Villa Altagracia San Cristóbal 200 69 71 San Cristóbal 72 San Cristóbal 10 Los Mogotes 15 73 San Cristóbal La Colonia 74 San Cristóbal 20 Ramon San Francisco 15 Monseñor Nouel El Puerto Maimón Monseñor Nouel 75 Piedra Blanca 50 77 Monseñor Nouel 76 125 Monseñor Nouel Bonao 650 Monseñor Nouel 78 Bonao 250 Monseñor Nouel 40 79 Sabana El Puerto 35 Navarrete Santiago 80 Los Arroces el verde Sabana Iglesia Santiago 100 81 80 Santiago 82 Santiago 83 La Canela 105 Santiago 84 Hato del Yaque 80 Santiago 22 85 Villa Bao 80 Santiago 86 La Canela Santiago 87 San José de Las Matas 50 Villa Trina, José Contreras 40 88 Baitoa la Lima 250 Monseñor Nouel 20 89 Espaillat 200 90 Los Quemados-Los Pedregones Miches 100 91 El Seibo El Seibo Hato Mayor 100 92 El Seibo Hato Mayor 100 93 Hato Mayor (Yerba Buena) Hato Mayor 94 Sabana de La Mar 70 95 Sabana de La Mar 150 Higüey 96 Laguna de Nisibón La Altagracia Higüey 97 La Altagracia 500 San Pedro de Macorís San Pedro de Macorís 98 La Altagracia 150 100 Imbert Puerto Plata 70 99 500 101 Neiba 100 102 40 Bahoruco 103 Jimaní Independencia Los Ríos-Las Clavellinas Bahoruco 104 Duvergé Independencia 100 25 Independencia 70 Oviedo Pedernales 40 105 Enriquillo 107 30 106 Pedernales Pedernales Quita Coraza - Fondo Negro Barahona 108 Asuro 75 Independencia Bahoruco, Barahona e 109 Total 21,047.0075 294 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

6. Compliance with Sustainable launched an initiative to monitor progress in meet- Development Goals (SDG) pation and cooperation. In this regard, the UN has

6.1 Monitoring of goals ing6.2 the Organizations overall goal for responsible2030. for monitoring - - mentThe main of Water SDGs andrelated Sanitation to water for are all, summarized with partici in- SDG-6, Ensure Availability and Sustainable Manage WHO and UNICEF are responsible for the measure ment of sections 6.1 and 6.2. Box 1. Educational programs

Towards a New Water Culture The Dominican Republic seeks to make rational use of water, and to this end, it is promoting the “Water Cul- 1 ture” program, under the aegis of INDRHI. The essential purpose of this program is to promote and create awareness in communities, academic centers and civil society towards a change in behavior focused on the protection of water quality and its rational use. A good example of this can be seen in the implementation of the latter in the microbasin of the Los Baos River, San Juan province, where the Humanism and Democracy Foundation (H+D) and other local institutions have favorably received it and adopted it under the "Río Los Baos Agreement: Water and Development”. The project is financed by the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation for Development (AECID). Within the framework of the project, work is being carried out at 22 middle schools in five school districts of the provincial regional department of the Ministry of Education in the province of San Juan de la Maguana. Moreover, under the methodological approach traditionally implemented, actions have been implemented in the provinces of Santo Domingo, Barahona, Elías Piña, San Juan, Dajabón, Azua, Maria Trinidad Sánchez, Santiago, Monte Plata, San Cristóbal and La Vega, with various consciousness-raising actions. The program has achieved the incorporation of 40,350 people who have demonstrated a positive change in behavior regarding water use, as reflected in the evaluation and monitoring mechanisms of the implementation process. The Water Room houses exhibitions on hydraulic works, water quality control and talks about the importance of water. As a result of this process, 8,673 students in basic (elementary) and intermediate education (middle school) and universities, as well as technicians and professionals from different branches interested in the topic, have been trained.

Cultivating Good Water: Río Maimón Basin Cultivating Agua Buena is an environmental program originally developed by the Government of Brazil in the Paraná River basin. It is implemented using a management model with four strategic components: Manage- ment by programs, Management by territorial information, Environmental management and participatory management, operating under the focus of the quality management cycle (Plan, Do, Check and Act). The Cultivating Good Water project is jointly implemented in the country by the Ministry of Energy and Mines (MEyM) and the Ministry of Economy, Planning and Development (MEPyD). The Brazilian company ITAI- PU Binacional, with the support of the Brazilian National Water Agency, provides technical assistance to the aforementioned ministries and the agencies undertaking this program in the basins of the Maimón river in Bonao, the Gurabo stream in Santiago and the Al Medio River basin in Padre las Casas.

1. Law No. 701, passed on April 8, 1965, created the Secretariat of State for Hydraulic Resources.On September 8, Law No. 6 of 1965 was passed, which created the INDRHI.This is how INDRHI was born, as the highest national authority on the surface and groundwater of the country, with the prerogative to control and regulate water use (Article 4 of Law No. 6 -1965). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 295

The environment is conducive to strengthening - relations with respect to water resources, in view of WHO, UN and Habitat, statistical division, will- the fact that there have been bilateral agreements monitor section 6.3 as regards wastewater treat - onment. the UNEP degree will of beapplication responsible of integratedfor 6.3.2 on manage the pol- - lution of water bodies, together with section 6.5.1- albetween Friendship the Dominicanand Arbitration, Republic the revision and the protocol Repub - lic of Haiti, the 1929 Treaty of Peace and Perpetu- cyment and and scarcity, 6.6.1 on respectively. changes in ecosystems. FAO is re - sponsible for paragraphs 6.4.1 and 6.4.2 on efficien mission,of 1936, the which 1979 prioritizedBasic Bilateral the Cooperationfollowing topics Agree in for water and sanitation and the degree of institu- ment -which gave rise to the Bilateral Mixed Com tionalSections regulation 6.a.1 andwith 6.b.1 participation on official contributionswill be mea- and tourism; b) immigration, border, security and justiceits Fifth issues; Session and held c) inTransportation, 2010: a) trade, communica investment- tions and the environment. 6.3sured The by WHO,Case UNEPof the and Dominican OECD. Republic The coordinated management of environmen- - and common basins, mainly the Artibonito basin, Regardingdiscussing thethree institutionalization laws to boost the indicator,regulation the of Dothe tal multiservices is necessary in 391 km of border- minican Republic is gradually advancing, since it is - which has an area of 9013 km2, 29% of which corre adevelopment water resource of the regulator; new institutional b) Drinking architecture: Water and spondIt is to useful the Dominican to have a binationalRepublic and technical the remain struc- a) Sectoral Water Law, with separation of roles and tureing 71% that to facilitates Haiti. the exchange of information on the issue of water, and deals with the water bal- SanitationThe Chambers Law, with of theCongress Ministry are of discussing Health as the ance in common basins, reforestation and technical governing body; and c) a Service Regulatory Body. studies of projects that create capital and welfare for both countries. Law on Waste, also with separation of roles, with- The concepts of equity or rational use regard- nalthe disposalsupervision service. of MARENA and the creation of a - superintendence of the collection, transport and fi tions. The regulatory framework lacks the scope to 6.4 SDGs beyond the MDGs being able water to includebalance major are not water defined sources between in the both Artibo na- - hinders good communication between both states, Thein the (current) concepts Sustainable of monitoring Development and management Goals ex in regardingnito River systemtheir economic and groundwater. development This plans,difference wa- ceed the (earlier) Millennium Development Goals ter availability and its sustainable management. 6.1 Drinking water, 6.2 Sanitation and hygiene Water is an economic and social legacy, whose services,the following 6.3 Water six components: and wastewater quality, 6.4 Water physical and chemical characteristics enable bio- resource use and water scarcity, 6.5 Water resource logical processes and constitutes an axis for the de- management, and 6.6 Ecosystems. velopment of the border. In order to resolve problems and differences, 6.5 Cross-border cooperation in water management between the Dominican - Republic and Haiti with the support of the Global Environment Fund and(GEF) Haiti, and developedthe UNDP, througha Strategic a participatory Action Plan prothat proposes the operational arrangement for cooper- meetscess, the the governments need to foster of theeconomic Dominican development Republic Thisation subparagraph and the delimitation corresponds of watersheds, to SDG 6.3.1, linked which to through a common vision of the binational basin of - - able environment, ii) institutions and participation; ited, as a result of which it has been proposed to SDG 6.5.1 on water management, including: i) A suit buildthe Artibonito water management River. In fact, capacities progress at has the been border. lim iii) coordination instruments; iv) financing. 296 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

7. Infrastructure and education

7.1 Historical evolution: GDP garding water as a resource, water and sanita- and Drinking water coverage tion as a resource and waste management, also Table 18 shows the investment in drinking water with the separation of roles, in order to achieve universal, equitable access to these services by projections based on the minimum needs required the entire Dominican population. To achieve and sanitation from 1990 to 2017, and estimated this goal, it is necessary to work as a team, with a basin approach and the participation of soci- to move towards compliance with SDGs. ety at all levels of decision. The value of 0.5% of GDP in the projection Since substantial monetary resources are re- aimwas isnot to achievedachieve this since amount it was progressively. 0.34% for 2018. The quired to achieve sustainable development amountWhen of plottedinvestment on a mustgraph, be the 3% values of GDP show and the 2. goals, it would therefore be advisable to study the feasibility of public-private partnership to action to solve this problem (Figures 3, 4 and 5). obtain resources. In itself, the regional and ba- status The of investmentthe sector and required the need to solve to undertake the issues firm of sin approach for undertaking services derived drinking water, wastewater (sewers and treatment from water as a resource and water as a ser- plants), stormwater drainage networks and sol- vice together with solid waste, could be a solu- id waste management requires a sustained invest- tion that lends social cohesion to human settlements in various river basins. The issue of water quality in binational ba- ment of 500 to 600 million dollars over the next 12 sins and transboundary aquifers is the tech- years to achieve ODS-6. 3. nical platform for the design of policies that 8. Conclusions improve water-related ecosystems, such as forests, mountains, rivers, aquifers and lakes. This is the best approach for the development of core-engineering, with the separation of roles re- operation among border towns. 1. The Dominican Republic requires institutional

Table 18: Drinking Water as a Share of GDP Average GDP US Water GDP/CAP Drinking Water Increase in GDP due to Drinking Period APS GDP (%) $ * 106 Coverage (%) Coverage * 106 in US $ Water Coverage (million US$) 0.40 7,074.00 0.37 1970 – 1980 0.71 1980 – 1990 33,774.70 0.44 1990 – 2000 23,799.30 65.00 366.14 44,242.42 74.02 2000 – 2005 71.78 470.53 104.39 0.34 2005 – 2010 0.45 597.68 127.15 0.34 2010 – 2015 65,691.0 74.09 886.70 289.01 0.27 2010 - 2015 65,691.0 84.00 782.04 104.66 2017 0.30 11.30 2016 68,843.30 84.00 819.56 37.53 75,040.00 Projected84.00 Data 893.33

2018 78,792.00 0.50 84.84 928.71 109.15 2020 1.00 1,003.73 2019 82,731.60 0.75 85.69 965.49 72.16 86,868.18 86.55 75.02 Source: Civil Engineer Castillo Tió, Mesa del Agua: data drawn from Banco Central/ONE/SISDOM 2014/ MEPyD. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC 297

Figure 3. Average GDP US$

100,000 Average GDP US$ 2,31.6 6,6.2 5,040.0 ,2.0 0,000 65,61.0 65,61.0 6,43.3

60,000 44,242.4 33,4. 40,000 23,.3 20,000 ,04.0

0 201 201 2016 201 2020 2010-2015 2010-2015 10-10 2005-2010 10-2000 2000-2005

Figure 4. APS GDP (%)

1.50 APS GDP (%) 1.00 0.5 1.00 0.1 0.50 0.44 0.45 0.40 0.3 0.34 0.34 0.2 0.30 0.50

0.00 201 201 2016 201 2020 2010-2015 2010-2015 10-10 10-10 2005-2010 10-2000 2000-2005

Figure 5. Drinking water coverage (%)

Drinking water coverage (%) 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.4 5.6 6.55 100.0 65 1. 4.02 4.0

50.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 201 201 2016 201 2020 2010-2015 2010-2015 10-10 10-10 2005-2010 10-2000 2000-2005

It is necessary to organize a day to moni- itself have to promote quality management, tor drinking water quality which includes the 4. from aqueducts for human consumption. networks and monitor heath quality in storage Itin isorder essential to regain to quantify confidence the pollutionin water comingload of andsource, distribution the presence systems of biofilm to establish in distribution a quality the agricultural sector, given the incidence of model for every aqueduct in the country. 8. nitrate content in agricultural waters that can It is also essential to develop river quality alter the quality of ground and surface water. models in each of the seven main watersheds It is essential to hold a nationwide discussion 5. by measuring the parameters, pH, conductivi- - 9. nancing of public services. phosphate color, pH, temperature and establish involving all social strata on a law for the fi- ty, BOD, fecal coliforms, turbidity, OD, nitrates, - the vegetation. 10. tributionsLastly, with of regard water to use water and quality, management. the Domin All the thermal profile of the river on the basis of- theseican Republic elements, must presented assess by the way economic of a conclu con- water in terms of pH and nitrites. sion, are essential for achieving a true national 6. AtLikewise, the same it is time,necessary the authorities to characterize and ground society policy on water quality in the country.

7. 298 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

9. Recommendations

All water issues must be seen through the de- should be selected on the basis of the criteria of velopment model in force in the country and, training, relevance and competence. 1. above all, the type of economy that sustains it and a low carbon economy is obviously recommended. 3. Water is a public good and, as such, the benefits- The human resources responsible for water re- quiredderived until from full it (or access at least to watera significant and sanitation portion) source management and the provision of water should be transferred to finance the works re 2. and sanitation services (seen as a human right) as a fundamental human right). is achieved (which is the essence of SDG 6, seen

References

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Instituto Nacional de Aguas Potables y Alcantaril- El Grupo de Agua, San- República Dominicana / Segundo Informe de eamiento(OMS) / Fondoe Higiene de enlas República Naciones Dominicana Unidas para y sula Monitoreolado (INAPA) de los / Avances Banco de Mundial País en (BM)Agua Potable (2016). impactoInfancia durante(UNICEF) la (2012). epidemia de Cólera. y Saneamiento - Mapas II. Informe Instituto Nacional de Aguas Potables y Alcantaril- preliminar de diagnóstico en hospitales de segun- - Ministeriodo y tercer de nivelSalud de Pública atención. (MSP) (2014). vicios de INAPA a Nivel Nacional y la Mesa de En- Coordinaciónlado (INAPA) (2017).de las CorporacionesDocumentación de de Agua los Ser Po- cuesta Democrática y de Salud Documento (ENDESA). DIGESA. Portal table y Alcantarillado. OficinaODM Nacional (Calidad dede Estadísticasaguas). (ONE) (2012). En- Plan hidrológico nacional. Santo Domin- cuesta nacional de hogares de propósitos múlti- Instituto Nacional de Recursos Hídricos (INDRHI) Oficinaples. NacionalENHOGAR de 2013. Estadísticas Informe General. (ONE) (2013). Santo Do- (2012). Informe Final Diagnósti- go:co Nacional INDRHI. de Aguas Residuales y Excretas. For- En- Mercedes,mulación Leonardo Estrategia (2016). Nacional de Saneamiento de cuestamingo: nacionalONE de hogares de propósitos múlti- República Dominicana. Oficinaples. NacionalENHOGAR-MICS de Estadísticas 2014. Informe (ONE) General. (2014). San -

Domingo. Programa INAPA-AECID Po- DOM-014-B SBCC. INAPA-AECID 001-2013. Santo blacionesto Domingo: estimadas ONE. y proyectadas: Proyecciones y Oficinaestimaciones Nacional urbana de Estadísticas. y rural 2000-2030. (ONE) (2015). Ministerio de Economía, Planificación y Desarrollo (MEPYD) (2012). Ley 1-12. Estrategia nacional de poblacion-estimada-y-proyectada Retrieved desarrollo 2030. SantoMesa delDomingo: Agua. Documento MEPYD. Sín- from http://www.one.gob.do/Estadisticas/173/ Ministerio de Economía, Planificación y Desarrollo Creación de la mesa de coordinación del recurso del(MEPYD) Agua. (2017). Presidencia de la República (September 23 2016).- tesis Informe del País para el 8º Foro Mundial ca Dominicana. Informe sobre el cumplimien- agua. [Decreto 265 de 2016]. GO: Digital. Repúbli Ministerioto de los de objetivos Economía; del Planificaciónmilenio 2015: yTransición Desarrollo a - los(MEPYD) Objetivos (2016). de Desarrollo Sostenible. Presidenciama y Modernización de la República del (Agost Sector 15 Agua 2011). Potable Ley que y - crea e integra el Consejo Directivo para la Refor Retrieved- from http://odm.gob.do/Content/Files/In- Saneamiento. [Decreto 465 de 2011]. GO: 10632. forme_Sobre_el_Cumplimiento_de_los_Objeti República Dominicana. - vos_de_Desarrollo_del_Milenio-República_Do- Presidenciaización del de lasector República agua (Junepotable 2 1998).y saneamien Ley que- minicana-2015.Pdf crea la Oficina rectora de la reforma y modern Ministerioprimer año de Educaciónde ejecución de de la la República estrategia Dominde for- Dominicana. icana (MINERD) (2015). Sistematización del- to. [Decreto 203 de 1998]. GO: 9985. República- Panorama general informe mación continua centrada en la escuela. Re Programasobre desarrollo de las Naciones humano Unidas 2015: Trabajo para el alDesarrol servicio trieved from http://www.inafocam.edu.do/ dello (PNUD)desarrollo (2015a). humano. portal/data.2015/sistematización_primer_año_- - de_ejecución.pdf Memoria institucional Retrieved from http://- Ministerio2015. de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Natu www.do.undp.org/content/dominican_repub rales (MARENA). (2015). - lic/es/home/library/human_development/in- Retrieved from http://ambiente.gob.do/ forme-sobre-desarrollo-humano-2015.htmlEl país República Dominicana wp-content/uploads/2016/09/MemoriaInsti- Programaen breve. de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrol icanatucional-2015.pdf (MSP) / Organización Panamericana de la lo (PNUD) (2015b). MinisterioSalud (OPS) de Salud / Organización Pública de laMundial República de laDomin Salud countryinfo.htmlRecuperado de http://www.do.undp. org/content/dominican_republic/es/home/ 300 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Contraste de la disponibilidad y existentes y descripción del modelo mancomuni- demanda de agua por provincia. tario de carácter mixto. Reynoso, G. (2017). Aguas SubterráneasSanto Domingo: de la La Paz, Bolivia. RepúblicaConsultoría Dominicana. INDRHI – Banreservas. Secretaríapara consumo de Estado humano. de Salud In PúblicaReglamentos (2005). de Dec. la Rodríguez, H. (2006). LeyNo. General 4205 que de establece Salud, el Reglamento de agua Santo Domingo: Instituto - NacionalHacia de Recursos modelos Hidráulicos. de gestión sostenibles en No. 42-01. Volumen II. (pp. Rojasagua O. potable F., Horst y R.,saneamiento: M., Heiland, Evaluación S. & Venegas de los I. 69-183). Edición Oficial. Santo Domingo: Comis (2005). ión Presidencial para la Reforma del Sector Salud-CERSS. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR 301

Ecuador

Ecuador possesses an extensive, abundant water network fed by the melting of its Andean snow-capped mountains. Although the cholera epidemic of 1991 led to a significant expansion of drinking water coverage, advances in the treatment of wastewater have been limited. Many of its water resources are still contaminated by wastewater, solid waste, industrial chemicals and livestock biosolids that are dumped into the aquatic environment.

Waterfall of San Rafael, Ecuador © iStock 302 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR

Water Quality in Ecuador

Ricardo Izurieta, Arturo Campaña, Juan Calles, Edmundo Estévez and Tatiana Ochoa

Introduction

Ecuador, a South American country straddling the equator, has an area of 257,217 km², with 96.8% corresponding to the mainland and the remainder to a few nearby islands and the Galapagos Archipelago, located 900 km from the Pacific coast. The country is divided into 24 provinces and 221 cantons. It has a population of 16,778,994 inhabitants, with 63.5% living in Andesurban andmountain 46.5% inrange; rural theareas. Sierra, The mainlanda region withis divided cold intoand threetemperate distinct climates regions: located the Coast, be- a region with a hot climate that extends between the Pacific and the western foothills of the- zon region, stretching from the eastern foothills of the Andean mountain range to the Amazo- niantween region the western of Colombia and eastern and Peru branches (Figure of 2 ).this In samethe Sierra mountain region, range populations and the Eastare suppliedor Ama by water from melted snow from several snow-capped mountains (Figure 1) and lagoons (Figure 3) in the Andes mountain range, whereas in the western and eastern subtropics and the tropics of the Andean mountain range, the waterfalls (Figure 4 slope and those of the Amazonian slope supply water to towns and cities (Figure 2). ) and rivers of the Pacific

Quality of natural surface and groundwater

Surface water pollution, which occurs throughout the country, is related to urban and agri-

slope.cultural The sources. main sourcesEcuador of boasts pollution an extensive nationwide water are networkhuman settlements with major andrivers the such untreated as the Guayas and Esmeraldas on the Pacific slope, and the Napo and Pastaza on the Amazonian pollution . On the Coast, pesticide and fertilizer pollution is mainly related to the industrial agriculturalwastewater productionthey discharge of plantain into rivers. and AfricanEvery region palm. Inin thethe coastalcountry zone, has differentpollution sources of surface of

Ricardo Izurieta. [email protected] Chapter Coordinator. Department of Global Health, University of South Florida (USF); College of Medicine, San Francisco University of Quito (USFQ). Arturo Campaña System of Research on the Agrarian Problem in Ecuador (SIPAE). Juan Calles Independent consultant. Edmundo Estévez Medicine Degree Program, Central University of Ecuador (UCE). Tatiana Ochoa Department of Global Health, University of South Florida (USF); Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR 303

waters and estuaries is associated with shrimp and aquaculture activities in general, whereas in the Si- information on this issue is limited and scattered. erra, nonpoint pollution is caused by traditional ag- Thespite country the importance does not ofhave water a national quality water for Ecuador, quality - monitoring system and most of the available infor- ers and broccoli, which involve the extensive use - riculturalof pesticides systems and fertilizers. and export In cropsthe Amazon, such as one flow of gree theses or environmental impact assessments. the main sources of river and lagoon pollution is the mation has been drawn from specific studies, de oil industry and, in recent years, the expansion of mining activity. In the latter case, mining has pollu- Biological pollutants tion sources nationwide in places such as Portove- lo, Nambija, Zaruma and recently in the north of the Viruses Information on viruses in mainland water systems Another widespread problem of surface water is limited. However, knowledge of these organisms pollutionprovince ofis Esmeraldas.linked to deforestation and changes in has sometimes been related to diseases that have land use throughout the country. Poor farming practices and the geographical conditions of the country - increase the amount of sediment in rivers, affecting affected species of commercial interest in the fish the storage capacity of reservoirs and dams. De- industry. In the 1990s, the emergence of Taura Syn drome Virus (TSV) discovered in Ecuador on the Taura River, near the city of Guayaquil, affected

Figure 1. Snowy peak of Cayambe Volcano, in the canton of the same name, Province of Pichincha, Ecuador

Photo: courtesy of Dr. Arturo Campaña. 304 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR

shrimp production and spread to other parts of the ed to organic pollution. Most surface water quality analyses indicate the presence of E. coli in their re- virus reported in surface waters related to aquacul- - country and the world (Cuéllar-Anjel, 2013).Another- sults. A study conducted by SENAGUA (2010) indi ture activities is Tilapia Lake Virus (TiLV) (Fergu cates that 67% of the samples analyzed in the Río son, 2014), which affects production of this species Guayas exceed the maximum permitted level (1000- Bacteriain Ecuador and other countries. uluNMP/100ml) and Chimbo of rivers. fecal coliforms, reaching levels of Studies on surface water pollution have focused up to 16.000 NMP/100ml in the Daule, E.Cañar, coli is Bulub heav- mainly on evaluating the presence of Escherich- ia coli as an indicator of biological pollution relat- According to Levy, the presence of - ily influenced by rainfall. His study (2009) detected a range of 200-45.000 UFC/100mL in the dry sea

Figure 2. Map of Ecuador with the hydrographic slopes of the Pacific and the Amazon WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR 305

Other biological indicators - In recent years, the country has undertaken sever- sondas, andindicates 300-45.000 the pollution UFC/100mL levels in in the surface rainy season.waters, al analyses considering aquatic macroinvertebrates Thiswhich study, are the conducted source of in water the provincefor human of consump Esmeral- (insects and other aquatic organisms) as indicators tion by local communities in this and other areas in of water quality. These organisms live in the sub- the country. The presence of E. coli is widespread strates of rivers for weeks and months and provide in surface water sources with ranges that vary ac- a long-term idea of water quality, because when cording to the type of land use and the presence of there are physical or chemical pollutants, these or- nearby villages. ganisms disappear according to their resistance to environmental changes. To this end, indices such as Algae (eutrophication) are used to analyze water quality. This index is has occurred in the Daule-Peripa reservoir on the the Biological Monitoring Working Party (BMWP)- In Ecuador, an emblematic case of eutrophication - widely used in Ecuador and allows for the evalua ledEcuadorian to the extensive coast, the development largest in theof common country, water with tion of rivers through these organisms (Rios-Tou- hyacinthan approximate (Eichhornia area of crassipes 420,000 )ha. on This the process surface has of ma, 2014; Ambarita, 2016). the reservoir due to the high concentration of nutri- The study conducted on the Santiago River ba ents and low oxygen content. sin in the province of Esmeraldas showed that the 10 rivers examined are either in a critical or very critical condition according to the BMWP/Col index Figure 3. Cajas Lagoon in Azuay Province. Lagoon in Cajas National Park, Azuay Province, Ecuador

Photo: iStock 306 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR

- - tion of water quality through the application of this (Roldán, 2003). Another example of the deteriora itsthe thermal Tambo River,waters. the They main also tributary discovered of that high lake, con to- centrationsgether with ofconcentrations arsenic in the of water1,090 tosystems 7,852 μg/L of the in veryindex critical in Guayas condition. River basin In his (Cárdenas, study of the 2013) Portovie shows- inter-Andean provinces of Carchi, Imbabura, Pichin- that 31 of the 43 places studied are in a critical or cha and Tungurahua, particularly in their thermal

thejo River, deterioration Dueñas states of the that water 19 of quality the 31 sitesof this studied river The river currents of mining areas or those with are in poor, bad and very bad condition, reflecting mineralizationsprings (Cumbal, show 2009; high Bundschuh, levels of arsenic, 2012). general- - (Dueñas, 2016). In the Paute River basin, a similar- icalstudy or (Ortíz, very critical2014) detected condition, that and during that the during dry sea the ly in the range of 200-400 ug/L, which do not always son, seven of the 17 places studied were in a crit have an exclusively anthropogenic origin. In 2007, or very critical condition. tothe be rivers polluted of the with coastal metals areas such of as Ecuador, mercury, such chro as- rainyAnother season, interestingnine of the 22aspect places are were the in aanalyses critical the Gala, Tenguel, Siete, Chico rivers, were reported carried out to determine the presence of heavy the permitted levels-, as a result of the mining op- erationsmium, copper, carried lead, out inarsenic the province - the latter of Azuay at 15 intimes the - metals in fish. A study of the Santiago River basin- is used for washing clothes and body hygiene in the ceedingin the province permitted of nationalEsmeraldas and showedinternational that severlevels absencesector of of Ponce safe water, Enríquez. which Water increases from thethese frequen riversal fish species may have heavy metal contents ex cy of exposure through skin contact. In the north of

(PUCESE 2012). Chemical pollutants gorgesthe country, of the the provinces surface of waters Carchi, of Imbabura, the El Angel, Pichin San- cha,Pedro Cotopaxi and Pichán and riversTungurahua, and the whichCachiyacu receive and ther Ilalo- The information available on chemical pollutants mal springs from the sources and residual thermal shows that the data collected depends on the pur- waters from the spas located in this region, contain pose of the study and the availability of laboratories to analyze the samples. - arsenic in the range of 2 to 171 ug/L. (Cabrera, 2014).- Inorganic Pollutants centrationsThe other of studythis metal conducted in the onwater the Santiagoranging from Riv Arsenic er basin in the province of Esmeraldas shows con

geothermal, ground and surface waters, as well as <0,01 mg/L to 1,5 mg/L, while the concentration of inIn sediments.Ecuador, arsenic The study pollution One wascentury recently of arsenic detected expo in- kg,this indicating metal in processes fish and aquatic of bio-accumulation organisms, such in spe assure in Latin America shrimp, reaches levels of between 0,19 and 2,3 mg/ The presence of this metal in the area is related (Bundschuh J, 2012) highlights tocies mining consumed activities by local undertaken populations in (PUCESE,the rivers 2012). and highkey evidenceconcentrations of arsenic in thermal pollution waters, in Ecuador. rivers Theand banks in this part of the country. findings of De la Torre (2004), for example, indicate- - Cadmium tallake technicians basins, as welland expertsas in Lake declared Papallacta that witha possible rang es of 390–670 μg/L in 2006 and 2007. Environmen - Papallacta was the removal of sediment from the la- A study conducted on 80 km of the Daule River gooncause during of the thehigh process concentration of eliminating of arsenic the crude in Lake oil (Huayamave, 2013) found that the concentration levels of 85% of cadmium in the samples were higher- than the threshold-1 effect level (TEL) set at a maxi Atpollution the same caused time, by studies a break by in Cumbal the Trans and Ecuadorian collabora- mumconcentrations of 0.6 mg.kg of cadmium,, yet lower mercury than the and PEL lead (proba in the Oil pipe System (SOTE) in 2003 (De la Torre, 2004). ble effect level). A recent study (Araujo, 2016) onThun the-

tors found measurements of 62 to 698 μg/L along muscle tissue and liver of the yellow fin tuna ( WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR 307

nus albacares) and common dolphin (Coryphaena their exposure to mercury through direct contact hippurus the demarcation of Manabi, shows that half the mus- consumption of contaminated water in the second. cle samples) offloaded of both inspecies the Port have of Manta,Cd and locatedHg levels in with the spilled oil in the first case, and through the above the safety limit for human consumption es- Chromium The aforementioned study of the waters of the - Mercurytablished by the European Union (CISPDR 2017). In the Puyango-Catamayo hydrographic demarca- Daule River (Huayamave, 2013) found average chro tion, a study by the Changjiang Institute of Survey mium values above the threshold effect level (TEL) - in the Balzar and Palestina stations. Another study- cates that, in the southern part, the main pollution conducted in the province of Esmeraldas (Correa, Planning,indicators Design detected and are Research total coliforms, (CISPDR, 2017)fecal indicoli- 2015) to determine the metal content of the wa- - son,ters, foundsediment that andthe levelsfish in of the aluminum, Santiago copper, River Basin iron, ing, since this demarcation contains the gold mines manganesein the Province and oflead Esmeraldas, in water duringexceeded the the dry Max sea- offorms Zaruma and andmercury. Portovelo, This findingwhich dischargeis hardly surpriscyanide - river system related to it. The severity of this prob- provedimum Permittedto have copper, Levels chromium, (TULSMA) iron, in allmanganese the sta lemand mercuryhas been intowell the documented Amarillo River by the and ecosystemic the entire andtions zinc in the levels sample. exceeding Likewise, the metalsvalues inestimated sediments in the bioassays for the evaluation of sediment toxici- - ty described in NOAA. research carried out by Guimaraes, showing that A study undertaken in the province of Tungu- inthis addition activity to emits metals approximately such as lead, 0.65 manganese t of inorgan and rahua, which has a number of tanneries located ic mercury and 6,000 t of sodium cyanide annually,- on the banks of several of its rivers, revealed that diversity downstream, depositing metals in sedi- in the discharges from just one of them, chromium mentsarsenic and from biota, rock, and significantly even exposing reducing coastal the fauna bio (VI) values greatly exceeded the limit permitted (as well as farmed shrimp) to the dangers of mercu- - A recent study on mercury contamination in by Ecuadorian regulations (TULAS) of 0.5 mg/L. In rial biomethylation (Guimaraes, 2011). fact, in the 16 samples taken between May and Au - gust 2009, values fluctuated between 52.3 and 392.9 umentsfish in themercury Andean emission rivers of which, the Amazon in the inabsence three Nitritesmg/L, equivalent to an average of 160.34 mg/L. ofriver gold basins extraction, in Ecuador hydroelectric and Peru (Webb,dams and 2015) defor doc- - estation, can only be related to oil activity. Mercu- - ductedAnalyses by of the the Cantonalwater of the Drinking Guayas Water River inand the Sew sec- (Hoplias malabaricus) as a bioindicator, were found eragetion corresponding Company, established to the city that of the Guayaquil, total nitrogen con ry levels in the non-migratory variety of tiger fishing to the Pastaza hydrographic demarcation, near nitrites and nitrates - exceeds the permitted limit theto be site higher of an in oil fish spill, in thein comparison Corrientes River,with thebelong two level - which measures its nitrification capacity to other rivers studied. To complement this study, the same authors conducted another study to deter- of 1.2 mg/l, in all eight sampling points, at both high mine mercury levels in urine in indigenous people (values between 2 and 3 mg/l), and low tide (values between 2 and 4 mg/L). A study conducted by the living near oil production or transportation sites. National Water Secretariat (Guzmán V 2010) also Theyon the found Ecuadorian that although and Peruvian their levels side are of the within border the identified the presence of nitrates (N-NO3) at levels limits suggested by the World Health Organization, reaching 86,48 mg/l in the water used in the El Mate Nitritesirrigation system from the Daule River. clearing up the oil spill and women who depend on - surfacethey were water significantly for household higher needs, in men which involved suggests in In the study of the waters of the Daule River (Huaya mave, 2013), nitrite values were also determined for 308 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR

mates such as Carbofuran and phthalates, fats and - uadorianthe nitrite legislation. ion, ranging from non detection to 0.20 and fats is almost constant. Phthalates indicate the mg/L, which are within the limits permitted by Ec enormousother products. amount The of presence plastic ofcontamination sulfides, phthalates in the Organic contaminants area. Carbofuran and Difeconazolle were also found - - A tracking study of organochlorines and organo- The Cayambe-Ecuador EcoHealth Project (CEAS/SI phosphatesin cows’ milk (no samples carbamate (CEAS/SIPAE, analysis was 2014). planned) in PAE, 2014) monitored the water quality of the Gra wheat,noble River barley, basins, other used grains primarily and pastureland. to irrigate 2.180This in the vicinity of plantain plantations, revealed the studyha of landdetected for growingthe presence potato, of maize,phthalates cut flowers,used in soil and water samples in the Tenguel River basin,- the production of plastic and, in some cases, as pes- presence of Lindane in five (55,6%) of the nine sam- dosulfanples, within in aone. range No of traces 0,014 toof 0,322organophosphates ppb, together ticides. In approximately 50% of the 70 samples werewith Chlorothalonildetected in the inwater two samples.of the samples and En detected.analyzed betweenOrganophophorates 2004 and 2009, such the as presence Malathion, of From the discussion of the results obtained for foundorganochlorines throughout such the as basin, Endosulfan and Diazinon and DDT were was - among the most frequent, together with toxic carba- - the water samples of the Daule River in his stud samplesies, Huayamave undertaken (2013) and concludes that nine that types organochlo were de- rinates pesticides were detected in 53,3% of the- Figure 4. Blue Waterfall, Puerto Quito Canton, Province of Pichincha, Ecuador tected in the 23 organochlorinates analyzed, 1,2-di- chloro-4-isocyanatobenzene was detected in 31%, 4,4-DDD in 19%, aldrin, methoxychlor and endosul fan-sulfate each in 1.7%, and dieldrin, phenamiphos, Heptachlor, HCH-Delta in concentrations of 0.83%., The samples taken on August 3, 2011 of total contained organo -1 a- total organochlorine concentration-1 of 16,040 μg.L whichlegislation. is within As for the organophosphorus limit of 10 mg.L pesticides, the authorchlorines states established that they as were a maximum only detected in Ecuadorian on three -

methyloccasions and and azinphos that, of the ethyl 23 organophosphorus at concentrations an of alyzed, two were determined, which as follows: is lower azinphos than the -1 0.373;In 0.373the inter-Andean and 0.378 μg.L province of Cañar, a large- maximum established by Ecuadorian regulations. - ly agricultural, floricultural and livestock raising diffusearea, a majorcontamination study on the waterriver receives quality ofdue the to Bur the presencegay River of was pesticides recently and conducted the associated to establish toxicolog the-

sources destined for human supply were found to ical risk (Pauta, 2014). In some monitoring stations,-

andexceed organochlorines. the concentrations The monitoring allowed bycarried the out Ecua at sevendorian sampling Regulation points (TULAS) between for organophosphatesFebruary and No- -

Photo: courtesy of Dr. Arturo Campaña. vember 2013 identified the presence of the follow WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR 309

- Quality of water for human consumption and wastewater ing organochlorines: Lindane 14.7 ppm, Cishepta- chlorohepoxide 13.1 ppm, pp-DDE 22.6 ppm at one- ganophosphatesof the points; pp-DDE such as61.7 Diazinon ppm at another;and the following and Pro Biological pollutants organochlorinesfenofos 592 ppb inwas yet also another. found The at otherpresence sampling of or The methodology used in the water quality assess- - ments carried out by the local institutions that provide water for drinking in the country is heteroge- points: d.-HCH, Aldrin, a- Endosulfan, b-Endosul neous and, in some cases, does not tally with the allfan, stations, Endosulfan albeit Sulfate, at different and Lindane, sampling together times, werewith evaluations undertaken by national government BHC. The most frequently found organosphates, in agencies or academic institutions. In a study conducted on the Arenal and Junquil- The Public Metropolitan Drinking Water and Lindane and hexachlorin delta (Pauta, 2014). - the mouths of the channels in two plantain plantations,lo rivers the(Tapia, levels 2013), of organophosphates,in the Los Ríos province, organo at- Sewerage Company (EPMAPS) of the Metropoli- chlorinates and carbamates in the water of these tan District of Quito certifies water quality through rivers was compared before and after aerial spray- sampling and external analysis with SGS DEL EC ing. The analyses revealed that whereas prior to isUADOR. maintained The Ecuadorian through periodic Institute audits. of Normalization According to the fumigations, they showed levels below the lim- (INEN) granted the INEN quality seal in 2015, which - - - these evaluations, in 2016, the EPMAPS registered a- its allowed by the Ecuadorian environmental legis water quality index of 99.7% (EMAPS 2016). Accord oflation, organochlorines afterwards they exceeded experienced the permitted a significant limit inby presenceing to the of 11 fecal monthly coliforms reports greater on the than microbiologi or equal to crease. Thus, in the Arenal River, the concentration cal quality of EPMAPS drinking water for 2017, the- ever, it should be pointed out that the raw water eight points and of organophosphorus by five while with1 NMP/100ml which some (EMAPS of the 2017) treatment was not plantsreported. are How sup- highercarbamates for organochlorines exceeded the limit and of organophosphates, <0.02 to nine. The plied has high levels of fecal coliforms. For example, Junquillo River has levels of six and seven points respectively, and carbamates from <0.02 to 7. - wasin the found month in ofraw November, water prior the topresence its entry of into 140,345 the ed throughoutLastly, a sampling the four of hydro-socialthe water quality zones carried of the NMP/100ml and 134,045 NMP/100ml fecal coliforms Provincialout during Irrigation the rainy Planseason of theat 16 province points distributof Carchi drinking water treatment plants of Guayllabamba and Yaruquí, respectively (EMAPS, 2017; EPMAPS, (CEAS/SIPAE, 2014), the leading potato producer in 2017).It should be noted that levels greater than the country but also with a significant increase in- 1,000 NMP of fecal coliforms per 100ml of water enfloricultural from Carbofuran, activity an in insecticide recent years, and showed nematicide that are not even acceptable for effluents from sewage- whoseten of the use 16 is samples forbidden, had two carbamate from Carbaril pollution: and sevone treatment plants, according to the 2012 Guidelines from Methomil. for the Reuse of Water of the United States Environ accordingmental Protection to the report Agency by International(USEPA) (USEPA, Water 2012). Ser - Radionuclides As for drinking water in the city of Guayaquil, Strontium - - vices (Guayaquil) Interagua C Ltda., submitted for dor. It is worth mentioning the study conducted the period from August 2016 and July 2017, the Con Studies on radionuclides are uncommon in Ecua- reportsventional, for Lurgi fecal andand 10MCS total coliforms plants, as for well all as months water trations in Macrobrachium brasiliense freshwater from the networks, submitted 100% “compliant” by Mena (2016), which found strontium concen Measurement of the indicators of the Sustain- -1 (INTERAGUA, 2017). - Amazonia.prawns in ranges-1 from 777,8 µg.g in the Due River itation and Hygiene (ASH), published by the Na- to in 1.586,1µg.g in the Conde River, in Ecuadorian able Development Objectives (SDG) for Water, San 310 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR

- analyzed water quality nationwide through the - absence-presencetional Institute of test Statistics of E. coli. and According Census (INEC),to this ers,considered. many of The these villages rivers reported being the that primary 40% use source a la oftrine, drinking and 60% water. dispose Water of in excreta the communities in the field isor sup riv- water contaminated with E. coli. An analysis of the plied by surface water from rivers, piped water, well study, 20.7% of the national population consumes water or rainwater. This study detected a geomet- - resultstion consume by rural water or urban contaminated area shows with that this 15.4% micro of- - theorganism urban (populationFigure 5 and 31.8% of the rural popula ductedric average in the of country, between rotavirus 91 and 125has Colonybeen associated Forming Despite the data reported, according to a per- withUnits acute (CFU) diarrheal (Levy, 2012). disease In population and, to a lesser studies extent, con ception study conducted) (INEC by 2017). the National Institute have been detected in the surface waters of rivers, is recognized as the city with the best water quality primarilyNorovirus due (Vasco, to an 2014). almost Hepatitis total absence A and Eof viruses urban of Statistics and Census (INEC) in June 2012, Cuenca wastewater treatment systems and discharges from stated that they do not trust the quality of the water farms for raising pigs or other types of livestock. Al- in the country and, in general, 66.5% of Ecuadorians though there is no monitoring of the presence of this - Virusesthey consume (INEC 2012). - Owing to the limitations in the country due to the edvirus water in surface or food waters, contaminated many of withthe 3,453 these cases viruses de costs of technology for the detection of viruses in tected in Ecuador during 2016 are related to untreat environmental samples, the information regarding water contamination by viral agents is either (MSP,Bacteria 2017). non-existent or scarce. One means of overcoming Escherichia Coli In a study conducted on seven communities locat- by genetic engineering, which can be lysed by phage viruses,this limitation the most would commonly be the use used of bacteriaones being modified bacte- Santiago, Cayapas and Onzole rivers, the following E. coli. In a ed in northeastern Ecuador, on the banks of the study conducted on the northeast coast of the coun- river or piped water to be consumed, which was riophage coliphages that specifically lyse findings were reported in dwellings that collected an area with minimal health infrastructure, were The results of the samples when taken at the wa- try, 125 villages in the Bourbon region of Esmeraldas, not treated after having been stored for 24 hours.

Figure 5. Measurement of Indicators of Sustainable Development Objectives (SDO) for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WSH) published by the National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INEC)

Percentages of people by water quality and area of residence At the urban level, of the 15.4 of polluted water, Unpolluted Polluted 2,6 is bottled or packaged water

20, 15,4 31, Percentage of persons who drink contaminated water, by type of source

Type of water supply National Urban Rural Public network / public tap 55,1 64,1 45, 4,6 ,3 Other source by pipes 11,2 - 1, 6,2 Protected well / piped 6,3 - 12,0 Bottled / packaged water 1, 2,6 - Other - - - Total National Urban Rural

* Others include: unprotected well, protected spring/slope, unprotected spring/slope, delivery truck/tank, rainwater/other WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR 311

Table 1. Possible contaminating viruses in Ecuadorian waters Analysis in Detected drinking in drinking Human cases Agent With Pathology Reservoir Water as vehicle water water country country country

Human, Animal No Yes (Bhavnan, Yes (da Silva, 2012; Vasco, 2017) 2012; Levy, Rotavirus Gastroenteritis (da Silva, 2016; 2016; Rusinol, 2014) Rusinol,2017)Human(Da Astrovirus No Not known Yes (Da Silva, Gastroenteritis and Acute 2017) Silva, 2016; 2016; Rusinol, Respiratory Infection Norovirus Rusinol,2017)Human No 2017) 2014) Yes (Katayama, Yes (Vasco, Gastroenteritis Hepatitis A Hepatitis Human No Poel, 2017) 2017) Yes (Van der Yes (MSP, Hepatitis Human, Animal No Not known Poel, 2017) Yes (Van der Hepatitis E Coxsackie handGastroenteritis, disease, Meningitis, Acute Human No Not known virus Respiratory Infection, Foot 2017) Cardiac infection, Peripheral Yes (Rusinol, neuropathy

handGastroenteritis, disease, Meningitis, Acute Human No Not known Respiratory Infection, Foot 2017) Cardiac infection, Peripheral Yes (Rusinol, Enterovirus neuropathy No case associated with Polioviruses Poliomyelitis Human No Yes the wild virus (Betancourt, 2016) Adenoviruses Human No Notsince known 1990 2017) Gastroenteritis and Acute Yes (Allard, Respiratory Infection respiratory infection, Human No Not known meningitisGastroenteritis, and hepatitis acute Echoviruses Yes

conducted in the same geographical area of these of storage in the home, reported a geometric mean three rivers that serve as a source of water for lo- ofter MPN source of (riverE. coli or piped water), and after 24 hours cal communities, obvious heterogeneity was observed in the microbiological quality of the waters, per 100 ml (95% CI ) of 111.4 (57.4- which depended largely on the distance from the 216.1) and 121.5 (67.9-217.2), respectively. Therefore, E coli de- 13.6% of the samples taken at the E.source coli. Theseand 9.1% re- sultsof the point samples to a taken high atpercentage the houses of after E. coli 24 contami hours of- shore. The logarithmic concentration 10 of nationstorage of reported drinking <1 water MPN/100mL in rural areas, exacerbat- creased by 2% for each meter of distance from the ed by possible contamination due to poor storage shore. Water samples taken from fast flowing areas of the river had concentrations of 0.12 Log 10 lower- than waters from the river fords. Likewise, waters practices in the home (Levy, 2014). In another study at distances of more than 6 meters had concentra 312 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR

speedtions that and were water 0.27 turbulence log 10 lower on than the microbiologishore waters.- per 100,000 inhabitants. As regards the incidence These findings show the effect of shore distance, of gastric cancer, Ecuador has a rate of 16.9 cases such as Salmonella typhi, which are related to water per year per 100,000 inhabitants, surpassed only andcal concentrations food contamination, (Rao, 2015).are not Bacterial monitored pathogens by wa- theby Guatemala,height above Honduras sea level, although and Costa it is Rica not (Ferlay,known to2015). what These extent high this rates association have been is alsoassociated determined with by socioeconomic, genetic, dietary or environmen- ter purification systems. However, many of the 1,253 tal factors, and water and sewerage infrastructure cases of this disease detected in Ecuador in 2016 are Helicobacter py- Helicobacterrelated to contaminated pylori water or food (MSP 2017). lori bacterium has been described as a critical fac- - tor(Torres, in the 2013). occurrence The presence of gastric of cancer,the which why it ity from gastric cancer in the Americas with an Ecuador has the second highest rate of mortal has been categorized as a group 1 carcinogen by the Age-Standardized Mortality Rate (AMR) of 15.6 International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC

Table 2. Possible contaminating viruses in Ecuadorian waters Analysis in Detected drinking in drinking Human cases Agent Pathology Reservoir Water as vehicle water of water country country country Campylobacter Human, Animal No spp. Gastroenteritis Yes (Pitkanen, 2017) Yes

Escherichia coli Human, Animal Yes (Levy, 2009 y Gastroenteritis Yes Yes Yes 2014; Rao, - 2015) Helicobacter Si (Goodman, 1996; Hul Human No pylori cancer ten, 1996; Zhang, 1996; JYes 2013, (Sasaki Ferlay T Gastritis, Gastric Sasaky, 1999; Brown, 2009, Torres 2000) Yes (Sewage) (Goodman, 1996; Hegarty, J 2015) Pneumonia, Legionella spp. Water 1999; Sasaky, 1999) No gastroenteritis Water (Izurieta, Yes - Hemorrhagic Leptospira spp. 2011; Chiriboga, No Yes (Chiri fever 2008; Barragan, boga, 2015; Yes 3 (Barragan, 2011) Barragan, 2015); Soil, Animal 2016) (Barragan, 2016) Salmonella spp. Human, Animal No 2014; MSP, Yes2017) (Vasco, Gastroenteritis Yes (Liu, 2018) Shigella spp. No Aljaro, 2017) Yes (García- Gastroenteritis- Human Yes (García-Aljaro, 2017) Water (estuaries) Vibrio cholera tis with watery No Gastroenteri Aguas servidas 37 2012) diarrhea Yes (Weber, 1994; García, Yes (Weber, Yersinia 1994) No enterocolitica Animals (Bottone, Gastroenteritis Yes (Bottone, 2015) 2015) WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR 313

- prevalence of H. pylori was observed in the popu- - 1994). In a study conducted by the authors, a 72.2% alence of 64% in rural areas, 25% in semi-urban ar eas and 21% in urban areas. The percentage of in- lation of Ecuador and a 54.1% prevalence in that of ilartermediate study conducted strains was on febrile higher patients (96%) thanfrom thatthe ru of- Panama (Sasaky, 2009). Of these patients, the CagA ralpathogenic area of the strains Province (4%) of (Chiriboga, Manabí, the 2015). percentages In a sim important,gene was identified since patients in 45.9% may of Ecuadorianremain asymptom samples- of DNA prevalence of pathogenic leptospires were aticand and 20% present of Panamanian the infection samples. with Thesethe CagA data gene, are which represents a high risk of gastric cancer (Sa- In environmental studies, bacteria isolated from higher, ranging from 9.5 to 17.3% (Barragán, 2016).- zon showed their ability to maintain the viability of saki T 2009). These data correlate with reports on Leptospirarivers in the biflexa Napo andprovince Leptospira of the meyeri Ecuadorian in distilled Ama determiningstomach cancer, the withtype ofrates gene of with17.4% the in highestEcuador prev and- 11.1% in Panama. Future research should focus on The presence of H pylori in water has already been waterCholera for up to one year (Barragán, 2011) . alence involved in stomach cancer (Sasaki, 2009).- over, H pylori can live in water for several days in countries that experienced the impact of the in- described in several studies (Brown, 2000). More troductionIn 1991, Ecuador of Vibrio was cholera one of theinto Latinthe continent. American conducted in Colombia, China and Peru support the characterizationits infectious bacillary of H formpylori (Brown, infection 2000). as a Studieswater- was reported in the southern coastal area of the country,On February with 28,the 1991,epidemic the first spreading case of to the the disease Ande- an and Amazonian areas in a matter of weeks. It is borne infection (Klein, 1991; Goodman, 1996; Zhang, 1996).The possible contamination of food irrigated- the presence of pathogenic V. cholerae in samples niques,by wastewater carried isout also in Perusupported and Japan, by the in findingswhich this of fromimportant affected to mention patients, that, water despite sample confirmation cultures al of- bacteriummolecular epidemiologicalwas detected instudies, wastewater using PCR (Hazell; tech ways yielded negative results. This incongruence - in the isolation of the vibrio between clinical sam- ducted in Pennsylvania and Ohio, H. pylori was iso- ples (Figure 6A) and environmental samples was 1994;lated Westblom,in its active 1997; form Sasaky, in surface 1999). and In studies groundwa con- explained a few years later when it was shown that V cholerae enters a state of pseudo-spores, which with other bacteria, H. pylori maintain its viability, but cannot be cultivated theter sampleswalls of (Hegarty,water pipelines, 1999). As this has being been observeda critical - aspect in bacterial survival in canwater form and biofilms other en in- do-spores are easily observable in contaminated vironments in order in preventing the spread of water(Colwell, samples 1994). when However, examined these under V. cholerae an immuno pseu- this pathogen and its treatment in the human host Figure 6B). Despite the painful consequences of the numer- ousfluorescence lives claimed microscope by the ( cholera epidemic in the Leptospira(García A 2014). country, many advances in terms of water quality are due to the measures taken at that time by the from the family Leptospiraceae and the genus Lep- population and local and national governments. In- tospiraLeptospirosis. These isbacteria caused are by spiral-shapedlong, thin, mobile bacteria spi- adequate levels of chlorine, the existence of clan- rochetes that can live freely in the environment destine water connections and low water pressures or be parasites in animal hosts. These bacteria re- that made water intrusion possible, were some of quire wet environments to survive, such as pol- the factors associated with the presence of Vibrio luted freshwater sources (lakes, ponds and river cholera fords) or muddy environments where they can re- the country has made substantial progress in drinking water in coveragedrinking waterand quality, (Weber, several 1994). ruralAlthough and detect Leptospira spp. DNA in febrile patients from peri-urban populations still lack secure water sup- main for many months (Izurieta, 2008). A study to- ply sources. The serious shortcomings in the excre- urban and rural areas of Ecuador reported a prev 314 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR

ta system were also revealed during this cholera Protozoa epidemic. In one of the small cities of the Andean In the case of protozoa, their presence has main- region, numerous cases of cholera were reported due to the pollution of the river that crosses the city, such as the one carried out in the province of Azuay, caused by the elimination of excreta not adequately inly beenthe San studied Fernando in feces. district, However, on water specific intended studies for treated by the hospital where cholera patients were - the case of Cryptosporidium spp, the presence of oo- human consumption (Palacios, 2017) detected, in underwentbeing attended any (Izurieta,degree of 2006). treatment In 1998, prior it wasto dis rein the case of Giardia lamblia. ported that only 5% of sewage effluents in Ecuador cysts/100 mlof water, and 10 cysts/100 ml of water on the percentage of wastewater adequately treat- Giardia edcharge by local (Izurieta, and municipal 2006). There sewerage are no systems current in data the In a comparative study of children looked after at country, prior to its discharge into rivers, lagoons, home versus children cared for at day-care centers, lakes and seas. Although the cholera epidemic in Giardia spp was the second agent most frequently associated with diarrheal disease with an average in making government administration structures awareEcuador of the in the need early to improve 1990s played drinking a decisivewater quali role- - ty and increase sewerage coverage, progress in ex- inceincidence of Azuay, of 11.74in the episodes San Fernando per 1000 canton, child-weeks in water creta treatment has been non-existent or minimal. (Sempertegui, 1995). A study conducted in the prov It is also worrisome that the incidence of acute diarrheal diseases has steadily risen, even during the analyzingintended forthe humanpresence consumption of Giardia lamblia (Palacios. 2017), found an average of 10 cysts/100 ml of water when of another impending epidemic. It is therefore es- Cryptosporidium sentialfirst decade to investigate of this century. the clear This increase may be ain harbinger diarrhe- In the same study comparing children cared for at al diseases to reinforce the preventive public health day care centers and in their homes, the incidence of measures that were successfully implemented to diarrhea associated with Cryptosporidium spp was -

control the cholera epidemic of the 1990s, in addi 1.52 and 1.28 episodes, respectively (Sempertegui, tion to new recommendations (Malavade, 2011). 1995). In environmental microbiological studies,

Figure 6A. Vibrio cholerae grown from patient stool samples. Figure 6B. Non-growable Vibrio cholerae in water samples detected by immunofluorescence. Study conducted by Dr. Ricardo Izurieta at the Microbiology Laboratories of the University of Maryland, College Park (Izurieta R 2006)

A B WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR 315

Table 3. Possible parasites and contaminating algae in Ecuadorian waters Detected Water as Analysis in Agent Pathology Reservoir in drinking Cases in humans vehicle drinking water water Criptosporidi- Chronic Animal, - Occasionally um spp diarrhea Humans 2017 ) cios, 2017 ) Yes (Palacios, Yes (Pala Yes (Sempertegui, Giardia Abdominal Human, - Occasionally 1995; Jacobsen, 2007) doudenalis pain Animal 2017 ) cios, 2017 ) Yes (Palacios, Yes (Pala Yes (Sempertegui, Dysen- Protozoa Entoameba 1995; Palacios, 2017 ) tery, liver Human No histolitica abscess Yes (Cooper, 1994; Yes Sempertegui, 1995) Balantidium - Human, No coli enteritis Animal Yes (Sempertegui, Gastro Yes 1995; Jacobsen, 2007; - CEPAL/GIZ, 2012) testinal - - Metazoos symptoms,Gastroin Soil No da-Martínez,Yes malnutri- 57(Molle Yes (Reyes, 2012; Pre Geo helminths tion ciado, 2015) Water (Mo- 2016) rales, 2013; - - Algae Cyanobacteria Poisoning No Yes (Gua Yes (Gua Yes (Weirich, 2014) Guamán, mán, 2016) mán, 2016) 2016)

Cryptosporidium spp has been isolated from sur- Trichostrogylus sp, Taenia sp and Ancylostomas sp. These high concentrations are due to the lack of a - sewerage system and wastewater treatment system face waters. An analysis of 14 samples of untreated and the presence of direct discharges with organic waters from the watersheds of the Quito area iden- content into the river. This poses a high health risk tified oocysts of this parasite in five of the samples- for the local population, since they use water direct- cysts(Kato of 2003). Cryptosporium In the aforementioned study, conduct ed in the province of Azuay, the presence of five oo spp per 100 ml of water for ly from this river (Molleda-Martínez P 2016). Otherhuman protozoa consumption was detected (Palacios, 2017). Chemical pollutants Other protozoa associated with diarrhea in children include Entamoeba hystolitica, Chylomastix mesnilii Water Information Management System of the City and Blastocystis hominis - According to the April 2016 Report of Automatic-

(Sempertegui, 1995; Jacob of Quito, the following physical-chemical param- sen,Helminths 2007). trites,eters meetbenzopyrene, the established cyanides, norm: Hg, Cd, color, Cu, DDT residual and - metabolites,chlorine free, Ni,turbidity, bromodichloromethane, As, nitrates, fluorides, toluene, Cr, ni meraldas, the presence of helminth eggs was de- Intected a study in the on Atacames water quality estuary in and the river.province During of theEs - water sampling conducted from July to December moethane,1-2 dichloroethane, dimethoate, lindane, tetrachloroethane, xylene, vinyl chloride chloro -, pyrifos,benzene, styrene, micorsystin-lr, tricloethene, aldrin, endrin, dieldrin, antimony, 1-2 dibro Pb, per liter of water were observed. The isolated hel- - minth2013, concentrations eggs corresponded ranging to the from species 500 to Coccidio 2000 eggs sp, ment plant provided the sample for the analysis or Hymenolepis sp, Trichuris sp, Ascaris sp, Oxiuros sp, whetherSe, chlordane it was and taken Ba. atIt random.does not state which treat 316 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR

Arsenic three decades by agroindustrial activity (particu-

consumptionIn 2004, the populationcontained ofarsenic Parroquia above Tumbaco, the toler in- contamination may be associated with arsenic ad- Quito Canton, reported that the water for human- ditiveslarly flower commonly and fruit incorporated growing), intomeaning pesticides, that their herbicides and fertilizers. The drinking water compa- ance value established by the Ecuadorian stan ny eventually decided to install treatment plants in dard (García, 2012), which forced the Metropolitan- Tumbaco to remove the arsenic, which did not work Company of Sewerage and Drinking Water, Quito- properly, and led to the closure of two wells and the (EMAAP-Q) to conduct the “Special arsenic moni supply of safe drinking water from other localities. toring of the rural sources of the Southern and East- ommendationern Central District", to prohibit operated the use by thisof these company, sources in due2005. to The the resultshigh levels of the of monitoringarsenic found led and to the to anarec- Quality of water discharged by lyze the waters of the distribution network of the manufacturing and agricultural - industries Tumbaco and Guayllabamba parishes, whose drink- - holding water distribution is obtained network from ofthese these sources. two parishes, In 2007, andthe EMAAP-Q found that collected arsenic exceeded116 samples the from permitted the house lim- Using the Pfafstetter characterization methodol ogy, the National Secretariat of Water of Ecuador samples from Tumbaco, there were some with up to (SENAGUA) proposed the organization of its 137 it in 39 of them (33.6%) (EMAPQ, 2007). Among the sub-basins and the most important segments of 682 some with up to three times the limit. Although the main rivers in nine hydrographic districts: six with- country10 times hasthe higherpermitted environmental levels and in levels Guayllabamba of arsenic tryrivers has that a wealth run into of therivers. Pacific The Ocean combined and three length with of associated with volcanic activity, in this case, they rivers that flow into the Amazon River. The coun- may be caused by poor waste management and in- nual volume of runoff of these nine demarcations dustrial emissions. It should be pointed out that all these rivers is 4.593,3 km. The average plurian the water systems (both surface and deep) of the varies between the two demarcations - would be two parishes have primarily been affected for over is 318,948.0 hm³, which, since population density

equivalent to an average of 0.019 hm³ or 19,000 m³

Figure 7. Demographic Demarcations and Pollution Sources. Ecuador, 2017 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR 317

Figure 8: Evolution of imports of herbicides and pesticides, Ecuador 1978-2008

1.000.000 16.4.000 16.000.000

14.000.000 Herbicides Fungicides Nematicides Insecticides 12.000.000

10.000.000 .1.000 Kilos .000.000

6.000.000 3.5.000 4.000.000

2.000.000 1.365.000

0 1 10 11 12 1 200

Source: MAGAP, compiled by the author

- - per year per Ecuadorian inhabitant. It is also esti active535,000 population ha of exposure employed to chemicalsin the country and is employ linked mated that these waters affect 221,043.2 km², in oth to650,000 agroindustrial direct workers. production In other with words, a high 12% chemical of the er words, over 85.9% of the surface of the mainland- demand. To understand the actual dimension of the territory of Ecuador. Although this also varies, the current polluting potential of these industries for hm³/km² ratio is more favorable in the hydrograph the population and the ecosystem, it is important to ic districts of the Amazon basin (Napo 2,0, Santiago- examine the evolution of imports of herbicides and 1,8 and Pastaza 1,4) than in those of the Pacific coast pesticides. The following graph shows that between (Esmeraldas 1,3, Mira 1.1, Guayas 0.9, Puyango Cata- mayodrographic 0.9, Manabí demarcations 0.7 and and Jubones the three 0.6). blocks Let us of now in- brieflydustrial examine activity withthe relationship the greater scopebetween and these capacity hy 1978 and 2008, the volume of imports (including all for pollution (Figure 7). products) rose exponentially from approximately 3 - million k to over 30 million. ian hydrographic districts, with the sole exception breakBetween in the trend, 1982 and followed 1998, the by timea sharp of the rise start in agro andof Manabí,It is interesting are affected to noteby some that form all the of Ecuadorindustri- growth of the flower production sector, there was a- al-level activity emitting potentially contaminating chemicals from their waters. chemical imports. In 10 years (1998 to 2008), herbi- - icidecide importsand pesticide also grew exports by approximately fell slightly. According 125%. In dorian export agroindustry has been part of a pro- turn, fungicide exports rose by 38% while nemat- ductionSince model the middle based ofon the the last use century, of pesticides the Ecua (we prefer to call them agrotoxins), promoted by the to our calculations, in 2008, exports would have to taled 5.1 kilos per cultivated hectare per year. Policies and regulations Green Revolution, which began with plantains (in the 1950s) and continued with the African palm- (in the 60s) and the production of cut flowers (in the sole water authority, responsible for this sector the 80s), to which broccoli was added more recent throughoutThe Ecuadorian the country. Water However, Secretariat the (SENAGUA) quality stan is- ly. Approximately 270,000 ha are currently used for dard for surface water currently in force is estab- plantain production, 260,000 ha to palm and 6,000 ha to flowers. Together, they constitute an area of 318 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR

These resources have been polluted by the dump- lished by the Ministry of the Environment, through- ingal water of wastewater resources and nationwide disposal (CEPAL/GIZ,of solid waste 2012). into the Unified Secondary Legislation Text (MAE, 2003). water bodies, as well as chemical contamination by VI,This which standard contains defines these the parametersparameters, and was permit modi- the industrial sector and agrochemicals and animal ted limits of water quality for various uses. Book bio-solids from agricultural and livestock farms that dump their waste into rivers, lakes, lagoons forfied the in preservation 2015 through of agreements aquatic and No. wild 028 life andin fresh No. and seas. 061. This book determines the permitted criteria the criteria for the water quality from urban and in- dustrialand seawater waste marine and the and quality estuaries. of water It also for defineshuman Bibliographical references consumption. Global Water with existing norms, as well as the absence of rigor- Pathogens Project. - ous Laxsanctions or non-existent to match thepolicies, scope lack of environmental of compliance Allard A, V.A. (2017). Adenoviruses. crimes have contributed to the pollution of sever- www.waterpathogens.org/book/rotavirus J.B. Rose and B. Jiménez-Cis neros (eds.). Michigan State University/UNESCO.

Figure 9. Dr. Arturo Campaña during the collection of water samples for quality studies, at a flower farm in Cayambe Canton, Province of Pichincha, Ecuador.

Photo: courtesy of Dr. Arturo Campaña. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR 319

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cantón San Fernando,Estudio integralEcuador. de la calidad 8 (1):del www.waterpathogens.org/book/rotavirusJ.B. Rose and B. Jiménez-Cisneros (eds.). agua111-119. del Río Burgay y evaluación del riesgo tox- Michigan State University/UNESCO. http://- Pauta,icológico G (2014). por la probable presencia de plaguicidas. Maestría en toxicología industrial y ambien- Sasaki T, H.I.; Izurieta, Ricardo; Kwa Boo Hoe; Es Analysistevez, Edmundo; of Helicobacter Saldana, pylori Azael; Calzada, Jose; - SpecimensFujimoto, Saori; of Asymptomatic & Yamamoto, People. Yoshimasa Laboratory (2009). tal, Universidad de Cuenca Medicine Genotype in Stool Pitkanenlobacter T, H.M. coli. (2017). Global Members Water Pathogens of the family Project. Cam pylobacteraceae: Campylobacter jejuni, Campy- 40(7): 412-414. - - Sasaky K, T. Y., Sata M, Fujii Y, Matsubara F, Zhao M, terpathogens.org/book/rotavirusJ.B. Rose and B. Jiménez-Cisneros (eds.). Michi ScandShimizu J Infect S, Toyonaga Dis A, Tanikawa K (1999). "He gan State University/UNESCO.Prevalencia de http://www.wala parasitosis in- licobacter pylori in the natural environment." testinal en alumnos de primero a quinto grado de Línea base para el31(3): monitoreo 275-279. de la calidad del Preciado,la escuela A. (2015). Helena Criollo desde mayo a junio del Secretaríaagua de Nacionalriego en la del Demarcación Agua (SENAGUA) Hidrográfica (2010). del 2014. Guayas. Determinación de los índices ambientales BS, Universidad por contaminación Técnica dedel Machala.uso de pestici- Quito: SENAGUA . - Proano,das agrícolas G. (2007). en las plantaciones de banano del Sempertegui F, E.B.; Egas, J; Carrion, P; Yerovi, L;- sector de Tenguel – Provincia del Guayas. Mae- Diaz, S; Lascano, M; Aranha, R; Ortiz, W; Zaba Pediatrla, A; Izurieta, Infect Dis R; & Griffiths, J (1995). Risk of di arrheal diseaseManejo in Ecuadorian de agroquímicos day-care centers. para la stría en Ingeniería Ambiental, UniversidadInforme final de producción de banano J 14(7): y su 606-612. efecto en la calidad de deGuayaquil. monitoreo de calidad ambiental de ríos de la Tapia,vida LM de (2013).los trabajadores de las bananeras Bansol PUCESE,cuenca P.U.C.d.E.M.d.A.d del Santiago afectados E (2012). por la actividad y Carolina del cantón Baba año 2013. Propuesta minera aurífera entre el periodo noviembre del de disminución de riesgos. 2011 a noviembre del 2012. - Torres, J C.P.; Ferreccio, Catterina; Master, Hernandez-Su Universidad- P.d.R A.y. Social. Es Técnica Estatal de Quevedo. meraldas, Ecuador: Ministerio del Ambiente de- Ecuador. arez, Gustavo; Herrero, Rolando; Cavazza-Porro, RaoVariability G, E.J.N.S.; of Kleinbaum, Escherichia Davidcoli G; Cevallos, Wil- associatedMaria; Dominguez, with altitude Ricardo; in the & Morgan,mountainous Douglas re- liam; Trueba, Gabriel;Water Levy, Karen (2015). Spatial (2013). Gastric cancer incidence Cancerand mortality causes is& in Rivers of North ern Coastal Ecuador. 7(2): 818-832. gions of Pacific Latin America. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | ECUADOR 323

control - Guidelines for Water Reuse. Bulletin of Envi- Special :Restricted CCC 24(2): Crop 249-256. Area in Mendoza, Argen- ronmentalFish Species Contamination from Andean Amazonianand Toxicology Rivers Af USEPA,tina U.S.E.P. (2012). fected by Petroleum Extraction. 95(3): O. National Risk Management Research- 279-285. ternationalLaboratory DevelopmentOffice of Research Washington, and Development D.C. Weber JT, M.E.; Canizares, R; Semiglia, A; Gomez, I;- Cincinnati. Cincinnati, Ohio U.S. AgencyGlobal forWater In Sempertegui, R; Davila, A; Greene, K D; Puhr, ND; Pathogens Project. - by& Cameron, water and DN seafood. (1994). EpidemicEpidemiol cholera Infect in Ec Van der Poel W, R.A (2017). Hepatitis A. - uador: multidrug-resistance and transmission CO. www.waterpathogens.org/book/rotavirus J.B. Rose and B. Jiménez-Cis 112(1): neros (eds.). Michigan State University/UNESGlobal Water 1-11. Curr Probl Pathogens Project. - WeirichPediatr CA, Adolesc M.T. (2014). Health FreshwaterCare harmful algal Van der Poel W, R.A. (2017). Hepatitis E. - blooms: toxins and children's health. - J.B. Rose and B. Jiménez-Cis cobacter pylori. Immunol Invest 44(1): 2-24. rotavirusneros (eds.). Michigan State University/UNE Westblom, T.U. (1997). Molecular diagnosis of Heli SCO. http://www.waterpathogens.org/book/ 26(1-2): 163-174. Zhang L, B.W.; You, WC; Chang, YS; Kneller, RW; Vasco G, T.G.; Atherton, R; Calvopina, M; Cevallos,- Jin, ML; Li, JY; Zhao,Helicobacter L; Liu, WD; pyloriZhang, antibod JS; Ma,- W; Andrade, T; Eguiguren, M.; & Eisenberg, JN iesJL; Samloff,in relation IM; to Correa, precancerous P; Blaser, gastric MJ; Xu, lesions GW; in& Am(2014). J Trop Identifying Med Hyg etiological agents causing di aFraumeni, high-risk JF Chinese (1996). population. Cancer Epidemi- Webbarrhea J, C.O.T.; in low Mainville, income Ecuadorian Nicolas; Mergler, communities. Donna ol Biomarkers Prev 91(3): 563-569. 5(8): 627-630. (2015). Mercury Contamination in an Indicator WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 324

El Salvador

The challenges in El Salvador to address the problem of water quality, mainly associated with low levels of treatment and the intensive use of agrochemicals, require, on the one hand, the implementation of treatment and reuse systems, as assumed by the plans announced by the Executive Branch in 2017, and systematic and sustainable support for diversified agricultural production on different scales, based primarily on the use of organic inputs and soil recovery. On the other hand, there is a need to address the causes of the problem by promoting a shift in the economic-social model and current urban and industrial development, which is oriented towards understanding the limits that protect ecosystems and ecological integration in the territories, considering technological implementations and scientific progress as fundamental aspects for promoting knowledge and national capacities in water preservation.

Izalco Volcano from Lake Coatepeque, El Salvador © iStock 325 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

Water Quality in the Americas: El Salvador

Julio César Quiñónez Basagoitia

1. Introduction

1.1 Background This document is part of the IANAS initiative to address, at the continental level, water quality in the Americas, focusing on an analysis of the current status, local problems and dynamics, national strategies adopted -their progress and challenges, normative and legal frameworks, technological implementations and research conducted through national efforts at institutions, universities and academia, as well as an analysis of impacts on water quality, caused by social and economic dynamics, in order to identify opportunities, successful experiences and solutions.

- According to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), established in the 2030 Agenda and assumed by the countries in the UN General Assembly in September 2015, water quality represents one of the main factors highlighted and prioritized in SDG-6, regarding Clean affectsWater andthe Sanitation.health of the A propospopulation, of this, the water availability availability of water and forspecifically human consumption, water quality foodrep production,resent one ofthe the increase main challengesin potabilization in El Salvador, costs and insofar the preservation as its progressive of ecosystems deterioration and the environment. - tants, according to the demographic characteristics recorded in the Household and Multiple El Salvador has an area of 21,040.80 km² and a population in 2017 of 6,581,860 inhabi - Purposes Survey (EHPM) (DIGESTYC, 2017). This survey states that 3,959,652 people reside- in urban areas and 2,622,208 in rural areas, accounting for 60.2% and 39.8% of the popula tion,Figure respectively. 1 shows The the Metropolitan distribution Areaof population of San Salvador density (AMSS) in the iscountry, home tothe 25.7% reddish of the color to oftal the population AMSS being of the the country urban area(1,693,186 with theinhabitants). highest population density. It is set in the hydro-

of pollution due to discharges with little or no domestic or industrial wastewater treat- graphic basin of the Acelhuate River, the main urban river in the country with a high level

ment. According to a report by the Central American Forum and the Dominican Republic on Drinking Water and Sanitation (FOCARD-APS, 2013:8), only 8.52% of the flows operated

Julio César Quiñónez Basagoitia. [email protected] Civil Civil, MSc in Hydrology and Postgraduate degree in Hydraulics. Consultant in Hydrology, Hydraulics and Environment for various public and private entities, both national and international. Researcher in hydrology and speaker at international congresses of the International Water Resources Association (IWRA), professional member in Water Resources of the Global Water Partnership (GWP) and Focal Point in El Salvador of the IANAS Water Program. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 326

Figure 1. Population Density Projection Map

Source: MARN, 2016. by the National Administration of Aqueducts and industries have already been prepared, and are un- Sewers (ANDA) receive prior treatment before being discharged into waterways. Moreover, the level controlder review and by decontamination MARN (2017):55). of urban rivers, the treatment capacity of many of them is exceeded, at resultsAlthough of which the are MARN expected initiative to materialize focuses in on pub the- leastof efficiency partly as of a the result systems of the is incorporation unknown, since of new the sewage networks and the high concentrations of the construction of the four large treatment plants lic works following the obtainment of financing and and a general Plan of Action for the decontamina- the constituents of effluents. - in an estimated period of three years (2018-2020), Regarding this situation, and in order to address the announcement of the Plan - beyond the plan it- the low treatment levels, the Ministry of Environ self-tion andopens recovery up the possibility of the Acelhuate of placing River the in problems 10 years, toment implement and Natural actions Resources in four urban (MARN) watersheds, announced and the “Urban Rivers Recovery Plan” (2016), designed of public attention as a priority national problem. Itsof Watersolution Quality requires and anWater intersectoral Pollution atapproach, the center to andthereby rehabilitation reduce pollution of two in wastewaterthe Acelhuate treatment River by increase research, technological implementations plants80%. Its in implementationSan Salvador (Figures includes 2 and the 3construction), in densely and the role of universities and academia. The state populated areas and industrial zones, and two oth- must also formalize a new regulation for the dis- er treatment plants in the Suquiapa river basins, in - icals and socialization of the problem, taking into Miguel, in the city of the same name. The diagnosis accountcharge ofthe treated context effluents, and analysis control of causal of agrochem variables the city of Santa Ana, and on the Rio Grande de San and the consequences and implications of the dete- the most polluted sections are already available and rioration of water quality in human development. theand designs inventory of theof the Systems main proposedindustries by that a number flow into of This perspective calls for greater responsibility and 327 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

commitment by the economic sectors in the decon- document was prepared with the purpose of safe- tamination, recovery and water-environmental sustainability of the country. A key aspect, albeit one that has not had pub- ly treatingFrom this wastewater, perspective, as noted although in the important MARN Work ac- tionsReport have (2018:55). been undertaken to address the water quality situation, it is essential to prioritize the anal- lic projection or an official announcement by the ysis of its problems, its context and implications, as ofMARN, the quality has been limits the for draftingwastewater of discharge the Technical into well as solutions, while promoting the communica- Wastewater Regulation, which includes the review tion and public socialization of a topic that is directly linked to the health, social, economic and human receiving bodies, as reflected in the MARN Work- development of the country. The goal is to incorpo- Report (2017:54). This Regulation was submitted torate these aspects within comprehensive planning, the Salvadoran Technical Regulatory Body (OSAR - TEC) for its socialization with the regulated sec- toring and obstacles encountered, and by highlight- tors, but it is not yet considered an official, updated ingwhich its willachievements be reflected and through expected its follow-up, results through moni normative instrument. In 2017, the document enti- the systematization of indicators and an estab- tled Recommendations for the Selection of Urban - wereWastewater also drawn Treatments up for for Wastewater El Salvador Treatmentwas draft ing to this objective, at least half of all untreated wa- Planted in conjunctionImprovement with Plans, CEDEX which of Spain.have beenGuidelines avail- lished schedule, in accordance with SDG-6 . Accord able to municipalities and companies in the wastethat there should be national wastewater treatment water treatment subsector, and a wastewater reuse ter must be reduced within 12 years, which implies

coverage of at least 54.3% by 2030. Figure 2. Sites selected for intervention. Acelhuate River Basin WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 328

Figura 3. Rehabilitación de un tramo del río Acelhuate. Quebrada El Piro

Purpose: Equipment of public spaces in metropolitan area

Short Term Medium Term Long Term

Awareness, Dialogue and Sanitation and Recovery Accessibility and Equipment Impacts Compliance

Observation of urban rivers Decontamination of fluvial Monitoring of river course Creation of researcher/expert teams channels (Construction of • organic load of the Acelhuate river treatment plant) • Compliance with norms Would remove 5% of entire Technical regulations of waste Water Quality water electricity related disasters Capable of generating 45 kw of Joint inspections by ANDA, MARN Works for protection against flood- Resource management: Water and Access to public and leisure spaces and MINDAL Energy for population of San Salvador Technical Actions Technical Technical Actions Technical Environmental geocompliance Municipal Council platforms Urban Permeation Measures Risk Management Management and prevention of disaster risk Awareness and information Design and improvement of Supply of educational and leisure campaigns and programs (new river paths equipment culture) Construction of pedestrian Creation of touristic and cultural Economic development bridges and cycle lanes Creation and organization of spaces, and artistic partnerships community work and cleaning Treatment of borders groups Establishment of urban agriculture companies General Actions General Communal spaces to increase in risk zone awareness Relocation of communities located Housing project alongside river

Lighting in public spaces

1.2 Principal water quality problems in the country The principal water quality problems are direct- tainable, equitable development, which prioritizes ly associated with the low level of wastewater and the control, reduction and elimination of polluting industrial water treatment and the limited use of sources. treated water, extractive mining activities, open There is a need for a public authority constitut- solid waste dumps, the presence of high fecal coli- ing an executive body, which will ensure compliance form concentrations in certain groundwater bod- with the legal framework, and focus on cooperation ies and the intensive use of agrochemicals in agri- links and inter-institutional coordination, the pro- cultural plantations, mainly in coastal areas where motion of knowledge and research, the formulation an increase in liver affectations and chronic kidney of technical regulations regarding the implemen- diseases, unrelated to traditional causal conditions tation of economically and technologically feasible such as hypertension and diabetes mellitus, has treatment systems. It is also essential to update the been reported. regulations concerning disposal, discharge condi- All these aspects that have become more com- - environmental cultural values, which will contrib- ated by not having a management model or public utetions to and increasing the use interest, of treated participation, effluents, and and promote aware- planningplex over forthe sanitation, years are aas reflection well as the of absencethe gap creof a ness by citizens and the various social, economic National Water Authority, to establish guidelines and political sectors, in an integral understanding for decision making within the perspective of sus- of the problem and its solutions. 329 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

One aspect that has contributed to the failure to 1.3 Objectives and scope of the Water launch a process to begin reversing the acute deteri- Quality chapter-El Salvador - The purpose of this chapter is to highlight and an- idate an institutional mechanism of regulation, con- alyze the elements and aspects that constitute the troloration and of integral water qualitypreservation in El Salvador, of water and resources, to consol is problems and implications of the deterioration of water quality, and to promote guidelines for the - adoption of actions in various cross-cutting axes, the non-approval of a General Water Law, due to the based on the Sustainable Development Objectives, prolongation of discussions in the Legislative Assem bly, following the submission of its Bill by the Ministry sanitation. theof Environment conception andof the Natural public Resources nature of in the March govern 2012.- with an emphasis on SDG-6 regarding water and ing body,One of which the essential has encountered points raised strong in opposition the Bill is in the political factions that represent and defend 2. Water quality authorities the interests of key business groups linked to water and governance use and exploitation, who are pushing to establish a private authority for water management. 2.1 Legal framework -

environmentalIn this regard, organizations the Office for and the the Defense José Simeón of Hu controlAlthough and the governance country does is governed not yet by have legal a Generalpowers man Rights (PDDH), the Catholic Church hierarchy, Water Law, the legal framework for water quality- urged those responsible for making political de- Cañas Central American University (UCA) have theconferred Health mainly Code. onOther MARN, partial through and sectoral the Environ com- petencesment Law, are and assigned Ministry in of accordanceHealth (MINSAL), with the through legal Theycisions have to reflectstated andthat exercisewater is theira national constitutional supreme functions of certain public institutions such as ANDA goodfunction for ofpublic legislating use, whose for the domain benefit belongsof the country. to the Nation and, therefore, that the state must exercise - its co-participation as a priority over other sectors, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAG).- assuming responsibility for ensuring and promoting Articlewater quality 49 of the on Environmentthe basis of Lawtechnical (1998) stan esing the proper administration, public management dards.tablishes To this that end, MARN it has is a responsible water quality for laboratory, supervis and governance of water, as essential aspects that which obtained its quality accreditation under ISO/ cannot be marginalized, relegated or transferred - to other sectoral or private entities. This is partic- sible for the issuance of technical guidelines, which mustIEC/17025:2005 guarantee inthat 2016. all dischargesIt is also the of entitypolluting respon sub- achieve universal, equitable access to drinking wa- stances into receiving bodies are previously treated terularly and true sanitation since SDG-6 at a fair, establishes affordable the price priority for all. to by those who produce them. In this respect, the challenges for the preserva- These aspects also extend to the protection of tion of water quality and the associated problems coastal-marine, ecosystem and soil areas, with spe- are an integrating effort that must be assumed and - conducted as a state priority, since this objective vention and control of soil contamination, for which is directly linked to an extension of the sanitation cial emphasispromote on Art. the 50 integrated on the exercise management of the pre of strategy, pollution control and reduction and agro- pests, fertilizers and the use of fertilizers, fungicides chemical use, the regulation of domestic discharges, andit must natural “ insecticides in agricultural activity, in the regulation and sustainable zoning of territories, order to achieve the gradual substitution of agro- and a reformulation of the regulatory framework chemicals by bio-ecological natural products”. This is on the disposal and permissible concentrations of an essential aspect that requires broad public pro- industrial discharges. At present, in many essen- jection at the national level, in order to promote a tial parameters, regulations are a long way from the turnaround and begin a process of transformation guidelines and values of concentrations allowed in towards the use of organic products compatible accordance with international standards. with aquifer and surface water protection. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 330

and monitors the quality of the water it supplies - the population through its aqueduct system. It also vironmentalOn the other sanitation hand, programsin Art. 59, and the actions,Health Codesuch has a technical regulation to establish the maxi- as(1988) the conferseradication on MINSAL of vectors, the powerin order to developto improve en mum permitted concentrations of wastewater dis- the quality of water supply, as well as measures charged into the sewer system, from building and for the disposal of excreta and wastewater mainly industrial projects. in rural areas, where sanitation usually involves la- Taking into account these four key areas in the trines, septic tanks and absorption wells. These ac- life of the country, which could also include the Hy- tions are also designed to control soil, water and air pollutants, in order to protect the health of the country’s inhabitants. droelectric Commission of the Lempa River (CEL), From the perspective of the agricultural sector, governancethe Public Works of water Portfolio quality (MOP) and the and environmental the Offices of perspectiveUrban Planning from andeach Territorial entity have Development, historically been the provides that sewage of any kind and discharges characterized by the dispersion of roles, approach- Art 100 of the Law of Irrigation and Drainage (1970) competencies, and a legal framework which lacks a theinto Ministry natural orof Health,artificial and channels that these must entities be treated must Nationales and purposes, Water Authority. based on However,partial and the sectoral creation Law of andexercise purified the innecessary advance vigilance as established and supervision by MAG and in manufacturing, mining or agricultural establishments," whose activities may make waters unusable”. the Environmental Sustainability and Vulnerability - andCabinet two inautonomous 2014, which institutions, comprises sevenhas made ministries, it pos- - siblethe Technical to undertake Secretariat articulated, of the planned President’s and coordi Office- At the samewill establish time, Art. the 101 measuresestablishes for: that a) the Prevent Exec- - ingutive water Power pollution; in the branch b) preventing of Agriculture the use and of water Live sures in order to strengthen the control, regulation thatstock reduces “ soil fertility of the soil; and c) protecting andnated monitoring actions with the MARN institution to implement performs, joint among mea aquatic fauna and flora”. other aspects, related to water resource protection and management. However, one of the main obstacles to the pres- of waterWith and the entrynatural into systems force become of the Environment more clear- ervation of water quality and the natural environ- Law in 1998, these aspects related to the protection- ment, is in the permitted concentrations of the mally, they remain the express attributions of the - ly the direct responsibility of MARN, although for ceiving bodies, established in the national regula- which, in practice, would imply the exercise of joint, tions,constituent which, parts in many of effluents cases, far in exceeddischarges those into of rein- coordinatedMAG set out andin the binding Law on work Irrigation between and both Drainage, institutions for the protection of water and natural re- of discharge values established in the Mandatory sources, as well as the promotion of sustainable ternational guidelines. This is reflected in the ranges agricultural production. This is particularly import- with the majority representation of the economic ant given that one of the problems with the greatest andSalvadoran productive Standard sectors (2009), of the draftedcountry, and the approvedvalues of impact on water quality is intensive agrochemical which, assigned by type of industry (coffee processing, tanneries, distilleries, food processing, dairy conventional agriculture for the production of basic products, sugar mills, soaps, detergents and medi- grains,use, mainly the importancereflected in ofsugarcane increasing plantations agro-produc and- cines, etc.), are high for certain parameters, such as tive diversity on a smaller scale and the implementation of a permanent mechanism for the gradual substitution of organic inputs for agrochemicals, as BOD5 (60-3,000 mg/l), COD (100-3,500 mg/l) and capacitiesTotal Suspended of the receivingSolids TSS bodies (60-1000 and mg/l). internation These- values significantly exceed the natural assimilation- thisestablished autonomous by the entity Environmental has its own Law. physical-chemical Regardinganalysis laboratory, the attributions through of which the ANDA it controls Law, al guidelines, such as those in the Safety and Envi ronmental Health Guidelines (World Bank, US EPA, Levi Strauss & Co., 2007), which establish guidelines 331 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

the framework of the expansion of the groundwater

mg/l).for the The discharge same situation of BOD5 of (30-50 discrepancies mg/l), DQO between (125- - Salvadoran250 mg/l) and regulations Total Suspended and international Solids (SST) guidelines (45-50 suringmonitoring and datanetwork, collection in 2017, instruments a well was for drilled analysis on andthe UCAfollow-up. premises, including equipment with mea A propos of this, it is important to note that in is reflected in the case of heavy metals. research in Coatepeque lake to monitor the prolif- erationThe of University cyanobacteria, of El Salvadorwhich has has been undertaken comple- concerning2005, Decree the No. discharge 50 and of Reform special 51wastewater (ANDA, 1987) into thewere sewerage modified network. as regards The new the regulations ANDA regulations (ANDA, Other important actions include the project to - improvemented by water research quality undertaken through bythe MARN. elimination of sible values of fats, heavy metals and phenolic com- the aluminum ion from the drinking water supply 2005) showed a significant increase in the permis

andpounds. the treatmentThis modification capacity hasof installed become systems. an incident in the San Diego department of Morazán, signed by factor in accentuating the reduction of efficiencies the Association Basic Sanitation, Health Education 2.2 Relations with NGOs, universities, and2.3. AlternativeMonitoring Energies and database(SABES) and the MARN. scientific research, etc. 2.3.1 Surface water The contribution and interest of universities and In order to determine the spatial impact of water quality status over time and to have an instrument of water quality has increased and strengthened in for management and decontamination for priority recentcertain years. NGOs Work in the and preservation research have and largely monitoring been undertaken in coordination and complementarity Surfaceareas, in Water 2007, Monitoring2009, 2010, Program.2011 , 2013 Monitoring and 2018, hasthe involved the Cooperation Agreement between the MARN undertook annual reports on the National with MARN and ANDA. One significant effort has - duebeen to undertaken their use for at human between consumption, 118 and 123 irrigation, sampling José Simeón Cañas Central American University recreationpoints in 55 and rivers, maintenance which are of extremely aquatic life. important The riv- (UCA) and the MARN in 2017, involving the compi Pirolation in of urban an Atlas and comprising environmental 50 maps terms. with This various gorge istypes located of information in the southwest on the state of the of capital,the Quebrada San Sal El- ers were evaluated using the Water Quality Index vador, and the project forms part of the decontam- (WQI), which has been formulated with a score of- treme,between poor 0 and quality 100. Excellent has been water established quality ashas values been - set at values of between 81-100 while at the other ex phicationination plan of reservoirs, for the Acelhuate using remote River. analysis Likewise, and in - monitoring2013 the UCA technologies. undertook a Atpilot the study same on time, the withineutro oritybetween analysis 0 and parameters, 25. In order where to determine dissolved the oxygen, WQI, specific weights are assigned to each of the nine pri

Table 1. Percentage of sites in relation to surface water quality Percentage of sites Water Quality 2006 2007 2009 2010 2011 2013

Excellent 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Good 17% 3% 0% 2% 12% 5% Regular 50% 45% 60% 65% 50% 73% Very Poor Bad 20% 46% 31% 27% 31% 17% 13% 6% 9% 6% 7% 5% Source: Programa de Monitoreo de la Calidad del Agua (MARN, 2013). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 332

Figure 4. Surface Water Classification Map according to the ICA, 2011-2013

Source: Programa de Monitoreo de la Calidad del Agua (MARN, 2013).

- terrible” was - aver- fecal coliforms, pH and BOD5 have the highest val agety whereasbad no WQI in the category of “ Foundationues of specific (NSF), weights. assigning The importance methodology on was the deba- obtained. A total of 68% were classified as “ - sisveloped of national on the guidelines. basis of the US National Sanitation ly, the” or same “ ”,study and 32%notes of that the currentlymeasurement no site points has waterobtained suitable a “good” for potabilization WQI (MARN, 2017).by conventional Converse whichRecently, provides in September information 2018, on MARNthe water launched balance, the wateron-line management, platform “Water quality Information indicators, System” and the (SIHI), geo- thesemethods methods. compared There to has2013, also when been 29% a decreaseof the sites in graphical information system, among other aspects, analyzed were suitable for purification through which is extremely useful for institutions and sectors related to water use. www.marn.gob.sv/sihi the Innumber the case of rivers of the suitable measurements for irrigation made (28% in the in 2013 and 10% in 2017). av- points were established, unlike the four points re- erageAccordingterrible to the”, due MARN mainly water to high quality concentra report- cordedAcelhuate in Riverprevious during reports. 2017, only For two both measurement measure- (2011), 88% of the rivers had a WQI of between “ ” and “ - - tions of fecal coliforms. In Table2013, greater 1 shows deterioration the level of ment points in relation to previous years, in 2017, was detected, amounting to 95% for the same cate fecal coliform concentrations were 7.9 and 1.6 mil goryFigure rank (MARN, 4 2013). - lion NMP/100ml. Those registered in 2013 for thosewater quality for the years between 2006 and 2013. same points are 0.79 and 0.22 million NMP/100ml,- shows theterrible classification” category of in surface red spots, wa and for 2011 0.35 and 0.05 million NMP/100ml, re mainlyter quality in the at Acelhuatethe national river level basin. for the period 2011- flecting a gradual increase in fecal coliform concen- 2013, indicating the “ periencedtrations between by certain 2011 andrivers 2017. located in the south- - westThe zone 2017 of results the capital, show theprecisely gradual within pollution the urex- In the last monitoring report carried out in 2017, MARN reported an improvement in average quali 333 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

ban expansion advancing in the balsam mountain their attractive landscape and as carriers of water range with the rapid deterioration of its basins that resources to support communities and local biodi- stretch as far as the coastal plain. The San Antonio versity, are currently experiencing high pollutant loads resulting from domestic and industrial waste- areas with abundant forest cover and valued for water from new housing, commercial and industri- and El Jute rivers, regarded as clean and located in

Figure 5. Monitoring of piezometric levels in the Nejapa aquifer

445 444 443 442 441 440 43 43 43 436 Piezometric level measured (masl) measured level Piezometric 435 06/12/11 06/12/1 06/12/15 06/12/13 06/12/12 06/12/14 06/12/16 06/03/1 06/0/11 06/06/11 06/03/15 06/03/13 06/03/12 06/0/1 06/06/1 06/0/15 06/0/13 06/03/14 06/03/1 06/06/15 06/03/16 06/06/13 06/0/12 06/06/12 06/0/14 06/0/16 06/06/14 06/06/16

Source: Informe de monitoreo de niveles piezométricos acuífero de Nejapa y San Salvador, Sección Hidrogeología (DGOA, 2018). Figure 6. Map of groundwater monitoring network - Zapotitán

Source: Hydrogeological monitoring report (DGOA, 2016). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 334

Table 2. Physical-chemical results of four wells in the Santa Ana aquifer, 2016 Parameter Unit NSO 13.07.01.08 SA-01 SA-02 SA-04 SA-09 Hydrogen potential (pH) - - 727 6-8.5 6.88 6.69 6.88 8.32 Salinity ppt - 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.4 Electrical conductivity (CE) μsiemens/cm 571.5 510 494.5 Alkalinity mg/l CaCO - ) mg/l CaCO - 3 182.76 139.25 163.18 211.05 Bicarbonate (HCO3 3 182.76 139.25 163.18 175.57 Calcium (Ca) mg/l Ca - Boron (B) 4.88 3.9 2.99 3.98 Carbonates (CaCO ) mg/l CaCO - 0 0 0 54.55 39.14 56.23 66.13 Chlorides (Cl-) mg/l Cl- - 3 3 35.47 Total hardness of water mg/l CaCO 203.31 31.55 26.62 20.95 46.83 Fluorine (F) mg/l F - 0.24 3 500 177.9 215.8 251.1 Phosphate (PO ) mg/l PO - 0.02 0.11 0.24 2.28 0.25 0.19 Iron (Fe) mg/l Fe 0.30 0.173 43- 43- 0.65 Magnesium (Mg) mg/l Mg - 0.052 <0.009 <0.009 Manganese (Mn) mg/l Mn 0.10 <0.024 <0.024 <0.024 <0.024 16.3 19.47 18.31 20.88 Nitrates (NO ) mg/l NO 42.02 Potassium (K) mg/l K - 13.1 3- 3- 45.00 16.9 81.4 89.09 Silica (SiO ) mg/l SiO - 77.22 8.95 5.23 15.1 Total dissolved solids (TDS) mg/l 1000 242 2 2 89.09 108.86 103.59 Sodium (Na) mg/l Na 200.00 22 280 249.5 356 Sulfates (SO ) mg/l SO 400.00 34 25 19.5 35.5 4 4 46 46 50 Hydrogeological monitoring report: Santa Ana aquifer (DGOA, 2016).

- zometric monitoring, the Nejapa aquifer reports a liform concentration of the sampling point in those constant decrease in its levels as illustrated in Fig- al projects. Thus, for example, in 2013, the fecal co ure 5 one of the main groundwater reservoirs for supply- rivers reported values of 200 and 210 NPM/100ml,- ing water. Located to the 24 population km from the of capital, the AMSS. it constitutes However, ly.respectively. Similar deterioration On the other has hand, been in observed2017, it reported in oth- in recent years, it has been severely affected by the values of 92,000 and 49,000 NPM/100ml, respective extractions carried out by beverage companies and and the loss of dissolved oxygen. the recent construction of large-scale logistics and er parameters, such as BOD5, phosphates, phenols urban projects, which have placed it in a permanent 2.3.2 Groundwater situation of overexploitation, as analyzed in the study presented by the Municipality of Nejapa, in- - ternational cooperation entities and social and en- Groundwater has been monitored since 2012- vironmental organizations united in the Water Fo- through the Hydrogeology section of the Gener interpretational Directorate of existingthe MARN hydrogeological Environmental informa Obser- tion,vatory the (DGOA-MARN). measurement It of involves piezometric the analysis levels and rum (Quiñónez, 2013). sample-taking for the physical-chemical character- The water quality of the Zapotitán, Santa Ana ization of the groundwater, in order to analyze its mainand SanIrrigation Miguel District aquifers in the was country, monitored located in about 2016 - (DGOA-MARN, 2016). The Zapotitán aquifer is the- suitability for human consumption. Regarding pie 30 km west of the AMSS. Its main purpose is the ir 335 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

Santa Ana, located in the west of the country, the as plots of vegetables and fruit trees on a smaller arsenic concentrations (As) measured are within scale.rigation On of the sugarcane, other hand, corn the and aquifers bean fields, of Santa as wellAna and San Miguel correspond to the hydrogeological areas for the water supply of the most important Tablethe regulation 2 shows ofthe 0.01 results mg/liter, obtained. with concentrations cities after the capital, located in the west and east reportedA second within and the third range report of 0.00074-0.00189 is the Physico-Chem mg/l.- of the country, respectively.

- ical Characterization of Groundwater in Porous ty, bicarbonate,The parameters boron analyzed (only in in the the dry 2016 season), monitoring cal- Aquifers in the Coastal Zone (DGOA-MARN, 2015 were as follows: pH, conductivity, salinity, alkalini mand and 2016), a moderate which refersyield, hydrogeologically to shallow aquifers charac with- phosphates, iron, manganese, magnesium, nitrates, domestic artisanal wells with an average size of 10 ammoniacium, carbonates, nitrogen, chloride, potassium, total silica, hardness, total dissolved fluorine, and average productivity,” essential for supplying solids, sodium, sulfates, among others, according to theterized inhabitants as a “Porous and communities aquifer unit inwith the a area large which size lack potable water service through distribution sys- monitoring does not contemplate bacteriological tems involving indoor or community pipes. Howev- analysis.the NSO forFigure drinking 6 shows water the (MINSAL, hydrogeological 2009). DGOA units er, given the conditions of vulnerability to pollution of the aquifer, and according to the same study, the - extracted water is only used for domestic purposes terand monitoring monitoring network network for of semi-deepthe Zapotitán wells. area and and not for human consumption. the Accordingmap of El Salvadorto the parameters and the national analyzed groundwa in the dry The vast territory of the coastal plain, particularly the areas formed by the low areas of the de- - uesseason exceeding (November-April) the NSO standard of 2016, for and drinking in the water, three San Miguel, is extremely vulnerable to the impacts withstudy values sites, nitratesfor the case(NO3) of andthe SantaBoron Ana (B) aquifer>had val ofpartments pollution of due Usulután, to the intensive San Vicente, use Cuscatlánmade of agro and- chemicals, mainly in sugarcane plantations and, to a lesser extent, in agricultural plots assigned for 81 mg/l for nitrates and between 2.99-4.88 mg/l for the production of corn, beans and certain vege- boron, with permissible values being 45 mg/l and 0.3 mg/l, respectively. In the same Department of Figure 8. Arsenic concentrations

0.20

0.15

0.10 Concentration mgl Concentration 0.05

0 COM- COM- COM- COM- COM- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- ICHA- a a a a a a a

Dry Season 0.011 0.034 0.041 0.01 0.053 0.001 0.002 0.00 E-04 0.014 0.223 0.023 0.001 0.002 0.012 0.002

Norm 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010 0.010

Source: Well monitoring report (DGOA, 2016). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 336

Figure 7. Map of monitoring of artesian wells, 2015

Source: Well monitoring report (DGOA, 2015). tables during the rainy season. Moreover, most of In this respect, the reports establish the need to undertake research to determine whether the ori- Figure 7 and estimated to be in the or- gin of these concentrations is natural and typical of the population in these specific areas, indicated as- the hydrogeological characteristics of the aquifer or Fter and treatment G in systems, and their disposal is carried whether it is due to external agents. outder usingof 70,000 latrines inhabitants, and sinkholes, lacks adequate which become wastewa focal points of contamination for the surface aquifer. According to the report, monitoring was carried wasAs found regards that itsiron, concentration its presence exceeded was identified the limit in over 90% of the sampling wells and, in 15 of them, it- Figure 9. Theout in metals October or metalloids 2015 –during analyzed the rainy were season- arsenic, in theto- established by the standard of 0.3 mg/liter, with sig- coastal strip of the country and in 50 artesian wells. nificantly high values, as shown in Likewise, the presence of manganese was iden- oftal them, iron (Fe)values and exceeded manganese the maximum (Mn). In 43permissible sites, the trationstified in exceeded over 90% the of theadmissible wells monitored limit established and, in presence of As was found in groundwater and, in 18 more than 50%, it was determined that concenFigure 10). Manganese is used in the manufacture of de- levels of 0.01 mg/l, reaching a maximum value of 0.12 tergents,by the NSO cleaners, standard, bleaches which and is disinfectants 0.1 mg/l ( such mg/l in the HT13a well in the F region.Figure Monitoring 8. This as potassium permanganate, an oxidizing agent zoneof this corresponds same well in to May the delta2016 (dryregion season) at the yielded mouth employed in various industrial products. Howev- an As value of 0.23 mg/l, as shown in er, the report states that more research is needed phreatic levels of the porous aquifer and in an area to establish the origin and causal aspects of high of highthe Lempa susceptibility River, whose to external flows contaminants. interact with the concentrations. 337 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

problems in the country 3.1 Eutrophication 3. Main water quality - In 2013, in order to determine the status of the wet Figure 9. Iron concentration

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

Concentration mgl Concentration 0.10

0.05

0 COM- COM- COM- COM- COM- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- ICHA- a a a a a a a

Dry Season 2.03 0.00 0.20 0.21 0.056 0.14 0.60 0.32 0.1 1.12 0.56 0.5 2.222 0.042 0.00 0.00 Rainy Season 1. 0.00 0.00 0.2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.6 0.00 0.00 0.00 - 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300

Source: DGOA, 2016. Figure 10. Manganese concentration

2.0

1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0. Concentration mgl Concentration 0.6

0.4

0.2

0 COM- COM- COM- COM- COM- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- HTE- ICHA- a a a a a a a

Dry Season 0.366 0.024 0.0 0.14 1.3 0.062 1.5 0.1 0.21 1.562 0.5 0.43 1.043 0.024 0.232 0.024 Rainy Season 0.444 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 0.024 1.341 0.024 1.314 0.024 0.024 0.024 - 0.024 0.22 0.024 Norm 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

Source: DGOA, 2016. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 338

Figure - 12 shows the results of water samples from their lands and their eutrophication conditions, the UCA,- entranceand those tofrom the 3.5 reservoir to 5 mg/l in in the orange-red. Northwest area inervoir, coordination including with conductivity, MARN, monitored dissolved the oxygen, physi until their exit in the point area of the dike in the temperature,cal-chemical variablesoxide-reduction in the “Cerrón potential Grande” and respH Southeast, showing that large concentrations occur at the entrance to the reservoir, as a result of being This dam, the largest body of water in the coun- - (UCA, 2013). - huate, Suquiapa and Sucio river dam. the area of confluence and the entrance to the Acel try, with an area of 135 km², is located on the riv er Lempa. It was built as part of the construction of theurban Cerrón basins Grande and Hydroelectricagro-industry, Power including Plant the in Figure 11. Dispersion of dissolved oxygen, Cerrón Grande reservoir Suquiapa1976. Three river main basin, rivers which converge collects on the the waters reservoir from formed by large agricultural, residential and indus- trialthe city regions, of Santa and Ana, the the Acelhuate Sucio River, river whose basin, basin which is constitutes the hydrographic area of the AMSS.

- odologyIn addition for continuous to finding water out about quality the monitoring conditions asof athe pilot wetland, project, the while UCA studyevaluating sought advanced to design technol a meth- ogies for its remote monitoring. On the basis of the results, it drew up water quality maps and incorporated new Internet technologies and Wireless Sen- sor Networks, using numerical methods, simulation shows the spatial dispersion of the dissolved oxygen oftools the and surface geographic layer in information different colors, systems. with Figure those in11 the order of 14 mg/l reflected in blue concentrations Source: UCA, 2013.

Figure 12. Results of water samples, Cerrón Grande reservoir Lempa River Entrance Lempa River Entrance 0.100 40 0.00 30 0.060 20 0.040 10 Entrance Entrance BOD (mg O ₂ L) BOD (mg of reservoir 0.020 of reservoir

0 Phosphorus (mgL) 1 4 6 0 1 2 3 4 5

140 4.0 120 100 3.0 0 60

2.0 in cm disk 40

Depth of Secchi of Depth 20 0 0 1 4 6 1 2 3 4 5 Ammonium (mg NH ₃ -NL) Ammonium (mg

Source: UCA, 2013. 339 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

Figure 13. Taxonomic groups found, Cerrón Grande reservoir Number of genres by class 14

12 Actinocrocee Bciriocee Corocee 10 Cnocee inocee necee A icrosystis 6 4 2 ynedra 0 CG1 CG2 CG4 CG6 CG CG

Total genres 26 ediastrum 1 13 12 11

CG1 CG2 CG4 CG6 CG CG lorophyta (unidenti�ied genres)

Source: UCA, 2013.

Figure 14. Photograph of water hyacinth removal A characterization of the type of algae was also carried out, representing the taxonomic groups found, as shown in Figure 13. - - For its part, MARN, in the “Water Hyacinth Con trol” Report (2016), reports high levelsEichhornia of eutrophi cras- sipescation in major wetlands nationwide, with 50% Jocotalto 60% siteswater located hyacinth in the coverage east of ( the country, and ), as in the case of the RAMSAR, Olomega anding to the report, these recurrent annual cycles of eutrophicationthe Nahualapa Lagoonare caused in the by central the high zone. content Accord of nutrients (nitrates and phosphates), as well as organic matter entering the wetlands from domestic wastewater and waste leached from livestock areas. Source: MARN, 2016. Figure 15. Coatepeque Lake Figure 14 shows the removal of water hyacinth in

- peque,Olomega, one in ofthe the department most important of La Unión. natural beauty andAnother tourist sites key in site the for country analysis located is Lake in the Coate Ap-

- aneca-Ilamatepec mountain range, in Los Volcanes- National Park, declared a Biosphere Reserve by UN ESCO in 2007. The lake, with an area of 24.8 km², lo wallscated that740 meterssurround above the sealake level, and hasreach a watershedheights of with an area of 70.25 km², comprising hillsides and other words, the runoff has no outlet and instead between 250 and 300 m. Its basin is endorheic, in WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 340

drains from the slopes that border it, given its vol- Figure 16. National University Study canic geological formation, directly into the lake, which has subterranean connections with other riv- "Intense Proliferation of Cyanobacteria in ers in the area. Coatepeque Lake, Santa Ana; tests of paralyzing This physiography means that all anthropic ac- toxins and causative organisms" tions, involving tourism or agroproduction, undertaken on its banks and hillsides, have direct reper- Espinoza Navarrete J. J. cussions on its natural processes and bio-aquatic Professor at the Laboratory of Marine Toxins at Universidad de San Salvador. [email protected] system. Amaya Monterrosa O. A. The last decade has seen changes in the color of Professor at School of Physics. Coordinator of Laboratory of Marine Toxins at Universidad de San Salvador. [email protected]

Rivera Torres W. E. Research Assistant at Laboratory of Marine Toxins at Universidad de San Salvador. [email protected] theLake rainy Coatepeque, season. Onin Octoberthis last 2006,date, Septemberit only achieved 2012, September 2015, August 2016 and June 2017 during Ruíz Rodríguez G. A. Fig- Researcher at Laboratory of Marine Toxins at Universidad de San Salvador. [email protected] ure 15). 20% of the turquoise shade it had in 2012 (see Escobar Muñoz J. D. - Research Assistant at Laboratory of Marine Toxins at Universidad de San Salvador. [email protected]

This situation has been monitored by the Uni- cal-chemicalversity of El Salvador parameters (UES) being and MARNevaluated (2016) such since as Source: UES, 2013. dissolvedthe first event oxygen, occurred, surface withtemperature, a number pH of and physi level of transparency through the Secchi disk. In the Figure 17. Sampling of parameters - 0 0 0 T C O D mgl pH ence of cyanobacteria, mainly Microcystis aerugino- -5 -5 -5 last event of June 2017, as in August 2016, the pres sa, was detected (see Figure 16). According to the -10 2 -10 -10 .5 2.5 -15 -15 -15 2 6.5 2.5 6 -20 2 -20 5.5 -20 results, a stable temperature of 26.9° was found in 26.5 5 4.5 - -25 26 -25 -25 4 the surface layer with a depth of 16 m, where the 25.5 3.5 -30 -30 -30 25 3 thermocline is located, with a pH of 8.5 and a dis 24.5 2.5 decreased as the depth increased. (mt) Depth (mt) Depth 2 (mt) Depth -35 24 -35 -35 1.5 solved oxygen concentration of 6 to 7.5 mg/l , which 23.5 1 -40 23 -40 0.5 -40 22.5 0 According to the study undertaken by the UES -45 -45 -45 (2013), an average population between 10,000 and -50 -50 -50 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 60,000 cel/ml was determined for the five sampling- Distance km Distance km Distance km tirepoints, surface with of a the maximum lake turned value a shade of 130,000 of turquoise. cel/ml. During this event, in September 2012, almost the en- - However, the events of 2016 and 2017 were less in hours, weeks or seasons, and their accumulation figurestense than 17 andthose 18. observed in 2012. Some of the pa tends to be recurrent in the same water bodies. rametersAccording analyzed to the by WHO MARN guidelines, in 2016 are blooms shown and in Their cell tissue can accumulate as slag, usually on accumulations of cyanobacteria may occur in the the surface or in the thermocline zone of thermal- presence of high concentrations of nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen), which generally come from of a changing state, which can be caused by the en- - richmently stratified of bodiesnutrients of aswater. external Blooms agents are inthe aquatic result tions derived from agricultural fertilizers, which ecosystems (see figures 19 and 20). The WHO has iswastewater increased by effluents the susceptibility and runoff to with erosion, concentra defor- established a guideline value for drinking water of estation and sediment trawling, as happens in cer- - - blooms can occur for periods with a duration of 0.001 mg/L (1.0 μg/L) for the presence of cyanotox tain areas of the Coatepeque Lake watershed. These ins or total microcystin RL. Likewise, for recreation al use, it has established a guideline of 20,000 cel/ml. 341 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

Figure 18. Variation of parameters with depth Toxins are released as a result of the aging of Temperature (ºC) cell blooms, or treatment with algaecides (copper 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 2 2 derivatives or organic herbicides), which promotes 0 the rupture of the cells. Thus, for example, the treat- 2 ment of cell blooms with copper sulfate may lead to 4 cell death and a complete release of toxins into the 6 p p p surrounding water. 10 According to prospective epidemiological stud- 12 ies cited in the document Cyanobacteria and cya- Depth (m) Depth 14 Impacts on human health - 16 1 rash,notoxins: vomiting, diarrhea, cold symptoms, (García, mouth undat ul- 20 cersed), theand measured fever, derived effects from were: recreational eye irritation, contact skin Oxygen (mgL) with water with the presence of Microcystis spp in 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 0 2 prolonged bathing times, which may develop into 4 cumulativeconcentrations liver mainly damage over when 20,000 exposure cel/ml becomes and in 6 recurrent. p p p - 10 formulat- 12 Depth (m) Depth ing Givenguidelines this for situation, wastewater in 2016,management the MARN in Lake un 14 dertook actions to improve sanitation, “ 16 Coatepeque, in response to the diagnosis made of 472 1 activities carried out on the banks of the lake, which 20 identified deficiencies in the discharge of its wastewater. Specific proposals for treatment and dis-

Source: MARN, 2016. charges were drawn up for the activities identified in restaurants (100 visitors per day), recreational farms Figure 19. Cyanobacteria present in Lake Coatepeque 2017 and homes

3.2. Agrochemicals" (MARN, 2017:54). Intensive agrochemical use has become one of the main pollutants affecting surface and groundwater, particularly in certain areas of the coastal plain, which greatly affects the livelihoods of the local population as regards the water supply for various domestic uses, food production and the health of its inhabitants.

Figure 20. Sampling points, August 2016. Lake Coatepeque DiseasesAccording (NCDs) to thehave annual become MINSAL a major reports challenge (2013- for2014 the and health 2014-2015), system due Chronic to the Noncommunicable growing number of people affected and treated at hospital centers in

most recurrent is Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD), comparison with the period 2008-2009. Among the

inwhich, patients according directly to related the research to the use (MINSAL, of agrochemi 2015:- calsChap. or 4), residence in its early in areas stages, with reveals high exposureits toxic nature to the latter. These chemicals also have a major effect on WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 342

Table 3. Results of water analysis for human consumption Type of analysis Total samples Total within norm Percentage within norm

Physical-chemical Bacteriological 7881 7315 92.82% Trace of metals 317 752 596 79.26% 459 69.06% Source: MINSAL, 2017. water sources, mainly in the artisanal wells of sur- ricultural Product Control, designed to regulate the face aquifers located in the low-lying areas of the production, marketing, distribution, import, ex- country or coastal plain, which are essential for port and use of pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides, supplying the population, since this area is the hy- improvers and other chemical or biological chem- drographic area where the largest number of cases ical products for agricultural, livestock and veteri- has been reported. nary uses and their raw materials. Moreover, as a Studies have determined a type of CKD with a different origin from the causal variables accord- - ganochlorineresult of monitoring and paraquat these polluting pesticides agents, into drinking in 2015, MINSAL incorporated the analysis of carbamate, or ing to global averages, in which 43 to 50% of CKD tested positive for carbamates; while paraquat was establishedis associated as with the leadingDiabetes cause Mellitus of death and in20 the to pub30%- water monitoring. Of 386 samples analyzed, 41% with arterial hypertension. By 2013, CKD had been- termined that the harmful effects of agro-industry, positivefound in for 74.19% the presence of a second of organochlorines. group of 461 samples, Table lic health system. At the same time, MINSAL de 3and shows in a thirdthe consolidated group of 296 result samples, of water36.48% analysis tested number of people affected, a growing contribution for human consumption, undertaken nationwide in tomining general and mortality, agrochemicals, an increasing are reflected incidence in the in high the burden of premature disability in the population, - a complex level of approach and high care costs. the period 2016-2017. Some of the research that has served as a basis for In order to strengthen its field of action regard addressing this problem and the adoption of mea- ing this problem, MINSAL coordinated efforts with- dateMAG regulatoryand MARN documents, to reactivate including the National the SalvadorPesticide- et al. Commission (CONAPLAG) and formulate and up- amongsures includes: others. PAHO (2013), MEDICC Review (2014), its of Chemical Pesticides in Fruits and Vegetables, Orantes,These C.M. studies (2009), have Jayasumana,established that C. dehydration(2014), an Technical Regulation of Maximum Residual Lim and extreme heat are contributing factors rather - than the primary factors responsible for kidney dam- the Quality Standard for Fertilizers and their Raw - toMaterials, restrict the Standarduse of pesticides, for the Verificationdicamba, terbufos, of Pes pathological studies with an emphasis on the early phorate,ticide Quality aldicard, and theglyphosates update of and Agreement paraquat. No. The 18 age. At the same time, as reported by MINSAL, histo patients who have been systematically exposed to agrochemicalsstages of the disease is due confirm to tubular that damage, kidney damageconsistent in Declaration of San Salvador: Approach to Central with the toxic origin of the ailment. Central America communities,American Chronic was Interstitialissued in San Tubule Salvador, Renal on Disease April is the main region in the world to use these products (ERTCC) which predominantly affects agricultural intensively, and it is estimated that approximately 26,3.3. 2013. Heavy metals agrochemical poisoning every year. - 400,000As a peopleresult ofmay the suffer presentation a symptomatic of this episode research of explorationHeavy metal in pollution the north has of been the country,reflected in in the a spe de- - partmentcific, significant of Cabañas, way in and zones in theof incidence east, in the of miningMunic- and their analyses, it was possible to influence the passage of the Law on Pesticide, Fertilizer and Ag 343 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

et al approach. This promotes greater soil protection ipalityIn theof Santa case ofRosa Cabañas, de Lima, in thedirectly municipalities affecting the of andbasis conservation, of an agroforestry increased and diversified agricultural production yields, a San Sebastián river (Pacheco ., 2016). reduction in the intensive use of agrochemicals and the promotion of biological chains and microorgan- concentrationsGuacotecti, San thanIsidro those and Ilobasco,allowed and in 2013, three MINSAL chem- confirmedical parameters the presence that require of arsenic special intreatment. much higher This and crop improvements. situation is particularly important, given that the isms in the soil, which contribute to nutrient fixing region in the north of the country is characterized most deforested countries in the continent and by an acute water shortage, due to its high depen- accordingHistorically, to the El FAO Salvador report hason beenThe State among of the dence on agricultural activities for the feeding of local communities and the presence, until some time - ago, of international mining industries which for turalWorld’s area Forests and a (2016),net loss it of is the among forest the area”, countries which - that have experienced a “net increase in agricul nal permits for their exploitation of gold in the area, whichmany yearsinvolved undertook the diversion explorations of rivers, pending the retention the fi area,is contrary among to other the SDGaspects, guidelines, through which technological promote - implementationagricultural intensification and sustainable without agricultural increasing diver its- nic in drilling, leaving residual traces in community waterof flows sources. and the use of cyanide, mercury and arse that countries that promote investment and add- edsification. value in Atagriculture the same have time, addressed the report the considers problem due to the direct impact on the health of residents of forest loss much more effectively than those that in theGiven municipalities the case of of the the San Department Sebastián of mine Cabañas and have made limited investment, noting that success- and the enormous outcry by social and environ- ful cases of preservation and integration of forests mental organizations, universities and Catholic in food security strategies promote an increase in Church organizations, as well as the denunciation agricultural productivity. In this respect, unlike the rest of the Central American countries, only Costa water contamination, and the high level of con- net increase in forest area by communities for over 12 years of soil, food and and a net loss of agricultural area”. Cabañas -which claimed several local victims- on RicaIn has the experienced urban sphere, a “the elimination of tree cov- flict created in the same area of the Department of- er has a direct impact on people’s health, the loss of creed, by consensus vote of all the political parties, microclimates and public spaces with natural shade aMarch national 29, 2017,ban on the metal Legislative mining Assembly and the use finally of toxic de substances such as mercury and cyanide. air pollution. and the loss of carbon fixing and the regulation of 3.4 Deforestation Deforestation and changes in land use due to the the Accordinghighest mortality to WHO rate statistics attributed (WHO, to 2016)environ for- advancement of agricultural plantations and ur- 2012, El Salvador is among the seven countries with-

availability and quality, since water recharge and mental air pollution with 44.6 deaths/100,000 in naturalban expansion damping have zones a significant are lost, contributing impact on waterto an report,habitants. as Likewise,regards the in highest2014, it rankedaverage second annual out con ofincrease in erosion processes, soil loss and local cli- centrationa total of 34 of American particulate countries material considered in urban inareas the mate regulation, the percolation of pollutants into - the subsoil and greater atmospheric and environmental pollution. (PM2.5) of 37.1 μg/m³, behind Honduras, which re - ports 40.3 μg/m³, the permissible guideline being 15 ests play an essential role in the water cycle, car- theμg/m³ loss according of quality to of local life regulations. and public spaces in the bonAccording sequestration, to the food SDGs production approach, and trees the andmainte for- mainOne cities aspect has thatbeen has the had gradual a significant elimination impact of the on nance of ecosystems as shapers of the livelihoods of local populations, when they are integrated on the to create room for the setting up of power lines by coverage of trees planted in the 70s, due to programs WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 344

Figure 21. Urban images of tree cover removal

electric companies and municipalities, road and Salvadoran regulations set permissible limits of parking extensions, the installation of billboards, aerial enlargement for public viewing of commercial - areas, etc., which has irreparably damaged the most particulate matter of PM10 = 50 annually and 150 in- important natural heritage of the metropolitan area 24 hours measured in μg/m³, and of PM2.5 = 15 annually and 65 in 24 hours. According to the daily av Several of the trees whose foliage and main branch- erages for PM2.5, in its report on Days with the High- and other cities, which provided multiple benefits. lowingest Pollution days asReported being outside by the Automaticthe norm forStations the fol in- natural symmetry, making them more prone to fall- the AMSS 2009-2016, MARN (2016) reported the fol inges have in the been winter removed season lose or their strong configuration winds. This and is borne out by the images shown in Figure 21. lowing years, out of 365 days measured at the UDB - impactstation: on2012=97, people's 2013=97, health, 2014=65 since andaccording 2015=18. to the tions, and measured the parameters of carbon mon- This situation is significantly reflected in the Since 2008, MARN has had air monitoring sta acute respiratory infections rank first among the reasonsMINSAL for work consultation reports, in on the an network interannual of MINSAL basis, oxide (DO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxide establishments" and second among the causes for (NO2) and particulate material (PM10 and PM2.5) measured in μg/m³. 345 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

hospitalization, which corresponding to the high environmental pollution and low air quality ex- season, has been experienced in the past two depressed n the high concentrations of harmful parti- cadesThis due decrease to the indeforestation river flows, processes,mainly in theexpan dry- cles for the health of the population”. It also states sion of the agricultural frontier and reduction of the that this situation is responsible for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, chronic changes in phys- in the hydrographic basins, leading to a decrease iological functions, and restrictions in intrauterine ininfiltration the outcrops capacity and waterof the sourceszones of that water support recharge the growth, leading to low birth weight and growth retardation. At the same time, given the growing demand for Taking into account the problems of deforesta- waterbase flow for irrigation,of rivers. caused mainly by the expansion of agricultural plantations, small rivers and tributar- - ies have often been cut off by temporary dams, caus- tionwide,tion and the with loss the of mobilizationforests, the MARN of volunteers carried out in variousthe “Plantathon parts of 2017”the country, Day at 215which sites involved identified plant na- for its extraction through motor pumps, which drive ing the retention of flows and the damming of water- tems, or through a network of troughs to retain soil effortsing 13 millionto restore trees degraded according areas to theand MARN landscapes, Work moisture,the flows as to has the happened spray irrigation in the west distribution of the coun sys- throughReport, Junethe promotion 2017-May 2018.of citizen The participation,project is part ed of- ucation and awareness in environmental matters. - A key aspect is the inclusion of a monitoring and eastry. ofRetaining coastal ecosystems,flows leads, which among require other freshwateraspects, to maintenance schedule, since in the past, in refor- the virtual elimination of the flows entering key ar estation campaigns as part of the commitments to appropriate mixture with the saltwater that comes implement economic, road, and industrial projects, inflows from for the their sea survival currents and when sustenance, the tide rises. through the initial success in tree planting has been reduced by A representative case study of this situation has the loss of plantlets caused by lack of irrigation and - maintenance in the early years. logical conditions of the shallow aquifer in an area been the research carried out in 2016 on the hydro

3.5 Salinization ceasedof the western entering department the ecosystem of Ahuachapán mangrove anddue the to From the perspective of groundwater, marine intru- theelimination building ofof flowstemporary in the dams summer for the season, retention which of sion in certain coastal areas is a phenomenon that - has been exacerbated, partly as a result of the grad- - ual loss of natural buffer areas at the coastal-ma- flows and the creation of reservoirs to irrigate sug rine interface-such as the mangrove forest and hu- arcane areas (Quiñónez, 2016). The dynamics of in mid subtropical forest – and partly as a result of the totertidal maintain flows thewere estuarine used to calculateenvironment, the required which excessive extraction of fresh water in shallow or shouldfreshwater be maintained flows that shouldin a salinity enter therange ecosystems between

an imbalance in hydrostatic pressures that permits optimum concentration of dissolved mineral salts thesurface rise (10-25of the m)marine and deepwedge, aquifers, contaminating which creates fresh- 12-22 ‰ (per thousand) equivalent on average to anwater and the surface area of water use, mainly ervation of biodiversity and the high productivity through the artisanal wells of the local population. of 15,000mollusks mg/l and as other a necessary heterotrophic condition species. for the In pres the This situation is also exacerbated by the reduction of the waters of ecosystems become equivalent to tributaries that drain the coastal zone, which, as a absence of freshwater flows, the salinity conditions resultor elimination of a decrease of flows in theirfrom thelevel, rivers stop andinteracting natural which leads to the deterioration and loss of man- with the riparian zones and the subsurface waters grovethe salinity areas, of as the well sea as water,the low in productivity the order of of 35 mol ‰,- of the shallow aquifer, which leads to a discharge or lusk species, severely affecting the livelihoods and - economy of local populations, as has happened in nels and therefore a decrease in phreatic levels. the study area. lateral contribution of aquifer flows into river chan WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 346

Table 4. Socio-economic indicators Indicador Socioeconómico Nacional Urbano Rural Hombres Mujeres

Población económicamente activa (%) 72.6 62.0 38.0 45.6 54.4 Tasa de desempleo (%) 7% 12.2 Escolaridad promedio (grados realizados) 6.8 7.9 5.1 6.9 6.7 27.4 32.1 Tasa de analfabetismo (%) 10.5 6.7 16.4 8.5 7.7 Pobreza (%) 29.2 23.0 22.2 24.4 Pobreza Extrema (%) 6.2 5.3 Pobreza relativa (%)

Among some of the physical-chemical analyses Figure 22. Poverty condition carried out in key artisan wells for the use of the lo- El Salvador: Percentage of homes by degree of poverty, cal population during the dry season, the results es- based on geographic area of residence. EHPM - 2017

Total poverty Extreme poverty Relative poverty 40.0 tablished 840 μS/cm in 2013 and 1,375 μS/cm in 2016- for electrical conductivity. Concentrations of 80.8 30.0 themg/l guide in 2013 values and for421.25 water mg/l for were human obtained consumption for so dium in 2016. In both parameters, measured in 2016, - 20.0 are significantly exceeded, with 600 μS/cm for elec 10.0 3.6trical Wastewater conductivity and and 200 impacts mg/l for onsodium. surface water, bodies of water and aquifers 0 National Rural Urban SSMC Wastewater produces an enormous impact on sur-

Surface Water Monitoring Program carried out by Figure 23. GINI Coefficient, Income Distribution Indicator face water bodies and aquifers, as reflected in the 0.50 0.4 0.4 0.46 AlthoughMARN, due nationwide to the low coveragelevel of wastewater of discharge treatment, into san- equivalent to 8.5% of public coverage nationwide. 0.44 undertaken through septic tanks and well sumps. 0.41 0.40 Thisitation device, service used is mainlyhigh, estimated in rural areas, at 97.9%, has frequent 63.5% is- 0.40 0.3 ly been a causal variable of bacteriological contam- 0.3 0.36 ination foci in groundwater, due to poor designs or 0.34 inadequate constructions with low maintenance.

0.30 4. Social and economic aspects 200 200 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 201 4.1 Health, poverty, educational Source: DIGESTYC, 2017. attainment in communities, gender, rural and urban areas

nationwide is eight grades. Illiteracy rates fell from In 2017, the country had a poverty rateFigure of 29.2%, 22. rate is 7% and that average educational attainment- with 6.2%Table living 4 in shows extreme that poverty, the unemployment according to ties being declared free of illiteracy, out of a total of EHPM (DIGESTYC, 2017), as indicated in 17.97% in 2008 to 10.5% in 2017 with 91 municipali Likewise, 347 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

- indexes for the Aedes aegypti at certain times of the year. In the same vein, it has 262 municipalities in the country. Public health ex been possible to establish that vectorthe incidence of up to rate 95% of penditure increased by 3.7% as a percentage of GDP dengue increases insofar as the population stratum in 2007,One equivalentimportant aspectto US $1,269.6 is the steady million, reduction to 4.5% inof lacks access to a continuous supply of indoor wa- 2016, equivalent to US $1,821.1Figure million. 23, which fell from ter. Thus the population with the lowest economic - resources and least access to indoor potable water ductionthe GINI inindex inequalities shown in and an improvement in inhas the highest rates of infection from dengue, as come0.48 to distribution. 0.34 between 2008 and 2017, reflecting a re well as being forced to pay high costs for obtaining Some of the public policies that have contribut- water in containers or barrels. ed to the reduction of inequities in the social sphere From this perspective, although water pipeline coverage for human consumption is relatively high Social Protection System - which included the de- liveryand public of agricultural assistance packagesare as follows: of improved the Universal seeds, modality of a supply by hours and on certain days of school packages of uniforms, shoes, supplies, and the-88.3% week, nationwide mainly in the in 2017-,peri-urban interruptions and rural orareas, the has become a determining factor in the reduction of municipalities now free of illiteracy, the Program of water quality and, therefore, has a great impact on Temporaryschool snacks Admission -, literacy Support, work -encompassingthe Women’s City 91 the health of the population.

- Project, the Universal Basic Pension for Older Adults- 5. Progress regarding Sustainable and the Comprehensive Health Reform, which sig tributed to reducing the population’s spending Development Goals (SDG-6) throughnificantly a set reduced of measures the burden involving of illness the elimination and con of all types of charges in the public system, the im- - plementation of the Family Health and Specialized cess to potable water and sanitation at an afford- Care program for the lowest income sectors, as well ableOne ofprice, the prioritygiven that goals at ofleast SDG-6 half is the universal untreated ac as the approval and implementation of the Medi-

- flows must be treated by 2030. This means that cines Law, a price regulation mechanisms that has 54.3%With of theregard flows to must water be at adequately the national treated level, over ac- increasegenerated in annual the supply savings of medicinesof US $80 millionin the publicin ex the next 12 years. - penses for the population and enabled a significant Although all these aspects have constituted a indoorcording supply,to the EHPMpublic (DIGESTYC, jet or tap, 2017),and transporta water ser- service network from 50% in 2008 to 85% in 2013. vice and access through pipes is 88.3%, including indicators associated with poverty reduction and population is supplied by artisan wells, springs or socialsignificant inequities, achievement access toin water,the human its quality development and wa- streams,tion from ora neighbor’s through directfacility. purchase A total of 11.7%from oftank theter-environmental problems constitute a primary ers or other means. In urban areas, water access challenge, These factors have a major impact on the - deterioration of the health and sustainable human development of the population. through pipelines amounts to 95.5% and in rural ar- - eas to 75.6%. ciency of the water supply as regards both quality Regarding the sanitation and disposal of excre andIn quantity this respect, constitutes according a substrate to MINSAL, for the the prolif defi- sewerageta by sanitary network service, and in a septic2017, nationwide tank and well coverage sump. eration of diseases that require a vector for trans- amounted to 97.9%, including disposal through the mission such as arbovirosis (chikungunya, dengue, Zika, yellow fever), since their absence forces sumps.A total of 36.5% of this coverage is achieved through the lower income population to buy, store and dis- sewerage and 63.5% through septic tanks and well pose of water in containers inside the home, which, equitable sanitation, and hygiene for all, noting that when not handled properly, create positive indoor improvedOn this sanitation point, SDG-6 should seeks not to only achieve consist adequate, of en- WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 348

6. Satisfactory experiences couraging adequate disposal of excreta, no open in water quality improvements defecation and the use of hand soap to maintain hygiene and health, but also the proper treatment of 6.1 Watershed restoration domestic sewage through single-family or collec- and protection plans tive systems to guarantee the non-contamination of The recovery of water sources and soil productivi- the subsoil, groundwater and surface water. ty conditions, through extensive reforestation work on slopes and recharge zones, the construction of sectionAlthough of this significant paper - regarding actions are the underway implemen toof agricultural production and measures to reduce tationcomply of with regulations, SDG-6 - asregulations, noted in theriver background recovery sedimentaryinfiltration ditches trawling in andcontour erosion lines, constitute diversification an ex- plans, designs, improvements and the construction - of treatment systems, it is important to establish a cellent experience carried out in the La Poza mi of action plans, as well as strategies and levels of cro-basin, located in the department of Usulután treatmentschedule of that follow-up, should monitoringperiodically and be achievedverification in (GWP, 2008). The microbasin covers an area of 10.4- conjunction with society as a whole. km² and the greatest problem that arose in 2002- At the same time, the protection and resto- nitywas thework, growing the implementation difficulty of access of a payment to water systemto sup forply environmentalapproximately services,15,000 people. and the Through support commu of sev- this respect, it is worth noting the current efforts ration of ecosystems plays a key role in SDGs. In was recovered and the problem solved. After a few - years,eral NGOs a substantial and international increase aidin availability workers, the was basin ob- and commitments assumed by El Salvador in 2012- - regarding the restoration of 1 million hectares before 2030, equivalent to nearly half the country (ter awarenesstained as regards among the water population. quantity and quality (Ri ritorial extension: 2.1 million ha) within the frame vera, 2008), in addition to growing environmental work of the Bonn-2017 Challenges, which are linked- 6.2 Pilot experiences diversityto the SDG-6 and andsustainable SDG-15 targets forest management.in the fight against - desertificationAlthough action and drought, plans theand promotionprojects orientof bio- - ed towards restoration are already in place, they By mid-2018, the VIDA reforestation project, under are primarily based on the implementation of taken by the Hydroelectric Commission of the Lem- agrosilvopastoral systems, riverside gallery forest, pa River, CEL, achieved the planting of two million- agroforestry systems involving monocultures and ertrees in inthe areas department near the of 15 Sande Septiembre Vicente. According hydroelec to coffee renewal, among others, without explicitly itstric representatives, dam, belonging tothis sub-basins project willof the be Lempa expanded Riv contemplating the promotion and implementation in phases to new areas and seeks to restore certain of natural or primary forest as part of the nation- sub-basins which feed into the hydroelectric dams al ecosystem restoration strategy. It is important and to improve the well-being and quality of life of families living in these sub-basins. Another experience with a great potential for hato reconsiderfor holm oak and forest, redefine taking this into aspect, account since the native car- continuity and permanence in the future is the bonforests present contribute in the withleaves rates on thein the ground, order roots of 468 and t/ - - than the contribution provided by agro-pastoral “Plantathon” initiative, whose 2017 and 2018 edi- andair coveragroforestry (Bernardus, systems 2001). (with This an isaverage much carbon higher nerabilitytions were (CONASAV), led by MARN with and thecreated support by the of Nationseveral - cooperational Council for entities, Environmental municipalities Sustainability and organiza and Vul- tribute to reconstituting biosphere areas for the tions involved in environmental preservation. As productioncapture of 120 and t/ha), preservation while native of oxygen, forests soil, also biodi con- - versity and water. - mentioned earlier, 2017, 13 million trees were plant ed, including approximately 12 million coffee plant 349 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

to shaping and embarking on a much more solid,

lets suitable for planting. On June 5, 2018, within the water preservation, in conjunction with other sec- framework of World Environment Day, the goal to toralclearly and defined institutional course laws.in the area of environmental plant five million trees was established. The studies and research conducted through international cooperation agreements, and projects 7. Conclusions and Recommendations and theses by universities and experts in the na- - 7.1 Conclusions • At the level of certain institutions, the situation thetional analysis, field, some monitoring under agreements and knowledge with publicof specif enof water quality has become a topic of prima- ictities, situations have significantly concerning water contributed quality. to However, expanding in ry concern and interest due to its impact on many cases, these have been valuable but focused health, supplying water for the population, the and occasional efforts, which lack follow-up, data preservation of ecosystems and its impact on collection and processing and information for up- water availability for various uses. In response, dating, deepening and analysis over time, which various actions, plans and programs have been would contribute to consolidating a systematic approach, linked to the challenges raised by water quality, wastewater treatment, the obtainment of citizenimplemented organizations by public to decontaminate entities -MARN prior and- ityMINSAL-, areas, cooperationconstruct wastewater agencies, andtreatment social and infrastructure in certain sites, monitor water by-products7.2 Recommendations and their benefits in various fields. quality and undertake studies and research, • which have contributed to understanding and water and its associated natural assets, as re- addressing the issues raised. This has been gardsLaunching both aquantity strategy and for quality, the preservation in order to of done within a framework of greater inter-insti- comply with the Sustainable Development tutional coordination and with the promotion of citizen and community participation, albeit with limited dissemination, socialization and givenGoals, that is a the priority. issue of It water involves and undertakingdecontamina a- public and political discussion of the problem tionconfigurating, is a central integral area that action on the in one national hand, life, af- and its solutions, progress and its implications, fects the health of the population and the life of even though this is an issue that should domi- ecosystems and, on the other, is directly linked nate interest and attention in national life. to and determined by the impacts of the eco- • nomic, agro-productive development and ur- equity and priority of the human right to ac- ban planning of the country. The small size of cessThe lackto water of a Generaland the Watersustainability Law based of ecosys on the- tems, under the governance of a public govern- which are part of the same interconnected hy- ing body, severely limits the formulation of a drographicEl Salvador andregions, the interaction means that of actions its territories, imple- planned strategy and a management model to mented in one place impact on other import- achieve sanitation, decontamination and the ant sites and the livelihoods of the population. preservation of water quality. This absence This means that precaution, care, participation, also becomes an obstacle to the establishment education, the promotion of an environmental - culture and citizen involvement become active sual guidelines for promoting a socio-econom- principles that must be present in a water pres- icof developmentpublic policies, model their compatiblefinancing and with consen water ervation strategy, while recognizing and valu- preservation. ing the water-environmental limits of the country, which should regulate economic and social undertakings. the executive branch of the power to enact by- • - laws,However, which, although insufficient transitory, use has would been contribute made by ing need in the country, which must be based Passage of the General Water Law is a press WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 350

ing and bioengineering and related specialties principles of equity, affordable access and sus- from environmental sciences in order to recon- tainability,on the Human which Right constitute to Water, the and basis assume for con the- ceiving of water as a supreme public asset, - whose governance should primarily be the re- blefigure with the the territories conditions and of design the country a sustainable and its sponsibility of the state. population.Socio-Economic This Developmentunderlines the Model importance compati of - Considering this perspective and the current le- perimentation on aspects linked to water qual- gal framework, the state should exercise its power ity,creating which a wouldNational ensure Center continuity for Research in the and anal Ex- and protect the actions and undertakings by State thereby strengthening the agreements they Portfolios,to issue Executive so that Decreesactions thatand formallylines of work strengthen relat- signysis andwith intensification state entities ofand studies making and it research,possible, ed to water quality are established. that can be as mentioned earlier, to develop and complete developed and deepened in conjunction with co- lines of work which, on the one hand, would operation agencies, experts in different areas and contribute to the accumulation and appropria- through accords and permanent agreements with tion of national and local knowledge from the universities and academia. - • It is important to have specializations at the age the implementation of technologically and master’s and doctoral degree level in the various economicallyfield of science viable and, onprocesses, the other, promoting would encour mod- degree courses related to water quality, wastewater treatment systems, sanitary engineer- and equitable human development. ernization and efficiency oriented towards fair

8. References

Administración Nacional de Acueductos y Alcan- Ley de Asociación Na- Ley de Medio Ambiente. - cional de Acueductos y Alcantarillados. Decreto Asamblea Legislativa de la República de El Salvador tarillados (ANDA) (1961). - (1998). Decreto Legisla tivo 233. El Salvador: Presidencia de la República Administraciónde Ley Directorio Nacional Cívico de Militar Acueductos No. 341. yEl AlcanSalva- Criteriosde El Salvador/MARN. y Recomendaciones Nacionales sobre dor: Presidencia de la República/ANDA.Reglamento sobre la BancoCalidad Mundial, del Agua:US-EPA, Valores Levi Strauss Guía sobre & Co. Vertidos (2007). Calidad del Agua, el Control de Vertidos y las Zo- Industriales. nastarillados de Protección. (ANDA) (1987). “Industry Sector Environmental Administración NacionalDecreto de AcueductosNo. 50 y Reforma y Alcan 51.- ConsejoHealth Nacional and Safety de (EHS)Ciencia Guidelines” y Tecnología and (CONA“Global- El Salvador: Presidencia deNorma la República/ANDA. para Regular Effluent Guidelines”Norma Appendix Salvadoreña V. Obligatoria, Calidad de Aguas Residuales de Tipo Especial NSO 13.49.01.09: “Aguas Residuales Descargadas a Descargadastarillados (ANDA) al Alcantarillado (2005). Sanitario. - unCYT) Cuerpo (2009). Receptor”.

El Sal- AcuerdoCambios 249. El de Salvador: usos de vador: ANDA.Ley de Riego y Avenamiento. Decre- sueloCONACYT. y flujos de carbono en los Altos de Chiapas, Asamblea Legislativa de la República de El Salva De México.Jong, Bernardus Simposio H.J.Internacional (2001). Medición y Mon- dor (1970). to Legislativo 153. El Salvador: Presidencia de la RepúblicaCódigo de El de Salvador/MAG. Salud. - itoreo de la Captura de Carbono en Ecosistemas- Asamblea Legislativa de la República de El Salvador Forestales. Valdivia, Chile. Available at https:// (1988). Decreto 955. San Salva www.uach.cl/procarbono/pdf/simposio_carbo dor: Presidencia de la República de El Salvador/ no/02_De_Jong.PDF MINSAL. 351 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR

- - Encuesta de Hogares y Propósit- Informe del Estado Actual Direcciónos Múltiples General (EHPM). de Estadística Principales yResultados. Censos (DI Ministeriodel Lago dede MedioCoatepeque, Ambiente Agosto y de Recursos 2016. Natu- GESTYC) (2017). rales (MARN) (2016a). El El Salva- Salvador: Ministerio Informe de Economía.de Acuíferos Porosos en dor: MARN. Control de jacinto de agua Direcciónla Zona Costera. General del Observatorio Ambiental Ministerioen los humedales de Medio Olomega, Ambiente Jocotal, y Recursos y Nahualapa. Natu (DGOA) (2015). rales (MARN) (2016). InformeEl Salvador: de Acuíferos DGOA. Porosos en - Direcciónla Zona Costera. General del Observatorio Ambiental El Salvador: MARN. Días de mayor contami- (DGOA) (2016). Ministerionación reportados de Medio por Ambiente las estaciones y Recursos automáticas Natu Reporte El Salvador: de Niveles DGOA. Piezométricos ubicadasrales (MARN) al Este (2016b). y al Centro del AMSS para el peri- DirecciónAcuífero Generalde Nejapa. del Observatorio Ambiental odo 01-01-2009 al 31-08-2016. (DGOA) (2018). - El Salvador: Informe deDGOA. monitoreo de Plan Elde Salvador: Recuperación MARN. de Direcciónlos acuíferos General de Zapotitán, del Observatorio Santa Ana Ambientaly San Mi- MinisterioRíos Urbanos: de Medio presentación Ambiente de yplan Recursos acción Natuen ju- guel.(DGOA/MARN) (2016). niorales de (MARN) 2016. (2017a). - El Salvador: DGOA/MARN. El Salvador:Informe MARN. de Labores junio Foro CentroamericanoGestión de las y excretas República y aguas Dominicana residuales: de Ministerio2016-mayo de 2017. Medio Ambiente y Recursos Natu SituaciónAgua Potable actual y y Saneamientoperspectivas. (FOCARD-APS)- rales (MARN) (2017b). - (2013). El Salvador:Programa MARN. de 139 Monitoreo pp. Cianobacterias y cianotoxinas. El Salvador: FO Im- Ministeriode la Calidad de Medio del Agua. Ambiente y Recursos Natu pactosCARD-APS. sobre 33 la pp. salud humana. Traducción y re- rales (MARN) (2018a). - García, S. (s/f). - ElInforme Salvador: de Labores MARN. junio rus, Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A guide to Ministerio2017-mayo de 2018. Medio Ambiente y Recursos Natu theirsumen public del libro health de consequences, Jamie Bartram monitoring e Ingrid Cho and rales (MARN) (2018b). Normativa management. Salvadoreña Obligatoria El Salvador: para MARN. agua potable,138 pp. NSO www.msal.gob.ar/images/stories/ministerio/ Ministerio13.07.01.08, de 2009. Salud (MINSAL) (2009). intoxicaciones/cianobacterias/cianobacte WHO,1999. Available at http://- Informe de Labores 2013-2014.El Salvador: MINSAL. Micro- Ministerio de Salud (MINSAL) (2014). Informe de rias_y_cianotoxinas.pdfcuenca La Poza El Salvador. Labores 2014-2015. El Salvador: MINSAL. Globalwww.gwp.org/globalassets/global/toolbox/ Water Partnership (GWP) (2008). Ministerio de Salud (MINSAL) (2015). Informe de case-studies/americas-and-caribbean/el-salAvailable at https://- Labores 2015-2016. El Salvador: MINSAL. vador.-development-of-community-participa- Ministerio de Salud (MINSAL) (2016). El Salvador: MINSAL. Ministerio de Salud (MINSAL) (2017). Informe de tion-in-the-microbasin-la-poza-343-spanish.pdf- Labores 2016-2017. El Salvador: MINSAL. Jayasumana C., Gunatilake S. (2014). Hard Water and Orantes, C.M. et al. (2009). “Chronic Kidney DiseasesME- Nephrotoxic Metals: Are they the CulpritsEnviron. Be andDICC Associated Review. Risks Factors in the Bajo Lempa Res.hind Public the Epidemic Health, the Chronic Kidney Disease Región of El Salvador: Nefrolempa Study”, of the Unknown EtiologyChronic in SriKidney Lanka? Disease Hits Available at: http://www.medicc.- Agricultural Communities.2014,11, 2125-2147. org/mediccreview/index.php?is.&id=221&a=vaEstado MEDICC Review (2014). - Organizaciónde los Bosques de las del Naciones Mundo. Los Unidas bosques para y lala AliAg- ProgramaVol. 16 de No. Monitoreo 2. de ricultura:mentación desafíosy la Agricultura y oportunidades. (FAO) (2016). Resumen. Ministeriola Calidad de del Medio Agua. Ambiente y Recursos Natu rales (MARN) (2011). - Organización Panamericana de la Salud (OPS)/ Or- ElPrograma Salvador: deMARN. Monitoreo de Available at http://www.fao.org/3/a-i5850s.pdf Ministeriola Calidad de del Medio Agua. Ambiente y Recursos Natu - rales (MARN) (2013). ganización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) (2013). El Salvador: MARN. “Chronic kidney disease in agricultural commu WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | EL SALVADOR 352

nities in Central America” en Iris PAHO. Washing

Rivera, R., FUNDE, FAO-Facility (2008). “Pago por- ton DC: OPS/OMS. Available at: http://iris.paho. servicio ambiental en la microcuenca La Poza, org/xmlui/handle/123456789/4718El Legado de la mina San Sebastián y sus enmunicipios Mecanismos de Ozatlánde compensación y Usulután, relacionando departa PachecoImpactos V.; Quiñónez en la vida B, de J.; las Tara poblaciones Van Ho; Lizama,afectadas. E. bosquesmento de con Usulután, agua en RepúblicaCentroamérica de El y Salvador”El Caribe (2016). - de habla hispana. -

Entidad promotora: Procuraduría para la Defen El Salvador: FAO, MAG. The Na- sa de los Derechos Humanos (PDDH). El Salvador. tional Forest Programme FACILITY. Available at: Available at: https://issuu.com/pedrocabezas/Revisión de los aspectos hi- http://www.fao.org/forestry/19357-0d452bc drológicosdocs/informe_especial_pddh__legado_de_la e hidrogeológicos del estudio de im- 832742ca4c18f88a8d3d3e14b1.pdfMonitorización de variables físi- Quiñónez,pacto ambiental J. (2013). de Planta Nixapa, Industrias La Universidadco-químicas Centroamericana en humedales RAMSAR“José Simeón de El Cañas” Salva- Constancia, Municipio de Nejapa, San Salvador. dor.(UCA) (2013). - Inten- lasolidaridad.org/wp-content/uploads/MaEl- sa proliferaciónEl Salvador: deUCA. cianobacterias en el Lago de Salvador. Available at https://www.alianzapor UniversidadCoatepeque de en El el evento Salvador de septiembre (UES) (2013). de 2012. Análisis hidrológico de los impac- tosq.-Tierrra2.pdf de la expansión de la caña de azúcar en zonas El Quiñónez,frágiles J. de (2016). ecosistemas y de recarga hídrica en San Salvador: UES. Francisco Menéndez, Ahuachapán. WHOStatistics. (2016). Annex A: Summary of the SDG Health and Health-Related Targets. Official WHO El Salvador. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA 353

Grenada

Although it is a small developing island in the southern Caribbean and has abundant supplies of fresh water, Grenada faces constant obstacles that make it difficult to guarantee optimal water quality. Technical and economic limitations have led to an inefficient distribution system and a repeated lack of capacity, which have prevented it from guaranteeing full compliance with the physical, chemical and microbiological standards for water quality. An integral strategy designed to address these challenges, focused on improving the governance, development and rigorous implementation of legal instruments, will ensure that the population of Grenada continues to have access to safe drinking water.

Waterfall Concord, Grenada © iStock 354 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA

Water Quality in the Americas: Caribbean-Grenada

Kerry Mitchell, Martin S. Forde and Allan Neptune

1. Introduction

WindwardLocated at Islands. 12°07′N All 61°40′W, three islands the state are volcanic of Grenada, in origin which principally comprises composed of three of andesite islands –Grenada, Carriacou, and Petit Martinique– is the most southerly Caribbean country of the Figure 1 domes, basalt flows and sedimentary deposits. The largest of the three islands at 312 km² is Grenada with its highest point being 840 m ( ), followed by Carriacou at 34 km² and- Petite Martinique at 2 km² (Allen et al., 2014). Twenty five percent of the total land area of the island of Grenada lies above 305 m and approximately seventy percent of the mountainous slopes have gradients greater than 20o, resulting in a topography characterized by high peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys throughout the island (Forde and Neff, 2015). The am bient temperatures in Grenada range between 24 and 30oC with relatively high humidity all monthsyear with of slight January variations to May and depending a wet season on time spanning of day (McSweeney the months of et June al., 2006). to December, with Grenada experiences two meteorological seasons; a dry season typically spanning the

a mean annual precipitation of 2350 mm, and is classified as tropical rainforest under the quantityKöppen Geigeravailable, scheme but in (AQUASTAT, water losses 2014; (non-revenue Brink and water) Robinson, throughout 2005). theHence, distribution for Grenada systemthe principal in the form challenges of leaks, in evaporation efficient water from resource reservoirs, management and uptake lies and principally transpiration not in from the surrounding vegetation. Water losses due to transpiration have been attributed to the in- - hoe), which has been historically used in reforestation and forest conservation techniques creased presence of the dominant tree species Talipariti elatum (locally known as Blue Ma

in the protected areas that encompass many catchment areas around the island (FAO, 1998; Government of Grenada, 2001a). Non-revenue water is currently estimated at 25%, lower than the 35% average in developing countries (Kingdom et al., 2006). The island has 71 designated watersheds from which water can be extracted up to a- maximum yield of 54,600 m³ per day in the rainy season and 31,800 m³ per day in the dry- season (CDB, 2016). There are four water supply treatment facilities where coagulation, floc culation, sedimentation, filtration and finally chemical disinfection are used to treat sur face-sourced water. There are an additional 22 other surface-sourced water supply facilities

Kerry Mitchell. [email protected] PhD, St. George’s University. Martin S. Forde. [email protected] ScD, St. George’s University. Allan Neptune. [email protected] NAWASA. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA 355

Figure 1. Map of Grenada, Carriacou, and Petite Martinique done. For water extracted from groundwater sources,where there only are filtrationseven treatment and chemical plants equipped disinfection with is disinfection facilities dedicated to their treatment plants, one on the island of Carriacou and other on the(NAWASA, island 2018).of Petite Finally, Martinique, there are which two desalinationare used to augment rainwater harvested supplies on these two islands.

- ciallyWhile during Grenada the rainy can beseason, characterised it has experienced as having sufficientchallenges quantities in ensuring of freshwater the quality resources, of the waterespe delivered for human consumption. Most of these challenges can be linked to the lack of adequate - ry oversight and implement water sampling pro- financial resources needed to establish regulato frequent in order to enhance the assurance that po- tablegrammes water that is produced. are sufficiently The potential comprehensive negative andim- pact of not meeting these challenges is exacerbated by non-existing or poorly implemented policies and legislation essential to ensure safe drinking water is produced and delivered to everyone. This chapter explores these issues, presents water quality data over the past decade, and highlights the challenges currently faced in the provisioning of high quality water to the people living in Grenada.

2. Water quality governance tion, distribution and proper use of actual and prospective water resources including preservation - and protection of catchment areas. NAWASA is also pends on the coordinated efforts of multi-sectori- mandated to handle sewerage and the proper treat- Theal stakeholders governance whose of water overreaching resources inmandate Grenada is thede protection of the environment and the population’s This body is responsible for the administration and provisionment and ofdisposal all potable of sewerage water for and domestic other effluents. purpos- limited to are the Forest Soil and Water Conserva- es and ensure a satisfactory supply of water for ag- health. Legal instruments utilized include but not ricultural, commercial and industrial purposes. The executed and enforced by the Ministry of Agricul- Act also confers authority to NAWASA for all acqui- turetion Actand (1984) the Ministry and the of Water Health Quality respectively. Act (2005), as sitions for water and sewerage works, application The main abstractor of water is The Nation- of tariffs, acquisition and maintenance of proper- al Water and Sewerage Authority (NAWASA). This ty used as water sources. In collaboration with the statutory body, under the Ministry of Communica- Ministry of Agriculture, as per the aforementioned - - ties, ICT & Community Development, is mandated cial emphasis is given to the protection of the integ- tions, Works, Physical Development, Public Utili Forest Soil and Water Conservation Act (1984), spe- of water supplies and the conversion, augmenta- by the NAWASA Act (1990) with the provisioning rity of water catchment zones (Government of Gre nada, 2007a, 1990). 356 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA

Although not currently fully operational, a min- ity of water intended for human consumption by isterial board designated by the Ministry of Health means of regular sampling and analysis. The board determines the frequency of sampling and testing, is charged with regulatory oversight of the qual- ensures that users are warned of potentially poor as the Sanitary Authority in the Water Act of 2005, Map Depicting Grenada's Watershed and Main Water Infrastructure Figure 2. Grenada’s water supply and distribution network (Source: NAWASA) µ

M t. David Point R o d n e L y e v e r La Sausos a Levera Pond D

u q u e Sauteurs Rose Hill Crayfish s n Watershed Area in Square Meters e L it P Pressure Filter Grand Etang Mt. Rose tl e o 859,730.07 4,310,665.25 C i Samaritan "&< Bore Hole ra n y t Grand Mal Munich G fis & Water Dam 1,831,261.63 4,204,990.42 re h G at !G Reservoir Grand Roy Nettle Point r C e Union River Sallee 4,162,890.74 1,423,717.79 a ra Ø t R yf Union Sand Filter Great Crayfish North Gros Point a is S v h Fountain/ Castle Hill ± 1,342,270.79 638,238.92 ilv in St. Patrick's Spring er e Great Ravine Palmiste " Water Storage Tank 693,620.43 1,903,035.78 Q3 Water Treatment Plant Great River Pearls 45,743,522.76 15,002,388.13 Rivers Mt. Rose Gros Point Perseverance Waltham Mt. Reuil Mt. Rose Beausejour 970,617.39 2,935,623.72 15,471,112.01 N et Mt. Reuil Dam Harford Petit Bacaye tle Belle-Vue 2,763,937.41 2,628,372.84 P 1,763,094.75 oi La Chaussee Petit Trou No nt Hermitage Lake Antoine Bishop 12,333,158.92 3,554,609.15 rth 757,084.79 G La Digue Requin ro Black Bay s 2,814,141.29 2,280,426.62 Po 6,511,888.75 in La Sagesse Richmond Hill t Chemin G 6,917,722.67 4,768,892.08 ro Tufton Hall 8,167,232.24 s Po Tufton Hall Dam Victoria Tivoli Tivoli La Sausos River Sallee i Zulu Dam Lower P Whim Clark's Court Bay nt 2,148,174.15 5,442,893.95 Maran Peggy's Whim 1,191,135.23 Tufton Hall Spring La Tante Sauteurs Confer 3,204,651.82 4,457,661.80 Cha Cha Dam 2,144,191.60 Lake Antoine Silver Conference 590,181.88 469,271.39 Millet Bay Carriere 2,720,159.52 Conference Levera St. George's Crayfish 625,378.50 2,325,193.36 312,522.17 Levera Pond St. John's Crochu 3,823,244.90 12,089,486.90 3,395,176.02 Little Crayfish St. Louis Gouyave Blaize David Point 635,152.99 6,624,138.55 392,445.17 Mama Cannes St. Patrick's Deblando 4,069,474.63 12,533,595.15 Dougaldston 2,863,870.54 Maran Tivoli Pearls Dothan 972,451.21 11,022,573.74 Cuba Dam Mt. Horne Dam 692,876.02 Mt. Felix Spring Marigot True Blue Dougladston 1,141,909.45 4,537,339.44 7,581,466.37 Marquis Union M Duquesne Point t Helen Dam Mirabeau Dam 5,198,039.30 8,351,684.02 . 851,777.06 N Clozier Dam Millet Bay Victoria e Fontenoy s Dougladston Mt. Horne 541,256.82 10,470,689.78 b Clozier Spring Clozier Tank 819,247.46 it Mt. Hartman Waltham Gouyave 3,450,143.47 1,838,434.10 8,344,124.86 Palmiste Mirabeau Mt. Moritz Woburn Grand Anse 1,668,446.63 2,773,852.24 2,205,802.88 Do Mt. Nesbit Woodford th Grand Anse Valley 1,313,907.45 1,971,426.80 an 1,929,752.27 Mt. Rodney Grand Bacolet 913,859.56 5,942,755.75 Grand Roy Grand Roy Morne Longue Great river Marigot St. Hilliare Harford

Concord Concord Dam

Black Bay Brandon Hall

Woodford Spring Gardens Dam Brandon Hall Dam La Digue

Spring Gardens G r a Bellevue n Perseverance d Guapo E Deblando t Plaisance a n g Tuilleries Dam

Annandale Dam Marquis Beausejour

Annadale Munich Dam Munich Munich

Mt. Moritz Morne Repos Dam

Vendome Solieur Dam Grand Bacolet Black Forest Mamma Cannes Dam Grand Mal Mamma Cannes

Bon Accord

Bon Accord Dam Pomme Rose Dam 2 y Cocoa Dee Dam Mt William Dam no te Pomme Rose Dam 1 n Les Avocate Dam Fo Petit Etang Dam New W.T.P Site Mama Cannes St. John's Les Avocates WTP Pomme Rose Radix Apres Tout Crochu D'Arbeau Radix Dam Petite Etang WTP Apres Tout Dam

Observatory Mardigras

Aspley Hill Dam La Tante Petit Esperance R Perdmontemps e B q e Morne Jaloux u lle in -V Bi Baldwin sh La Chaussee La Sagesse ue op

St. George's Chemin

Jean Anglais La Pastora Petit Trou St. Louis Richmond Hill P La Sagesse Baile's Bacolet 3 e

t Woodlands 2 i t Bailie's Bacolet 1 B 2 Chemin Valley a Woodlands 1 1 Chemin Valley c Bailie's Bacolet 2 5 Chemin Valley se a n 3 Chemin Valley y A e d Woodlands 3 4 Chemin Valley n Woburn ra G Worburn 1 1:30,000 y e ll a Clark's Court Bay W V o e b s u n r n C A o d n Airport n a fe r Mt. Hartman r G True Blue

Created by: GIS Unit, Engineering Division, NAWASA WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA 357

water quality where necessary, and implements action programs for the improvement of water quali- - ty. This ministerial board operates through consen- Regular monitoring of the basic water quality- ulatedparameters by the confirms WHO. Analysis that the ofquality the data of water from pro the Currently NAWASA undertakes this responsibil- duced in Grenada mostlyFigure meets 4) theshows guidelines average stip pH itysus with of its regular members reporting (Government to the ofministerial Grenada, board.2005). period 2010 – 2017 ( all water treatment plants and select private and neutralvalues with to slightly little variation alkaline, fallbetween well within 7.70 ± the 0.36 WHO and publicSamples access are takenpoints from along influents the distribution and effluents network at 7.75 ± 0.40. These values, chemically categorized as - chemical and microbiological analyses include pH, guideline pH range of 6.5 and 8.5, and are typical of on average four times per month. Routine physico fast Microbiological flowing unaltered activity lotic systemsis also closely (Dirisu moni et al.,- - tored2018; WHO,with 2017a).collected data showing an absence of turbidity, free chlorine and total coliforms. Based Escherichia coli theon WHO distribution guidelines network as stipulated are carried in the out Water and Qualanal- ysesity Act done of for 2005, other periodic organic sampling and inorganic at points constitu along- all analysed samples in close (Figure to 98% 5 ofand analysed 6 samples- ents including but not limited to nitrates, biological ever,and total that coliforms optimally in total 88% coliforms in 2010 and which 94% is in an 2017 indi of- oxygen demand, chlorine residue, conductivity, al- cator for pathogenic microbiological activity). Given, should how kalinity, sulphates, organic carbon, iron, and odour - rently, these analyses are done infrequently and/ (ECLAC, 2007; Government of Grenada, 2005). Cur that may negatively affect water quality. The main Figure 3. Radar topography map of Grenada reasonor after for a specificthese tests natural being or conducted anthropogenic infrequent event- ly and only in response to suspected contamination - ed data is stored in an internal database, reported weeklyis lack ofto adequatethe Sanitary financial Authority, resources. and made All collect available to local, regional and international entities upon request and subsequent approval from the ministerial board.

3. Problems impacting water quality

3.1 Contamination from natural sources - ter distributed through the network managed by Surface water sources account for 95% of the wa zones are located near the centre of the island at higherNAWASA elevations (NAWASA, (Figure 2018). 2 and Most 3 ) of and the are catchment generally isolated from extensive human settlements. The principal catchment zones such as the feeders for plants, are located in protected forest reserves whichthe Annandale, helps to ensureVendome, that and the Petit water Etang sourced treatment from Highest elevations (orange), lowest points (dark blue). these areas are generally unaffected by anthropogenic activity. Source: http:// caribbeanvolcanoes.com/radar- grenada/. Retrieved Jan 2018. 358 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA

an ongoing challenge in ensuring effective disinfec- -1 Figure 7 tion.be absent The levelin 100% of microbiologicalof samples, these activity results depends indicate takenmg L ,along after theat leastdistribution 30 min networkcontact time generally at a pH con <- - tained8.0 (WHO, free 2017a).chlorine values above confirms the guidelinethat samples val- - tergreatly physical on the characteristics type and efficacy such of asdisinfection turbidity proand which could in part explain the aforementioned chlorinecess used, demanding which in turn solutes. is affected Chemical by specificdisinfection wa challengesues, but with faced significant in ensuring deviation effective from disinfection. the mean, in the form of chlorination is used throughout the Though free chlorine is generally a good indi- island. WHO guidelines stipulate that free chlorine its interpretation can be affected by the physical -1 propertiescator for disinfection of the water efficacy, such as theturbidity applicability and chlo ofshould remain above a threshold value of 0.2 mg L throughout the distribution system, optimally ≥ 0.5 turbidity levels (Figure 8) throughout the distribu- tionrine-demanding system have solutes consistently (WHO, been 2017b). above On the average, WHO Figure 4. Mean pH values and std. dev. compared - to WHO guideline values (2010-2017) recommended level of 1 Nephelometric Turbidi ty Units (NTU), which singularly would negatively- 10 pH 6.5 > < 8.5 affect the efficacy of chemical disinfection (WHO, WHO recommendation 9 2017a). Collected data showed mean values be 8.5 tween 1.9 and 5.6 NTU between 2010 and 2017, with 8 unmetsignificant challenges variation in andreducing single turbidity.values as highThe primeas 190 7 sourceNTU. These of high results turbidity indicate in untreated serious and and currently treated pH 6.5 water throughout the distribution system has been 6 linked to the presence of silt and organic matter, the 5 exacerbation of which is generally observed during heavy rainfall and top soil erosion during the wet 4 season.

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Year

Figure 5. Mean % of samples with absence of Figure 6. Mean % of samples with absence of total coliforms (2010-2017) Escherichia coli (2010-2017)

98.41

100 94.11 (CFU) 100 97.19 88.06

50 50 of TC (CFU) absence of absence of E.coli

0 0

% Samples with Samples % 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Year with Samples % Year WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA 359

The impact of high turbidity levels on water and organic matter found in untreated water (Xie, quality is generally less severe when due to natural - as opposed to anthropogenic contamination. Nev- form is usually the most common THM found. How- ertheless, the continued inability to meet guideline ever,2004). bromine, In waters a physicochemically disinfected with chlorine, similar halogen, chloro values indicates the possible presence of pathogens, is quite ubiquitous in nature. It is usually found in - bromide salts alongside other common salts, no- bution material or external sources of contamina- tably sodium chloride. When present, bromine not detached biofilms, and scales from oxidized distri- only reacts more readily with organic matter than lem currently revolve around the use of improved chlorine forming brominated THMs, but also re- tion (WHO, 2017b). Proposed solutions to this prob- sults in an additive toxic effect with the chlorinated agulating agents such as aluminium sulphate and THMs. chemicalfiltration disinfectants systems along such with as increasedchlorine. use of co These solutions, however, not only present important economic implications, but also potential- Figure 7. Mean free chlorine (Cl-) values and std. dev. compared to the WHO guideline value - (2010-2017) ly significant population and environmental health phates can result in secondary reactions that pro- 0.2 mg L-1 duceconsequences. potentially Elevatedcorrosive concentrationssolutions which ofin turn sul 2.0 WHO Minimum Recommended Level threaten the integrity of metal structures through- for Effective Disinfection 1.5

Additionally, exposure to high concentrations of al- ) -1 uminiumout the distribution (Al) has been network linked (Knowles to neurotoxicity et al., 2015). (Hsu 1.0 (mg L data and the adoption of the precautionary prin-- 0.5 Cl ciple,et al., some 2018; Klotzinternational et al., 2017). regulatory Based agencies on available in- 0.0 0.2

-0.5 cluding the United States as the Environmental maximum Al concentraProtection- Agency and the European-1 Environmental Agency, 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 haveWhile set the 0.2 WHO mg doesn’tL set a health-based value, it Year tion level in potable water (EC, 2009; USEPA, 2010). -1- Figure 8. Mean turbidity (NTU) values and does recommend that Al levels be below 0.2 mg L- std. dev. compared to the WHO recommended (WHO, 2017a). Although residual Al is not regular guideline value (2010-2017) ofly monitoredall samples throughout exceeded the Grenada’s guideline water value. distribu High Al tion system, collected sample data showed that 6% 30 concentrations were observed principally in water 0.5 NTU from treatment plants that handle very turbid wa- WHO Recommended Level ters due to surface runoff from soils with high silt 20 content, highlighting the complex dynamic between water quality parameters. 10 Increasing the use of chlorine as a disinfectant can result in the formation of undesirable disinfec- 0 0.5 Turbidity (NTU) Turbidity (THMs), which studies have associated with nu- -10 meroustion by products negative (DBPs)health effects including including trihalomethanes reproduc- -20 - tiontive toxicityis the result and carcinogenesis of chemical reactions (Iszatt etbetween al., 2014; the Li 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 halogensand Mitch, used 2018; in Rahman disinfection et al., (generally2014). THMs chlorine) forma Year 360 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA

ty, most notable in the catchment zones of the parishes of St. John and northern St. Andrew. Farmers potentialTHMs for are containing not regularly high monitored concentrations in Grenada, of bro- in these areas have been known to indiscriminately mideCarriacou, and chloride and Petite salts Martinique. in groundwater Given sourced the high in use chemical fertilizers and pest management tech- - niques that ultimately affect water quality. These nated water distributed on the islands of Carriacou andthe southernPetite Martinique, region of regular Grenada monitoring and in the for desali THMs buffer system which include steep gradients and - highcatchment throughput zones, water however, volume benefit resulting from in a dilution natural - and low residence times of potential contaminants. is recommended. During 2017, 28 samples were ana Nevertheless, with increasing agricultural activi- lysed for chloroform. Of those 28 samples, the pres ties in these areas, this natural buffer system can be ence of chloroform was confirmed in 18 samples. overwhelmed thus, continuous and regular moni- However,with-1 concentrations the WHO recommends ranging between continuous 8 and 111mon μg-1- toring hence required. itoringL , well ofbelow the threethe WHO other guideline commonly value found of 300 bromi μg L - nated THMs –bromoform, bromodichloromethane, - ing Groundwaterwater and is primarilysources on utilized the island in the of southernGrenada can be used to establish a total THM standard cal- areascurrently of the supply island. 5% This of thewater total source, distributed however, drink fac- dibromochloromethaneculated with the sum of (WHO,the ratios 2017a). of each This THMs’ data es unique challenges when compared to the surface concentration and their respective guideline values, sources. Though the Forest Soil and Water Conser- thus taking into account the additive toxic effect. Al- though there is a current lack of capacity to quan- watersheds that supply the subterranean sources, tify these THMs regularly, acquiring such capacity thevation absence Act (1984) of zoning inherently regulations protects limits some the of pro the- should take priority as the ongoing increase in the tection afforded by law. In recent times, extensive exploitation of ground and sea water inherently in- anthropogenic activity has been observed in the creases the risk exposure to THMs. catchment zones in the southern region of the island, including housing settlements, industrial ac- 3.2 Contamination from tivity and large-scale farming. Stakeholders are anthropogenic sources particularly concerned with the possible presence Due to the location of surface water sources, wa- of chemicals associated with fertilizers and pesti- ter distribution for associated catchment zones has cides used on the farms. Additionally, housing set- been largely unaffected by anthropogenic contam- tlements with inadequate waste management such ination. Agricultural activity represents the single as malfunctioning septic systems increase the risk largest threat to water quality as industrial activity of organic matter and microbiological contamina- - tion of groundwater. Although soils naturally dep- gible. Though limited in number, laboratory analy- urate most organic contaminants (Vangronsveld et inses any have of beenGrenada’s done oncatchment samples zones over the remain past sevennegli years to determine the presence and concentration leachateal., 2009), residence most of the time borehole in the wellssoil is in reduced Grenada thus are water associated with anthropogenic contamina- limitingshallow withits buffering a maximum capacity. depth of only 150ft, and so of three chemicals of health significance in drinking (NO -) and nitrites (NO -), typically associated with in drinking-water, legal, technical and economic re- tionagrochemicals, (WHO, 2017a). were In foundall cases, to be copper under (Cu), WHO nitrates guide- Of the 94 WHO chemicals of health significance 3 2 respec- (NO -, NO -, Cl- tively. These values -1are based-1 on short-term-1 and thesources aforementioned only permit thebrominated infrequent trihalomethanes, analysis of five longline values term effectsof 2 mg ofL ,exposure 50 mg L andto these 3 mg Lchemicals toxic2 metals3 and, Cupersistent and CHCl³). organic Notably compounds absent arein- cluding many currently used pesticides associat- In some areas not protected by the Forest Soil ed with much of the agricultural activities in sev- (WHO, 2017a). - eral water catchment zones. Available results show creasing presence of small scale agricultural activi- that WHO guideline values are being met with test- and Water Conservation Act (1984), there is an in WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA 361

ed chemicals, however, the infrequency of sampling limits the relevancy of these results. is being done, however, plans are underway to look Improved oversight of NAWASA, as stipulated at25m bring (CDB, this 2016). capability Presently to the no island. secondary treatment Several rehabilitation and upgrading programs Health, necessitates that the Sanitary Authority be have suggested the development of additional sew- madeby the fully Water functional Quality Actso that(2005) it can by thebetter Ministry monitor of and analyse the quality of water produced by NA- WASA. This regulatory body can also ensure that the erage systems for the Greater St. George's area and- frequency at which sampling is done is increased so rentlyGrenville under (CDB, evaluation. 2016). An This expansion expansion of the would South spe St.- as to ensure consistent quality water production. George system has also been suggested and is cur Additionally, adequate zoning policies are needed - in catchment zones not currently protected as re- cifically target the areas near True Blue, St, George,- serves to prevent anthropogenic contamination. ingan area services. that isThough currently leaks undergoing in the piping significant system de of velopment by St. George's University and support 3.3 Wastewater management quantitative analyses of the water quality in the potentiallythe South St.affected George area outfall have havenot been been published. reported, The risk of severe environmental degradation thus According to data collected in 2015 by a WHO/ exists, and continued monitoring and evaluation of CarriacouUNICEF Joint and Petite Monitoring Martinique Programme has access for to Water basic - sanitationSupply (2017), services, 89.3% which of the includes population septic in tankGrenada, sys- dial actions currently being explored include the tems, pit latrines and public sewer systems (Figure installationpossible remedial of a waste actions water is recommended.treatment plant Reme using 9 - secondary (biological) treatment processes to ser- - ). This is slightly higher than the average 85% ac- sen due to the rapid increase in urban development cess for the Latin American and Caribbean region.- andvice the directSouth negativeSt. George impact area. Thisdegradation area was of cho the Septictrines as systems their main are usedmeans by of 55.35% human of waste the populadispos- marine ecosystem can have on the tourism sector. tion while 26.57% of the population still uses pit la by malfunctioning septic systems near the catch- mental. Ground areas, water particularly can potentially in the southern be contaminated region of the island. With the continued increase in the size of the population living in this region of the island, Figure 9. Population coverage of sanitation this has prompted NAWASA to carry out prelimi- services based on facility type nary sampling and laboratory analyses to quantify this risk. Initial results indicate that the quality of ground water sources has so far remained largely unaffected by the increasing number of faulty sep- 11.70% tic systems. 6.38% access to sanitation services provided by two sew- Septic Finally, approximately 6% of the population has Latrines - erage systems, the St. George's/Carenage/Lagoon 55.35% Sewer 26.57% Road Sewerage System which serves the city cen- No Data ingter andmost nearby of the areas, major and hotels the Grandwhich Anse are locatedSewerage in thisSystem part which of the serves island. the With South both George systems, area, wastewa includ- ter is collected from domestic and commercial us- and debris, then pumped into the sea through out- ers, screened (> 6mm) to remove large solids, rags falls that extend 350m at an approximate depth of Source: (WHO/UNICEF, 2017) 362 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA

4. Socioeconomic Aspects with the data needed to calculate the gender devel-

Potable water distribution and sewerage services as provided by NAWASA are intended to be eco- opmentThe relationshipindex (GDI) andbetween multidimensional these indicators poverty and nomically sustainable by means of a tariff struc- overallindex (MPI), water are security absent isfor well Grenada. explored. Men and ture, however, the mechanisms to ensure full oper- women are generally placed in differentiated positions in their ability to deal with issues related to of economic sustainability is an inherent threat to water security due to patriarchal norms, inequi- theating ability cost recoveryof NAWASA are tonot provide currently these in place. important Lack services to the population. would also play an integral role the prevailing at- Access to clean water is indispensable for socio- titudesties, and towards inequalities water (Myrttinen quality. On et the al., other 2018). hand, This the MPI currently used to more accurately gauge service, good water quality management must in- cludeeconomic community development. involvement. Being aInitiatives socially essential focused under which access to safe drinking water is an ex- - plicitpoverty indicator. includes This a “standard relationship of living”between dimension poverty tance of water quality in the community, however, tospecifically date have on been increasing limited. awareness NAWASA through of the impor radio, television and social media has made efforts to sen- and access to water here in Grenada is highlighted- sitize the population on the importance of water as suesin a studyrelated done to waterby Neff security (2013) asincluding cited by intermit Forde &- a resource through informational presentations. tentNeff service(2015), whereand poor the water resilience quality of depends residents greatly to is The effect of these presentations though may be on economic status. Continued research is needed anecdotal at best, as quantitative improvements in as the collected data would ensure the ability to cal- use and conservation is attributed primarily to the culate these indices placing stakeholders in a bet- introduction of tariffs and a metering programme ter position to identify and mitigate deprivations - - sulted in notable improvements in water use effective resources allocation, ensuring social equity (ECLAC, 2007). These latter programmes have re- andin specific economic dimensions sustainability of the ofsystem water with distribution more ef ter as an entitlement to viewing water as a valued resource.ficiency and a paradigm shift from viewing wa - the(UNDP, context 2016). of water as a resource are considered pillarsEconomic of integrated sustainability water resource and social management equity in Under the current administrative structure, NA WASA has an estimated 43,031 customer accounts,- - a service coverage of approximately 90% which (Lenton and Muller, 2012). Though inherent in the provides an estimated 97% of the population ac objective of the NAWASA Act (1990), focus on wa cess potable water. Grenada can be found on the list ter resource management commenced in 2006 at of 100 countries categorized as having “improved a Working Group held in Jamaica (Government ofwater sources” as per target 7C of the Millennium Grenada, 2007b), with important products of this SmallDevelopment Island Developing Goals (CDB, State 2016; in World terms Bank,of econom 2017).- collaboration including a Road Map Toward Inte Grenada is categorized by the United Nations as a- grated Water Resources Management Planning for opment Programme as a country with High Hu- andGrenada an inadequate and Draft institutionalNational Water framework, Policy. The howev lack- manic development Development and with by a the positively United Nationstrending Develindex er,of has adequate made implementation financing, government an ongoing in-continuity challenge. - Many core activities of integrated water resource dicate satisfactory progress has been made to im- proveof 0.754 life (UN, expectancy, 2014; UNDP, education, 2010). These and wealth rankings of thein policies, laws and regulations, improved water re- sourcemanagement, assessment especially and capacity development building of to specific imple- indicators such inequality which can be used to ad- ment the above have not yet being undertaken. justpopulation. the HDI However,for a better the approximation UNDP also monitors of the socio other- economic status of the population. This data, along - These systemic inefficiencies in water quality monitoring, water-use efficiency and overall wa WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA 363

lack of monitoring and testing capacity is common in many of the small island developing states with- ter resources management place Grenada in the in this region of the World, highlighting the impor- unique position of having met the target 7C of the- tance of regional collaboration and resource pool- Millennium Development Goals (World Bank, 2017),- ing for better water resource management across buttion, challenged especially tothe meet implementation the targets of of 6th integrated Sustain the region. able Development Goal: Clean Water and Sanita Focus needs to be placed on the passing, imple- - mentation and enforcement of local legislation per- water resources management (UN, 2015). Though taining to water management. Properly enforced majorthe principles improvements of the met across MDG the target board. are The partly imple ap- zoning regulations will go a long way in reducing mentation,plied to some however, SDG 6 targets,of existing there policies is still aand need legis for- the adverse impacts of contamination of surface lation including the National Water Policy and all and ground water sources. In recent years, notable improvements have been made in the legislative framework resulting in better water resource man- thosestipulations targets. in the Water Quality Act (2005) would - significantly contribute to Grenada’s ability to meet lar, has provided the mandate for the formation of a multi-stakeholderagement. The Water Sanitary Quality Authority Act of 2005 which in particu is given 5. Conclusions and recommendations the charge to oversee the quality of water intended for human consumption. Financial constraints, Categorised as a country that has a high human de- however, have prevented this board from becom- - ing fully operational. A National Water Policy was tovelopment ensure its and entire having population met target has 7C accessof the Millenni to clean road map for better water management, however um Development Goals, Grenada is well on its way drafted in 2007, which provided a comprehensive- have been made in water management resulting in ing factor. As such, these legislative frameworks can manywater. positive Over the impacts years, on significant the wellbeing improvements of consum- providefinancial a constraints solid foundation again forproved the assurance to be the oflimit adequate water management, but the evident lack of population with clean drinking water. implementation renders them ineffectual. ers. The 35 water supply facilities supply 97% of the Finally, a more concerted focus on maintenance, rehabilitation and upgrading of current water dis- improvementsAlthough significant in the water progress sampling has and been analysis made tribution systems, wastewater disposal systems, inin filtration and disinfection technologies, major cluding the construction of new wastewater treatment plants is recommended, in order to ensure programme is warranted. Currently 89 of the 94 the continued integrity of the land and water eco- inWHO the identified data needed chemicals in ensure of health water significancesupplied to theare populationnot being monitored, is indeed saferepresenting to use and a significantconsume. This gap and Petite Martinique. systems of the tri-island state of Grenada, Carriacou 364 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA

6. References

Allen, C.D., Diller, S.L., Zabarauskas, T., 2014. Grenada:- Government of Grenada, 2005. Water Quality Act, the Spice Isle, in: Allen, C.D. (Ed.), Landscapes and IntegratingCAP. 334B. Grenada. Management of Watersheds and Landforms of the Lesser Antilles. Springer Inter Government of Grenada, 2001a. National Report: national Publishing AG, Salt Lake City, pp. 243– 265. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8628-7 Coastal Areas. St. George’s. AQUASTAT, 2014. Country Overview: Grenada. Government of Grenada, 2001b. Waste Management Brink, K.H., Robinson, A.R., 2005. The Global Coastal Act, CAP 334A. Grenada. Ocean: Regional Studies and Syntheses. Harvard- Government of Grenada, 1990. National Water and University Press. Sewerage Authority Act, CAP. 208. Grenada. CDB,Michael. 2016. Water Supply Expanision and Sewer Government of Grenada, 1984. Forest Soil and Water- age Improvement Project - Grenada. Wildey, St. ronmentalConservation and Act, dietary CAP. 116.exposure Grenada. to copper and Hsu,its H.-W., cellular Bondy, mechanisms S.C., Kitazawa, linking M., to 2018.Alzheimer Envi Dirisu, A., Olomukoro, J., Thadeus Imoobe, T., 2018.- Limnochemical Characterization of Lotic and Lentic Ecosystems in Agbede Wetlands. Turk disease. Toxicol. Sci. https://doi.org/10.1093/- ish J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 18, 585 595. https://doi.- toxsci/kfy025 - org/10.4194/1303-2712-v18 Iszatt,lic drinkingN., Nieuwenhuijsen, water and stillbirthM.J., Bennett, and lowJ.E., Tolebirth EC, 2009. ANNEX 3 to the Commission Staff Work dano, M.B., 2014. Trihalomethanes in pub ing Document accompanying the Report from establishmentthe Commission of in groundwater accordance withthreshold Article values 3.7 of weight rates: an intervention study. Environ. the Groundwater Directive 2006/118/EC on the- Int. 73, 434–439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. envint.2014.08.006 Information on the Groundwater Thresh. Brus Kingdom,in developing B., Liemberger, countries R.,- how Marin, the private P., 2006. sector The sels, European Union. https://doi.org/10.1017/ challenge of reducing non-revenue water (NRW) capcityCBO9781107415324.004 of national institutions to implement in- contracting, Water Supply and Sanitation Sector ECLAC, 2007. Overview of the water profile and the can help : a look at performance-based service

tegrated water resources management: Antigua- Board Disucssion Paper Series. Washington, D.C. and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada. Port of Spain. Klotz, K., Weistenhöfer, W., Neff, F., Hartwig, A., van FAO, 1998. Forestry Policies in the Caribbean: Re- Thriel, C., Drexler, H., 2017. The Health Effects of ports of 28 selected countries and territories.- Aluminum Exposure. Dtsch. Arztebl. Int. 114, 653–- Food and Agriculture Organization of the Unit 659. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2017.0653 ed Nations; European Commission. Director Knowles,iron and A.D., aluminum Nguyen, coagulant C.K., Edwards, metal M.A., residuals Stod ate-General for Development. - anddart, lead A., McIlwain, release from B., Gagnon, drinking G.A., water 2015. pipe Role ma of- Forde, M., Neff, B., 2015. Impact of development onwater supply and treatment in Grenada, in: Vam Frommen, K.,the de Academies la Cruz Molina, of Sciences. A. (Eds.), IANAS Challeng The In- terials. J. Environ. Sci. Heal. Part A 50, 414–423.- ter-Americanes of Urban Waters Network in theof Academies Americans. of A Scienc Vision- https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2015.987550 - Lenton,ter Management R., Muller, M., for 2012. Development. Integrated Taylor Water and Re - Francis.sources Management in Practice : Better Wa teres, Cuernavaca,Policy. Mexico, pp. 2–25. - Government of Grenada, 2007a. Draft National Wa - - Li, X.-F., Mitch, W.A., 2018. Drinking Water Disinfec- Government of Grenada, 2007b. Road Map Toward tion Byproducts (DBPs) and Human Health Ef Integrated Water Resources Management Plan fects: Multidisciplinary Challenges and Oppor ning for Grenada. tunities. Environ. Sci. Technol. acs.est.7b05440. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b05440 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GRENADA 365

McSweeney, C., New, M., Lizcano, G., 2006. Grenada. man Development. United Nations Devel UNDP Clim. Chang. Ctry. Profiles. - opment Programme, New York. https://doi.- Myrttinen, H., Cremades, R., Fröhlich, C., Gioli, G., ulations.org/10.2307/2137795 Washington, D.C. 2018. Bridging Troubled Waters: Water Secu USEPA, 2010. National Primary Drinking Water Reg rity Across the Gender Divide, in: Fröhlich, C. (Ed.), Water Security Across the Gender Divide. Vangronsveld, J., Herzig, R., Weyens, N., Boulet, J., Springer International Publishing AG, pp. 3–14. Adriaensen, K., Ruttens, A., Thewys, T., Vassilev,- ofhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64046-4_1 Communications, Works, Physical Develop- A., Meers, E., Nehnevajova, E., van der Lelie, D., NAWASA, 2018. Water Treatment Process. Ministry- Mench, M., 2009. Phytoremediation of contam inated soils and groundwater: Lessons from ment, Public Utilities, ICT & Community Devel the field. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 16, 765–794.- opment, St. George’s. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-009-0213-6 - Rahman,and rectal M.B., cancerCowie, incidenceC., Driscoll, and T., Summerhayes,water trihalo- WHO, 2017a. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quali methaneR.J., Armstrong, concentrations B.K., Clements, in New M.S., South 2014. Wales, Colon ty: fourth edition incorporating the first adden dum. Geneva. WHO, 2017b. Water Quality and Health - Review of Australia. BMC Cancer 14, 445. https://doi. Turbidity: Information for regulators and water org/10.1186/1471-2407-14-445 suppliers. Geneva. - UN, 2015. Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda WHO/UNICEF,timates on the 2017. use Joint of water, Monitoring sanitation Programme and hy- for sustainable development. New York. https:// for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene; Es doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2 UN, 2014. World Economic Situation and Prospects- giene in Grenada. New York. - 2014. United Nations Publications, New York. Worldington, Bank, D.C. 2017. Improved water source (% of UNDP, 2016. Human Development Report 2016, Unit population with access) WHO/UNICEF. Wash ed Nations Development Programme. New York. https://doi.org/eISBN: 978-92-1-060036-1 - Xie, Y.F., 2004. Disinfection byproducts in drinking UNDP, 2010. Human Development Report 2010 water : formation, analysis, and control. Lewis The Real Wealth of Nations : Pathways to Hu Publishers, Boca Raton. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA 366

Guatemala

In Guatemala, despite its adequate annual water availability, water quality is impaired by the discharge of untreated municipal and agroindustrial wastewater, despite the fact that specific regulations have been in place since 1989. Water supply for the capital city of Guatemala, located at the watershed between the Pacific and Atlantic, which has overexploited aquifers, is probably supplied by reclaimed water, which should therefore be improved.

Sunset over Lake Atitlan, Guatemala © iStock 367 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA

Water Quality in Guatemala1

Manuel Basterrechea, Margaret Dix, Sharon van Tuylen, Ángela Méndez, Ligia Díaz, Pablo Mayorga and Norma Gil

Abstract

- In Guatemala, the deterioration of water quality is already a major problem despite the fact ofthat political specific will regulations and institutional have been strength in place to since exercise 1989, compliance which require with compliance the regulations, with stan and dards to ensure the quality of the effluent discharged into water bodies. There is a lack aquatic ecosystems and the economic activities of the country are evident. 1 solving them now will require major financial investment. The effects on public health, the

Introduction

- Figure 1 - Guatemala is located in the far north of the Central American isthmus limited by Mexico, Be lize, Honduras and El Salvador ( ). It has an area of 108,889 km² and an average an nual water availability of 97,200 million m³ (MARN, 2015). The country has extremely rugged topography with elevationsFigure 1). from sea level to 4,200 meters, producing six climate regions, three slopes (Pacific, Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico), 38 basins, 138 bodies of water and 34 volcanoes (see On June 30, 2014, the population ascended to 15.6 million, of which 50% were under 25 (INE, 2016). Guatemala has a multi-cultural, multi-ethnic society (comprising four groups: Maya, Xinca, Garifuna and Ladinos), and multilingual society (composed of 23 linguistic communities). In 2014, 38.8% of the population self-identified as indigenous, four of the communities represent an 80% of the total and 23.7% are monolingual in Mayan language American(INE, 2016). countries with the greatest social inequality, with high poverty levels, particularly Although Guatemala is the largest economy in Central America, it is one of the Latin-

in rural areas and among indigenous populations. According to ENCOVI 2014, the percent

1. The water quality report in Guatemala was presented to members of AGUALIMNO and guests on November 6, 2017, in the auditorium of the Guatemalan Association of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering (AGISA).

Manuel Basterrechea [email protected] Member of the Guatemala Academy of Sciences. Margaret Dix, Sharon van Tuylen, Ángela Méndez, Ligia Díaz, Pablo Mayorga y Norma Gil All members of the Guatemalan Association of Limnology and Management of Guatemalan Lakes (AGUALIMNO). [email protected] WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA 368

regulations have several shortcomings. They are in- age of total poverty in Guatemala was 59.3%, with effectivelyHowever, implemented according and to Siguí in many (2016), aspects, the 2006they 1.123.4% Context living in extreme poverty (INE 2016). failed to improve what had been stipulated in the

The country has had a Law for the Protection and 1989 and, above all, 2005 regulations. The current- Improvement of the Environment since 1986 (Law guishregulation between requires the receivinglower water water quality bodies of theand final the 68-86) and Regulations for the Discharge and Reuse- typeseffluent of fromindustry, the entitydoesn’t producing include the it, failsmeasuring to distin of tionof Wastewater of water quality and Sludge due to Disposal discharges (Government of munici- the chemical oxygen demand or parasites. Term of Agreement 236-2006) to prevent the deteriora compliance is longer (the previous one granted six Agreement repealed two previous regulations is- years in two stages, whereas now there are four pal, urban and agroindustrial wastewater. The 2006 has had regulations in place to prevent, control and there have also been two extensions of two years protectsued in water1989 and quality 2005. for In nearly other thirtywords, years the country . eachstages to of the 5 years municipalities each, the last for onecompliance). being to 2024, The catand-

Figure 1. Morphometry of the country, neighboring countries, slopes and main bodies of water (lakes and lagoons) and volcanoes (eruptive foci) 369 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA

egories for the re-use of wastewater were reduced, ed by the fact that the operation and maintenance of treatment systems is not always adequate. The same happens with the wastewater from agro-in- the periodicity for the Ministry of Environment and- dustry, which is discharged untreated or with insuf- licNatural Health Resources and Social (MARN) Assistance to control(MSPAS) wastewater is exempt- eddischarges from undertaking is not defined these and controls, the Ministry among of other Pub Waste from agrochemicals used in agriculture is shortcomings. aficient non-point treatment. source of deterioration in water quality. - However, there are no regulations to control non- - point sources of contamination of the country's wa- ulationsWithin and this public context, entities the chapter to enforce on Water them, Qual its ter bodies. applicationity in Guatemala has beenshows ineffective, that despite as having evidenced the reg by the degree of contamination of the majority of the 1.3 Objectives of the chapter country's water bodies. The objective of the chapter is to inform decision This chapter was written using the results of - demics and civil society of the causes of the deteri- status of the country's water bodies and the efforts orationmakers ofand water public quality officials, in the the country, private so sector, that onceaca beingscientific made research, to improve which its quantify management. and describe the we are aware of the situation, we can all contribute to its solution. Poor quality water affects the health 1.2 Main causes of water of the population, especially that of children, aquat- quality problems ic ecosystems and their biological diversity, as well - as affecting economic activities due to the previous ronmental problems have reached a critical level, treatment that must be undertaken so that it can be althoughAccording this to Castellanosis not evident (2013), for the majoritycountry's of envi the used. population. Consequently, the deterioration of the environment and the services it provides will continue to increase until this way of thinking changes. 2. Institutional authority and One of the main causes of the deterioration of water quality governance the indifference of citizens and the lack of compli- 2.1 Legal framework ancewater with quality the isrelated the lack laws, of governanceas indicated reflected in the pre in- Ordinary regulations exist for environmental is- vious paragraph; the population must be informed - about the importance of water quality for human sues, such as the Law for the Protection and Im- The lack of compliance with regulations and provement of the Environment (Decree 68-86), the standardshealth and by ecosystems the institutions (Siguí, that2016). must ensure wa- Law on Protected Areas (Decree 4-89), the Forest- ter quality by law is due to the weak institutional ry Law (Decree 101-96) and the Framework Law to framework. For example, MSPAS lacks the capacity Regulate the Reduction of Vulnerability, Compulso to comply with the Health Code provisions in rela- ry Adaptation to the Effects of Climate Change and tion to water quality for human consumption, while the Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases (Decree 7-2013).- - Environmental issues are the responsibility of the - MARN, which must coordinate with the municipal terMARN treatment is unable and to monitoring comply with the Law quality 68-86 of and surface Gov ities and private sector in the country (Article 20 of- waterernment bodies, Agreement because 136-2006 it lacks regardingthe resources wastewa to do tionalthe Law development. on the Protection and Improvement of the so and ensure that the generators provide adequate Environment) to ensure the sustainability of na- treatment. Another cause of the current status of water The Government Agreement on the Regula- quality in the country is the lack of treatment of mu- tablishestion of the the Discharge criteria andand Reuse requirements of Wastewater to be metand forSludge the Disposaldischarge (236-2006), and reuse publishedof wastewater in 2006, as well es treatment of those that are treated, compound- as for sludge disposal. This is designed to ensure nicipal and urban wastewater and the insufficient WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA 370

Table 1 Water supply systems with adequate levels of residual chlorine % Water supply Water supply systems with Total water Total water supply systems with adequate % Water systems Province adequate levels of residual systems systems monitored levels of residual monitored chlorine registered chlorine Alta Verapaz 14 31 11 5 55 9 682 8 Chimaltenango 72 43 Baja Verapaz 45 393 Chiquimula 13 7 167 661 25 114 13 210 5 38 554 17 43 40 El Petén 15 54 30 El Progreso 169 25 371 41 Escuintla 191 16 226 85 Huehuetenango 214 7 14 Guatemala 235 63 898 Izabal 21 16 1491 Jalapa 3 7 6 67 9 316 Jutiapa 24 374 46 236 19 41 296 8 79 27 Quetzaltenango 6 15 515 8 Quiché 91 345 26 1292 Sacatepéquez Retalhuleu 9 59 15 154 38 San Marcos 34 14 89 153 58 156 98 22 33 217 30 90 38 651 1 17 1 Santa Rosa 66 Suchitepéquez 12 17 24 Sololá 6 608 Totonicapan 131 69 282 Zacapa 2 10 20 213 25 46 54 35 General Total 733 2532 29 10429 245

Source: MSPAS, 2017. that through the improvement of the characteris- - tics of these waters, it will be possible to establish tains the values of the maximum acceptable limits andThe maximum COGUANOR permissible NGO 29001:99limits for chemical standard com con- waters from the impacts resulting from human ac- pounds, sensory characteristics, biocides and bac- tivity;a continuous b) restore process receiving that will: waters a) protect undergoing receiving eu- teriological limits, as well as the required concen- trophication; and c) promote the development of trations of chlorinated water and bacteriological water resources with an integrated management analysis methods, linked to the water quality stan- vision. This regulation is also designed to establish dards that must be met for human consumption. the mechanisms for evaluation, control and moni- - one of the preventive actions to maintain health is to guaranteeArticle 38 potable of the water Health for Code the population, stipulates thatand toring so that the MARN can promote water conser vation and improvement. The Regulation establishes- this article refers to the ways of guaranteeing ac- comingsthat MARN and is the responsible issuance offor a its new implementation. one based on sci As- cessadequate and universal excreta disposal. coverage Likewise, to drinking Section water, II es of- mentioned earlier, the Regulation has several short tablishing the relationship between the MSPAS and entific research has been proposed (Siguí, 2016). 371 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA

the Municipal Development Institute (INFOM) and municipalities and INFOM - monitors urban water sources, as well as certain points of the distribution of public necessity that guarantees access and uni- network for domestic consumption. Monitoring ru- versalother organizationscoverage of the to population promote ato “prioritydrinking policywater ral water sources and their distribution network is services with an emphasis on actions by communi- almost exclusively the responsibility of the MSPAS, ties themselves to ensure sustainable water man- which has a database. agement”. The same code states the obligation of Table 1 shows the percentage of water supply municipalities to supply drinking water to commu- systems with adequate levels of residual chlorine in nities located in their territorial jurisdiction, which is also contained in the Municipal Code. - the 22 departments of the country in 2016. As can be 2.2 Relations with academia and NGOs seen, only 29% of the water supply systems moni Determining the quality of the water for supply- tored in the 22 departments have adequate levels of ing populations is the responsibility of municipali- residualMonitoring chlorine, the which quality is extremely of natural low. waters, Even affect in the- ties, the MSPAS, water committees at the rural level edDepartment by human of and Guatemala economic the activities, percentage is the is 63%.respon - and neighborhood associations which provide the sibility of the authorities for the main lake basins service, since they are supplied by their own mechanical wells. Determining the water quality of the receiving bodies is the responsibility of public en- databases.in the country (AMSA, AMSCLAE, AMASURLI and tities such as the authorities in charge of the four AMPI),Monitoring academia the andquality NGOs. of municipal These entities and agroin have- dustrial wastewater, point sources, must be under- - taken by the pollution generating entity through main lakes basins in the country (Atitlán, Amatitlán, Petén Itzá and Izabal), institutions such as the Pri - co-managevate Institute protected for Research areas on – Changethe Defenders Climate of (ICC) Na- the technical studies required by Regulation 236- and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) that 2006. The MARN is in charge of receiving the tech - fromnical pollution-generatingstudies and having the entities database. a year. The MARN ture Foundation (FDN), in the Sierra de Las Minas, takes approximately 300 samples of the discharges privateBocas del nature Polochic reserves. and Sierra de Lacandón; FUN DAECO in Cerro San Gil, Punta de Manabique- and- 3. Main problems impacting water quality in the country waterUniversities, quality in boththeses public and (Sanresearch Carlos) projects and pri on vate (Rafael Landívar and Del Valle) also determine 3.1 Eutrophication - various water bodies in the country. In March 2017,- ordinationthe Guatemalan with Associationthe authorities of Limnology of the lakes, and Lakeuni- Lake Amatitlán receives mostly untreated wastewa versitiesManagement and (AGUALIMNO),the private sector created - simultaneously in 2015, in co ter from the southern sector of Guatemala City and sampled six different water bodies in the country other municipalities in the metropolitan region (381 inkm²). order Mosquera to evaluate (2015) the effectanalyzed of the the measures water quality of the of the lake and the tendency between 2008 and 2013 (Atitlán, Amatitlán, Petén Itzá, Chichoj, Petexbatún 2.3and MonitoringEl Pino). and database toEnvironmental the previous Programdegree of (PRACLA), contamination financed of the by lake, the Water quality is monitored by several entities, both Inter-American Bank (IDB) during that period. Due public and private, either to determine whether it - is suitable for human consumption or to identify its the trophic state was maintained between 2008 and- natural conditions. pereutrophic2013, meaning (M. that Dix, it ispersonal eutrophic communication). according to Vol In relation to the monitoring of water quali- lenwieder (1968). According to recent data, it is hy- ty for human supply purposes, at the national lev- crease in nutrient concentrations, which encourage el, MSPAS - sometimes in coordination with certain the Lakegrowth Atitlan of algae has and deteriorated therefore reduce due to the the clari in- WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA 372

ty of the water. At present, most of the wastewater - - - the concentration of cyanotoxins (microcystin LR, generatedphorus and by nitrogen the 300,000 present people in wastewater in the basin are is dis ac- waterYR and samples. nodularin Cyanotoxin combined, concentrations saxitoxin, cylindros are rou- celeratingcharged into the the eutrophication lake (407 liters/second). of the lake. Pathogens The phos permopsin and anatoxin-a through ELISA tests) in from wastewater also increase the degradation of - the water quality (Chandra et al. tinely analyzed when there are confirmed blooms - in lakes Amatitlán and Atitlán. To date, microcys- served in the waters of some ,of 2013). the other lakes gethertins have with been low foundlevels of in anatoxin-a concentrations in Dolichosper of over 1- Eutrophication processes have also been ob mumμg/L, generally at specific sites in Amatitlán, toamong others). ings to date of levels above those recommended by (Izabal, Petén Itzá) and lagoons (Chichoj, El Pino, blooms. In Atitlán, there have been no record 3.2 Natural contaminants anatoxin-a). the Toxicity WHO (1 bioassays μg/L for microcystinswere conducted and with 3 μg/L Tham for- are active. Volcanic activity and geology are sourc- nocephalus platyurus - esThere of arsenic are 33 volcanoes and other in heavy the country, metals. some Pérez-Sabino of which et. al. (Mayorga, 2014) on the cy- - anobacteria bloom in Lake Atitlán in 2009, using (2015) carried out four samplings at 14 sites in the methodology of Törökné (1999). The mean le wastewater2014, in the treatmentmain tributary plant, rivers in Panajachel, and in Lake the muAti- thal concentration (LC50) of the biomass from the- nicipaltlán, as capitalwell as located at the entrance within the to basinand exit of thisfrom lake, the center of the lake in 2009 was 0.077 mg/L, which to determine arsenic and mercury concentrations. showedis extremely no known toxic, accordingcyanotoxin to content, the Törökné so it is clas be- The concentrations of the former in all the sam- sification. Biomass collected on another occasion- tained cyanotoxins that have not yet been described - orlieved extremely that what toxic happened (potentially in 2009medicinal) may have bioactive con ingples to were the waterover 20quality ug/l, standardhigher than for humanthe maximum supply level allowed for drinking water (10 ug/l), accord substances. In 2013, the LC50 of biomassMicrocystis from the unsuitablein the country, for humanCOGUANOR consumption, (NGO 29001), although meaning it is same place was 2.13 mg/L (toxic sample according- usedthat waterby several from communities.Lake Atitlán and The its presence tributaries of ar is- to the Törökné criterion). Extracts of senic is due to the geology of the basin, located in a from another lake in Guatemala (Mayorga, unpub volcanic zone. lished3.4 Agrochemicals data) caused an LC50 of 0.26 mg/L. - 3.3 Cyanobacteria ious land uses on erosion and sedimentation, and et al. - concludedCoc and Vanegas that the (2015) crops evaluated caused erosion the effect rates of thatvar - - López (2015) took 120 samples from Lake Am atitlán in the photic and aphotic zone and the hypo were twice (between 16.65 and 28.53 t/ha) those re- cyanobacteria),limnion, during theMicrocystis dry and spp.,rainy and seasons Dolichosper in 2013- chemicalsported for used secondary in rubber forests cultivation ( between and annual 10.14 and ag- andmum 2014, spp. identifying being the 36taxa phytoplankton with the highest taxa (tendensi of- riculture12.72 t/ha). would Accordingly, be transported residue in the from run-off the agro processes, in addition to reducing soil fertility. ml, respectively). The study concludes that there isties a clear (61,000-208,000 dominance cel/mlof cyanobacteria and 24,000-31,000 in the photic cel/ 3.5 Heavy metals zone, which decreases in the aphotic zone and hy- Mercury is a toxic, persistent and bioaccumulative polimnion. Moreover, large amounts of cyanobacte- diversity. andpollutant one of (UNEP, the heavy 2013, metals cited by with Pérez-Sabino the greatest et tox al.,- rial biomass do not greatly influence phytoplankton- ic2015), potential. which isMethylmercury biomagnified in is the a potent trophic neurotox network,- ter laboratory has had the capacity to determine in with the ability to penetrate the membranes of In Guatemala, since 2016, the Atitlán Study Cen 373 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA

living beings and represents a risk to reproduc- al municipal wastewater, is a serious problem for tive and neurological health (Scheuhammer, Meyer, the large part of the population supplied by un-

- methylmercurySandheinrich & Murray,is through 2007, the cited consumption by Pérez-Sabino of con- tionalimproved waters water are sources contaminated (Lentini, with 2010). feces Mosquera (Prensa et al. 2015). The main route of human exposure to noted that according to MSPAS figures, 90% of na - taminated fish, which can cause health problems waterLibre, 2017:18).treatment, including disinfection, fails to such as reduced field of vision,et. mobility al. problems, Siguí (2016) indicated that conventional waste- themental presence deterioration, of mercury paralysis in almost and all death the sampling(Bisinoti ent when combined with organic matter forms tri- & Jardim, 2004). Pérez-Sabino (2015) reported halomethanes,eliminate parasites. which Disinfectionare considered of treatedcarcinogenic, efflu - while residual chlorine is harmful to aquatic life. sites of Lake Atitlán, in concentrations of up to 3.81- As indicated above, arsenic and mercury con- μg/L, the maximum limit allowed for drinking wa ter being 1 μg/L, according to the COGUANOR stan its tributaries were higher than the limits recom- dard3.6 Deforestation (NGO 29001). mendedcentrations by inthe the country's surface drinkingwater of Lakewater Atitlán standard. and Plans are underway to transfer the wastewater gen- - implementationCastellanos (2013) of the indicates incentive that program. in the To past date, 25 trient load. However, according to Pérez-Sabino et years, the country lost 20% of its forest, despite the al.erated in the Lake Atitlán basin to reduce the nu this process would also transfer arsenic and mer- $202In million addition USD to have the lossbeen of invested, tree coverage, reforesting the cury, (2015) contaminating since in addition the soil to transferringand crops in nutrients, the area changeapproximately in land 150,000 use, without ha (INAB soil 2016). and water con- which would receive this water, the viability of the servation measures, produces erosion and sedi- project should be considered in the analysis. A sim- - ilar case would occur with the re-use of the surface - mentation. In Guatemala, 46% of land is used cor areasrectly, is25% eight is times overused greater and than the remainingin underused 29% ar is- waters of Lake Amatitlán, without adequate treat- underused: The potential erosion rate in over-used ment, to supply the city of Guatemala and its area- portedof influence, concentrations the Metropolitan of metals Region above ofthe Guatema drinking eas (IARNA, 2009, cited by Coc and Vanegas, 2015). waterla (RMG), standard. since the waters of the lake have also re FAO (cited by Coc and Vanegas, 2015) defines light soil erosion as less than 10 t/ha/year, moderate soil erosion as between 10 and 50, high soil erosion as 3.9 Leaching to groundwater between 50 and 200 and very high soil erosion as and surface water bodies 3.7above Salinization 200 t/ha/year. solid waste and residues are a source of ground andLeachates surface from water controlled contamination. landfills Municipal of municipal waste- The lower parts of certain basins of the Pacific slope water and solid waste from the largest cities in the (Figure 1) have salinity levels above 0.5 mg/l, a value - andwhich is indicativethe Guatemalan of saline standard intrusion. for Saline drinking intrusion water occurs(COGUANOR as a result NGO excessive 29 001), pumping establishes (overexploita as brackish- City,country which - such has as no the leachate Metropolitan collection Region or treatment. of Guate tion of aquifers) and prolonged droughts in the allu- Inmala the (RMG) remaining - are municipal deposited capitals in Zone (of3 of which Guatemala there vial fan of the Coyolate, Acomé and Achiguate rivers also discharged with no control of leachates. are Somea total of of the333), country’s wastewater industries and solid and waste agroin are- 3.8(ICC, Wastewater 2017). dustries have leachate collection and treatment The contamination of water bodies, caused by the systems, such as, for example, the ashes from coal discharge of untreated urban and agroindustri- combustion in the thermoelectric sector. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA 374

Table 2. Temperature change and annual average precipitation for Guatemala under a scenario of high greenhouse gas emissions Variable 2020 2030 2050 2070 2100 1.0 2.0 4.7 -1.3 -12.7 -14.2 Temperature °C 0.8 2.9 Rain % -1.5 -26.8 Source: Castellanos (2013), with data from ECLAC, 2010.

3.10 Eco-toxicological studies of surface, lalobos rivers, sub-basins of the Caribbean and marine and underground water - - dez reported acetaminophen, caffeine, dexketopro- phizing potential tests on the fresh and marine wa- fen,Pacific phenylephrine waters of the and country ibuprofen. respectively, The only Hernán analyte tersMayorga in the (2009) country, conducted reporting eco-toxicity toxicity at a andfew pointseutro with values below the limit of detection was sodium -usually mild and not constant- and that the poten- had the highest amount in both rivers in compari- growth of the bioassay with unicellular green algae, sondiclofenac. with caffeine, Of the fivewhich analytes had the found, lowest phenylphrine averages in wastial forthe eutrophication,main threat to the reflected water bodies in the evaluated, excessive both rivers. because of the excess of inorganic nutrients. 3.12 Microbial diseases - The prevalence of Helicobacter pylori infection is as- Mayorga (2016) conducted toxicity tests in sociated with poor sanitary conditions, lack of wa- orgroundwater more of the in testthe valleyorganisms of Guatemala used. The City, well report with ter chlorination, unhygienic food preparation and ing that 8 of the 10 wells presented toxicity to one - - essarythe most to toxic increase water potable complies water with supply the COGUANOR coverage edovercrowding. (p Consumption of unpurifiedH Pylori water in29001 the drinkingcountry andwater investments standard. Itshould is obviously be made nec to antibodies.among other Other risk contributing factors is significantly factors are not associat being achieve this, but it must also be of adequate quali- healthy <.001) (p with the existence of anti- IgG. (p (p = .041), the presence of current diarrhea emergingty. The parameters contaminants established (drugs, byendocrine the COGUANOR disrup- = .003) and the type of health service available torsstandard and nanoparticles) are adequate, and but notothers, sufficient as a result due toof infection = .003). is In present 2010, a frequencyin the child of population infection of from 51% foran which they do not ensure that the water is of good earlychildren age aged and, 5 that to 10 if was children reported, do not showing receive that treat thequality. As indicated, most of the groundwater samples taken from mechanical wells that supply water et al ment, it will persist throughout their lives (WGO, but were toxic to various aquatic organisms. This 3.132010, Climatecited by Matta Change ., 2017). indicatescomplied thatwith there the COGUANOR are toxic substances potability present standard, in groundwater that are not detected by the conventional physicochemical and microbiological analy- During the period from 1950 to 2014, 16 neutral years have been registered, together with 25 with precipitation,La Niña events heat and and24 with temperature El Niño events and therefore (MARN, 3.11ses required Emerging (AGISA, pollution 2016). surface2015). These and groundwater phenomena impactquantity on and the quality. variation of Temperature and rain projections due to cli- used for various everyday activities, which have mate change indicate that the country will gradu- beenEmerging found contaminants in bodies of waterare classified without aslosing products their ally become drier and warmer, as shown in tables activity, so it is thought that they can directly or in- - have to adapt to living with less water availability - (Imbach2 and 3, meaning et al., that the country’s inhabitants willTa- directly affect aquatic biota and humans (Hernán dez, 2013). In a sampling of the Las Vacas and Vil 2012, cited by Castellanos, 2013). 375 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA

ble 2 shows that the reduction of rainfall will in- - vested in water collection, transportation and pro- - visionadversely in poor affects households health and and well-being: the increase the timein days in tioncrease and from that 2050 demand onwards, will rise, with since decreases the population of more of absence from work due to diseases associated than 10% of the current average annual precipita with unsafe water consumption, affects the possi- Table 3 shows that water demand is growing bility of securing family income. will increase to 28 million (Castellanos, 2013).

intoat a rateaccount of nearly any decrease 10% per in year, its availability. which reduces The volthe- In 2006, 67.2% of children under six living in- umesurplus of contaminated of available water water by will 28%, increase without at a ratetaking of poverty suffered from diarrhea. In 2008, 49.8% of children under five suffered from chronic malnutri tion. Diarrhea is the cause of 18.4% of the mortality 3.5% per year and will continue to pollute receiving of children under the age of five (MARN, 2015), and waters (Castellanos, 2013). remains one of the 10 leading causes of morbidity 4. Social and economic aspects and4.3 Educationmortality nationwide level (MSPAS, 2016). - 4.1 Health opment and historical backwardness, the average - In Guatemala, which has medium human devel tion conditions are factors that negatively affect Lack of access to safe water and minimum sanita schooling of its general adult population in 2014 The second cause of infant mortality in the coun- was 5.6 years: 6.0 years in men and 5.3 in women, people’s health (IARNA-URL, 2012). and 4.0 years in the indigenous population. In 2014, - total literacy was 79.1%: 74.0% in women and 84.8%- drentry are under diarrheal six years diseases of age (8.3% suffered in 2012, from according diarrhea in men, and 57.6% in indigenous women (INE, 2016). to MSPAS, cited by Castellanos, 2013); 20.2% of chil Public spending on education in 2013 was approxi - 4.4mately Gender 2.8% of GDP (MARN, 2015). intestinal(INE, 2016). problems, In 2016, theparticularly MSPAS report diarrheal showed diseases. that - 402,965The peoplehealth systemnationwide is segmented were affected and byfragment gastro- - According to Foster and Araujo (2004, cited by Duc- spectively. Public expenditure on health in the peri- temalaci, 2007), are 74% undertaken of activities by womeninvolving and water girls. fetching, It is es- ed, resulting in social exclusion and inefficiency, re timatedtreatment, that cleaning the average and household time spent cleaning on these in activ Gua-

od from 2001 to 2007 was 1.2% of GDP, the lowest in by Ducci), which prevents women from engaging in 4.2Central Poverty America (MARN, 2015). otherities is activities, 5 to 6 hours such per as the day possibility (RASGUA, of 2007, entering cited The lack of drinking water and sanitation services the formal labor market. mainly impacts the poorest sectors in the country. The lack of adequate health services in schools Having inadequate water and sanitation services leads to school dropout, rates of which are higher in

Table 3. Water balance for Guatemala in 2005 and 2025 for the driest month. All data are given in millions of cubic meters Item 2005 2025 trend % change 2005-2025 Availability 0 Demand 2,645 2,645 336 988 +194 Contaminated water 312 +70 Balance 2,309 1,656 -28 183 Source: Castellanos (2013), with data from the SEGEPLAN report, 2007. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA 376

presence of drinking water and sanitation services allowsthe case for of greatergirls (MARN, privacy 2015). and At security, the same which time, hasthe areforestry several and industries fishing, as which, well as because mines andof their quarries loca- a particular impact on women's well-being, since tion,have showndo not dynamichave easy behavior access (MARN,to the water 2015). supply There it reduces the likelihood of violence and sexual ha- service, as a result of which they rely on ground and et al. - ter leads to the deterioration of water quality and 4.5rassment Rural (Bosch and urban , 1999). areas resultssurface inwater. an increase Excessive in totalexploitation dissolved of solidsgroundwa (Van area had access to improved sources of drinking In 2014, 89.8% of the population living in the urban de Wauw, Evens & Machiels, 2010). - watering in thesupply urban compared area had to access 64.2% to of improved the population sourc- 5. Coping with Sustainable in rural settings. In 2014, 73.4% of the population liv Development Goal 6 ofes theof drinking population water living supply in the compared urban environment to 11.6% of the population in the rural area. In 2014, 53.6%- countries, adopted the Sustainable Development On September 25, 2015, Guatemala, like 194 other- had Seventy-fourwater meters per compared cent of householdsto 8.9% of the undertake popula sometion in form the ruralof treatment area (INE for 2016). the water they consume Goals (SDG) with the Transform Our World Declara tion: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. - SDGs assume the task of finalizing the issues that- or purchase purified water (Foster and Araujo, poratehave yet new to beissues fulfilled to advance within thesustainable framework develop of the- 2004). Whereas in urban areas, over 20% of house Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and incor holds buy purified water and nearly 15% boil it, in rural areas over 20% boil it and only 5% purchase eachment country(SEGEPLAN, will 2017).set its own national targets. In 4.6purified Investment water(Lentini, in water 2010). Paragraph 55 of the Declaration indicates that quality programs - January 2016, a new president began his four-year analysisterm in Guatemala.and adaptation In this to regard, circumstances, CONADUR within stip aThe water Department quality monitoring of Regulation system of thefor supply Health sys and- theulated framework that the of SDG the country's agenda would development be subject prior to- Environment Programs (DGRVCS) of the MSPAS has tems (SIGSA-SIVIAGUA), which in 2016 took control ities. Accordingly, in 2016 a strategy was designed to of 24% (2,532) of the total registered water systems- whichlink SDGs made to theit possible K'atun Nuestra to prioritize Guatemala national National goals (10,429).ators conduct analyses of the water quality of the Development Plan 2032 (PND) formulated in 2012, AG 236-2006 requires that wastewater gener Table 4 highlights the progress of the indicators for municipal collector or receiving waters, twice a in the first four years of the current government. year,treated as welleffluents, as the prior respective to their technical discharge study. into In theor- der to monitor the water quality of wastewater dis- a.the Universal, Goal 6 targets. equitable access to safe, affordable charges, the Directorate of Watersheds and Strate- drinking water for all. Table 5 shows access to

- gic Programs of MARN monitors some of these to b.water Equitable by the population access to adequatein 2015. sanitation and demonstrate compliance with AG 236-2006; The av hygiene services for all and put an end to open 4.7erage Economic number of activitiessamples per year is 300. defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women, girls and people in vulnerable situations. Table 6 shows access to sanitation services Agricultural activity account for 13.1% of GDP; mines and quarries for 0.7%; and electricity supply and water collection for 2.6%. Agriculture, livestock, in 2015. 377 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA

c. Improve water quality by reducing pollution, d. Substantially increase the efficient use of wa- eliminating dumping and minimizing the dis- ter resources in all sectors and ensure the sus- charge of hazardous materials and chemicals, tainability of the extraction and supply of fresh halving the percentage of untreated wastewa- water to address water shortages and substan- ter, and substantially increasing safe recycling tially reduce the number of people suffering and reuse. from water shortages. As indicated above, although the country has a reg- The Political Constitution of the country, enacted in ulation that provides for the reduction of pollution, municipal wastewater is not treated in most munic- Since that date there have been several bills, but a ipalities. Agribusiness uses treated wastewater for law1985, has orders yet to law be passed. on water resources to be issued. fertigation.

Table 4. Guatemalan Indicators for each of the SDG goals 6 Goals Indicators 6.1.1 Proportion of the population with properly managed Goal 6.1 Achieve universal, equitable access to safe, affordable safe drinking water supply services. (Coverage shown in Ta- drinking water for all by 2030

Target 6.2 - 6.2.1ble 5) Proportion of the population that uses safely managed tation and hygiene services for all and put an end to open defeca- sanitation services, including a hand washing facility with tion, paying specialBy 2030, attention achieve to equitable the needs access of women to adequate and girls sani and people in vulnerable situations. Goal 6.3 6.3.1soap and water. (Coverage shown in Table 6) eliminating dumping and minimizing the discharge of hazard- 6.3.2 Proportion of good quality water bodies ous materialsBy 2030, and chemicals, improve water halving quality the percentage by reducing of pollution,untreat- Proportion of safely treated wastewater. (5%)

worldwide ed wastewater, and increasing recycling and safe reuse by [x]% (Undetermined) 6.4.1 Target 6.4 water resources in all sectors and ensure the sustainability of the Change in the efficiency of water use over time. (The By 2030, substantially increase the efficient use of 6.4.2 extraction and supply of fresh water to address water shortag- irrigation system changed from flooding to spraying) es and substantially reduce the number of people suffering from water as a proportion of available freshwater resources. (In Stress level due to water scarcity: extraction of fresh water shortages. - el is high; basin committees) several of the Pacific basins, in the dry season, the stress lev 6.5.1 Degree of application of integrated water resource Target 6.5 Implement the integrated management of water resources at all levels, including through cross-border cooperation, 6.5.2 Proportion of the area of transboundary basins with as appropriate by 2030. management (0-100). (Estimated 10%) - ter. (There are no arrangements) an operating arrangement for cooperation in the field of wa 6.a.1 - Goal 6.a ter and sewerage that is part of a government coordinated support provided to developing countries for capacity-building in Volume of official development assistance for wa activities andBy 2030, programs expand related international to water andcooperation sewerage, and includ the - - provedspending the plan. spending (In 2005, of a thesecond operation loan, of of which a first almostloan with noth thewater resources, wastewater treatment and recycling and reuse IDB began, which took years to spend. In 2013, Congress ap technologies.ing water collection and storage, desalination, efficient use of review, before it is submitted to Congress) ing has been spent. There is another loan with the WB under 6.b.1 Proportion of local administrative units with estab- Goal 6.b Support and strengthen the participation of local com- lished operating policies and procedures for the participa- munities in improving water management and sanitation tion of local communities in water management and sewerage. (Several in the country)

Source: SEGEPLAN, 2017. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA 378

Table 5. Coverage by source, time and water treatment in homes Households Population Characteristics Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total

Drinking water source Improved source Indoor piping 23.0 20.0 20.2 46.8 66.1 57.3 49.7 67.9 60.2 31.1 40.3 33.3 17.5 23.6 17.6 Cistern / public tap 0.4 1.2 2.0 1.4 By pipe in lot/land 21.8 38.8 23.9 Another source with pipe 1.4 3.1 3.2 1.9 0.5 Protected spring 0.1 1.4 0.1 1.4 4.5 1.5 4.5 0.1 2.1 1.2 0.1 2.2 1.3 0.8 0.8 Non-Improved source Rainwater Public cistern / Public Tank 0.2 1.0 0.7 0.2 1.1 0.7 53.1 33.6 42.5 50.2 31.8 39.6 Mechanical or manual well (curb) 10.0 Protected spring 0.2 3.3 0.3 3.4 2.1 3.9 15.1 4.6 14.8 10.5 Tank truck / cart with drum 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 1.9 0.0 2.0 1.1 0.0 2.2 1.3 0.0 0.7 0.4 0.0 0.4 River / ditch 11.3 Lake or stream 0.8 Other source 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 Bottled water 48.7 28.4 45.0 9.3 24.5 Total 100.00 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Time required to fetch water (round trip) Indoor water supply 13.0 13.3 97.1 83.1 89.5 96.8 82.5 88.6 30 minutes or more 0.4 2.3 0.4 4.1 Less than 30 minutes 2.5 8.2 2.8 8.8 Do not know / no information 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 3.9 2.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Water treatment before drinking a/ 44.4 10.1 13.1 Boiled 26.2 53.0 40.8 28.9 55.9 Filtered with cloth 0.4 0.4 0.7 Bleaching agent or chlorine added 15.6 10.9 15.6 13.6 3.7 4.2 4.7 4.1 0.8 0.6 0.9 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.7 Ceramic sand or other type of filter 4.8 3.6 Other treatment 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.4 0.4 Purified with sunlight 0.6 0.5 13.4 14.1 0.5 37.3 40.4 Untreated 21.5 17.8 20.8 18.0 % with appropriateNumber treatment method /b 9,751 11,63266.4 21,38353.1 43,668 59,02569.1 102,69356.9 a/ Since respondents were allowed to report more than one water treatment method, the sum of the different types of treatment may exceed 100 percent. b/ The appropriate method for water treatment includes boiling, using chlorine, filtering or purifying with sunlight. Source: ENCOVI, 2017 379 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA

The Foundation for the Conservation of Water - - - cently created in the country to improve the poten- lion m³/year of groundwater, coupled with the con of the Metropolitan Region (FUNCAGUA) was re tribution of four micro-basins of the Xayá and Pix cayá rivers which, despite being located outside constanttial recharge erosion of aquifers and the in riskthe Metropolitanof landslides Regiondue to Thesethe RMG, contributions represent an are important complemented source by of an surface inde- extremeof Guatemala hydrometeorological (RMG); reduce runoff events; and, therefore,generate terminatewater, with number a contribution of mechanical of 88 wells million that m³/year. exploit greater awareness and education among the var- local aquifers. Public information from the Munic- ious water users on the problems associated with - integrated water resource management and pos- - - ipal Water Company of the Municipality of Guate nancial resources in favor of water, soil and forest mala (EMPAGUA) shows that all of its wells have de- conservation;sible solutions; and improve monitor the the capacity environment to manage in tan fi- creased in level –from a depth of between 450 and 750 feet in the 1970s to 1200-1500 feet near the de cade of 2010, with a decrease in productivity in the dem with integral water management in the RMG. - e.amount Implement of liters theper second integrated (FUNCAGUA, management 2016) -. of FUNCAGUA regards the RMG as a territory water resources at all levels, including through comprising at least 12 municipalities (and an esti cross-border cooperation. - mated population of around 4 million inhabitants)- in 20 micro-watersheds, which contribute at least UNEP supports coun 701 million m³/year of surface water and 140 mil tries in monitoring and reporting on SDG 6 and Table 6. Access to indoor sewerage service by area of residence Households Population Characteristics Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total

Improved installation, not shared With discharge into sewage network 11.7 10.7 With discharge into septic tank 14.0 17.7 65.5 36.3 64.6 33.6 With discharge into latrine 41.0 11.0 44.7 30.4 8.4 18.7 8.7 13.8 Improved ventilated latrine 0.0 1.2 0.7 0.0 1.3 9.2 26.5 Total 77.4 74.4 0.8 Shared Installation a/ 83.2 72.5 84.3 78.6 With discharge into sewage network 2.1 With discharge into septic tank 1.3 2.1 1.2 2.3 9.9 5.7 8.8 1.8 4.8 With discharge into latrine 2.1 2.1 2.8 1.8 Improved ventilated latrine 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 9.5 6.1 8.4 5.7 Total 13.3 14.0 12.1 12.4

Installation not shared 14.6 12.6 Discharged, but not into sewerage, septic 2.1 2.3 2.2 2.4 tank, or latrine 0.1 2.6 0.3 0.1 2.5 0.4 1.3 1.3 Latrine without lock 0.5 0.6 Total 3.4 13.0 No service/scrub/field 9.7 5.9 9.9 6.2 Total 100.0 100.012.8 100.08.5 100.03.6 100.0 100.09.0 Número 9,751 11,632 21,383 43,668 59,025 102,693

a/ Services that would be considered “improved”, if they were not shared by two or more households. Source: ENCOVI 2017 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA 380

developed the methodology for the step-by-step lated to water and sewerage, including water collection and storage, desalination, efficient workshop was held to apply this methodology. water resource use, wastewater treatment and monitoring of indicator 6.5.1 . In October 2017, a- recycling and reuse technologies. ability goes to neighboring countries. However, due The Association of Municipalities of the Naranjo to theNearly lack 75%of a legalof Guatemala's framework, annual there arewater no availbilat- - eral negotiations between countries. nicipalities that has been working to ensure water - River Basin (Mancuerna) is an association of mu The mission of Mancuerna is to promote the inte- The Groundwater Governance in Transbound gratedfor the presentwater resource and future management generations forthrough 14 years. its evaluatingary Aquifers the (GGRETA) transboundary Project aquiferundertook in athe region first - phase between 2013 and 2015, which consisted of ipalities will have restored water governance. - strengthening, and its vision is that by 2020, munic between El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala, contributed funds for Mancuerna, and other com- haveknown a asproblem El Trifinio of depletion (UNESCO, due 2016). to the The overuse Esqui The Spanish Cooperation Agency (AECID) has ofpulas groundwater, and Ocotepeque-Citalá but if it continues aquifers to be do used not in yet a International cooperation in the country sup- disorderly manner, without having the guidelines munities such as Manctzoloyá and Copán Chortí. - that allow adequate management, it could experience this problem in the medium term. Moreover, andports storage capacity projects building. in schools The Global in the Water urban Partner area of - ship (GWP) has cooperated with rainwater storage ly attributed to the effects of climate variability and the municipality and Fundación Solar. change,a water deficitan increase has been in the observed duration that of thecan drybe part sea- the municipality of Guatemala, in conjunction with son and periods of heavy rains that do not allow 6. Successful experiences in improving aquifers. Priority should be given to capacity build- water infiltration to contribute to the recharge of the quality and quantity of water ing in El Salvador and Honduras, which share the - Ocotepeque-Citalá aquifer and in Guatemala, for the lowAs indicatedthe historic above, annual in average. the period The last 1950-2014 prolonged (45 f.Esquipulas Protect and aquifer restore (UNESCO, ecosystems 2016). related to wa- years) there were 25 years with precipitation be ter, including forests, mountains, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes slope,drought, where in 2014 agricultural and 2015, activities was reflected with intensive in lower waterflows inconsumption the rivers, especially(sugarcane, those palm on oil the and Pacific ba- the National Council of Protected Areas (CONAP), nanas) are carried out and there are several com- togetherThe ICC, thewith National private Forestryowners, haveInstitute worked (INAB) to proand- munities that use water from rivers for domestic tect and restore the natural mangrove forest on purposes.

- - itorthe Pacificthese slope,efforts. in Areasthe areas restored of Tiquisate, with red Sipacate man- In the dry season (January to May) of 2016, the grove-Naranjo, (Rhizophora Blanca Cecilia mangle and), Tahuexco,together withand to the mon Si- flow of the Madre Vieja, Ocosito and Achiguate riv- pacate-Naranjo conservation area, are also being dustriesers, from andthe Pacificthe communities. slope, was insufficient In order toto meet re- demand, which led to conflicts between the agroin - tectionevaluated of (ICC,natural 2017). forests in areas with very high upsolve of communities,them, in 2016, municipal 32 technical authorities, committees non-gov were- andThe high INAB water grants recharge, forestry and incentives water sources. for the pro ernmentformed: a organizations socio-political and technical companies; committee, a business made committee, made up of the irrigators; and another g. Expand international cooperation and the technical one, made up of the related public enti- support provided to developing countries for ties, the government, the municipalities and the capacity-building in activities and programs re- ICC. The achievements of the technical working ses- 381 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA

slightly contaminated by organic matter due to the of measurements at strategic points, and they also amount of total coliforms, meaning that it should be managedsions were: to ensure to obtain that a wateruser inventory, from the rivers the results emp- given potabilization treatment. It is also regarded - as necessary to develop, use and compile biological mittees were formed, with the support of a coor- indexes, such as macroinvertebrates, phytoplank- tieddinator into and the sixPacific teams Ocean. of technical In 2017, tenpersonnel basin com and ton and eco-toxicological bioassays, which are more sensitive to changes in water quality, in order to ob- There have been other positive experiences in tain rapid results in the event of water pollution. theequipment country, (ICC, such 2017). as when users of a river basin con-

- 7. Conclusions and Recommendations tributed financial and in-kind resources to maintain- scribethe volume the experience and quality of of payment the water. for Guerra environmen and Al- Water quality deterioration is already a major prob- varado (2006) and Guerra and Reyes (2008) de - towards the San Jerónimo valley and the Ixtacapa vestment. The effects on public health, the aquatic sub-basin,tal services respectively. in the basins of the Sierra de Las Minas ecosystemslem and, solving and the it willeconomic require activities heavy financialof the coun in- - - ronmentalFrom 2015services to 2017, (PSA) the in different INAB promoted parts of andthe compliancetry are evident. with Despite standards the to fact ensure that specificthe quality regu of strengthened five payment mechanisms for envi- lations have been in place since 1989, which require only been partially implemented. It seems that the country: Olintepeque and Concepción Chiquiricha historythe effluent of developed discharged countries, into water whose bodies, water they havebod- pa in Quetzaltenango; Esquipulas Palo Gordo in San ies deteriorated at some stage, after which they had Marcos; El Durazno National Farm, San Jerónimo, - Baja Verapaz; and Los Amates Izabal (INAB, 2017). - andIn other addition, interested the Probosques parties, shall Law promote stipulates the that op- to invest large amounts of financial resources to re eration“The INAB, of compensation in collaboration mechanisms with the forbeneficiaries the direc- orcover the them,political will will be andrepeated institutional in Guatemala. strength Howev to en- tors of projects that produce ecosystem and envi- forceer, we the do law,not haveas a resultthe financial of which resources it seems to that do itsso resolution will be very long-term or perhaps only partial. In addition, it is not lack of treatment tech- ronmental services associated with forests" (Art. 19, nology, but rather lack of investment that prevents WaterDecree 2-2015). Quality (WQI) the improvement of water quality in water bodies. and Pollution (PUI) Indices Moreover, the general population must recog- In the country there are no water quality indices to nize that wastewater treatment has a cost and that determine the temporal and spatial variability of the polluter must pay for this process. However, all the municipalities in the country subsidize the water supply service for human consumption and water bodies. Aldana and Zacarías (2014) designed- - one WQI and three PUI (organic matter, suspended equate service, far less treat the wastewater gener- solids and mineralization) for the Cucabaj River, lo ated.therefore There lack is thereforethe financial a need resources to sensitize to provide the pop ad- cated in the municipality of Santa Cruz del Quiché,- ulation to the need to comply with the legislation tantsDepartment of the urban of Quiché, area. because The water it is qualityone of theparame three- through education programs through the creation main sources of supply for more than 9,000 inhabi of a new curriculum, prioritizing water quality and oxygen saturation, fecal coliforms, pH, biochemical its understanding for students and the population oxygenters used demand, to determine nitrates, the phosphates, WQI were: percentagetemperature, of in general, among other actions. turbidity and dissolved solids. The results of the lack of a detailed baseline study and the limited it possible to classify the quality of the resource monitoringVan de Wauwefforts etto date al. (2010) show indicatedthat the country's that the asmonitoring medium-good, from Aprilranging 2012 from to January contaminated 2013 made to legislation can be improved, and that the terms of WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA 382

- cho humano en Guatemala. - itoring studies should be similar to those under- dor de los Derechos Humanos. referencetaken in developing for environmental countries. impact On the (EIA) other and hand,mon Acceso al agua Guatemala: potable, saneamien Procura- the fact that public data and information made this to y pobreza. study possible demonstrates the importance of the Ducci, J. (2007). public provision of reliable and independent data. IV Encuentro de Expresidentes de This raises the need to organize a truly independent, América Latina. Foro socialDoes de infrastructure Sao Paulo 2009. re- - formRecuperado work from de www.corporacionescenarios.org the poor? A case study of Guate- ing system in order to meet those requirements. Fostermala. V. & Araujo C. (2004). transparent and scientifically established monitor Fundación para la Conservación del Agua en la Washington, DC: World Bank. - Bibliographical references Plan de Conservación. - región Metropolitana de Guatemala (FUN - CAGUA) (2016). De Guatemala Sierra - dela: FUNCAGUA.Las Minas al valle de San Jerónimo: acciones Aldana, M.L., y Zacarías, E.E. (2014). Índice de cali Guerra,locales A.E. para y Alvarado,la gestión M.S.integrada (2006). del agua. Cos- dad de agua del Río Cucabaj ubicado en el mu- tabilización.nicipio de Santa Revista Cruz Ciencia, del Quiché, Tecnología Quiché y Salud, y la Sistema Motagua Polochic. influencia en los costos del tratamiento de po ta Rica: CATIE; Guatemala:Experiencia Fondo del deAgua partic del- - ipación y contribuciones de los recursos naturales Vol. 1, Núm. 1. pp. 21-34. ISSN:2410-6356Conclusiones y Guerra,en la A.E. subcuenca y Reyes, del L. Río(2008). Ixtacapa. - AsociaciónRecomendaciones Guatemalteca del VI de Congreso Ingeniera Nacional Sanitar de Revista Mesoamericana de Ingenieríaia y Ambiental Sanitaria (AGISA) y Ambiental. (2016). - la Conservación, Guatemala. Lec ciones y reflexiones. Ciudad de Gua- AñoAnálisis 1, Núm. de2. ISSN:Contaminantes 1998-0493 mentotemala: do AGISA, metilmercúrio 2 al 4 de junio (MetilHg) de 2016. no Cap. ambiente. 8, p. 18. Emergentes= Yu´am. de Tipo Farmacéutico (Acetaminofe- Bisinoti,Química M.C., Nova & Jerdim, W.F. (2004). O comporta Hernández,no, Cafeína, E. Dexketoprofeno, (2013). Diclofenaco sódico, Fenilefrina e Ibuprofeno) en el Agua del Río Las Agua, saneamiento 27(4), 593-600. y la pobreza. Washing Vacas (municipio de Guatemala) y Río Villalobos Bosch, C., Hommann, K., Sadoff, C. y Travers, L. (municipio de Amatitlán). Tesis para obtener el (1999). - ton, DC: Banco Mundial. CastellanosRevista de E.J. la (2013). Universidad ¿Cómo del estará Valle el de entorno Guatemala, am Institutotítulo de Químico.Investigación Universidad y Proyección de San sobre Carlos Am de- biental en Guatemala en las siguientes décadas? Guatemala, Guatemala. Perfil ambiental de Guatemala 2010-2012. Vulner- Núm. 26, pp. 51-55. El estado ecológi- abilidadbiente Natural local y ycreciente Sociedad construcción (IARNA-URL) de (2012).riesgo. Chandra,co actual S., Dix,del lagoM., Rejmánková, Atitlán y el impacto E., Mosquera, de la en V.,- tradaGirón, deN. yaguas Heyvaert, residuales: A. (2013). recomendación para Bo- exportación de las aguas residuales de la Cuen- Guatemala.letín Estadístico ISBN: 1998-2016. 978-9929-587-71-7 Departamento de In- ca para restaurar el lago. Presentado a la Autori- Instituto Nacional de Bosques (INAB) (2016). dad para el Manejo Sustentable de la Cuenca del En- cuestacentivos Nacional Forestales. de Guatemala. Condiciones de Vida 2014. Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE) (2016). laLago tierra de Atitlán. sobre Sololá,la erosión Guatemala. y sedimentación de Instituto Privado de Investigación sobre Cambio Coc, E.F. y Vanegas, E.A. (2015). EfectoRevista del Ciencia, uso de Tomo I. Guatemala:Informe INE. de Labores 2016. - Tecnología y Salud, los suelos en El Estor, Izabal. Climático (2017).Servicios de agua potable y saneaGua- Dirección de Investigación Vol. en 2, Derechos Núm. 1. pp.Humanos 39-45. mientotemala: en ICC. Guatemala: 97 pp. beneficios potenciales y de- ISSN:2410-6356El acceso al agua potable como un dere- Lentini,terminantes E. (2010). del éxito.

(2014). Santiago de Chile: CEPAL. 383 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | GUATEMALA

Estructura, - composición y dominancia de las cianobacterias López,en el M., Lago Barrillas de Amatitlán R. y López y su relaciónJ. (2015). con la pérdi- laUNESCO, Agencia en Suiza el marco para de el las Desarrollo actividades y la del Coop Pro- da de diversidad de fitoplancton. - grama Global de Iniciativas del Agua (GPWI) de

Guatemala: Es- eración (COSUDE). - cuela de Biología, Universidad de San Carlos de Pérez-Sabino, F., Valladares-Jovel, B., Hernández, E.,- Guatemala y Autoridad para el Manejo Sustent Oliva, B. Del Cid, M., Jayes-Reyes,Revista Ciencia, P. 2015. Tecnología Determi able de la Cuenca y del Lago de Amatitlán. ynación Salud, de arsénico y mercurio en agua superfi Matta, V. L., Lange-Cruz, K.J., Medina-Samayoa, N. G., Prensacial delLibre. lago de Atitlán. laMartínez-Castellanos, frecuencia de infección E.M., por Hidalgo-Letona, Helicobacter pylo E.L.,- Scheuhammer,Vol. 2,A.M., Núm. Meyer, 2. pp. 127-134. M.W., ISSN:2410-6356Sandheinrich, riNave, F., Schneider-Paiz, R.E. (2017). CambiosRe en- 16 de noviembre de 2017:18. - vista Ciencia, Tecnología y Salud, mental methylmercury on the health of wild en niños guatemaltecos durante 10 años. M.B., & Murray, M.W. (2007).Ambio Effects of environ Vol. 4, Núm. 1.- ISSN:2409-3459 birds, mammals and fish. , 36(1),Estrategia 12-18. de Mayorga,Guatemala: P. (2009). Servicios Toxicidad y productos y potencial ambientales. eutrofi Secretaríaarticulación de Planificación de la Agenda y de Programación Objetivos de deDes la cante de aguas dulces y marinasPerfil en Guatemala. Ambiental arrolloPresidencia Sostenible (SEGEPLAN) con el Plan (2016). y la Política Nacion- deEn Guatemala 2008-2009: las señales ambientales al de Desarrollo K´atun. Nuestra Guatemala 2032. críticasCitado eny su IARNA/URL relación con (2009). el desarrollo. - - - Guatema Guatemala: Comisión de Alineación, Seguimien la: Universidad Rafael Landívar, Instituto de Ag to y Evaluación/Consejo Nacional de Desarrollo ricultura, RecursosDeterminación Naturales y de Ambiente. la toxicidad Serie de Urbano y Rural. Perfilun extracto Ambiental acuoso No. de11, p. biomasa 136. de cianobacte- Secretaría de Planificación y Programación de la- Mayorga,rias colectadas P. (2014). en el centro del Lago de Atitlán en Presidencia (SEGEPLAN) (2017). Estructura agosto 2013, con el crustáceo anacostraco Tham- de la Estrategia de implementación de las Pri - oridades nacionales de desarrollo. Guatemala: - SEGEPLAN/Sistema de ConsejosObjetivos de Desarrollo. de De - nocephalus platyurus. Presentado en el 1er Con Secretaríasarrollo deSostenible. Planificación Metas priorizadas. y Programación de la greso Nacional deToxicidad Geociencias de aguaAmbientales, subterránea An Presidencia (SEGEPLAN) (2017). tiguaen el Guatemala,Valle de Guatemala. 27 y 28 de Presentadonoviembre deen 2014. el VI Guatemala:- Mayorga,Congreso P. (2016). Nacional de Ingeniería Sanitaria y Am- SEGEPLAN/Sistema de Consejos Revistade Desarrollo. Ciencia, Siguí,Tecnología N. L. (2016). y Salud, ¿Por qué continúa la contami nación de aguas en Guatemala? - biental. Ciudad de Guatemala: AGISA, 2 al 4 de Vol. 3, Núm. 2. ISSN:2410-6356. junio de 2016. Segunda Comunicación Nacional Törökné,Toxins. A.K. Environmental (1999). A newToxicology, Culture-Free Micro Ministeriosobre Cambio de Ambiente Climático yGuatemala. Recursos Naturales biotest for Routine Detection of Cyanobacterial (MARN) (2015). Global Mercury Assessment 14(5): 2013: 466-472.Sources, Ministerio de Salud y Asistencia Social Guatemala: (MSPAS), Unitedemissions, Nations releases Environment and environmental Programme transport. (UNEP) MARN. 224 pp. - (2013). Encuesta Nacional de Salud InstitutoMaterno InfantilNacional 2014-2015. de Estadística (INE), ICF In- Geneva, Switzerland: UNEP Chemicals Branch,. ternational (2017). Van de Wauw, J., Evens, R. y Machiels, L. (2010).- Informa final. Guate lemas¿Está lade sobre salud extracción relacionados de aguacon subterráneael Arsénico mala: MSPAS/INE/ICF. y la reducida infiltración contribuyendo a probGold- Mosquera, V. (2015). Análisis de la calidad de agua- corp out of Guatemala. 2008-2013: Lago de Amatitlán (sin referencia). goldcorpoutofguatemala.com/reports-studies/cerca de la mina Marlin (Guatemala)? En OrganizaciónPrograma Hidrológicode las Naciones Internacional Unidas para (PHI) la deEdu la informes-estudios/ Recuperado de https:// cación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (UNESCO) (2016). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS 384

Honduras

Access to safe drinking water for human consumption is a national priority for improving the quality of life of the population. According to UNICEF studies, Honduras has large water reserves that would make it possible in the short term to expand the coverage of water supply systems to incorporate all households lacking this service. However, it is striking that most large and small cities have rationed water service, and that the scope of the service area is limited.

Lago Yojoa, located between the departments of Comayagua, Cortés and Santa Bárbara, Honduras © iStock 385 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS

Water Quality in Honduras

Marco Antonio Blair, Pedro Ortiz, Mirna Argueta and Luis Romero

Introduction

- - Access to safe drinking water for human consumption is a national priority, since it influenc es and is a factor in improving the level and quality of life of the population. In the past fif teenIn years, this document,Honduras madean analysis significant is conducted progress of in the relation status to of access water to quality drinking in Honduras,water and sanitation, achieving the targets set in Goal 7 of the MDGs. general aspects of Drinking Water and Sanitation (DWS), coverage and problems affecting based on bibliographic reviews, interviews and field experiences. Chapter 1 describes the

water quality. Chapter 2 reviews water quality governance and the institutional and legal framework, among other aspects. Chapter 3 analyzes the main problems impacting water quality in the country. Chapter 4 deals with the social and economic aspects of water quality. Chapter 5 addresses the capacity of the country to face the SDG-6 challenges of the New UN main2030 Agenda.conclusions Chapter and recommendations6 describes the country’s drawn fromsuccessful the review experiences of drinking in improving water quality. water quality through watershed restoration and protection plans. Lastly, Chapter 7 presents the

1. General aspects

- - Since the mid-1980s, Honduras has made significant progress in water and sanitation service coverage, estimated at 86% for access to drinking water and 78% for access to sanita services,tion. However, particularly according water to andthe 2013sanitation. Population and Housing Census (INE, 2013), the popu lationThe growth transformation rate is 2.0% of perthe year,DWS whichsector createshas involved a continuous the formulation gap in the and coverage approval of ofpublic pol-

sectoral objectives and goals. Accordingly, the growth of access to these services has been accompaniedicies in the sector, by the the state’s development decision toof modernizenational strategies the sector and through plans, andthe enactmentthe definition of the of

Framework1.1 Background Law for the Potable Water and Sanitation Sector in 2003 (SESAL, 2003). The review of the basic background information applicable to this study is explained below.

Marco Antonio Blair [email protected] Chapter coordinator, Civil Engineer, MSc, MI, National Academy of Sciences Honduras, Water Focal Point. Pedro Ortiz [email protected] Civil Engineer, CONASA Executive Secretariat, Servicio Autónomo Nacional de Acueductos y Alcantarillados. Mirna Argueta [email protected] Health Engineer, Doctor, National Water Quality Director SANAA. Luis Romero [email protected] Civil Engineer, CONASA Technical Coordinator. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS 386

1.1.1 Location and demographics 1.1.4 Sanitation service coverage - creased in recent decades, although not at the same Honduras (112,492 km²) is located between 12° 58' rateSanitation as the potable service water coverage sector. has Coverage significantly amounts in and 17° 30' North Latitude; and 83° 45' and 89° 22' 1.1.2West Demographics Longitude (MOSEF/GIZ/GFA, 2013). gap in homes that receive water, but lack an appro- According to data from the Population and Hous- priateto 54.9% system of the for total their population, wastewater showing disposal. a 30.3%Table 3 shows coverage data by urban and rural settings. On the basis of data from the table, and with an ing Census 2013, Honduras had a total population of - 8.3 million that year, distributed among 2.2 million - dwellings, including 4,990 collective dwellings. The average endowment of 210 LPPD, nationwide do- population is extremely young, with 24.9% of the mestic wastewater production is almost 361.2 mil ofpopulation interest for between the particular the ages purposesof 10 and 19of andthis 23.2%docu- lion m³ per year, 57.9% of which corresponds to ur mentof the is population given in Table under 1. 10. A summary of the data ban settings and 42.1% to rural settings. 1.2 Main water quality 1.1.3 Drinking water service coverage problems in the country Drinking water service coverage in the country has - cantly increased, although the same cannot be said can be seen from the Table 2, household coverage ofWater water and quality. sanitation According service to updatedcoverage records has signifi from significantly increased in recent decades, and, as amounts to 85.2%. the 2015 SESAL, the main problems affecting water Table 1. Honduras, Population and Housing 2013 Sphere Population total Men Women Housing National

8,303,772 4,052,316 4,251,456 2,158,042 Urban area 4,436,223 2,095,408 2,340,815 1,189,753 Rural area 3,867,549 1,956,908 1,910,641 968,289 Source: XVII National Population Census and VI Housing Census 2013, INE. Table 2. Honduras, Drinking Water Coverage 2013 Sphere Housing total With sewerage Without sewerage National

2,158,042 1,838,527 319,515 Urban area 1,189,753 1,026,247 163,506 Rural area 968,289 812,280 156,009 Source: XVII National Population Census and VI Housing Census 2013, INE. Table 3. Honduras, Sanitation Coverage 2013 Sphere Housing total With sanitation Without sanitation National

2,158,042 1,184,324 973,718 Urban area 1,189,753 583,051 606,702 Rural area 968,289 601,273 367,016 Source: XVII National Population Census and VI Housing Census 2013, INE. 387 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS

quality are related to organoleptic and bacteriolog- - ical characteristics. ares of coniferous forest in the center of the 2016), this plague affected 381.3 thousand hect 1.2.1 Deforestation bark beetle is on forests in water producing ar- One of the main problems in the country is the eas,country. since The this most affects significant life itself impact due to of the the right pine growing deforestation that increases the rate of de- to water and sanitation. terioration of forests in several of the watersheds with unfavorable consequences for water quantity 1.2.2 Wastewater discharge and quality. Inadequate excreta and wastewater disposal con- a. stitutes another of the main and most serious fac- of the commercial exploitation of wood, in the tors that contribute to the deterioration of water caseLegal of and entrepreneurs illegal deforestation engaged occursin the businessbecause quality, leading to the proliferation of disease and of wood, whereas in the case of settlers in the an increase in morbidity and infant mortality in the country. Waterborne diseases remain the leading cooking fuel. Owing to deforestation, there has cause of morbidity and the second main cause of in- beenbasin, an it increaseis due to inthe erosion, extraction with of an firewood enormous as fant mortality. dragging of sediment and organic matter that The population without sanitation service is makes river channels silt up, altering the turbidity and color of the water, as well as its smell gap in households that receive water, yet lack an and taste. appropriateequivalent to system 45.1% offor all the households, disposal of with their a waste 30.3%- b. - water. This represents a discharge of untreated do- er factor that affects water quality, increasing theBurning temperature and forest of fireswater in bodies, Honduras especially are anoth water supply reservoirs. inmestic urban wastewater and rural settingsof 361.2 millionrespectively. m³ nationwide, Wastewa- c. Migratory agriculture is another factor that af- ter209.3 discharges and 151.9 aremillion affecting m³ of the which estuaries, are discharged seas and fects water quality due to the destruction of the lagoons of both coasts, damaging these ecosystems. forest together with intensive livestock farming. This traditional practice of clearing por- 1.2.3 Rationed service and pressure deficiencies tions of the forest and burning it after the har-

for next planting is cyclical, since after a certain largeAccording water to reserves UNICEF that studies would carried make it out possible in 2017 in amountvest to “clean” of planting the land and in harvesting, order to prepare peasants it thethrough short itsterm office to expand in Honduras, coverage the of water Country supply has leave the land and migrate to another area that systems to incorporate all households lacking this is subsequently subjected to the same process service. In most large and small cities, however, wa- of deforestation. ter service is rationed, and the scope of the service d. farms, as well as shifting cultivation also consti- network. Moreover, as many water bacteria with- tuteExtensive a major livestock, source smallof pollution livestock in theand country, poultry standarea is high limited pressure, by the this deficiency situation of givespressure rise toin the because all the wastewater discharges gener- generation and survival of bacteria in the pipeline ated in haciendas are discharged into the envi- and even post-chlorination bacteria. ronment, without control, including feces from - livestock and farms. e. The harmful bark beetle plague that attacks The population that benefits from a water sup- pines has caused serious damage to the forest, ingply throughthat the water remaining treatment population plants amountsreceives towater 51% forcing the trees affected to be cut down, caus- servicein the urban that has area only and been 14% disinfected in the rural with area, chlorine. mean ing a serious negative impact on the environment. According to data from the Institute of 1.3 Objectives and scope of the chapter The main objective is to publish the result of the status of the potable water sector in terms of quality, Forest Conservation (CONADEH/MOSEF-UE/ Gobierno de la República de Honduras/ICF, WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS 388

analyzed from the point of view of academia, with 2.1 Institutional framework the aim of establishing baselines or starting points - to focus policies and strategies at the level of central ity and governance of the sector related to drinking government and municipal governments, in accor- waterIn general and terms,sanitation, this newas shown Law modifies in Table the 4. author dance with the Water and Sanitation Framework The sector has the Honduran Association of - lishes the entire institutional and legal framework grassroots organization, whose objective is to im- Law and its Regulation, issued in 2003, which estab proveWater water Systems quality Management in member Board communities, (AHJASA), and a strengthen the development of emerging associ- for the significant improvement of water quality. ations through training and national integration, 2. Water quality authorities providing advisory services and organization pro- and governance cesses for JAA. It also has a Training Center and special operation and maintenance modules. It of- - fers chlorine, chlorinators, chlorine comparators - and technical assistance to monitor service quality lishThe theFramework bases for Law the of modernization the Potable Water of the and sector, San among other functions. whoseitation main Sector objectives and its Generalinclude ensuring Regulations the estabquali- Figure 1 shows the hierarchy of authority with- ty of water and its potability, guaranteeing that its in the institutional framework in accordance with consumption is healthy for people.

the Framework Law.

Table 4: Institutionality and Governance Sector PHC Sphere Institution Service Provider Health Secretariat SANAA Comisión Nacional de Agua y Saneamiento (CONASA) SERNA (MiAMBIENTE) Government Ente ReguladorMunicipality de los Servicios (Head de ofAgua PHC y services)Saneamiento (ERSAPS) Comisión Municipal de Agua y Saneamiento (COMAS) Municipal JuntaMunicipal Administradora Public Services de Agua Office (JAA) Ente Prestador de Servicios (EPS) Unidad de Supervision y Control Local (USCL) Concessionaire Limited company Plan de Vigilancia de la Calidad delUnidad Agua en Municipal los Municipios Ambiental Priorizados (UMA) en el Plan Nacional de Enfermedades Desatendidas October 2012. Sourse: , OPS/OMS/SESAL,

Figura 1. Autoridad y Gobernabilidad del Sector APS

Government Sphere Municipal Sphere

Health Secretariat MiAmbiente Water and Sanitation COMAS Municipality USCL Framework Law

CONASA ERSAPS UMA Operative Level

SANNA EPS / S.A. de C.V. JAA Concessionaire

Plan de Vigilancia de la Calidad del Agua en los Municipios Priorizados en el Plan Nacional de Enfermedades Desatendidas,

Sourse: OPS/OMS/SESAL, October 2012. 389 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS

Depending on the modality of service provision, that be achieved by the components or characteris- Table 5. tics of water that may pose a risk to the health of the community and problems in water supply systems”. 2.2the APSLegal EPSs framework are grouped in - take the sanitary control and monitoring of waters and Thisestablish Standard their establishes desirable and that admissible SESAL will charac under- •Legal The instruments Constitution that emphasize support of the teristics. The NTN-AP establishes the maximum ad- •legislation in the sector include the following: missible parameters of drinking water quality, sampling frequency and the most appropriate analysis • HealthGeneral Code Law of the Environment and its methodologies or routines. It is possible to establish • Regulations a monitoring program based on frequency. • - Environmental Health Regulation 2.2.3 Environmental Health Regulation • NationalFramework Technical Law on Standard Drinking for Water Drinking and Sani Wa- tation, and its Regulations set of rules to enforce compliance with the provi- • Technical Standards for Wastewater Discharges sionsThis Regulation related to water(SESAL, quality, 1998) seeksstating to that develop it has the to ter Quality, NTN-AP meet physical, chemical and biological characteristics, according to the NTN-AP. Theinto Receivingsupreme Bodiesauthority and governingSewerage, NTAR-ASthe legal framework related to water quality, including wa- health by ensuring the application of technical ter quality monitoring, is the Ministry of Health. The Regulation emphasizes environmental- tal health or environmental sanitation problems. It 2.2.1 Health Code prohibitsstandards the and discharge the solution of wastewaterof specific environmen of any type and size, on the banks of rivers, streams, lakes, la- corresponding body, to carry out the sanitary con- goons, reservoirs, winter streams and the proximi- trolThe and Health monitoring Code authorizes of waters SESAL, and to “throughestablish the ty of water wells for human consumption, as well as desirable and admissible characteristics it must the beaches of seas and estuaries near cities. have”. It also authorizes it to regulate everything related to the management and disposal of excre- 2.2.4 Technical Standards for Wastewater ta, sewage and rainwater, as well as the surveillance Discharges into Receiving Bodies and Sewerage As indicated in its initial articles, enforcement of - 2.2.2and technical National control Technical of sewers Drinking and their effluent. NA and the Ministry of the Interior and Justice, with Water Quality Standard, NTN-AP thethese aim standards of regulating is the theresponsibility discharge of SESAL,wastewater SER into receiving bodies and sanitary sewage, and enby establishing the appropriate or maximum levels couraging the creation of programs for the minimi- The goal of the Standard is, “to protect public health

Table 5. EPS Governance Modality Level of care Authority Service Provider Central government SANAA Municipal Department of Public Works Three Regional Administrators Municipal Public Services Department Municipality Municipal Division of Water and Sanitation Municipal governments

Municipal Water and Sewerage Board Service Provider DecentralizedConcessionaire Municipal Unit Limited Company with Variable Capital Water board Manual para la Identificación e Implementación de Acciones Tercerizantes para EPS de APS Community Level Local Water Board Source: , ERSAPS, marzo de 2011. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS 390

zation of waste, the installation of treatment sys- 2.3.2 Scientific research tems and the disposal of wastewater discharged into the environment. undertaken in the event of emergencies, and de- Protection of both surface and groundwater pendingScientific on research the use is of scarce water and in marginal,which this and type only of sources is the fundamental goal of this regulation, situation occurs. since protecting sources from contamination due The Center of Studies and the Control of Con- to the dumping of wastewater is crucial to environ- - mental health and therefore to the preservation of the quality of the water destined for human con- Mines,taminants1 whose (CESCCO) mission is ais Directorate to be the ofhighest-level the Minis sumption, domestic use and agroindustry. try of Energy, Natural Resources, Environment and environmental pollution. It engages in research, 2.3 Relations with NGOs and thetechnical-scientific provision of laboratory body in Honduras,service, environmen in terms of- universities (scientific research) tal monitoring and the management of chemical - products, in order to strengthen the environmental ties and water project developers is undertaken by management of Honduras based on the principles Most of the coordination between NGOs, universi of responsibility, honesty, ethics and integrity. a. - RAS-HON.sultation between all its member institutions, APS, which have the greatest human and material comprisingRAS-HON is all an instancethe organizations of dialogue and and insti con- resourcesWithin capacity, the institutional undertake sphere, water only quality the EPSanaly of- tutions and collaborators of a social, private, sis for quality control purposes, such as SANAA and national and international public nature that Aguas de San Pedro, among others. These compa- implement and develop plans and projects in nies usually assess water quality for the design and the water and sanitation sector of Honduras. construction of new water treatment plants and the expansion of existing ones. de Conocimiento e Información en Agua y Sa- RAS-HON has Centro Hondureño de Recursos- universities, although the Pan-American Agricul- ply with knowledge and information manage- There is no evidence of scientific research by- mentneamiento strategies, (CHRECIAS), particularly as an in executor regard to to water com ing to control drinking water quality. quality. tural University, undertakes water quality monitor b. - 2.4 Monitoring and database a. In accordance with the Water and Sanitation ChamberThe Water of for Commerce All Foundation and Industry(FUNDAPAT), of Tegu cre- 2 cigalpaated as anand initiative the Media of theAssociation UNICEF, SANAA,(AMC), hasthe performs the function of regulation through successfully extended potable water services to Framework Law and its Regulation, ERSAPS which is responsible for ensuring compliance withUnit forwater Supervision quality andmonitoring, Local Control through (USCL), the 2.3.1105,000 Universities people in 104 communities. - - form, and for providing these records to the versidad Panamericana Agricola Zamorano form quality analysis that the EPS of APS must per Of the existing universities, only UNAH and the Uni water quality issue. b. central office of ERSAPS, where a data bank is- part of RAS-HON, with very little contribution are mankept forconsumption, each municipal through USCL. which it conducts undertakes quality analysis of water and wastewa- commercialCESCCO has amonitoring water quality activities laboratory in a for time hu- ter, UNITECamong other has afunctions. water quality However, laboratory its main which role ly manner and when emergency cases arise. is commercial and it does not have a data bank. Through this laboratory, it provides analytical - gree program yet lacks a water quality laboratory UNICAHwhere the offers teaching an Environmentalof quality analysis Engineering methodology de and the creation of data banks can be implemented. 1. http://www.miambiente.gob.hn/cescco/ 2. http://www.ersaps.hn/ 391 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS

services in the physicochemical area for vari- has been controlled, mainly in reservoirs destined - for water supply.

inous terms types of of monitoring, water: surface, there ground is no evidenceand waste of 3.2 Natural contaminants thewater. existence Although of dataCESCCO banks. has the best capacity The natural pollutants with the greatest effect on c. water quality in the country are hurricanes, which of view of human and economic resources, transport various materials and elements to certain haveOnly institutionallythe capacity to strong monitor EPS, and from create the point data areas, causing pollution. banks such as SANAA, ASP, Aguas de Cortes, Although hurricane Mitch - Aguas de Choloma and Servicios Aguas de Co- mayagua (SAC). left sufficient sequel- termineae to undertake and classify significant the natural research, pollutants there affecting are still waterno field bodies, records including based on air laboratory currents. analysisDuring the to decy- 3. Main problems impacting clonic rain season, these air currents drag elements water quality that cause pollution, erosion and toxic plants, among other effects. In general terms, at the national level, the monitoring of surface streams and groundwater for the iden- water supply from surface streams and drilling wellsSpecific for groundwater, evaluations as carried well as hydroelectricout in projects proj for- quality in Honduras has only been possible through ects, have found contamination from iron, magne- thetification water quality of problems analysis that carried impact out drinking by institutions water that have developed water supply projects that include the installation of water treatment plants. sium3.3 Pollution and manganese (Aceituno, 2016). Another type of analysis routinely undertaken The main cause of the pollution of water sources is by SANAA involves monitoring the quality of raw the abundant discharge of untreated domestic and water in the reservoirs for water supply in the cap- industrial wastewater into the environment, which ital of the country. is greater in major cities, particularly on the North Coast, where the industrial zone is located. 3.1 Eutrophication 3 - The main causes of the rapid eutrophication in Hon- - ed inAccording the Sula toValley, CESCCO being studies, the most there polluted are 19 one se agricultural activity in basins designated as water dueverely to pollutedthe large rivers, volume the of Chamelecón industrial discharges River, locat it supplyduras are reserve deforestation, areas. Deforestation forest fires andhas increasedabundant the production of sediment due to erosion, while capital city, has high levels of pollution from dis- receives. The Choluteca River, which crosses the- agricultural activity has led to the production of or- come septic in the summer season when the base ganicforest waste fires create with a abundant high nitrogen ash and content coal waste,and its and de- charges, which are mostly domestic. Both rivers be concentration of the pollutant load. Dissolved ox- ygenflow ofmeasurements the rivers decreases, undertaken leading of the to Choluteca a greater rivatives: phosphates, carbonates and chlorides. for waterThese supply, problems, raised like the those need emerged to include in anthe aera Los- tionLaureles process Reservoir in the waterfor example, treatment in theplant capital with precity- theRiver level by of SANAA contamination. between 1982 and 1986 showed vious pre-chlorination and alkalization to adjust that the recovery capacity is 14 km, which reflects 3.4 Agrochemicals - Contamination by agrochemicals in Honduras is takethe quality from the of epilimnium.the raw water (Aceituno, 2016) and a mainly due to the use of pesticides employed to floating device of raw water was built for direct in prevent, repel or control pests of animal or vege- lakes, lagoons and reservoirs, and there has been a proliferationThermal of stratification water lily or has water been hyacinth, observed which in

3. http://www.miambiente.gob.hn/cescco/ WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS 392

table origin during the production, storage, trans- Figure 2. Free discharge of raw wastewater portation and distribution of agricultural products. Contamination of the soil and groundwater affects crops, livestock and drinking water and in the case of human consumption, entail health risks, resulting in eutrophication and water pollution. To date there are no epidemiological records of agrochemicals related to water quality, and only - ronmental pollution problems in general, enabling responseCESCCO has actions conducted to be undertaken research on by specific the compe envi- tent authority.

3.5 Heavy metals The main source of contamination from heavy Source: http://contaminacionenhonduras.blogspot.com/p/agua_653.html metals in Honduras is opencast mining, for the extraction of gold, for which mercury and chromium are used. Since there is no adequate control or annual inventories are available, but there is still no management of these metals, the discharge of these evaluationIn terms of of their forest consequences burning and on forest water fires, quality. only elements into the environment forms deposits at The same is true of migratory agriculture, intensive the lowest points of the places where mining takes farming industries. contamination. livestock farming, and the growing poultry and fish place,Traces which of infiltratescadmium andgroundwater lead have beenwith afound risk inof 3.7 Salinization groundwater sources in the central zone of Hondu- Although there are no detailed studies based on in groundwater sources in parts of the North Coast this problem of salinization occurs mainly in coast- inras banana (Aceituno, growing 2016), areas while where arsenic aerial has spraying been found has alfield areas, research where in it Honduras,is necessary it hasto establish been found controls that been used to apply pesticides. Although there have for the use of groundwater, its quality, the degree of - pollution and the impact of climate change on them. lution, the level of research still lacks the intensity In the southern part of the country, saline intru- andbeen interest major studies to form by a databaseCESCCO onthat heavy will permitmetal pol ad- sion problems have been detected due to the use of vanced studies to design strategies and policies in groundwater for agricultural activities, causing pol- this regard. lution as a result of its over-exploitation for irriga-

3.6 Deforestation Deforestation is a serious problem that increas- 3.8tion Wastewater.and industry (MOSEF/GIZ Lack of treatment /GFA, 2013). plants, poor management of existing shifting cultivation and intensive livestock, and plants. Cities and municipalities without morees due recently, to forest the clearing, bark beetle burning pest. andAccordingly, forest fires, the treatment plants deterioration of forests in the largest and most im- The main rivers and creeks have been severely con- portant watersheds of the country has increased taminated as a result of human activity and popula- with unfavorable consequences for water quantity tion growth, as well as increasing urbanization and - industrialization coupled with the new phenome- estation, the impact of the rain during Hurricane non of the urbanization of rural areas. andMitch quality caused (MOSEF/GIZ a large dragg /GFA, of sediment. 2013). Due There to defor are According to the analysis of sanitation service still no records of the impacts on the different hydraulic parameters that make it possible to evalu- - ate water quality before and after Hurricane Mitch. umecoverage of wastewater in 2015, 361.2 from million the urban m³ area of wastewater is treated, is produced nationwide, but only 50% of the vol 393 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS

mining, widely practiced in the South and Central intoin other the environment,words, 104.6 millionwithout m³. any This treatment. means A that to- Leaching has also been identified in open pit- 256.7 million cubic meters are directly discharged ed in an artisanal way, and chromium, mercury and Eastern areas of the country, where gold is extract tal of 40.7% of wastewater is discharged in urban areas,One while of the 59.3% main causes is discharged of pollution in rural of rivers settings and lead3.10 have Emerging been identified. pollution streams(MOSEF/GIZ is the /GFA, direct 2013). discharge of raw wastewater The largest source of production of emerging pol- into the environment, see Figure 2, which has be- lutants in the country are hospitals, dental clinics come a serious problem that has yet to be solved by and pharmaceutical laboratories, which lack prop- the competent authority. er control for the management and safe disposal According to National Plan of Water and Sani- of the wastewater they produce. Pharmaceutical waste is disposed of in internal evacuation systems, - sewers or sewers connected to the municipal sew- tionwide.tation PLANASA The treatment (CONASA, system 2014), thereconsists is amainly major erage network –when it does exists. ofdeficit stabilization of wastewater ponds treatment with the plantsprimary (PTAN) and sec na- ondary treatment stages, preceded by preliminary waste and residue from chemical products from pillsBlood and serum plasma, are blood, discharged alcohol, into bone the and places meat the current status of existing PTANs, which lack where surgical equipment is cleaned and in some goodtreatment. management There is due no to official the absence audit inventoryof operation on major hospital centers, there are traps for the re- and maintenance programs. - Nationwide, the Choluteca, Chamelecón and water is discharged into the municipal networks wheremoval there of solids is a sewerage (MOSEF/GIZ system /GFA, and, 2013). failing Waste that, wastewater discharges. These rivers receive sew- into the environment. ageUlúa from rivers the are cities most of Tegucigalpa seriously contaminated and Sula Valley, by respectively, industrial waste, agrochemicals used type of pollution from contaminants emerging from and manufactured in the basins, garbage deposits surfaceThere water are stillsources. no records or field studies of this on their banks and sediment. 3.11 Other: nanomaterials 3.9 Lixiviation into groundwater - and surface water bodies - - alsThe with past morphological five years have properties seen a new smaller class of than emerg one - micron,ing pollutant in at identifiedleast one asdimension, nanomaterials, including materi mi- Inbage Honduras, dumps, thewhich problem do not of havecontamination control systems, by Lix cro-plastics or nano-plastics. Since this new class waterproofiviation is due rafts, to crematoria,or channeling landfills or control or open systems gar of contaminants and their contaminating effect is that prevent leakage into the environment and en- scarcely known in Honduras, there is no research able subsequent waste treatment. Since this prob- on this area, except for the studies begun by the Na- lem is directly related to the size of the population tional Academy of Sciences (ANC). and the industrial development of each city, this type of contamination is most severe in the capital city and the Metropolitan Area of Sula Valley, fol- - 4. Social and economic aspects

lowedIn bysome cities cities, with the populations amount of of leachateover 100,000 in gar in- bagehabitants dumps (CONASA/PPIAF/BM, is so high that it quickly 2005). forms lagoons - in places where the soil is impermeable, constitut- According to the first paragraph of Article 21 of ing a form of natural treatment, which has prevent- promoteFramework the Law, management “the Central of resourcesGovernment, for thethe Mu de- ed it from trickling into slides or natural channels velopmentnicipalities, ofand drinking the Water water Management and sanitation Boards serwill- that cause surface contamination. vices, establishing priorities for the undertaking of WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS 394

projects, investment recovery criteria, and capital 4.2 Poverty allocation, which will be determined on the basis Poverty seriously affects the water supply, since of socioeconomic studies, taking into consideration those living in poverty usually have less access to drinking water. However, this is not true in Hondu- The government has emphasized these areas of ras, because as indicated earlier, according to the humantheir respective development, financial as borne capacity”. out by the actions it

- aforementioned data, 14.8% of the population lacks has taken for this reason. Thus, in 2004, it passed potable water service, 13.7% of which corresponds the Framework Law for the Potable Water and San to theThe urban population area and that 16.1% lacks to the drinking rural population water in enforceitation Sectorlaws to and promote its Regulations, the economic, the political, first recital so- their(INE, homes2013). includes not only poor people, because of which states, “that it is the state’s obligation to- - sources that enable them to live comfortably, yet cial and cultural well-being of Hondurans". Subse whoin rural lack areas water there in their are homes; people whereas with financial in urban re quently, in 2006, it launched the strategic plan called areas there is a high percentage of the population Plan Estratégico de Modernización del Sector Agua located in developing neighborhoods that lack eco- Potable y Saneamiento PEMAPS (CONASA/PPIAF/ nomic resources, yet have access to drinking water, draftedBM, 2005), the in proposal which the for strategies the National to meet Policy the for needs the through indoor connections, public taps, uncon- of the DWS sector in Honduras stand out. In 2011, it- ventional service by tanker trucks, or individual or community drilled wells. Water Sector and Sanitation, and in 2014 it devel- It is estimated that the marginalized population oped PLANASA in the main cities of the country amounts to an aver- Since 2009, the country has had a Law for the Es- tablishment of a Country Vision 2010-2038 and the in the Municipality of the Central District. whichNational establishes Plan 2010-2022 eleven (Presidency strategic guidelines of the Repub that age of 47% (INE, 2013), and that this figure is higher lic, 2010), approved by Legislative Decree 286/2009,- 4.3 Educational attainment in fore form the basis of the sectoral policy, and the communities. Education programs plansdefine and the programs direction to of be public developed. policies, and, there and curriculums

4.1 Health broad since it covers health, agriculture, aquacul- Nationwide, water-borne diseases are the main ture,Basic industry, knowledge energy in the and field ecosystems. of water is extremely cause of morbidity and the second leading cause of a. At the community level, through FHIS, train- - ing programs are developed for the Operation ty of drinking water services play a serious risk to and Maintenance of aqueducts in communities infanthealth, mortality. such as lack Sanitary of continuity deficiencies in service, in the in quali more where water projects are implemented. This

- than 90% of cases according to the Sectorial Board fectiontraining, through carried chlorination,out through Localand the Water care and of chlorination.(CONASA, 2014), and chlorination deficiencies, sourcesSanitation to prevent Board (JAS), the quantitative includes water and quali disin- sinceThe only main 44% regulations of the systems include provide the Health adequate Code, tative deterioration of water. b. approved by Legislative Decree No. 65-91 of June 14, theSESAL support developed of PAHO the and Water the Honduras Security Chap Plan- undertake1991, which the states control that theand Ministry sanitary of surveillance Public Health of ter(PSA) of the (PAHO, Inter 2012), American compiled Association by SANAA of Sani with- the-now waters SESAL-, and through stipulate the correspondingthe characteristics body, they will must have. environmental health technicians (TSA), who tary Engineering (AIDIS). PSA operators are- cians. PAHO has strengthened the capacities of Through Agreement No. 084 of July 31, 1995, should be qualified water laboratory techni through SESAL, the Central Government enforced the Technical Standard for the Quality of Drinking Water. the EPS by training human resources with the 395 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS

support of AIDIS, particularly in the water qual- - ity component. ple, with at least one of the following char- c. The AHJASA maintains its training program for 3. Population of between 1,500 and 1,999 peo- the development of training events, seminars, workshops, meetings and assemblies at the lo- availability.acteristics: a) urbanized; b) teaching cen cal, municipal, departmental, and national levels. ter; c) health center; d) at least 10% sewer d. b. A rural area is any populated center that fails to - Within its program of studies, the Universidad Católica de Honduras (UNICAH) offers an un Despitecomply thewith previous the above categorization, definition. the charac- treatmentdergraduate plants degree and program disinfection, in Environmental yet lacks the teristics applicable for each area do not fully apply practicalEngineering, aspect which of water includes quality the design monitoring. of water in Honduras since some of them intersect transversally. Thus, in urban areas, particularly large cities, 4.4 Gender there are peri-urban areas that typically have rural The predominant role played by women in the characteristics such as a lack of water and sanita- household economy and the raising and education tion services, whereas in rural areas these services of their children has been acknowledged, which is have increased, with a greater emphasis on drink- why, in this context, it is increasingly accepted that ing water, and where there is no electricity, uncon- women have an important role to play in water ventional supply systems have been implemented, management and that this role should be reinforced such as hand-made wells with manual pumps. through a gender mainstreaming strategy. In peri-urban areas, inhabitants often resort to buying water in tank trucks that are suspected of institution known to have incorporated women selling water of dubious quality. Accordingly, it is in intoTo the date, use, managementZamorano EAP and (Joya, conservation 2017) is the of onlynat- these marginalized population belts that diarrheal ural resources and water governance, with a water diseases and others associated with the consump- quality component. tion of contaminated water often emerge. In the National Institute of Women (INAM), Di- In the rural population, water obtained from - surface sources is of good quality, but deteriorates gies and the sectoral and gender legal framework, with inadequate handling because users use unsafe foundagnostic that Report the gender (2007), approach a review ofis includedpolicies, stratein the containers and store water inappropriately for its national or macro, institutional or meso, and com- subsequent consumption. Due to this situation, in munity or micro levels, in response to international - commitments and sectorial and gender indicators es such as diarrhea and others associated with the consumptionrural areas it of is contaminated common to find water, common including diseas par- The participation of AHJASA through the Water asitism. The greatest social problems due to poor in the PRSP contracted by the country. - quality water consumption occur in scattered ru-

activities.Boards is opening up the possibility of the partici pation of women in up to 50% in water disinfection ral areas, estimated to house 15% of the total rural 4.5 Rural and urban areas population4.6 Water (INE, quality 2013). investment programs a. - of Honduras, through SANAA, in collabora- According to the definitions established by INE, on tionDuring with the the period Spanish 2009-2015, government, the Governmentthrough the a.the basis of the Population Census of 1974, the char - acteristics of urban and rural areas are as follows: - Urban area means any populated area in the numberSpanish of group communities, SETA, installed with the and aim commis of im- 2013 Census based on at least one of the follow provingsioned 31 the water quality treatment of water plantssupplied in to the reduce same ing criteria:Populated center that was urban in the the morbidity and mortality rate due to water- 1. Population of 2,000 or more inhabitants. borne diseases, and to strengthen economic de- 2. 2001 Census. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS 396

velopment by improving the health and quality Although there is no updated inventory, it is - try owns its own system with water from an andof life a ofdesalination the population plant (CONASA, were installed 2014). in the undergroundbelieved that 50%source, of theas doesmetalworking the maquila indus in- IslandOne of conventional Útila, which plant, provide 29 modular a volume plants of dustry, whose main sector is clothing manufac- - - b. In most mining operations in the country, wa- 80,000 m³ of good quality water to an estimat terture is(MOSEF/GIZ obtained from/GFA, underground2013). sources, sameed population number ofof communities.600,000. The program includ streams, rivers, lakes or through commercial b. Theed the investment supply of program 20 chlorination for water plants quality in thein- water service providers. Since almost all the - areas where mines are located have a water shortage, it is understandable that communi- frastructure planned by CONASA (2014) in PLA ties and local authorities usually oppose such NASA, for the period 2018-2022 amounted to activity, since they use the water from these $22.2 million USD for the purification of 880 sources, and seek to control most of the water c. LPS and $224,000 USD for the disinfection of pollution caused by mining companies. 180 LPS. - According to the Instituto Hondureño de JASA,With thea cooperation support of Cornellprogram University was set up of withNew donationYork, the Waterfunds for the Peopleinstallation NGO of and water AH treatment plants in small urban areas, with granted,Geología the y Minasgreatest (INHGEOMIN), demand being until in the 2009, De- 426 mining exploitation concessions had been-

appropriate technology, using sand filters and partments of Olancho (76), El Paraíso (55), Cho- 4.7 Industry,benefiting 30,000 mining, inhabitants. and agriculture and positsluteca are(44), usually Francisco exploited, Morazán for (42)which and ground Santa- conflicts related to water quality caused waterBárbara sources (35 ). areIn the used. case of Olancho, iron de by these factors Mining activity in Honduras constitutes Climate change has caused extreme effects on the a major source of contamination from heavy country’s water resources, such as altering rainfall metals, and the lack of control by the competent authority has led to environmental pollu- phenomenon, has caused droughts with the conse- tion particularly of rivers and streams, defor- patterns, which, due to the presence of the El Niño- estation of the environment where they are terioration of water quality. located and loss of aquatic habitats. quent reduction of water flows in rivers and the de c. The demand for water for Honduran agricul- a. A large amount of industrial products, par- ture creates serious problems in the regions lo- ticularly in the food industry, require large cated in the South, Southeast and Southwest of amounts of water for processing. Nevertheless, the country, especially in the so-called dry cor- the industry is also a source of contamination ridor, where the rainfall regime has periods of because it requires water as a means of diluting severe drought that have worsened in the past and cleaning contaminated areas. - The main industry in the country is the food viated by the construction of reservoir ponds or agroindustry, which demands water of good four or five decades. This demand is being alle quality, safe for human consumption. Compa- limited quantities. nies usually take water from the municipal net- or “waterIn the northern harvests” part that of capture the country, rainwater where in work if they are located within the urban pe- concessions were granted to banana compa- rimeter, which is why it is supposed to be good nies, there is a well-developed irrigation infra- quality water, whereas agroindustries located structure that permits the capture of surface water by diversion dams and water distribu- enabling them to use good quality water from tion channels. groundwaterin non-urban sources. areas have purification systems 397 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS

Although agriculture experiences serious velopment as a generational legacy, based on the problems of contamination of water sources - over a wide radius due to the use of pesticides tation Sector. This law is a major milestone, since it for pest control by aerial fumigation, there is recognizesFramework drinking Law for waterthe Drinking and sanitation Water and as aSani na- - tional development sector, promoting its transfor- tamination due to agricultural activities. mation with the construction of a new institution- d. still no scientific study on this problem of con ality that creates a separation of functions and the social and economic aspects of water quality, forAnother example, important is that Honduras aspect that is one influences of the most the and planning; b) regulation and control; and c) ser- vulnerable countries to climate change, whose viceclear provision. definition of its roles: a) regulations, policies effects contribute to exacerbating environmental degradation and increasing vulnerability to climate change, as a result of which environ- In order to meet the challenges of the5 Hondu United- mental sustainability in the development of the Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 “Clean- country is particularly urgent. NASA;Water and(c) the Sanitation National of Policy the 2030 for theAgenda”, Potable Water ras has the tools contained in: (a) PEMAPS; (b) PLA has decreased in recent decades and remains which establishes the strategic guidelines, imple- relativelyAlthough stable, Honduras’ its biocapacity Ecological has Footprintalso de- mentationand Sanitation mechanisms Sector of andHonduras investments (CONASA, required 2013), - 4 creased considerably. The Environmental Per to comply with goals established in the Law for the formance Index measured by Yale University inEstablishment accordance withof a Country the institutional Vision 2010-2038 framework and thees- deteriorate.classifies Honduras among the countries with Adoption of a National Plan 2010-2022 for Honduras, a “modestThe country performance” faces several yet with environmental a tendency to Water and Sanitation Sector, where the principles challenges which, together, contribute to ag- focusingtablished on in the the human Framework being Lawand forits equitable the Drinking and gravating the situation of poverty, reducing integral development are regarded as important. health levels, increasing vulnerability to natu- In order to periodically monitor and evaluate ral disasters and/or increasing food insecurity. - These challenges are related to deforestation, toral reform objectives, CONASA, with support from - the scope of the goals and the fulfillment of the sec ter, water and air pollution, management of designed the Monitoring of Country Advances in solidsoil degradation, and toxic hazardous desertification, waste, access erosion to andwa DrinkingProgram ofWater Water and and Sanitation Sanitation, (MAPAS), PAS-World whereby Bank, a coastal degradation, and biodiversity reduc- Scorecard was drawn up for the new sectoral chal- tion, among other effects. - inglenges into and sustainable their links drinking with the waterSDGs, toand evaluate sanitation the 5. Facing up the Sustainable route through which the country converts financ Development Goal 6 (SDG-6) urban water, rural sanitation and urban sanitation. Thisservices route for evaluateseach of the three four subsectors:major sectoral rural dimen water,- Access to drinking water and sanitation remains - one of the greatest challenges to be faced in Hondu- opment, and c) sustainability. ras since thousands of its inhabitants still lack ac- sions: a) institutional framework, b) sectoral devel cess to safe sources of water for human consump- 5.1 Universal, equitable access tion and decent sanitation services. to safe, affordable drinking water The decentralization adopted by the government with the aim of promoting the quality of life in the assumes equity between the various parts of its populationIn 2003, and the the country consolidation reformed of thesustainable APS Sector de-

5. http://www.hn.undp.org/content/honduras/es/home/post- 4. https://epi.envirocenter.yale.edu/2018/report/category/hlt 2015/sdg-overview/goal6.html WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS 398

own territorial space and, from this perspective, In order to implement this strategy, and to seeks to achieve the universality of equitable access achieve the objective of facilitating equitable access to potable water service with a focus on social inclu- to adequate sanitation and hygiene services for all strategy of decentralizing services, designed to pro- - videsion. supportAccording and to monitor PLANASA, the the decentralization government has pro a- mentand ending program. open for fecalism, the expansion PLANASA of sanitation has foreseen cov- cess of services still under SANAA's responsibility, eragethe development in the municipalities of a $129.3 that million currently USD provide invest services within the framework of the new Water must create providers with autonomous technical, towards municipalities. Likewise, municipalities needs of women and girls, and people in vulnerable situations.and Sanitation Law, paying special attention to the offinancial the various and categories administrative in these management, localities. taking into account the priorities and specific conditions 5.3 Improve water quality by reducing pollution In order to implement this strategy, PLANASA - (CONASA, 2014) has planned the development of tary control and the promotion of water quality and currentlya $22.2 million provide USD services investment within program the framework for water of discharges,SESAL is mandated especially to water exercise for surveillance,human consump sani- purification and disinfection in municipalities that tion as a priority activity for public health and it with the constitutional mandate that establish- is their responsibility to play a leading role in this esthe the new human Water right and Sanitationto water, the Law. Honduran In accordance State, - - (supply rate) set by providers so that costs are not field, for which its structure includes a Health Sur transferredthrough ERSAPS, above regulatesthe real cost the of connection the latter and prices do Normalization.veillance Unit, SurveillanceFor its operation, Directorate the institution of the Reg has not constitute a barrier to access for the poorest ulatory Framework and the General Directorate of- sectors of the population. This includes the micromeasurement program that will allow fair collec- departmental sanitary regions comprising Verifica tion based on consumption. aretion, environmentalStatistical and Laboratoryhealth technicians Units and (TSA) Analysis re- In projects to expand drinking water networks, sponsibleUnits (UDA), for whereassurveillance, at the performing municipal functions level there of programs and projects must ensure that providers daily sanitary control. supply temporary drinking water services to the Thus, in order to improve water quality by re- surrounding population, which for technical rea- ducing pollution, eliminating the direct discharge sons are not part of the project, such as water con- of raw wastewater into the environment, and min- dominium networks with public pools, collective imizing the discharge of hazardous materials and storage tanks or tanker truck service. chemicals, the construction of wastewater treatment plants has been proposed to initially halve the 5.2 Access to adequate and percentage of untreated wastewater and gradually equitable sanitation and hygiene eliminate discharges into the environment. - - stitutional mandate establishes the human right to Like the treaty on drinking water access, the con- Based on the above, the goal according to PLA- SAPS, regulates the connection prices (supply rate) NASA (CONASA, 2014) and the Nation and Country sanitationestablished while by providers. the Honduran State, through ER volumeVision Plan of wastewater is to achieve collected. 60% sewerage coverage in Additionally, the governing body will promote cludingThe smallTable cities, 6 shows and 50%the investmenttreatment of needs the total for alternative and complementary sources to enable wastewater treatment. the low-income population to undertake the indoor connection of their sanitary installations from the 5.4 Increasing the efficiency of water use dwelling to sewerage systems, through household The principles that guide the National Policy for the connections.

Water and Sanitation Sector (CONASA, 2013) include 399 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS

the principle of Efficiency, which seeks to ensure - strengthen the integral management of water re- ciently, in other words, that services produce imme- 2010) and as an initiative to create guidelines that- thatdiate theresults provision and there of servicesbe no waste be carriedof resources, out effi ad- cal institutions and organizations to have technical ditional costs, loss of quality or user dissatisfaction. sources. The objectives of the ABS Plan are for lo- The development of the infrastructure pro- tegrated soil, water and forest management, and to achieveand financial the comprehensive capacity for the management implementation of natural of in the rehabilitation and optimization aspects of the resources, by implementing integrated water re- infrastructure,posed in PLANASA as wellis the as strategy the expansion concerned of withser- source management at all levels, including through vices. In this line of action, investments have been cross-border cooperation. Citizen participation and the social audit strategy is regarded as a transversal axis of the various a.grouped Water into suitable three largefor human groups: consumption, with the necessary investment for treatment of sur- - face water systems, and the installation of dis- guidelines contained in PLANASA, and is effective in infection systems. auditsthe creation of co-responsibility of the Service areProvider's designed Board to guaran of Di- b. - teerectors transparency and the creation and accountability of COMAS and in the USCL. use Social of re- crease the continuity of services, the rehabili- sources, and in the control and monitoring of water tationHydrosanitary of water continuitysystems and and sanitation efficiency systems to in quality and services, thus achieving integral water resource management within the municipality. of meters and a pilot plan for the installation of - lowto enhance consumption efficient toilets. water use, the installation opment of good water resource integration appli- c. Towards the universalization of services, which cableRegarding throughout the the executive country, aspect, and given for that the develin the covers investments aimed at increasing drinking water production, as well as drinking water and sanitation service coverage, service cover- theLaw country for the is Establishment recognized as of being a Country predominantly Vision to age in rural areas and wastewater treatment, urban,2038 and and the is expected Adoption to of double a National its population Plan to 2022 by and the adequate management of sludge from - treatment plants and in situ sanitation systems. terized by basins with similar characteristics. 2040, it has been subdivided into six regions charac 5.5 Integrated water resource 5.6 Protect and restore ecosystems management at all levels related to water - duras, contains policies and strategies designed to In April 2017, the government of Honduras launched protectThe ABS and Plan, restore launched water-related by the government ecosystems, of Hon in- the Water, Forest and Soil Master Plan (ABS Plan) cluding forests, mountains, wetlands, rivers, aqui- (Presidencia de la República, 2017) as an integral fers and lakes. part of the 2010-2038 Country Vision and 2010- 2022 National Plan (Presidencia de la República,

Table 6. Investment to Expand Wastewater Treatment Population Center Population Range Totals (US$) Metropolitan Areas Major cities Over 30,000 Over 500,000 54,000,000.00 Small cities 2,073,712.00 974,795.00 Minor urban centers 5,000 to 30,000 Total 2,000 to 5,000 446,430.00 57,494,937.00 Source: PLANASA, Comisión Nacional de Agua y Saneamiento, noviembre de 2014. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS 400

a. - The processes and strategic lines of the ABS Three levels are identified for financing the sector: Plana. include: componentsSectoral level: of establishment costs and investments of the rules, in mothis 1. Governanceforest and Process soil resource management. sectoraldalities and level. instruments to finance the various b. StrengtheningLocal governance the forlegal-institutional integrated water, b. administrative mechanisms to enable provid- Knowledge Management Process ersProvider's to operate level: with establishment solvency; and of financial and a. Informationframework and generation financial and mechanisms. management c. 2. for decision making. do by law to improve services. b. Capacity building and skills development. Municipality level: what local governments can Process of Implementation of Sustainable Investment in the sector is carried out through a Practices mixture of donations, loans, state investments, and 3. a. Conservation, protection, restoration and the management of projects and programs, comple- sustainable use of water, forest and soil. mented by a certain level of contribution to operat- b. Development of infrastructure for ing costs by users through tariffs and in urban areas through investment costs. (rainwater, groundwater and wastewater). water treatment, use and efficient reuse in rural areas water boards have performed well 5.7 Expand international cooperation Regarding the framework of Capacity Building, and capacity development - anin atimportant least 40% role of in the this. systems However, (Presidencia decentralization de la NASA and the National Policy on the Potable Water posesRepública, challenges 2010). regarding Technical the assistance structuring has of played tech- Theand Sanitation sectoral financing Sector of strategy,Honduras, set includes forth in the PLA re- nical assistance. sponse to the objective of expanding international Most municipalities have low administrative, cooperation and the support provided for capaci- operational and strategic management capacity. ty building in activities and programs related to - water and sanitation, including gathering and wa- constraintsThey have fewin the qualified local labor human market. resources and in use, wastewater treatment and recycling and reuse centives, significant staff turnover and face supply technologies.ter storage, desalination, efficient water resource 5.8 Support and strengthen Financing operations in the sector, especially at local community participation the municipal level, is one of the central elements In order to increase the participation of local com- that will move the gears of the sector under the new munities in the improvement of water management decentralization and modernization approach. The and sanitation, providers will be supported in both - institutional strengthening, and in their relation- es to improve services, achieve providers that op- ship and promotion of citizen participation and so- aim is for there to be an adequate flow of resourc- cial audit, on the basis of mechanisms established ity in the municipality in order to boost its actions by the sectoral authority. inerate communities efficiently toand undertake sustainably, local and projects create and capac ex- Institutional strengthening includes manage- tend coverage to backward areas, and ensure effec- ment and managerial processes, technical, com- tive regulation. The strategy proposes the development of the planning, participatory social management, risk andmercial, system administrative-financial vulnerability management. management Municipali and- a. The consolidation of funds in the sector coordi- ties will also be supported through the creation and followingnated elements: and led by CONASA and its visualization in the general budget of the country; and - b. Promote the creation of a Honduran Drinking ticsstrengthening and an operational of the Technicalbudget integrated Municipal with Office, that Water and Sanitation Fund. (UTM), properly equipped, with mobilization logis-

of the municipality. Qualified services will be pro 401 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS

moted through the implementation of the profes- environmental protection of areas where the sourc- sional training of operational technical personnel es or points of discharge are located.

mechanism for professional consultants to provide 6.1 River basin restoration/ technicaland middle assistance management, and advice as well to serviceas a certification providers protection plans and municipalities. The Operating Manual for Intervention Models for Potable Water and Sanitation projects in Mar- Under the 2016 Bonn-Latin America Challenge (GIZ/- rasFederal pledged Ministry to restore of Environment, one million Public hectares, Works which and isNuclear consistent Safety/CCAD/MiAMBIENTE, with national goals and 2016), the Country Hondu ginalized Peri-Urban Districts, Concentrated and- Plan. In this commitment, Honduras highlights its esDispersed strategies Rural for Sectorthe support (PAS, 2002), and strengthening prepared by the of interest in protecting the coasts and water supply citizenFHIS with participation the support through of the World community Bank, establish involve- for the local communities involved, which are pre- ment in the development of water projects with an dominantly indigenous and Afro-descendants, due emphasis on water quality. to their high vulnerability to natural disasters, since Honduras is one of the most vulnerable countries - according to the list of the Intergovernmental Panel ERSAPS (2011) has compiled a Manual for the on Climate Change (IPCC). Identification and Implementation of Outsourc managersing Actions and for executives.the EPS of APS,Outsourcing whose objectiveservices is recommendations for the actions the government to become a support and consultation tool for EPS mustThe implement 2016-2026 to MiAMBIENTE protect water Strategy resources sets and out - guarantee the sustainability of water quantity and intended to reduce the bureaucratic size of EPSs, inespecially providing in athe quality field serviceof the operation and providing and mainte a prod- uctnance -waterof DWS of verysystems, good making quality. them more efficient quality. In the context of the Agenda Climática de Honduras and the ABS Plan, the government has designed the National Restoration Plan, that seeks to reforest one million hectares by 2030, with the 6. Successful experiences support of UNDP, which has mobilized $20 million USD in non-reimbursable financial resources from to improve water quality the Adaptation Fund and the Global Environment6 Fund,The in Adaptationorder to advance Fund theinitiative restoration is planning of 115,000 to improve water quality have been oriented towards ha of forest landscapes in the next five years. - watershedOver the past management, 14 years, all thetaking actions into developedaccount cli to- est corridor, affected by the southern pine beetle, mate change, whose effects on water resources are whichrestore covers 30,000 thehectares Municipality of forest of in the the Central central Disfor- harmful in all countries. Honduras has taken its trict and other neighboring municipalities. At the status as a country that is extremely vulnerable to the effects of climate change very seriously, which - is why its efforts are oriented towards establishing same time, the Global Environment Fund initiative a policy based on climate resilience strategy pro- therebyseeks to conserverestore 85,000 high biodiversity. ha of biological micro-corri dorsIn among order 20to protectedcontinue supportingareas in the the country efforts and of the state to achieve its goals and actions in favor of thegrams responsibility (CONASA, 2013). of the state through the Secretar- - Environmental protection and conservation is- nicipalities. Providers are responsible for ensuring restoration, UNDP is co-organizing an event paral complianceiat of Natural with Resources the quality and standardsEnvironment required and mu for lel to the central event of the Bonn Challenge with drinking water and sanitation service provision, 6. http://www.hn.undp.org/content/honduras/es/home/pre and must allocate the necessary resources for the ar-el-11-de-la-meta-nacional-de-restauraci-n-de-bosques/ sscenter/pressreleases/2017/06/1-1/pnud-contribuir-en-logr WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS 402

national and international actors to learn about and handling of food, hygienic practices in excreta and solid waste management, and the need for enof restoration in the country. This parallel event is vironmental protection to contribute to a healthy, and expand the financing mechanisms in this area- sustainable environment. funded by the UNDP Low Emissions Capacity Build 6.3.1 PEMAPS platform ing Program with funds from the European Union 6.2and thePilot German experiences government. (Guidelines modernization process that will make it possible to for policy makers, among others) The PEMAPS Development Platform proposes the The government has launched the Water, Forest the provision of quality services to supply safe wa- - terreach for the the bestpopulation, levels of implying coverage a seriesand efficiency of changes in ers water resources, forestry and soil resources as - andthe main Soil Masteraxes for Plan the establishment or ABS Plan, whichof an agrofor consid- icies, provisions and regulations for the provision estry policy based on sustainable productive land- ofthat services, will result technical in the definitionstandards of and clear the sectoral use of newpol scapes, through a series of programs based on the technological, technical and legal tools. national plan for mitigation and adaptation to cli- - training that is crucial to the good management of PEMAPS raises the issue of human resource mate change. It will include a National Reforesta with the right quantity and quality guarantees bet- tion Campaign called “Honduras Siembra Vidas”, in terDWS internal service work provision capacity within and facilitates EPSs. Its the existence intro- onaccordance more and with better the quality Bonn waterChallenge. in accordance with duction of new participation schemes in service the TheCountry water Vision component of the Master of the Plan, ABS Planbecause focuses wa- provision via outsourcing or other participatory alter is the resource that attracts most attention because of its potential in the country.7 strengthen human resources throughout the entire seeks to become a public policy that will make it pos- system.ternatives. The strategy considered in PEMAPS is to The ABS Plan to national and global” perspective. This means that 6.3.2 Intervention models emphasissible to integrate will be theplaced three on issues work withfrom communitiesa “from local At the level of training and public awareness, with so that they can implement actions designed to improve access to water, and conserve forests and soils. the Operation Manual of the Intervention Models The Master Plan will promote and encourage forthe Potablesupport Waterof the andWorld Sanitation Bank, the projects FHIS prepared in Mar- the good practices already being carried out in sev- ginal Peri-Urban Districts, Concentrated and Dis- eral communities in Honduras in terms of good wa- persed Rural Sector, which establishes the strategy ter, forest and soil management.8 For water quality, solid and polluting waste treatment and collection Committees with the integration of trained Tech- will be the immediate priority. nicalfor training Personnel EPSs and and forJASs the through culturization the formation of water of through community involvement in activities to 6.3 Education, training monitor drinking water quality. and public awareness Sanitary education, derived from the provision of - DWS services, is vital to the reduction of morbidity rectionLikewise, that guides the Country public policies Vision and and are Nation therefore Plan and mortality rates, by educating families by pro- theestablish basis 11of strategicthe sectoral guidelines policy, andthat thedefine plans the and di moting more frequent bathing, scrupulous washing programs to be developed. These guidelines are linked to sectoral ones, which establish the frame-

- ries/pnud-apoyara-a-la-implementacion-de-los-objetivos-del- The strategic guidelines of the Nation Plan estab- 7. http://www.hn.undp.org/content/honduras/es/home/sto plan-maest.html lishedwork consideredinclude education in the formulationand culture ofas PLANASA.means of social emancipation, oriented towards health and environmental education. 8. http://www.presidencia.gob.hn/index.php/sala-de-prensa/ 170-plan-abs/2283 403 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS

6.3.3 Healthy school and home b. The problems that most affect water quali- - - 9 in rect discharges of raw wastewater into the The joint work between SANAA and UNICEF result environment.ty are deforestation, forest fires and the di DWSed in service the “Healthy infrastructure School and of needs Home” to Projectimplement c. - an1996 education to address program the fact parallel that the to implementation the construction of of this infrastructure, for which it was considered forGovernance the Potable of Water the country and Sanitation has changed Sector posi and useful to apply methods that contemplated the di- tively with the approval of the Framework Law rect participation of residents. Waterits Regulations, and Sanitation and the Sector, support which tools: has strengthPEMAPS,- a positive impact on the quality of life of members enedPLANASA the institutionaland the National and Policy legal forframework the Potable of of theThe rural “Healthy and peri-urban School and communities Home” Project of hasHondu had- the sector, and also has the support of technical ras, especially in their hygiene and environmental drinking water and sanitation standards. sanitation practices, and has become a model that d. - is being replicated by various cooperation agencies and non-governmental organizations. role,The participationcomplementary of NGOsto the mainlyactions grouped of the state to ingether the supply within of RAS-HONdrinking water plays to an a large important sector 6.4 Other: Partnerships between water of the urban and rural population. companies and communities e. - a. ter for human consumption is still weak, and Sanitation Service Providers10 was established theScientific role of research universities related in the to thesubject quality has of failed wa Inwith 2013, the the purpose Honduran of achieving Association the developmentof Water and to elicit the interest it warrants from the com- of the basic services in each of the integrated petent authorities. Monitoring and creation of municipalities. b. - therefore, scarce, while existing efforts are iso- - latedinterest and banks lack continuity. based on scientific research is, Under Article 20-A of the Municipalities Act, De- f. Among the problems that impact water quali- cree No. 143-2009, the creation of the common ty, leaching and emerging pollutants have be- entitywealth subordinated “as associative to modalities member municipalities, or an associa come relevant because they affect groundwater subjecttion of municipalities” to public law and is defined the exclusive as a territorial manag- - er and implementer of programs, projects and ants include nanomaterials such as nano-plas- services of priority interest, which allows its tics,sources particles through smaller infiltration. than one Emerging micron pollut with members to address problems they are unable morphological properties. g. of water and its quality is crucial to achieving to deal with individually "(p. 18). successHonduras in hasthe foundsustainability that knowledge of water in systems.the field 7. Conclusions and recommendations The culturization of water contributes to good practices in its use and the conservation of its 7.1 Conclusions quality as a source of good health. a. - h. Honduras has prepared and continues taking ter and sanitation service coverage, estimated Honduras has made significant progress in wa - ableactions Development to address tothe guarantee challenges the of availability Goal 6 set at 85.2% for access to drinking water and 55.0% ofout water in the and UN’s its New sustainable 2030 Agenda management for Sustain and for access to sanitation, achieving the UN SDG sanitation for all. 2015 goals. - i. Honduras has developed excellent experiences in the water quality issue, beginning with the 9. https://www.wsp.org/Hygiene-Sanitation-Water-Toolkit/Re sources/Readings/ UNICEF-Honduras.pdf - 10. https://issuu.com/25965/docs/presentacion_ahpsas_rasho approval of the Framework Law of the Potable n_ 2014.ppt Water Sector and its Regulation, the formula WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS 404

tion of a Country Vision, Nation Plan and work Plan, and adaptation to climate change, as stat-

models for water and sanitation projects. tools such as the ABS Plan and intervention regionsed in the in MAPAS.the country. CESCCO plays an important f. Attentionrole in this should field, besince paid it tohas the offices problem in various of con- 7.1 Recommendations tamination by leachates and emerging pollut- a. Additional efforts must be made to sustain the ants, and human resources should be trained achievements obtained in water and sanitation to develop programs and projects for proper coverage, and complement pending tasks, so waste management and disposal that will not that there is no gap in the near future, and de- harm the environment. It is necessary to elim- velop new works. b. The country should implement the actions rec- and control the discharges of process water in minesinate openbeing air exploited. dumps, build sanitary landfills g. - theommended protection in theof watersheds, MiBABIENTE within Strategy whose and ucation, such as the Healthy School and Home planningthe ABS Plan the fordevelopment the restoration of the of countryforests, andhas Program,Education should programs be developedreplicated forand health expand ed- been considered, taking into account PAP Hon- ed, due to the success obtained. Health educa- duras and the existence of associations as orga- tion programs, such as the Healthy School and nizations of municipalities with the capacity to House Program, should be replicated and expanded, due to the success obtained. c. The necessary resources should be invested, implement appropriate actions in the field. beAll implementedthe recommendations and the National made in Policythe PEMAPS on the educators and train and raise the awareness of Drinkingshould be Water put into and practice, Sanitation PLANASA Sector should citizens.as proposed The componentin PEMAPS ofand citizen PLANASA participation to train and training proposed in the intervention mod- state of governance of the APS Sector, current- els should be applied with greater intensity. lybe underapplied development, in order to firmlyand to cement consolidate the new the h. The government must rely on all the institu- achievements obtained. tional infrastructure it created to achieve the d. it with trained personnel, and the allocation of theyThe Centralplay in Governmentattending an mustimportant strengthen sector the of goals set out in the 2015 MDGs, and strengthen- theinstitutional population sector which of the NGOs, action due of government to the role authorities has not yet reached, such as the forsufficient Sustainable financial Development. resources to meet the chal peri-urban zones of major cities, and concen- i. Thelenges country of SDG must 6 raised socialize in the the UN Country 2030 Agenda Vision trated and scattered rural settlements. - e. - cies of the Drinking Water and Sanitation Sec- search, the monitoring of surface and ground of the Nation Plan and the ABS Plan, the Poli Resources should be allocated to scientific re- since they contain an ambitious development ation of data banks that include meteorological plantor, andfor theHonduras, PLANASA with and solid implement foundations them, to parameters,sources identified to be included for water in supply, the strategies and the creand achieve a better standard of living with health policies of the National Water and Sanitation and education. 405 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | HONDURAS

References

- Participación so mayores contaminantes del agua en comuni- de mujeres en el uso, manejo y conservación de Aceituno, Laura (2016). Plomo, hierro y mangane- Joyalos Rodríguez, recursos naturales Crisly Massiel y gobernanza (2017). del agua en la microcuenca río Marcala, Honduras. Proyecto Presenciadades de Ojojona,Universitaria, Santa Ana y San Buenaventu especial de graduación presentado como requi- ra determinaron estudiantes de la UNAH. UNAH, sito parcial para optar al título de Ingeniera en July 7 2016. https://goo. gl/dJVx8W - Asociacióndo en La de Gaceta Municipios de Honduras (1993). Ley- Zamorano,Ambiente yHonduras. Desarrollo en el Grado Académico de Municipalidades y su Reglamento. Publica de Licenciatura. Escuela AgrícolaPerfil Panamericana, Ambiental de el 18 de febrero de 1993. Avail- País-Honduras. - able at: https://portalunico.iaip.gob.hn/portal/ MOSEF/GIZ /GFA (2013). ver_documento.php?uid=MzczMjY3ODkzNDc Consultores: Juan Palerm, Ernes 2MzQ4NzEyNDYxOTg3MjM0MgEl gorgojo descortezador to Flórez Payarez,Proyecto Hans Nusselder.de Municipios Tegucigalpa: y Comu- CONADEH/MOSEF-UE/Gobiernodel pino y otras graves amenazas de la ambientales República de a nidadesMOSEF. Saludables. Plan de Seguridad del Agua laHonduras/ICF vida digna de (2016).los hondureños y hondureñas. Te- OPS/OMS(PSA) del (2012). Sistema de Abastecimiento de Agua Po- table del Casco Urbano de la Ciudad de Siguate- Honduras: Plan Es- peque. tratégicogucigalpa: de ICF. Modernización del Sector Agua Pota- Plan de Vigilancia de la CONASA/PPIAF/BMble y Saneamiento (2005).(PEMAPS). Hacia una gestión Calidad Tegucigalpa: del Agua en OPS/Aguaslos Municipios de PriorizadosSiguatepeque. en descentralizada. - OPS/OMS/SESALel Plan Nacional (2012). de Enfermedades Desatendidas. al de Agua Potable y Saneamiento. Política Tegucigalpa: Nacional Sector Comisión Agua Nacion Potable República de y Saneamiento de Honduras. - Honduras:Tegucigalpa: Visión SESAL. de País 2010-2038 y Plan de Na- CONASAión Nacional (2013). de Agua Potable y Saneamiento. Presidenciación 2010-2022. de la República (2010). Plan Nacional de Tegucigalpa: Agua Potable Comis y Sa- neamiento (PLANASA). - Available at: https://eeas.europa.Plan Maestro CONASAcional (2014). de Agua Potable y Saneamiento. deeu/sites/eeas/files/lc_10.pdf Agua, Bosque y Suelo (Plan ABS). Available Tegucigalpa: ConsejoManual Na Presidencia de la República (2017). para la Identificación e Implementación de Ac- plan-maestro ERSAPS/SEFIN/PROMOSAS/BMciones de Tercerización para Entes (2011). Prestadores at: http://www.presidencia.gob.hn/index.php/ de Servicios de Agua Potable y Saneamiento. Te- Manual de Operación Modalidades de Inter- Programavención depara Agua Proyectos y Saneamiento de Agua Potable (PAS) (2002).y San- eamiento en Barrios Peri-urbanos Marginados, gucigalpa: ERSAPS. - Sector Rural Concentrado y Disperso. - GIZ/Ministerio FederalDesafío de deMedio Bonn-Latinoamérica Ambiente, Obras 2016.Públicas y Seguridad Nuclear/CCAD/MiAMBI Vol. 1. Tegu- ENTE (2016). ental.cigalpa: La FHIS/BM. Gaceta Diario Oficial de la República de Panamá, 26 de agosto de 2016. El Salvador:XVII SESALHonduras. (1998). Reglamento General de Salud Ambi- REDD+Censo Nacional Landscape/CCAD). de Población y VI de Vivienda. Te- Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas (INE) (2013). Núm. 28,593, June 20 1998. Tegucigal- pa: Presidencia de la República de Honduras. La gucigalpa: INE. La inclusión del enfoque de SESALGaceta (2003). Diario Ley Oficial Marco de della República Sector de de Agua Hondu Po- Institutoequidad Nacional de género de en la Mujerel sector (INAM)/RAS-HON/ de agua y sanea- ras.table y Saneamiento. Decreto N° 118-2003. WSP-LACmiento en (2007).Honduras. Diagnóstico y propuesta. Honduras. Tegucigalpa: Presidencia de la República de

Honduras: INAM. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO 406

Mexico

En las áreas de alta densidad poblacional, en el centro del país, se presenta la mayoría de los problemas de contaminación del agua por materia orgánica y contaminantes biológicos. El 89% de la carga total de contaminantes por DBO se genera en 20 cuencas hidrológicas que albergan 93% de la población y 72% de la producción industrial. Tan sólo las cuencas de Lerma, Pánuco, Bravo, San Juan y Balsas reciben 50% de las descargas de aguas residuales de la nación. La insuficiente infraestructura de tratamiento de agua residual municipal e industrial, así como las descargas no controladas a los cuerpos de agua, ocasionan serias repercusiones en la salud humana y en los ecosistemas acuáticos. En México esto se debe a la falta de normatividad, pero también, y en mayor medida, al incumplimiento de las normas vigentes y a la falta de vigilancia de su cumplimiento.

Pátzcuaro Lake from the pier of Ucazanaztacua, Michoacán © Photo by Daniel Moreno Alanís 407 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO

Water Quality in Mexico1

Adriana Carolina Flores-Díaz, Alma Chávez Mejía, Anne M. Hansen, Arsenio González Reynoso*, Beatriz Casasola, Blanca Jiménez Cisneros*, Blanca Lucía Prado Pano, Brenda Rodríguez Herrera, Daniel Murillo Licea, Erick D. Gutiérrez López, Fabiola Garduño, Gabriela Cabestany Ruiz, Ignacio González Mora, Itzkuauhtli Zamora Sáenz, Jorge Eugenio Barrios Reynoso*, José Antonio Barrios Pérez, José Joel Carrillo Rivera, Juan Carlos Durán Álvarez, Juana Amalia Salgado López, Leopoldo G. Mendoza Espinosa, Lorenzo Gómez Morín, María Aurora Armienta Hernández, María del Pilar Saldaña Fabela, Mariana Zareth Nava-López, Marisa Mazari-Hiriart, María Luisa Torregrosa y Armentia*, María Teresa Orta Ledezma Velásquez, Marinhe Concepción Rosas Rodríguez, Miguel Palmas Tenorios, Miguel A. Córdova Rodríguez, Miriam G. Ramos-Escobedo, Porfirio Hernández H, Ramón Pérez Gil Salcido, Ricardo Sandoval Minero, Robert Hunter Manson, Ronal Sawyer G., Sergio S. Ruiz-Córdova y Sofía Esperanza Garrido Hoyos

1. Introduction

Water quality is, in fact, an abstract term that only acquires practical meaning when asso-

- ple,ciated is differentwith a particular from the use quality and requiredthe concentrations to make bricks. and values Thus, itfor may measuring even turn it outare thatdefined the same(Jiménez, compound 2001). This in one happens case is because polluting the while quality in another of water it required is innocuous for drinking, or necessary. for exam It is possible that toxicity values may be different. In Mexico, interest in water quality is relatively recent (dating from recent decades), since the initial concern was always related to the

of information, which is presented below, dealing with institutional aspects, types of pollutants,quantity quality of water. problems This interest and social has aspects. been reflected in the generation of a significant amount

2. Water quality governance 2.1 Legal framework Mexican legislation recognizes that water quality is important from a social, economic and environmental point of view. The regulatory framework is federal and is based on the Mexi- - - tingcan Politicalout the goal Constitution of integral (CPEUM, and sustainable 1917). Article development 4 states the for right the country, of every as person well as to the an need ade quate environment for their development and well-being; Article 25 is more explicit in poin property of the nation and stipulates the measures for preventing its deterioration and res- for the care and conservation of natural resources. Article 27 establishes that water is the- - toring the ecological balance. Likewise, the General Law of Ecological Equilibrium and Envi implementronmental Protectionwater policy (LGEEPA, and regulatory, 1988) grants administration the Secretariat and of monitoring Environment mechanisms, and Natural whi Re- sources (SEMARNAT), and the latter grants the National Water Commission the authority to

*Chapter coordinators. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO 408

le municipalities have operational functions in ter- At present, there are several institutional cha- ms of drinking water, sewerage and sanitation. The llenges to addressing pollution problems, such as - nal coordination; (b) lack of long-term water qua- zoning,LGEEPA environmental (1988) and the impactNational assessment, Waters Law the (1992), con- the following: (a) poor intra- and inter-institutio cessionsamended andin 2004, allocations indicate regime, that planning, wastewater ecological discontinuous and increasing overexploitation of wa- charge permits, collection of rights, self-regulation ter;lity goals(d) a regulatory or for addressing approach specific based problems;solely on dis (c)- - charge control and with limited oversight; (f) lack of policies to prevent the generation of pollutants; permissibleand the Official limits Mexican for the Standards use of water (NOM) and that was es- tewatertablish specifications,discharge are conditions,the instruments parameters that mate and- (h) absence of control of diffuse contamination; (i) rialize the constitutional precepts and national wa- (g) insufficient, inadequate wastewater treatment;- ter policy. Their application is shown in Figure 1. centralization of functions and resources of the fe- - derationlimited citizen towards participation; states, municipalities and (j) inefficient and users. de gulate the quality of discharges according to the use of the Unlike receiving most body countries, (water Mexican or soil), standards rather than re 2.2 Social participation doing so according to the type of discharge or ca- - pacity for assimilating contaminants. There thereby acknowledge that water is a renewable re- (ChapterSocial participation, IV) or the Water defined Advisory in the Council Law on (Chap Natio- source that is reused through the hydrological cycle nal Waters, is achieved through the Basin Councils - structure was established as a minimum basis to ganizations-ter V bis). The are Basin jointly Councils organized –consisting collegiate of atbodies least buildand time capacity (Jiménez, for compliance 1995 and 1996). with it. This normative for50% coordination, of users and consultation,citizen or non-governmental support, consulta or-

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the regulatory framework for water quality in Mexico 409 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO

tion and advice for better water management, the integrates indigenous peoples, social organizations, development of hydraulic infrastructure and the workers, community water management systems respective services, and the preservation of the re- and researchers committed to the construction of source. As for the Water Advisory Council (CCA), it the democratic government of water and the terri- is an autonomous consultation body composed of civil society, with an independent, proactive, plural participated in this initiative in workshops held in and representative citizen perspective. tory. More than 420 researchers and organizations At present, the organization of users, that is, those who have a concession title, to a greater or citizen26 states observatories in Mexico with that the monitor aim of preparing drinking awater new lesser extent, is a reality in all the country’s basins, andproposal sanitation for the services, Water Law. particularly A third examplein the cities is the of but the participation of society in general is as yet - incipient. The main obstacle to having this type of participation is the lack of resources, an obstacle La Paz, Valle de Bravo, San Miguel de Allende, Xala that has been partially overcome through the will pa2.3. and Monitoring Tuxtla Gutiérrez. and database of citizens and the emergence of foundations. One - tematically monitored the quality of the country’s Since 2012, the National Water Commission has sys- example is the Gonzalo Río Arronte IAP Foundation (FGRA), founded in 2000, which had funded 204- measurementwater resources. sites The (Figure National 2), Waterincluding Quality dams Mea and vingprojects the byfull 2015. participation However, theof civilresources society. that Another can be surement Network covers 40 parameters at 5,000 relevantchanneled example by NGOs of aresocial still participation insufficient infor Mexico achie lakes (840), rivers (2,041), coastal zones (939) and- wells (1,180). The results are recorded in the Water is the “Water for All, Water for Life” movement that Quality Information System (SICA, 2016), a databa Figure 2. National Water Quality Measurement Network WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO 410

Figure 3. Incidence of diarrheal diseases and population without access to drinking water and sanitation % Population without access to drainage % Population without access to drinking water 14 50 % of Acute Diarrheal Disease (ADD) cases 45 12 40

10 35

30 25 6 20

4 15

10 2 5

0 0 Jalisco Colima Puebla Sonora Sinaloa Oaxaca Nayarit Chiapas Hidalgo Tabasco Tlaxcala ucatán Morelos Coahuila Durango Veracruz Guerrero Zacatecas Querétaro Campeche Chihuahua Michoacán Tamaulipas Guanajuato Nuevo León Nuevo Quintana Roo Baja California Aguascalientes San Luis Potosí San Luis Ciudad de México Estado de México Baja California Sur Baja California

Source: INEGI, 2015. se partially open to the general public, which is es- 3.1.1 Surface bodies sential for planning and evaluating pollution pre- The inadequate municipal and industrial wastewa- vention and control actions. According to SICA, for ter treatment infrastructure and uncontrolled dis- surface water, 92% of the sites have an excellent to organiccharges andof 8% nutrient of the populationcontamination into ofsurface water water with acceptable quality in terms of BOD5 (Biochemical serioussources repercussions (CONAGUA, 2016) for aquatic cause ecosystems microbiological, and Oxygen Demand), 68% in terms of Chemical Oxygen Demand and 93% as regards total suspended solids. related to a higher incidence of intestinal diseases, Eighty per cent of the sites have a content that is human health. Lack of drainage and treatment is inspectionless than or of equal sources to 1,000 and fecaladministrative coliforms (NMP/100 sanctions states in the country (Figure 3). againstml). In areas polluting identified companies as contaminated, are promoted. sanitation, which affect up to 12% of the population in certain 3.1.2 Groundwater

the total volume of water concessioned for use in 3. Country water quality In Mexico, groundwater accounts for about 40% of

3.1 Situation of water resources publicThe supply importance (60.5%) of andgroundwater agricultural1 irrigation The problems of water resource contamination are in(35.5%) the magnitude (CONAGUA, of 2016b). the volume used by the main serious, since available treatment systems remove is reflected - ted by municipal discharges, which is equivalent to users, since 38.9% of the total volume concessioned 19% of the biodegradable matter (BOD5) genera - - 1. Of the 348m³ per second of water supplied in the country, it pouring 9.7 tons of BOD5 into the environment an is estimated that 60.5% comes from underground sources (CO nually (CONAGUA, 2016). NAGUA, 2016b). 411 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO

for consumptive uses2 and other states in the north of the country, where comes from groundwater, the largest user being the groundwater is contaminated with sulfur and other (33,311 hm³ per year to 2015)- et al., Various processes and the geological environ- agricultural sector, which uses 35.9% of the total vo- mentdissolved can solidscause (Flores-Márquez high concentrations of2006). contami- fers,lume of(CONAGUA, which availability 2016a). is greater than exploita- nants in the water supply, making it unsuitable for The groundwater system consists of 653 aqui- potable water, or other uses (such as irrigation and aquaculture). In Mexico, groundwater is naturally tion in 498, 18 have problems due to marine intru ofsion, overexploitation, 32 contain brackish but also water of groundwater and the remaining pollution,105 are mainly overexploited. in the north Agriculture and center is a ofmajor the councause- thesecontaminated mineral regions,by arsenic arsenopyrite (As) and/or or scoroditefluoride (F-) re- try. Agriculture pollutes groundwater through fer- leasein various large placesconcentrations (Armienta of andarsenic Segovia, into the 2008). water, In tilizers (nitrogen inputs) and pesticides used to increase crop productivity. Persistent pesticides et al have been found in aquifers throughout Mexico, for etas alhas happened in Zimapán, Hidalgo, and possibly - in Villa de la Paz, SLP (Armienta ., 2001, Razo et al which., 2004) causes . Another the contamination example is ofthe drinking interaction water of example, in Jalisco (Sandoval Madrigal, 2015), Yuca- thermal water with fluorite from volcanic rocks,et tán (Metcalfe ., 2011), Sonora (García de Llasera al and Bernal-González, 2001), Sinaloa (García- Gutié with fluoride in San Luis Potosí (Carrillo-Rivera - andrrez andHidalgo Rodríguez-Meza, (Downs et al 2012), Guanajuato, State ., 2002). In Hermosillo,et al Sonora, the presence of Mexicanof Mexico Inter-Secretariat (Vicenta Esteller Commission and Díaz-Delgado, for the 2001)Con- Chihuahua,fluoride (F) whereis due thereto its releaseare high from levels granites of both (Va ar- ., 1999). Although the lenzuela-Vásquez ., 2006). In the central zone ofet al., trol of the Process and Use of Pesticides, Fertilizers- senic and fluorine, its presence is due to the inte- and Toxic Chemicals (CICOPLAFEST) has restricted- ractionbined with of water thermal with waters rhyolites lead (Reyes-Gómez to high concentra - the use of certain pesticides since 1988, implemen 2013). The water-rock geochemical processes com tation of this policy has been difficult and inconsis- - tent. Recently, the Program for the Monitoring andtions of F- and As in Juventinoet al Rosas, Guanajuato, Evaluation of Persistent and Bioaccumulative Subs ofand As in in Los granular Altos de aquifers Jalisco leads(Hurtado to contamination and Gardea-To in tances (STPB) for Watersheds and Aquifers was for- rresdey, 2004, Morales ., 2015). The desorption rrez,med toCuernavaca quantify STPB,and the including Ocosingo pesticides, Aquifer. Howein the- Coahuila), which is also exacerbated by evaporation ver,groundwater a great deal of Río of researchFuerte, Zacatepec, is still required Tuxtla inGutié this the Comarca Lagunera (Durango, Chihuahua and- area to understand the extent of the problem (Han- (Molina, 2004, Ortega-Guerrero, 2004). The Comar Another important source of contamination of ca Laguneraet al has seen significant health problems groundwatersen, 2012b). is saltwater intrusion. This process ofdue pollutants to the chronic such intakeas arsenic, of water but itwith is extremely As from 1958 di- (Cebrián ., 1994). Mining waste is also a source- polluting them. The best known cases in Mexico are turally enriched with this element. occurs when seawater infiltrates coastal aquifers, fficult to detect as a source of pollution in areas na- - nation has been partially solved but only in certain menonfound in will Baja be California, exacerbated Baja by California the combined Sur, Sonora effect areas.The In problem Chihuahua, of arsenicfor example, and fluoride reverse contamiosmosis ofand overexploitation the Yucatán Peninsula. and sea In level the future, rise as this a result pheno of systems were installed to treat drinking water and climate change (Cardona et al et al., offer it at low cost. However, not all the population uses this water, possibly because they must take intrusion of geothermal water., that 2004, occurs Metcalfe in Puebla - 2011, CONAGUA, 2015). This process is similar to the thorities mix contaminated water with good or be- containers to fill up with water. Elsewhere, the au 2. Consumptive use is the difference between the volume extrac- tter quality water, to dilute the content of As and F-. ted and the volume discharged when undertaking an activity. Another solution has been to replace groundwater WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO 412

Table 1. Eutrophication

- - Eutrophication causes the depletion of water oxygen, the rapid increase of aquatic plants, fish morta lity and risks to human and animal health due to the presence of toxins. According to SICA (2016), eutrophication is a major problem in Mexico. Using the CEPIS classification (2001) for lakes and tropical reservoirs, of 321 lentic water bodies evaluated from 2012 to 2016, 39% are eutrophic (with abundan ce), 44.2% mesotrophic (intermediate condition) and 16.8% oligotrophic (with shortages) (Figure 4).- For tropical rivers and using the Carlson Index modified by Lamparelli (2014) for 1,963 measurement- sites, 80.1% are eutrophic, 18.9% mesotrophic and 1% oligotrophic. Moreover, in 54% of these, deter gents (SAAM) were found in concentrations above the Ecological Water Quality criterion for the pro fromtection water of aquatic (which life is ofexpensive), 0.1 mg/L (DOF,using 1989).cleaner production techniques, such as producing low-phos- phorusSolving detergents the problem and controlling requires purificationdiffuse contamination, processes mainly that eliminate due to the nitrogen use of andsynthetic phosphorus fertili-

Figurezers in 4.agricultural Eutrophication areas. ofAn water extreme bodies case in of Mexico eutrophication occurs in Lake Patzcuaro.

with surface water, but this cannot be done in many arid or semi-arid areas where the problem exists. astermittently cancer, diabetes, or simply hypertension, abandon them. cognitive Both arsenic pro- have been set up to remove arsenic and sometimes blems,and fluoride dental can and cause bone severedisorders health and damage gangrene). (such In Zimapán and other places, treatment systems- There are also pollution problems due to the ce costs, many municipalities operate the plants in- incidental recharge of aquifers with wastewater, also fluoride, but due to operating and maintenan 413 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO

which contributes pathogens, heavy metals and los and Puebla, where most of the waste is untrea- et al - vez et al emergingwith discharges pollutants from (Gallegosthe mining industry.., 1999, Howe Chá- ted livestock and municipal wastewater (CONAGUA, ver, many., 2011),new exploitation and aquifers practices may be -suchcontaminated as shale 3.2.32016). Agrochemicals gas extraction of - are not contemplated in the wa- Agrochemical use is widespread in Mexico in both - extensive and subsistence agriculture. On the one hand, the amount of fertilizers used in the country ter quality regulations (De la Vega Navarro and Ra has become generalized, while at the same time, its 3.2mírez Status Villegas, by 2015). type of pollutant 3.2.2 Organic and biological contamination Most problems of contamination by organic mat- use has intensified, from 62.3 kg/ha in 2002 to 83.6- ter and biological contaminants are found in areas kg/ha in 2014 (datos.bancomundial.org). Thus, in with high population density, particularly in central et2014 al it accounted for a total of 4.2 million tons. A re useview of of pesticides cases at the per national se, but levelalso their(Sánchez-Guerra inadequate application.., 2011) found This hasthat caused the problem poisoning is not in onlyagricultu is the- Mexico. In fact, 89% of the total pollutant load per- ral workers and their families, causing a decrease BOD in the country is generated in 20 basins that in sperm counts and genotoxic effects, among other are home to 93% of the population and 72% of in - dustrial production. The Bravo, Pánuco, Lerma, San zation of agricultural areas means that agricultural Juan and Balsas basins receive 50% of the nation’s workershealth problems. are unaware Unfortunately, of the risks the of theirhigh marginaliuse. In ad- wastewater discharges (CONAGUA, 2016). - dition to the above, Mexico continues to use pesti- ministrativeIn southeast regions Mexico, are located, where the agricultural Balsas, Pacífico activi- cides that have been banned internationally. This is tiesSur are and the Lerma-Santiago-Pacífico main source of the economy. hydrological In this adre- partly due to the fact that the list of dangerous pes- gion, the main sources of contamination by organic matter are the sugar, tanning, paper mill and pork by the Federal Commission for Protection against industries. ticides (19 in total) has not been updated since 1991 In the state of Sonora, in northwestern Mexico, is very little follow up on the existing regulations on theSanitary manufacture, Risks (COFEPRIS). import, storage, At the distribution,same time, there sale of organic contamination in the lower parts of the and application of agrochemicals of the Secretariat basins,the Yaqui caused and Matapeby urban, rivers agricultural have severe and industrialproblems - aggravated by the presence of pesticides that come of Health (SSA), the Secretariat of Environment and discharge. The contamination of the Yaqui River is Natural Resources (SEMARNAT) and the Secreta salinity caused by high evapotranspiration and/or riat The of Agriculture, problem of Livestock,contamination Rural by Development, water pesti- from nearby agricultural fields, etas al well as by high cidesFishing is andalready Food widespread (SAGARPA). in the country. On the one hand, in the states where intensive agriculture marinein the country, intrusion although (Vega-Granillo industries generate., 2011). a low In the Lerma-Chapala basin, which is the largest application of agrochemicals is also intensive. On theexists other -such hand, as Sinaloa, in places Sonora with andsubsistence Guanajuato-, agricul the- volume of wastewater, they discharge 130,500 tons/ ture, agrochemicals are also used, albeit on a sma- year of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Organic- ller scale, but with even more precarious protection tocknon-point waste, pollution particularly also from comes pig farms. from theThe Elfood Bajío in- measures, causing water, soil and air contamination dustryarea, in in the the lower area Lermais also River,a source together of non-point with lives po- with the associated increase in risk to human and llution, albeit to a lesser extent. environmental health. With respect to coliforms, most of the microbio- a regulatory framework must be accompanied by - an operationalLike many cases framework in the country,that facilitates the existence its appli of- logical loads are found in the Lerma-Chapala and- cation. In addition, and in order to reduce their con- Balsas basins, particularly in the states of Michoa cán, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Querétaro, Mexico, More WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO 414

Figure 5. Main sites with problems of groundwater quality due to their excessive industrial and urban use or where lack of understanding of how groundwater works creates quality problems due to their extraction

sumption, alternatives should be offered to produ- water bodies, the metal(oid) is transported from the cers, such as economic incentives to adopt the use water column to the sediment by depositing parti- of organic agriculture or Integrated Pest Manage- cles of organic matter and iron and manganese oxides, where they are accumulated, meaning that the people about the risks associated with the pestici- sediment acts as the destination of the metal(oid)s. dement management, (IPM). It is bothextremely for human important health to and train for field the In Mexico, governments, nongovernmental organi- environment. zations, universities and research centers conduct metal(oid) sampling studies in water bodies. Howe- 3.2.4 Metals and metalloids ver, continuous metal(oid) monitoring programs Metals enter water systems from various sources have not been established and, therefore, there are no formal inventories of these pollutants or the risk as leaks, waste water discharges, dumping and lea- of exposure they represent. Sediment monitoring chingsuch as from smelting, garbage. refining Some and metals fuel burning,are highly as toxicwell is not an established practice either, although this even at very low concentrations, such as lead, mer- makes it possible to determine the historical evolu- cury, cadmium, chromium, copper, zinc, aluminum, tion of the contamination (Hansen et al beryllium, cobalt, thallium, vanadium, nickel and metalloids such as selenium and arsenic. The fate of 3.2.5 Salinization ., 2013). these metal(oids) in bodies of water is governed by numerous processes that include sorption/desorp- causes of the calinization of groundwater in the tion, precipitation/dissolution and complexation/ country.Excessive According groundwater to various extraction publications of is one and of the the- dissociation. Some metal(oid)s are also sensitive et al Figure 5), this has to changes in an oxide/reduction state. Once in the mainly been observed in areas that obtain their ses (Carrillo-Rivera ., 2008) ( 415 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO

groundwater supply from fractured rock in the Sie- activity related to groundwater. Correcting salini- rra Madre Occidental (such as the states of Aguas- zation requires understanding the problem before acting using the SFTAS methodology. The objective - is to understand how it will be possible to control tecas),calientes, or from Baja a granular California, medium Coahuila, in very Chihuahua, thick se- the appropriate processes related to the increase in Durango,dimentary Guanajuato, basins (such Jalisco, as Mexico San Luis City) Potosi, and coastal Zaca salinization before this effect occurs and is observed in an extraction well. However, this solution, be- extracted in different places often reaches alarming ing more economical and more respectful with the levelszones -(such above as the Baja water California, quality Sonora).standard The - in termswater environment, attracts less attention than structural - solutions that often create additional undesirable tivity or arsenic content, among others. The res- environmental effects. ponseof total of dissolved the type solids, of groundwater sodium, fluoride, and its radioaccontent in salts, as well as its corresponding control befo- 3.2.6 Emerging contaminants re the water reaches the extraction pump, has been present in everyday products, such as medicines, - personalEmerging carecontaminants products areand the nanomaterials. active compounds Was- gydefined which, by although applying itsthe application operation ofhas the been Tóthianos conti- tewater is one of the sources of these pollutants in groundwater flow systems (SFTAS), a methodolo- the environment. Although the toxic effects caused by emerging pollutants are still poorly understood, nuously published since the 1990s, should be inclu the precautionary principle requires strategies for ded in a specific law to direct any environmental monitoring them and remove them from wastewater. After China, Mexico is the country with the highest rate of reuse of raw wastewater for agricul- Table 2: Is the Water Balance a solution? result of which continually high loads of emerging tural irrigation (Jiménez and Asano, 2008), as a Perhaps one of the difficulties of solving the issue regarding pollutants enter agricultural soils and can migra- which scientific methods to use to solve the problem of ground- te to water reservoirs adjacent to irrigation zones water salinization is to face the already established "method" (see Table 3). Previous monitoring studies have of studying groundwater. This has been the standard procedure systematically found the presence of emerging con- in many countries. In Mexico, it began in the mid-60s under the taminants in the wastewater of Mexico City, at le- name of Geohydrology: the “water balance”, an approach that et al et is purely static and in direct conflict with the systemic vision al et al et al - vels of μg/L to ng/L (Gibson ., 2007, Siemens of groundwater functioning. The interpretation of groundwa- fortunately, no published reports have been found ., 2008, Durán ., 2009, Chávez ., 2011). Un ter data based solely on the hydraulic response is often inade- that show their presence in the wastewater of other quate because it overlooks chemical, biological and geological megacities, border areas or populations along the evidence. For example, the uncontrolled extraction of shallow Mexican coast. More recently, a study by Félix-Ca- groundwater in San Luis Potosí (north-central Mexico) leads ñedo et al - to the blending of a cold, low fluoride and sodium flow, as well ticizers and surfactants in the aquifer and surface . (2013) found the presence of drugs, plas as a deep, fluoride-rich thermal flow, in different proportions. supply sources in Mexico City. The origin of such This has resulted in a mixture in the extraction well producing contamination was attributed to leaks in the obso- a flow with a high fluoride (≥4.1 mg ∙ l-1) and sodium (≥60 mg ∙ lete drainage network of the city. Previously, Met- l-1) content, which is dangerous for human health and farming. calfe et al The mixture of flows is carried out depending on the flow of -ex illicit drugs in the waters of the cenotes (limesto- . (2011) reported the presence of drugs and traction, local hydrogeology, as well as the design, construction and operation of the well. Understanding the groundwater flow ne sinkholes) of the Yucatán Peninsula, which was system provides alternative solutions for controlling and regu- physical and chemical properties, most emerging also related to wastewater infiltration. Due to their lating the flow of water from deep flows and taking advantage pollutants are poorly removed in conventional was- of the chemical reactions that control the solubility of fluoride, tewater treatment systems (Miege et al which can precipitate it before it reaches the extraction well. even if the current treatment rate in Mexico were ., 2009), so, WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO 416

Table 3. Emerging contaminants in Tula Valley

Wastewater from Mexico City is reused without previous treatment, for irrigating forage crops in Tula Valley, 90 km north of the city. The irrigation method involves flooding plots, which causes the water to infiltrate the subsoil. The emerging contaminants present in the wastewater are mostly adsorbed by the soil. However, some of them manage to reach the aquifer, which is why traces (ng/L) of the most water-soluble contaminants have been found in the groundwater and springs of the Tula region. A macro treatment plant for wastewater in Mexico City has recently begun operating. The lower content of organic matter in irrigation wastewater can cause a decrease of the latter in the soil and therefore mobilize the emerging contaminants held there. It should be noted that one of the main uses of the Tula aquifer is for human consumption.

Figure 6. Presence of emerging pollutants in groundwater (wells) and surface (dams) sources in Mexico City and storage tanks where water is kept before being pumped to the network

Canales de salida de agua residual Porcentaje de muestras positivas

Pozos 0 - 25 25 - 50 50 - 5 5 - 100 Sistema Cutzamala Presas 0 - 25 25 - 50 50 - 5 5 - 100

Tanques 0 - 25 25 - 50 50 - 5 5 - 100 Ciudad de México

The marks indicate the frequency with which pharmaceutically active substances were found in the water samples taken (n = 10).

3.3 Deforestation and water quality loads in the treated water would not be expected. Deforestation impacts on the provision of environ- Currently,increased, tertiary a significant treatment reduction systems in based the pollutant on bio- mental services by the soil and results in biodiver- - sity loss, the disruption of hydrological and geochemical cycles, and an increase in greenhouse gas reactors with membranes are being developedet al (Es emissions (Masera et al et al whichtrada-Arriaga show high and removals Mijaylova, of 2001)emerging together pollutants with advanced oxidation processes (Durán ., 2016), has been more intense in., the 1997; tropical Maass region ., of 2005; the this situation, one way to reduce the problem is countryGalicia and(Palacio Zarco, et 2014).al In Mexico, deforestationet al throughin wastewater, the use but of arecleaner extremely production expensive. methods Given in the industry that avoid the use of this type of com- ., 2000, Velázquez ., 2002), pounds in the products society uses. indicatewhere over that 95% the ofstates the original of Campeche, tropical Chiapas, forest cover Jalis- has been lost (Durán and Lazos, 2004). Official data 417 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO

- Food production is the activity that consumes the most water and it is important that this water problemco, Quintana is also Roo observed and Yucatán in Aguascalientes,report the highest Vera ra- be used safely for health. In Mexico, wastewater is cruztes of and deforestation Oaxaca (Chapa in the et alcountry (IRE, et2016). al The used for irrigation in various areas without the assessment or monitoring of potentially associated Palacio et al ., 2008; Vacaet al ., 2012;- health risks. Due to water resource management in ronaChevalier et al and Buckles, 1995; Dirzo and García, 1992; Mexico, nowadays it is not only necessary to consi- Forests contribute., 2000; Velasco-Murguía to the maintenance ., 2014;of water Co der water for human use and consumption, but also quality in., watersheds2016). by preventing soil erosion. to expand the possible route of exposure through When deforestation occurs, there is an increase in vegetables, especially those that are consumed raw. runoff, which transports the eroded soil to the bodies of surface water, carrying with it a series of 4.1.3 Water-related diseases pollutants including carbon, nitrogen and phos- These are diseases that can be acquired through phorus, which are the main causes of eutrophica- ingestion or contact with contaminated water. In tion. In Mexico, deforestation due to the conversion Mexico, the Secretariat of Health, through the Fede- of forest to agricultural and urban land, or even due to climatic effects, has caused serious water quali- - ty problems in various regions. Some examples of ral Commission for Protection from Sanitary Risks- take(COFEPRIS) epidemiological and the Generalsurveillance, Directorate which ofmakes Epide it Trujillo-Jiménez et al possiblemiology (DGEPI),to monitor is thecases entity of illness authorized at a national to under le- this are found in the Yucatán peninsulaet al (Evans, 2012, vel, including those that can be caused by the con- in the accumulation of., 2011),arsenic in andthe upperchrome basin in Mi of- the Lerma River (García-Aragón ., 2007), and health data published by the Secretariat of Health areas whose surface water sources have been most sumption of water and contaminated food. Official- impactedramar Lake by in deforestation Chiapas (Hansen, is the 2012a).mountains One inof the state of Veracruz (Martínez et al Salmonella(SS, 2016 and typhi, 2017) S. show paratyphi, that infectious Shigella intestinal dysenteriae, di Sh.seases flexnieri, caused Sh. by bioydii, microorganisms Sh. sonnei, include enteropathoge bacteria:- ., 2009). nic, enterotoxigenic, enteroinvasive, enterohemorr- hagic Escherichia coli, as well as protozoan parasi- 4. Economic and social costs tes such as Entamoeba hystolitica, Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium spp., and intestinal infections 4.1 Health due to viruses such as enterovirus, rotavirus, acute

other viral hepatitis, which can be associated with andChapter sanitize 4 of water the Mexicanfor personal Constitution and domestic stipulates con- transmissionhepatitis A (Knepper through and the Ternes, consumption 2010), asof well water as that “everyone has the right to access, dispose of and vegetables irrigated with water contaminated - by faeces. It should be noted that, particularly for sumption in a sufficient, healthy, acceptable and bacteria, one of the most worrying aspects –in addi- toaffordable live on andmanner” perform (DOF, daily 2017). activities Healthy and, water on there tion to their presence in wateris the resistance to other,fers to ensuring two aspects: that onthe the available one hand, water having is safe enough or in- antibiotics caused by the large dispersion of drugs nocuous in terms of not causing illness or harm to discharged into bodies of water through wastewa- the consumer. ter that has not been previously treated (Dalkmann The most frequent source of pollution, whose et al effects can trigger acute damage to the health of the population, is wastewater due to its fecal mat- 4.2 .,Poverty 2012). ter and pathogen content (Maier et al same time, wastewater may contain toxic chemi- an indigenous language, although a much hi- cals, many as waste from industrial processes., 2009). At that the At present, 6.5% of the Mexican population speaks can cause long-term illnesses. et al., gher percentage self-identify as indigenous: 21.5% (INEGI, 2015). The 78 ethnic groups (Zolla WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO 418

- This new model is designed for compulsory edu- - 2004)tural indigenousidentified live territory in 25 regions is located in the in south, the head cen- levels of basic education (pre-school, primary, and ter and north of the country and 23% of the biocul secondary)cation (from and 3 to upper17 years secondary old), which education. includes theAn municipalities, the population lives in conditions analysis of the new education model shows that the waters of the basin (Boege, 2008). In indigenous subject of water quality is approached from a basic - descriptive perspective and more for consumption of poverty ranging from 80% to 89%, with 41% to- purposes regulated by the characteristics of water 50% living in extreme poverty. The highest concen- scarcity. trations of indigenous poverty are found in: Oaxa The document on the new education model, for ca (32.2%), Yucatán (28.9%), Chiapas (27.9%), Quin thetana coverage Roo (16.6%) of potable and water Guerrero services (15.3%) in housing (Coneval, in - 2014). Associated with poverty and marginalization, dingthe level of the of Naturalbasic education and Social (from World. 3 to It 14 includes years old), the subjectsestablishes of knowledgethe field of Explorationof the environment, and Understan natural the Indigenousindigenous peoplemunicipalities not only isobtain only water40.2% for while do- sciences and technology, and geography where spe- mesticthat of drainageuse from services these conventionalis only 25.5% (INEGI,systems, 2015). but also from springs, rivers, wells, waterholes and limited to promoting the prevention of water and streams. The contamination of bodies of water the- soilcific contamination, curricular contents and generalon the subject concepts of onwater sustai are- refore affects them directly. In states where poverty nable consumption in climate change mitigation. At is more acute there are water quality problems only - ofthe water. level of upper secondary education (from 15 to identified in this paper as areas of high contamina 17 years)A critical there review is no onexplicit the subject reference shows to the that issue the 4.3tion Education(CONAGUA, 2013). topic of natural resources is approached as a series of curricular contents that are covered in class sustainable water management requires participa- hours, yet the topics concerning environmental sus- tionAccording from individual to CONAGUA, citizens an to effective community program organi of- tainability and use of common resources are not zations or non-government social organizations. To seen as a cross-cutting issue encompassing several this end, during the past decade, government pro- disciplines on the curriculum. In particular, the issue grams have been launched to promote the culture of water is seen as a limited resource that requires of water use and conservation among the popula- administrative regulations for its exploitation. This tion of Mexico. is a limited vision that does not form a global aware- In accordance with the evaluations that have ness of the citizen responsibility children and young been undertaken of the effectiveness of these pro- people will have in the future to guarantee the sus- grams, assessment has focused on compliance with tainability of the common resources of the planet. the implementation of the programs and the use of economic resources for dissemination and popu- 4.4 Gender lation training activities, but does not quantify the Women and men have a different relationship with - water, since they have different interests and per- - ceptions about it. This is due to the role society as- mationeffect of to programs prove that on thepeople population (González is andacquiring Arza signs to each one; For example, due to gender roles, knowledgeluz, 2011). In and other developing words, there conservation is no reliable practices infor women are more -although not exclusively- awa- and sustainable use of water. re of water problems in the domestic sphere (low availability, shifts, poor quality, increased rates, 4.3.1 Education and curriculum programs etc.), while men know more about the status of wa- - cation reform that ultimately led to the develop- When there are water-related problems, wo- mentIn 2013, of Mexico a new beganproposal undertaking for an education a sweeping model, edu ter in production (RGEMA, IMTA, UNDP, 2006). - particularly an adaptation of curricular contents. de water in their homes, which adds to the domestic men are responsible for finding solutions to provi 419 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO

work for which they are usually responsible. These The aforementioned coverage indicator is insu- - tify the inequalities that occur within each city, in activities may add 30 hours a week to the time used termsfficient, of since the quality it does of not the make water it possiblereceived toand iden the 4.5by both Rural rural areas and urban women (MMA, 2012). Providing water and solving sanitation issues in rural communities in Mexico is a major challenge due thefrequency water receivedwith which in urban it is received dwellings (PUEC-UNAM, can be seen to the poverty conditions and characteristics of ru- in2011). the However,results of ana survey approximation conducted of in the Mexico quality City, of

drinking water by purchasing water in a carboy or ral communities in the country. In 2010, one out of which found that 77% of the population obtains four Mexicans lived in any of the 188,593 localities- cordingwith fewer to CONAPO than 2,500 calculations, inhabitants; three 139,156 out ofof whichevery bottled water; 11% boil tap water; 4% install filters fourhave ruralfewer localities than 100 have inhabitants a high or (INEGI, very high 2010). degree Ac in theirDistrust taps inand the only quality 5% drink of piped it directly water from has thein- - creasedtap (INEGI, in recent 2008). decades. One indicator of the poral population. Marginalization in rural settlements pulation’s distrust of tap water is the enormous tendsof marginalization to increase asand they are movehome awayto 61% from of the larger ru growth of the bottled water market. According to human settlements and communication routes. The states with the greatest number of people living in the per capita volume of bottled water consumed in a study by the Inter-American Development Bank,

ruralAccording areas are: to Veracruz, the results Chiapas, of the IntercensalOaxaca, State Sur of- Mexico is the highest in the world. In 2010, Mexico Mexico, Puebla and Guanajuato. consumedOn the 46%other of hand, the totalsince bottled the constitutional water in Latin re- - America (IDB, 2010). tantsvey of do 2015 not conducted have any drainage,by INEGI, so31.0% their of inhabitants the homes poor quality of water accessed by a given popula- defecatein rural communities in the open withair, while fewer thethan inhabitants 2,500 inhabi of tioncognition can be of denouncedthe human asright a violation to water of in that 2012, right the - tively nearby sources, although sometimes they so- measured phenomenon, poor water quality has po- 40.0%metimes of havethe homes to carry have it for to long fetch distances. water from rela tentially(CEUM, 2012).become Thus, an element in addition of mobilization to being a of poorly civil The problem of the geographical dispersion of society to demand a human right. these communities is compounded by the low public investment in the water supply and the impro- 4.7 Conflicts related to industry, vement of drainage and sewerage services for these mining and agriculture communities. In recent years, although the amount of investment for infrastructure has increased, it has when local communities perceive that water conta- not been enough since major differences persist. minationSocial conflicts creates overa risk water of contracting quality arecertain triggered diseases or because it directly affects their economic ac- 4.6 Urban areas lesser extent, citizen interest may demand the need cities, in other words, in localities with more than totivities, protect mainly aquatic fishing ecosystems, or farming or (Ávila, modify 2003). the heal To a- At present, 78% of the Mexican population lives in- th paradigm of urban development that has used ri- - 2,500 inhabitants. The National Urban System com- et al prises 384 cities, 11 of which have over one million versPollution and lakes caused as part by of industry the drainage and mining system in (Gon wa- inhabitants, and is home to 41.3 million people, ac zález ., 2010). counting for 51% of the total national population- (CONAPO, 2012). Mexican cities have 95.4% potable- caseter bodies there can are be basins classified which, in two for ways:several as systemicdecades, water service coverage and 96.3% sewerage cove or due to an environmental emergency. In the first- rage. Nationwide, approximately 10 million inhabi ce of an effective state apparatus which inspects, tants lack piped water and 11.5 do not have access to have significantly deteriorated due to the absen sewerage (CONAGUA, 2015). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO 420

monitors and sanctions companies that discharge their waters without prior treatment or without complying with the maximum permissible limits economicpollution andsense 0.2% for forMexico the depletionto use the ofresources aquifers and for 2015 (INEGI, 2017). This suggests that it would make - quality and ensure the potability of public supplies. established in the National Waters Law. Examples financial instruments required to preserve water highinclude level the of basins contamination of the rivers since Atoyac, the lastLerma, third San of tiago, Blanco and Sabinas, characterized by their 5. Infrastructure for improving mobilization of citizen organizations, which pressu- water quality there the 20th authorities century. toThese clean basins up the have riverbed. seen growing Conversely, environmental emergency pollu- 5.1 Potabilization tion is caused by the spillage of toxic substances into a water body as a result of an accidental leak. - In this area, there is a high recurrence of pollution Mexico has 922 drinking water treatment plants- due to hydrocarbons caused by accidents by vehi- with an installed design expense of 142 m³/s (CO cles that transport them or the illegal removal of ga- NAGUA, 2016). Of these, 48 plants -with a total ex soline in pipelines that cross rural areas, as well as totalpenditure population of 2 m³/s- has accessare out to of water service from (CONAGUA, a public spills of substances such as cyanide or sulfuric acid, 2016). The INEGI data (2015) report that 94% of the- - llion inhabitants lack this service. With respect to - thesystem, quality which of the implies water that supplied, approximately information 6.5 sys mi- ces,related the tovast mining majority activity. of which In 2016, ended PROFEPA up in a body repor of tems are not very accessible to the public. In this water.ted 1,882 Agricultural spills of oil pollution and other elicits chemical the fewest substan pu- respect, the law requires drinking water to meet that neither farmers nor government authorities areblic awareprotests. of theResearch scope ofon the the problem, subject has so thatrevealed they the quality parameters defined by the NOM-127- reproduce unsustainable practices, including with SSA1-1994 standard for water for human use and consumption, and NOM-179-SSA1-1998 standard for haswater sought distributed alternatives by public for obtainingsupply systems drinking (INEGI, wa- financing and subsidies of public policies that favor 2016). Given the uncertainty of its quality, society the intensive use of agrochemicals (Pérez Espejo and4.8 Aguilar, Economic 2012). impacts of water quality Mexicoter, which is the involve country the that installation consumes of most purification bottled The quality of drinking water has a direct economic systems in homes or the purchase of purified water.- effect due to losses of economic productivity and the healthcare costs of diseases attributable to wa- water in the world, amounting to 28,453 million li ter pollution. Although there are various methodo- ters5.2 Purification per year (PWC, 2015). logical proposals to assess this impact, there is no et al of municipal wastewater (which includes the con- In the regulatory impact manifesto submit- tributionAccording of to industries CONAGUA connected (2016a), in to 2015, the 450sewerage m3/s estimated national figure (Nigenda ., 2002). system) and non-municipal wastewater were generated in Mexico.3 It is estimated that these dis- permissibleted for the Mexican levels ofofficial contaminants standard projectand simplify NOM- charges annually represent a contaminating load sampling-250-SSA1-2014 costs –designed for the implementation to tighten restrictions of reverse on - - of 12.1 million tons of organic matter (measured as osmosis for the removal of arsenic and fluorine clo se of approximately 4,000 million pesos were cal as those generated in population centers and collected in urban available budget. 3. CONAGUA (2016a) defines municipal wastewater discharges culated, (COFEPRIS, 2013), which is well above the and rural sewerage systems, while non-municipal wastewater is generated by other users, such as the self-supplied industry, and - discharged into bodies of water without being collected in the At the same time, in the System of Economic sewer system. and Ecological Accounts of Mexico, the INEGI cal culated a cost equivalent to 0.3% of GDP for water 421 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO

though the number of existing plants is considera- corresponds to non-municipal discharges. To redu- Biochemical Oxygen Demand, BOD5), 84% of which l/s, which indicates a large number of small plants, whichble, the usually average have flow higher treated unit in operating each of them costs is and 36 ce the impact of these discharges, there are 5,309 treatment plants that purify 191.4 m3/s, of which 47% are municipal discharges and the remainder less automation than larger plants. In fact, in 2015 collectedindustrial. in In the 2015, sewerage the treated was treated. flow amounted In the case to there were only 22 municipal plants operating at a 120.9 m3/s, which implies that 57% of the discharge- rate of over 1,000 liters per second. In terms of efficiency, municipal and industrial pondof municipal or dual plants, system approximately (combination 79%of biological of the trea or dischargedtreatment plants into water remove bodies only throughout 19% of the thepollutant coun- biologicalted flow undergoes and physicochemical activated sludge, processes) stabilization proces- load, meaning that 9.8 million tons of BOD5 are still - oxygentry (89% demand of them is from monitored non-municipal have levels discharges). ranging ses, which in most cases produces effluents of ac As a result, 32% of the 2,766 sites where chemical ceptable quality for reuse in various sectors. Even

Table 4. Water quality in Mexico and goals related to Development Goal 6

Goals: 6.1 Percentage of the population with access to safe drinking water: Although there are data on access and type of service by place of residence, information on water and service quality is incomplete or with limited access. 6.2 Percentage of the population with safely managed sewerage services and a hand-washing facility with soap and water: There is information on access, type of service and proportion of the population that uses basic sewerage services and has fecal waste management. There are no data on access to hand washing facilities.

Indicators: 6.3.1 Proportion of safely treated wastewater: Information is available on the proportion of wastewater received and treated, as well as the treatment level. There is no clear, sufficient information on the quality of the treated water, or infrastructure operation and maintenance 6.3.2 Percentages of bodies of water with good quality water: In Mexico, the five quality parameters proposed by the UN for aquifers are not analyzed. Goal 6.4.1 Change in the efficiency of water use over time: There are estimates based on national productivity data, but not for all the economic activities proposed by the UN. Target 6.5 Degree of application of integrated water resource management IWRM (0-100): Medium level, the elements of IWRM are institutionalized and their implementation is underway. High marks for cross-border data exchange and aquifer management tools and average marks for watershed management due to lack of cooperation and inter-institutional coordination. Target 6.6 Percentage of change over time in water-related ecosystems measured according to: a) the area of ecosystems (wetlands, forests and drylands); b) the amount of water in ecosystems (rivers, lakes and groundwater); and c) the resulting health of ecosystems: Information available on stored volume and extension for main water bodies, verification and on-land data interpretation (including classification of type of wetland), but not for health data on ecosystems in all the water bodies. Target 6.a Percentage of official development assistance included in a spending plan coordinated by the Go- vernment, either: (1) in treasury or (2) within the budget: Of the 32 states comprising the country, information is only available on water and sewerage expenditure in three of them and it is difficult to apply the UN-GLASS methodology. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO 422

from polluted to heavily polluted (COD greater than • - water) pulation centers generating the discharges in the • AMPIOSAAL - clean - support water (disinfectionfor municipalities of drinking with central-western40 mg/L) and, for area the ofmost the part,country. are close to the po • WWTP - wastewater treatment plants (investment)fewer than 25,000 inhabitants (strengthening) It should be mentioned that in 2015, investment in • - sewerage amounted to 16% of the $2,233 million USD rating subsidies) invested in the water sector -equivalent to 0.20% of INCENTIVES - for wastewater treatment (ope the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), whereas almost 60% of the investment was allocated to the potable the total budget in this area and participates in 5.3water Investment and sewage system in water (CONAGUA, quality 2016b). programs CONAGUA directly implements nearly half of- - maining investment comes from other areas of go- velopment of its infrastructure and hydraulic ser- 80% of the investments (World Bank, 2016); the re Mexicovices. Capital has various investment instruments funds are to mostly finance obtained the de - requiredvernment to and reduced the private coverage sector. gaps Between (Campanaro 2010 and sidies from the federal government to states and 2015, the available resources exceeded the amount municipalities.from fiscal resources Investments through to thepreserve transfer the of quali sub- - ty of the water supplied and treat wastewater form Rodríguez, 2014), estimated at $32,200 million pesos - drasticallyannually (ANEAS, reduced; 2016). and lastDue year to the the country'sreduction ecowas nomic situation, between 2015 and 2017, funds were •part of the PROAGUA program, divided into the fo - llowinginfrastructure) “sections” greater than 70% (Montoya, 2017). • APAUR - urban (water and sewerage Investment in infrastructure suffers from defi- of Water and Sewerage Operating Organiza- catedciencies where in terms they ofare equity, most efficiency,needed; they stability may varyand PRODI - Project for the Integral Development fromsufficiency. one year Funds to thedo notnext always without end their up beinglong-term allo • tions (technical and commercial efficiency) APARural -Rural (coverage and sustainability) evolution being guaranteed and are insufficient

Table 5. Successful experiences

Successful experiences in Mexico are scattered and range from local to national, through community, regional and citizen. They were selected because they identify opportunities to strengthen water quality management based on a vision of long-term ecological conservation that will maintain ecosystem and ecological sanitation services as an alternative to conventional sewerage and collective action for identifying problems and solutions.

Water Management and Sustainable Use (WMSU) Models in the Copalita-Zimatán-Huatulco (CZH) basins, Oaxaca, Mexico This basin, located on the coast of Oaxaca, encompasses an area of 282,300 ha. It has a population of 86,392 inhabitants, most of whom live in 851 scattered localities with fewer than 2,500 inhabitants. The CZH system has been recognized, nationally and internationally, as being of great importance for its biodiversity (Gonzá- lez-Mora et al., 2009). Since 2005, the Alliance formed by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and the Gon- zalo Río Arronte Foundation (FGRA) has been working in CZH to develop new water management models in Mexico. The objective has been to consolidate a process of participatory and integrated management of watersheds, particularly of water resources, with the participation of rural communities and indigenous groups with different environmental and socioeconomic scenarios. 423 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO

To date, there are 42 types of WMSU in 29 communities in eight municipalities, which benefit 19,146 people. A total of 921 works have been constructed and there is an installed capacity to store rainwater and runoff of 2,263 m³/year; of treatment for 12,496 m³/year of gray water, and reuse of 8,865 m³/year. As a result, 113 m³ of water is purified and the discharge of 152,505 m³ of wastewater is prevented by using compost toilets.

Intervention model for the provision of water and sewerage in scattered rural communities (CRD) The aim of this project is to develop and validate an Intervention Model in scattered rural communities in Mexico that integrate social and technical elements to improve access to basic sustainable water and sewerage services. The actors in the project are: Sarar Transformación, which provides the methodological and technical approach; World Vision Mexico (WVM), as an operating agency; 400 families from four states in Mexico; and the Inter-American Development Bank, which is the main source of financing. The project was implemented from 2014 to 2017, involving and benefiting families in nine pilot communities in the State of Mexico, Michoacán, San Luis Potosí and Veracruz. The socio-technical strategy for the implementation of the systems included (1) training local promoters of WSH – Water, Sewerage and Hygiene, also known as WASH, - in the coordination and facilitation of participatory diagnostics, design aspects, accompanying the community in the construction, operation, maintenance and monitoring of domestic systems; and (2) the technical design of water and sewerage systems, and preparing construction and use-operation-maintenance manuals.

Environmental recovery of the Pátzcuaro lake basin, Michoacán This program began in 2003 to establish the bases for the sustainable development of the basin by: (a) halt and reverse the deterioration of the water quality of Pátzcuaro lake; (b) participate in the solution of social conflicts and improve the environmental culture; (c) reduce deforestation, erosion and soil contamination; (d) contribute to promoting sustainability in resource management and make good use of surface and underground water. The program consisted of four stages to address seven key problems: 1) social conflicts and environmental culture; 2) deterioration of lake water quality; 3) deterioration of health, public welfare and extreme poverty; 4) deforestation, erosion and soil contamination; 5) fish reduction and loss of aquaculture biodiversity; 6) lack of economic resources, and 7) decrease in the amount of water in the lake and the volume of groundwater. More than a hundred projects, actions and studies have been carried out, yielding a series of tangible and measurable benefits. The most notable ones are having managed to mobilize wills and achieve consensus at the intergovernmental and inter-institutional level on needs, actions and investments in favor of the basin, through five artificial wetlands that reduce pollution and health and environmental risks at low cost, as well as the operation of wastewater treatment plants in the municipalities of Pátzcuaro and Quiroga.

Water Reserves Decree in the San Pedro Mezquital River Basin: a new framework for water quality management in Mexico The San Pedro Mezquital river is located on the Pacific slope, in the states of Durango, Zacatecas and Nayarit. It is currently the only river that crosses the Sierra Madre Occidental free of infrastructure and flows into the sea. It is therefore an allochthonous basin that transports water, sediment, genetic material and energy from the Durango plain to the coastal lagoons of Nayarit. These unique conditions in Mexico have been conserved by two bans on surface waters established in 1948 and 1955, lifted by presidential decree on September 15, 2014. Lifting the ban provided an opportunity to order water withdrawals through the establishment of a water reserve for the environment and complementary reserves for public supply and power generation. The water reserve for the environment was determined through ecological flow estimates based on the NMX-AA-159- SCFI-2012, which establishes the procedure for the determination of the ecological flow in hydrological basins (NMX). This standard represents a milestone in water management in Mexico, achieved more than twenty years after the publication of the National Water Law through the active participation of civil society, academia and various federal government agencies. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | MEXICO 424

to make up the growing lag in rehabilitation and cement. The lack of monitoring of wastewater stan- expansion. dards pollutes the environment and creates risks for the health of the population. Failure to monitor and sewerage contains several indicators relating drinking water standards causes health problems SDG 6 for the sustainable provision of water for the population, creating distrust about the quality of drinking water and forcing people to buy bo- into Table water 4 quality.. Mexico’s classification according ttled water. to its possibility of monitoring for SDG 6 is shown The problem of pollution affects the population in general, since consumption of bottled wa- 6. Conclusions ter due to the lack of water quality is a common issue in Mexico, particularly because of its impact on the most disadvantaged population such as women, children, indigenous and poor people. The decision However,Interest in although water quality a great has deal been of progress reflected has in been the to address the problem of water quality is a matter madegeneration in the of country, a significant there amountis still aof need information. to make for all levels of government, but it is also the responsibility of society to demand it. long-term public policies that will effectively pro- The costs of poor quality water bodies in the tectfull use and of preserve this data water to define quality solutions and the and ecosystems establish country are covered in many ways, but also cause associated with it, in order to complete the regula- side effects; for example, the consumption of bott- tions regarding wastewater discharges. led water means that millions of plastic bottles are discarded every year. It is the obligation of both of regulations regarding water quality that causes government and society's to make understanding its contamination,It should be clarified but, to that a muchit is not greater only the extent, lack the fact that water quality can be good business for their non-compliance and, in fact, its lack of enfor- everyone a priority.

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Gender and Water

An important often overlooked component of water quality is its relationship to gender because women are most often charged with the responsibilities of water gathering, production and usage in the home and in agricultural production. Two thirds of the world’s poor populations lack access to safe and reliable water. One of the key recommendations that emerges from this and other studies is that more women must be included in the managerial and decision making institutions especially in developing countries.

Kichwa woman in the rain forest of Yasuni National Park, Ecuador © iStock 431 LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA

Gender, Women and the Quality of Water

Frances Henry, Milena Cabrera Maldonado, Neela Badrie, Mónica Moraes R., María Eugenia García, Christina Villamar, Banu Örmeci y Dayra Álvarez

Introduction

This chapter discusses an important, but often overlooked, component of water quality and

the responsibilities of water usage in the home as well as in agricultural production. Women inthat many is its areas relationship of the developing to gender worldand specifically are the primary women users who of are water most but often due charged to economic with and environmental circumstances are often forced to use water that is below the acceptable quality for human consumption and usage.

thirds of them women. Diversion of water for industry, agriculture, and power generation Most of the world’s 1.2 billion poor people lack access to safe and reliable water, two

reduces availability of water for domestic use, making it even more difficult for the poor and especially women to access water. Worldwide, over 2.6 billion people still lack access orto flushunsafe toilets water or generates other forms a very of largeimproved range sanitation of water-borne, and difficulties water-based, with water-related,access to and water-washedusage of water and often water-dispersed leads to health diseases. problems In primarily most cultures, affecting women women. and Lackmen haveof water different roles and responsibilities in the use and management of water. Women use water for production, consumption and domestic purposes, including cooking, cleaning, health and hygiene, and, if they have access to land, also for growing food. In rural areas, women and

accessgirls walk to education, long distances income to fetchgeneration, water, culturaloften spending and political 4 to 5 involvement, hours per day and carrying rest and heavy rec- containers and waiting in lines. The burden of fetching water (and firewood) inhibits their The work of eight scientists who have knowledge and expertise in how water quality af- reation. (UNCTAD, 2011; BOTH ENDS, 2006).

fects humans but especially women is presented. It is divided into five sections: 1) the role of water in creating illness and disease with a special focus on the Dominican Republic; 2) a case study overview of the Caribbean region; 3) a case study of an underdeveloped area of Bolivia; 4) a case study overview of Ecuador; 5) waste water management and the quality

This chapter was cooperatively written by member of the Women for Science Committee of IANAS organized and edited by Frances Henry [email protected] (Canada). Other authors include: Milena Cabrera Maldonado [email protected] (Dominican Republic), Neela Badrie [email protected] (Caribbean), Mónica Moraes R. [email protected] (Bolivia), María Eugenia García mauge-garcia@gmail (Bolivia), Christina Villamar [email protected] (Ecuador), Banu Örmeci [email protected] (Canada) and Dayra Álvarez [email protected] (Panama). LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA 432

- concluding section will present recommendations ter a strong exercise, leads to a decrease in concen- forof water; improving 6) an the appendix water quality citing waterand therefore parasites. the A tration,2.8% of physicalbody weight performance, due to exposure short-term to heat memory, or af experiences and lives of women. increased tiredness, headaches, and a reduction in response time. Infectious waterborne diseases are the cause 1. Water and Women’s Health percent of the total deaths in the world. The burden Milena Cabrera M. of diseaseup to 3,2 attributed million lives to the each lack year, of water, equivalent sanitation to 6

Water and the health of the human being cannot be separated. The availability of quality water is essen- andA hygiene major problemis equivalent that affectsto 1.8 million water deathssupply and tial for life, and more than anything else, the quali- qualitythe loss ofis morewastage. than The 75 million National years Institute of healthy of life.Hy- ty of water conditions the quality of life. Water is a - - public warns that to continue wasting water in the take right and therefore the basis for other human currentdraulic Resourcesproportions, (Indri) would in lead the to Dominican serious prob Re- rights;fundamental b) As ahuman resource, life itright: is the a) economic it is a human good in of the public domain and the axis of the nation's economic development, closely linked to food produc- literslems ofof supplydrinking in water its main per urban day. A centers rationalization by 2025. tion, energy production, industrial and mining, planThe cityfor theof Santo use of Domingo drinking produceswater has 420 already million been of announced because there are many broken pipes and fellowship between people. throughout the streets and puddles of thrown wa- transport, tourism support, c) Good social cohesion ter. As well, as many laundries do not exercise water access to direct drinking water in homes. However, it mustMost be cities stressed in Latin that the American sanitation countries of water have in some cases is very poor. The importance of the pol- control.There 58% are of risks the waterassociated supply with in the Dominicanuse of wa- lution of water and the great impact it has on health ter.Republic During is thewasted. entire cycle that water undergoes to and family dynamics cannot be over emphasized. reach human consumption, isolated or generalized The problems related to sanitation, water sup- pollution, whether industrial, agricultural or urban, ply and storage are very closely linked. Sanitation can reduce water quality and make it unsuitable for should not merely be understood as a means for its use. Water supply systems, recreational places the disposal of waste to prevent a polluted environ- and water settlements also represent a risk to hu- ment. It should be considered part of the general man health. The result of water contamination by policies for the protection of the environment, to chemical or microbiological elements can lead to avoid diseases and protect the quality of life. Sup- diseases that can occur in hours or even sometimes ply plays an important role because today there years. Water that is contaminated by industries are communities where drinking water is not avail- whose chemical waste can be predisposing factors able for daily consumption. Home storage of water therefore, where women play an important role, contaminated water or ingesting contaminated wa- should be based on health policies to prevent vec- terfor cancer.can generate Eating symptomsfoods that havein the been consumer washed rang with- tor and other vermin diseases. ing from mild to very serious depending on the sus- Water is vital for the functions of the organism, ceptibility of the user. Infants, due to their nutrition so having access to it is essential. Since centuries ago based mainly on foods supplemented with water, the role of women in water collection has been inare particularly at risk of this type of contamination, dispensable to perform the functions of the home, except when they are breast-fed, which is strongly but sometimes these waters are not of good quality, promoted by the World Health Organization. therefore affecting the family the health of the family. Waterborne diseases are caused by the con- Daily hydration is essential for proper function- sumption of water contaminated with fecal re- ing of the body. For a healthy adult, dehydration of mains of humans or animals and containing patho- 433 LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA

genic microorganisms. Information is available for to college, work or rest. Another serious problem certain water related diseases including salmonel- is that women and girls who do not have access to losis, cholera, shigellosis, but others such as malar- bathing facilities often walk long distances, alone at ia, schistosomiasis or other more recent infections night to avoid being seen and/or harassed. Forced to defecate in open spaces attacks their dignity and analysis and investigation. personal safety. suchIt asis legionellosisestimated that or diarrheal SARS Coronavirus diseases cause need - tage is the impact on women's health of water work. life adjusted for disability due to diseases and cause As girlsAnother and women example carry of gender-specific water on their heads, disadvan this around 3.6% of all pathologies in the first years of can have effects that are harmful to health, as it can Among the diseases that are attributed to water lead to problems in the cervical spine. It is com- contaminated1.5 million deaths either each by year microorganism, (WHO, 2012). transmit- mon to hear people in rural areas say that men do ted by vectors or fecal-oral, the most frequent in the a stronger job than women, claiming that women do relatively light work. However, a bucket of wa- - Dominican Republic is dengue fever. From January 1 has been shown that the transport of water has det- to December 23 of 2017 1,344 were reported, includ rimentalter worn effectson the onhead the can development weigh up to and 40 healthkg and ofit ing 24 deaths with suspicion of this disease. In the- the spine, resulting in deformities, arthritic diseas- same year, Leptospira caused 777 suspected cases- es and injuries. and 76 deaths, one hundred and eighteen (118) cas The consumption of energy involved in the col- reductiones of cholera in morbiditywere suspected and mortality and confirmed from the result dis- - ing in four deaths. This figure presents a significant al intake. Water and sanitation lead women to be verylection concerned of water about can leadthe health to a deficient problems nutrition that this ease compared to the period of 2016, when there can cause in family members. In countries such as were 1,154 cases and 27 deaths. For the last weeks of 2017, 9,058 episodes of acute diarrheal disease and- widely available for the poor, open defecation on ularly389 cases critical of foodborne in pregnancy diseases where were it playsreported. a major the banks Dominican of rivers, Republic, streams where and roads sanitation or on vacant is not roleWaters in favoring influence proper on development women’s health of mother is partic and land seems to provide fewer problems for men than foetus. As well, it is important in preserving the for women. Women tend to have a greater appreci- quantity and quality of breast milk. ation for domestic toilets than men and specifying Access to water and sanitation is one of the main requirements for the enjoyment of good health and comfort and privacy to a clean home environment. affects men and women very differently. The lack moreWater benefits collection of improved has a great sanitation impact ranging on the frompro- of safe water and basic sanitation services is a seri- tection and safety of families, particularly on women ous problem for women and girls living in poor and and girls. Women are subject to long walks, and al- overcrowded neighborhoods in cities and rural ar- though they consider water to be vital for all house- eas in some countries. hold activities, the implications of not having close The traditional role of women in the home ex- access to their home causes stress and frustration. plains why men devote more time to paid activities Water is vital for the functions of the organism, and women take care of household chores, an es- as well as necessary to perform the daily functions sential work for the functioning of our society but of the home. Access to drinking water, of good qual- with very little recognition and no monetary remu- ity is a right of every human being. Women, who neration. Therefore, when there is no water service support the home in the collection and use of wa- (or this is limited) women in the world, the main ter and its maintenance are the most affected by users, providers and administrators of the services, spend more than six hours a day searching for water, cultural and political problems for which solutions boiling it to drink, cooking, bathing children, clean- areillnesses. needed Gender for the inequity good of women'stherefore health. creates Women social, ing the house and washing clothes instead of going are the nucleus of the family. LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA 434

2. Gender Perspectives- Water Many rural areas throughout the Caribbean are Quality in Latin American and forced to live without a pipe borne supply of water. Some individuals must walk miles to get a po- Caribbean Homes table supply of water. Their only source of water is Neela Badrie from rivers, standpipes or paying for the delivery

Access to Good Quality Water be a means of self-reliance for these communities, Imagine going through a day without access to especiallyof water by in water the southern trucks. Rainwater islands in harvestingthe Caribbean can clean, safe water in your Caribbean home for drinking, cooking, washing, or bathing whenever you need it, and consider the needs and priorities of whereIn thereTrinidad are andhigh Tobago,rainfall levelsrain water(Global storage Water women and young girls. According to the WHO/ tanksPartnership, can be Caribbean, seen in both 2017). urban and rural areas since rain water collection is traditional and the taste is highly preferred by many. However, individ- people)UNICEF lacked Joint Monitoring safely managed Programme drinking 2017 water report, ser- uals in rural areas are more dependent on this wa- in 2015, 29% of the global population (2.1 billion ter as it is at times their only water supply (Meera Table 1 shows the - drinkingvices – meaning water supplies water at providedhome (WHO/UNICEF to the population Joint ed water from roof - top catchments often does Monitoring Programme, 2017). - notand meetAhammed the drinking-water 2006). Also, the guideline quality values.of harvest The - heavy rainfall during the rainy season provides an ofvice Caribbean of drinking countries water except in 2015, for in Haiti. which For most Haiti, coun the ideal vehicle for the spread of pathogenic water tries provided between 93-98% national basic ser related diseases. These pathogens may be washed into rivers, lakes, streams and even crop irrigation national basic supply of drinking water was 64% canals from the land surface along with water from millionwith differences out of the between nine million rural inhabitantsbasic service of (40%) Port- au-Prince,and urban Haiti basic have service no access (81%). to An safe estimated water (Khas four- failingA survey septic oftanks, residents seeping living or inflooded six communities latrines or from recreational activities (Roslev and Bukh, 2011). durian 2013), with a very high index waterborne disease vulnerability (Pacific Disaster Center, 2016). in Grenada revealed residents experienced several

Table 1 Drinking water services (%) provided to population for Caribbean countries in 2015 National National National National Rural Urban Basic Caribbean countries Unimproved Basic service Limited service No service Basic Service service service - 3 0 (-) (-) 0 2 0 (-) (-) Antigua & Barbuda 97 Dominica - 4 0 (-) (-) Barbados 98 1 0 3 (-) (-) 97 1 1 2 (100) Grenada 96 Haiti 7 0 (40) Guyana 95 (93) Jamaica 3 2 2 64 29 (81) 2 0 0 93 (88) (97) - 4 1 (-) (-) St. Lucia 98 (98) (98) Suriname 1 1 1 St. Vincent & the Grenadines 95 Trinidad and Tobago 1 2 0 (-) (-) 95 (88) (98) 97 Source: Extracted from WHO/UNICEF JMP 2017. (-) no available data 435 LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA

water related problems such as water service interruptions, episodes of ‘dirty water,’ and other resi- most water for the household, unsafe water affects (UN Water and Gender, 2018) and since they supply severity of ‘dirty water’ ranged from slight disco- lourationdent-perceived to being service described problems. by residents (Neff 2013). as being The themHealth the and most. Water-borne (Cap-Net/GWA Diseases2006). ‘like mud’. Crude storage systems capture, and store - rainwater using buckets and rain barrels and are not plumbed into the home. agendaAt the 2018 for Worldsustainable Water developmentForum held in established the Carib goalsbean, forthe theInter-American safe guarding Development of water supply Bank and (IDB), the Gender Perspectives prevention of waterborne diseases in the Caribbe- In Trinidad and Tobago society, men are expected to be providers, protectors of women, children as dignity and sense of personal worth can be af- and the community and view themselves as strong fectedan by 2030 by their(Fletcher, experiences 2018). Women’s while collecting health as wellwa- - ter and, particularly sanitation-related diseases er hand, are socialised and are expected to be car- and illnesses, by the within-household allocation ersauthority and nurturers figures (Ryan, both in 2013). the homeWomen, and on outside the oth of - the home. Hence, the provision of physically acces- compromised people living with HIV/AIDS, their sible clean water is essential for enabling women statusof water makes itself it (Sorenson imperative et to al. have 2011). a safeFor immunoand ade- and girls to devote more time to the pursuit of ed- quate supply of water for drinking and for personal ucation, income generation and even the construction and economic activities that will improve their infants, extra precautions are recommended to re- families’ quality of life and their own health and ducecare (UNICEFthe risk of 2005). infection Also, from for pregnant contaminated women water. and - care approach implies that there should be water of - enoughwellbeing. quality (UNDP and water,quantity 2006). to avoid The secondary home-based in- fectsThe on Protocolhuman health, on Water such and as death,Health disability, defines wa ill- fections as well as to reduce the burdens of care-giv- nesster-related or disorders, disease causedas, “any directly significant or indirectly adverse efby the condition, or changes in the quantity or quality, of any waters”. The hazards or agents that are the di- duringers, who, menstruation, in most cases, pregnancy are women and and child girls rearing(UNDP rect cause of damage include bacteria, viruses, pro- 2006). Also, women have specific hygiene needs tozoa, helminthes, chemicals and personal physical - - factors (Bartram et al. 2015). Water-borne diseas Table 2. Some reported water-related diseases year,es are with linked the tomajority significant occurring disease in childrenburden world under in the Caribbean wide. They are responsible for 2 million deaths each Disease Agent sanitation practices can increase resilience to wa- 5 years (WHO, 2018). Proper household water and Virus terborne disease risks. Hepatitis A Virus - Gastroenteritis bean Water and Waste Water Association Sustain- Virus One of the 2030 goals, established by the Carib- Dengue Virus Hepatitis E atitis and other water-borne diseases within the Protozoan islandsable Development sighting the Goalsimportance (SDG) of is a to clean, combat safe hep and Giardiasis Cholera World Health Organisation has enlisted several wa- Bacillary dysentery/Shigellosis Bacterium reliable water supply system (Fletcher, 2018). The Diarrhoea Ta- Bacterium ble 2 informs about some reported water-related Bacterium ter-bornedisease in diseasesthe Caribbean. (Bartram and Hunter 2015). Helicobacter pylori / Legionnaires’ disease Bacterium - Typhoid fever Gastric mucosa Bacterium - An UNDP study of youth in Trinidad and Toba Bacterium go identified poor environmental conditions, espe LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA 436

Table 3. UNICEF Estimates of child cause of death, Diarrhoea 2016 Country Under 5 deaths due to diarrhoea % under five deaths due to diarrhoea

- 0 Global 477,293 8 - 0 Antigua and Barbuda Dominica - 1 Barbados - 0 22 4 Grenada Haiti 1,720 10 Guyana Jamaica 3 0 St. Kitts and Nevis 0 0 - 0 Suriname 3 2 St. Lucia Trinidad and Tobago 2 0 1 4

St. Vincent and the Grenadines Source: WHO and Maternal and Child Epidemiology Estimation Group (MCEE) estimates 2018. http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.ChildMort?lang=en

Escherichia coli, Cam- of gastrointestinal diseases resulting in morbidity pylobacter jejuni - cially water supply problems, as a significant cause includerus is a Rotavirus,common cause pathogenic of gastroenteritis and is the study conducted of rural and urban perception of leading cause of ,severe and protozoan childhood parasites. diarrhoea Rotavi and is potableas well aswater skin qualityinfections in rural(UNDP, and 2001). urban In aareas recent in - Trinidad, a survey showed that less than half of pital admissions due to diarrhoea among children responsible for an estimated 40 per cent of all hos with pathogenic protozoa, such as Entamoeba his- the participants (47.8%) were not knowledgeable tolytica,under age Giardia 5 worldwide lamblia and (UNICEF Cryptosporidium 2012). Infection spp., about water-related diseases (Mc Clean 2018). is common, though bacterial pathogens account for womenIn a studywere conductedmore knowledgeable in the island about of St. Lucia,water - qualityMoutoute because and Cashmanof their roles (2015) and pointed responsibilities out that idemic diarrhoeal diseases are caused by Shigella of being home makers. However, a study which as- andmost Vibrio cases choleraof diarrhoeal. Overall, disease improvements (UNICEF, 2012). in drink Ep- sessed the knowledge of mothers on water-borne ing water and sanitation have been associated with diseases and prevention reported that although decreased risks of diarrhoea in low- and middle-inmost mothers were knowledgeable about cholera, only those who had basic secondary school educa- In a study of the burden and impact of acute tion knew about other water-borne diseases such come settings (Wolfe et al. 2014). Trinidad and Tobago, the monthly prevalence of Diarrhoea is a leading killer of children, ac- gastroenteritis (AGE) and foodborne pathogens in as typhoid and gastroenteritis (Sharmila et al. 2017). - AGE was the highest among children aged <5 years counting for approximately 8 per cent of all deaths (1.3 episodes/year) and the mean duration of diar- among children under age 5 worldwide in 2016 tiverhoea for was foodborne 2.3 days pathogens. (range 2-10 It days) was estimated (Lakhan et that al. a(UNICEF, year. Table 2018). 3 Thisshows translates that most to overCaribbean 1,300 youngcoun- 2013). Overall, 56 (10%) AGE specimens tested posi- children dying each day, or about 480,000 children all, improvements in drinking water and sanitation have135,820 been AGE associated cases occurred with decreased in 2009 (84%).risks of Overdiar- mosttries havecommon reported causes between of severe 0-4% diarrhoeal under 5disease years old death due to diarrhoea except Haiti (10%). The rhoea (Wolf et al.2014). 437 LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA

- accompanied by fever, headaches and other symp- ported in relation to the presence of Legionella - pneumophilaCases of Legionnaires’in drinking water disease supplies have in been the Ca re- episodestoms. (Morgan are caused 2017). by The biologically World Health contaminated Organiza School-age children are especially prone to food.tion (WHO) Foodborne has illnessesestimated associated that 70% with of diarrhoeal microbial wormribbean infections (Valster etbecause al. 2011). their high level of activity pathogens or other food contaminants are a serious brings them into regular contact with contaminat- health threat in developing and developed coun- ed water and soil. One study on Jamaican children tries. Outbreaks of such illnesses can spread rapidly and transnationally, and disproportionately affect - mentaged 9–12of infected years, highlighted children was the followed debilitating by natureimme- diateof trichuriasis improvements (whipworm) in short-term UNICEF, and 2005). long-term Treat investigatedchildren and thevendor elderly hygienic (Satcher, practices 2000). and con- - sumer In aperception study by Franklyn of food safetyand Badrie during (2015) the Carniwhich- er for uninfected children; in some cases, infected val festival on the island of Tobago, West Indies re- childrenmemory. attendedSchool attendance for only half was the significantly time of their high uninfected friends. vealed that most vendors were females (70.0%) and- Food Safety Practices the majority (68%) had failed to clean utensils. Of Foodborne illnesses are one of the most common those (32.0%) who exercised the cleaning of uten public health issues in the Caribbean region and sils, 24.0% used clean water (unused water without waterdetergent), and none12.0% used dirtywarm water soapy (previously water. Almost used water stored in containers), 6.0% used cold soapy orhave drinks. increased Persons by 26%affected since usually 2010 (St. experience Lucia News se- Online,vere diarrhoea, 2015), after vomiting, exposure stomach to contaminated pain, sometimes food facilities.half of the vendors (48.0%) were unable to access any water and 82.0% had access to nearby toilet

Figure 1. Fisherman of the Uru people who faced the Poopó lake drought in 2015 LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA 438

the poorest countries in the region; although ex- vendingUsing sites an observational in Trinidad, West approach Indies of revealed the hygienic con- a population of 10.89 million (INE 2016). It is one of practices by vendors of the street food “doubles” at- treme poverty declined from 37.7% in 2007 to 17.3% tainers with faucets supplied water (85.7%) and toi pre-Columbianin 2014, it remained cultures at 36.1% which in has rural operated areas (WHO with- lets were not close (97.5%) (Benny-Ollivierra and out2017) environmental It also has a long control mining since tradition the colonialdating from pe- reportedBadrie, 2007). the condition Some (30.6%) to a medicalrespondents doctor/health indicated riod. At present, the production of acid drainages authority.that they felt ill from eating doubles, but only 2.7% and the accumulation and transport of toxic metals and mineral remains is taking place, causing health Conclusion

- risks to human communities, flora and fauna and Gender equality has long been recognised both as water resources degradation. In 2015, 90% of the prioritiesa core development of both women goal and and a men human are rightto be (UNEtaken Bolivian population had access to improved water- intoSCO consideration,2014). It implies recognising that the interests, the diversity needs of anddif- sources and 84% of dwellings had running water:- ferent groups of women and men. There has been 97% in urban areas and 76% in rural ones; approx considerable progress in Caribbean efforts to pro- imately 50% of the population had access to im mote women as empowered actors in development proved sanitation: close to 63% in urban areas and while at the same time encouraging men and boys 43% in rural ones (WHO 2017). to be active partners in the process of social trans- in theThe west Bolivian of the Altiplano country oris Andeanlocated betweenhigh plateau, two formation and in efforts to reduce gender gaps in an extensive and desert plain with 3,750 m elevation opportunities and rights. - mountain ranges with summits that exceed 6,200- els will be crucial to achieving water and sanitation term (Argollo scarcity etand al. it2001). has thereforeThe region consequences is characterized for Embedding gender equity into policy at all lev healthby gradually and other reducing socioeconomic glaciers (Sorucoconsequences 2008), such wa (WASH) takes a huge toll on health and well-being - for all. Lack of water supply, sanitation and hygiene- able loss of economic activity. In order to achieve ofas onwater agriculture. and pollution Because of surfaceof the intense water, miningresources ac universaland comes access, at a large there financial is a need cost, forincluding accelerated a siz aretivities increasingly and the natural endangered pollution, creating conflicts an important in the use progress in disadvantaged groups and to ensure problem. non-discrimination in WASH service provision. TDPS system and quality of water - The endorheic basin of the Altiplano, also known trate(WHO efforts and UNICEFto achieve Joint universal Monitoring good water Programme, quality as the TDPS system (Titicaca, Desaguadero, Poopó service2013). Caribbean coverage, Governments with emphasis will on havehousehold to concen con- and Salares) (Figure 1 nections, improvement in service quality and sustainability in water management. ), is located between 14°38 ' to 22°58'LS and 66°14' to 69°40'LW, covers 145,176- km2 (Argollo et al. 2001). The Poopó province in 3. Bolivia: Water Quality the Oruro department of W Bolivia has 16,806 in anhabitants extreme with and 8,539 marginal (men) poverty and 8,267 of the (women). population The in the Andean High Plateau area of influence of Poopó lake is characterized by Maria Eugenia Garcia, Monica Moraes and national average), the lack of permanent employment(76%, an indexopportunities, that surpasses the low the access departmental to basic services and the low institutional capacity of inter- - vention in the productive and environmental lines Bolivia,waters of a countrythree hydrographic located in thebasins centre (Amazonas, of South (Figure 1). The living conditions of the population America, has a surface of 1,098,581 km2 with head -

Paraná-Paraguay and Andean endorheic basin) and settled in the basin show worrying levels: life ex 439 LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA

- consumption. This evaluation allows us to know the critical situation of the water resources used for pectancy is 58 years, lower than the national aver consumption, irrigation, consumption of animals age (63.3) and the average infant mortality is 89%, and to conserve the few water bodies and especial- higherThe than Poopó the lake average receives of theheavy department metals and (82%) acid ly the groundwater that these communities have. waterand the from country natural (66%). deposits and mines along rivers north and northeast, affecting major quality condi- Key roles of women tions. Different chemical parameters have been an- Access to water is supplied from rivers or wells,

that lacks water treatment or sanitation services. suspendedalyzed and monitoredsolids, temperature, along several redox years potential, (García al etwhich make up the 50% of the Bolivian rural area kalinity,al. 2005, Ormacheasodium, potassium, 2015), such calcium, as pH, conductivity,magnesium, resource in the Poopó province are women with chlorides and sulphates; in addition to heavy met- About 50% of the population that uses the water als, nitrates, phosphates, carbonates and bicarbon- who participate in productive and household tasks. They2,226 take(27% care of women) of both agriculturalbetween 20-39 & animal years breedof age,- rainy and dry seasonal periods ing and domestic tasks, such as food preparation, ates;The and north finally, and also northeast making comparisons of the Poopó between basin, bread making, raising, cleaning and health of chil- where the rivers discharge their waters into the dren, laundry, subsistence agriculture, livestock activities (as collaborative to men), among others. from the mining activities of the region and receive Poopó and Uru lakes also have a strong influence- the community and in the family, where dedicated ate waters. These rivers have concentrations of womenAlthough make thereoften areless so visible many but tasks persistent to fulfill ef in- heavyaround metals 28% of that thermal, exceed carbonated hundreds and and even bicarbon thousands of times the maximum limit according the • Women carry water at great distances from - forts,the such house as the or following: community several times a day - beginning very early each morning, or every ceedBolivian the maximumand the international recommended regulations. by WHO. 90 per other morning Drinking water must be boiled centIt of also wells has studies only aon small water outlet consumption with an average(45) ex and cooled before it can be consumed with the needed quality. In the short periods of rain, wa- rainy season, and during the dry season, the water is accumulated in ceramic bowls search- terflow of of this 2.5 lake m³/s, does a valuenot have that any corresponds discharge toand the it ing and gathering of water supplies for their becomes a sink for dissolved solids and sediments. homes, women also risk their health by making The concentration ranges of the different elements direct contact with contaminated sources or compared with national and international regula- toxic waters. These strenuous efforts are then tions indicates that the quality of its waters is total- translated into health consequences such as ly deteriorated, useless and inadequate for human weight and back problems.

Table 4. Chemical parameters of Poopó lake (Bolivia) that affect quality of water comparing between low quality and better conditions of water Low quality of water Better conditions of water quality pH - 0 2.2 ≤ pH ≤ 4.0 7.0 ≤ pH ≤ 8.9 Heavy8.3 ≤ pH metals ≤ 9.6 Cd: 3.0 mg/l, Pb: 0.53 mg/l, Como: Cd: 0.6 mg/l, Pb: 0.24-0.27 mg/l, Como: 0.02- SO Sulphates, chlorides 2.07 mg/l, Fe: 4.8 mg/l, Zn: 7.5 mg/l 0.22 mg/l, Fe: 0.1-0.2 mg/l, Zn: 0.1 mg/l 42-: 2900-6000 mg/l, Cl-: 11800- et al 12900 mg/l Source: García ., 2005. LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA 440

4. Women and Water: Case Study Ecuador • As in several societies, women are responsible Christina Villamar Ayala for food security of the family. They also participate in the construction of ditches and mud Introduction dams for irrigation of crops. They are also involved in the sowing and harvesting of agri- - cultural products, together with their partners About 70% of actual population worldwide (approx. and children. water7,000 millionis available inhabitants) and it is not live where in developing the population coun • When drought conditions prevail, women help tries (Lutz et al., 2001). However, only 5 million km3 in alleviating economic scarcity by making handicrafts such as hats, handles and clothing is concentrated. Thus, about 40% of the worldwide which is then sold at local fairs. This knowledge population suffers from water shortage (AQUAstat, comes from their ancestral and cultural histo- determined2015). Water notshortage only by is itsalso distribution increased byand at availleast- ry as people who have subsisted in adverse and ability,20% due but to also climate by its change. access, (Arnell, and quality. 1999). Water is markedly seasonal ecological conditions. Pre- serving this knowledge becomes a necessity. • The water resource issue has become a political Ecuador has water (27,000 m3/inhabit-year),- reality especially since the alert during the dry which favors water access (AQUAstat, 2015). Thus,- - tively.Ecuador However, reports the a national, installed rural,capacity and of urban basic covwa- cal movements arose during the dry season and tererage infrastructure of drinking waterand quality of 82, 94, are and also 57%, important respec season of 2015 in the Poopo lake region. Politi factors for a country´s health. At the level of basic of local water associations or committees and sanitation (sanitary installations + sewerage) the collaboratedespecially the in alert the conveningof 2015. Women of meetings were partand actions. However, the governmental schemes are mostly run by men who often silence wom- sanitationnational coverage and hygiene reaches indicators 75%. Reported measure treatment the po- en’s voices. Women leaders are mostly in larger coverage at municipal level is close to 62%. Water,- towns in rural areas or in urban centers. cators were pre-evaluated on a population sample • The quality and strength of greatest value and tential risk of water quality (INEC, 2015). These indi contribution for their families and the commu- the national population has water free from Esch- nity itself is that women are the ones that take erichia(4,000 households),coli that found only 79 percent of- care jealously of their wells and drinking water, ed some level of contamination in drinking water and the small bodies of water supplying their and 31% of rural population report community. Their knowledge allows the clas- drinking water and sanitation increases, the water access(Pozo etwith al., drinking 2016). Therefore,quality should as the be possible, coverage en of- suring public health and increased life quality. consumptionsification of types to that of waterintended and for water agricultural sources workintended and for food different preparation. applications: from direct Water quality: guidelines and risks in Ecuador Therefore, it is necessary to recognize the im- The drinking water needs to be of good quality and portant role of women in water quality manage- quantity to be a vital resource for life. The Health ment, not only historically as recognized by the spaces dedicated to domestic activities, but to the - entire range of family life strategies. It is also criti- edWorldwide with the Organizationapplication and (HWO monitoring 2011) Organization of physical, cal to involve these communities in training of gen- chemicalhas defined and the microbiological drinking water parameters. standard associatMicrobi- der roles and responsibilities and to provide guid- ological quality is the key parameter because it af- ance on governance systems that make decisions fects the population's health instantly. Meanwhile, about the conservation and preservation of water.

physicochemical quality will gradually influence 441 LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA

human health conditions, mainly through micro- preliminary studies have detected the transference contaminants (emerging contaminants,), which are of parasites from water to human, and the population of all regions (Coast, Andean, and Amazon) has - not regulated. (Ebele et al., 2017) - fore, the exposure level at microbiological contami- The water quality in Ecuador is based on use reported parasites in feces (Peplow, 1982). There- foodcriteria, cooking, being personaldefined as hygiene, water withand washingquality for kitch hu- ulation is higher. man consumption or domestic activities, such as: nation from drinking water within Ecuadorian pop - en utensils (TULMAS, 2005). To protect quality in (ultravioletWater purification radiation, oxidant treatment agents, requires and electro several- Ecuadorstandard thereregulates are the two maximum standards permissible annexed 1-TUL lim- chemical)phases. Some methods natural have (solar been radiation) used within and disinfecartificial- MAS (2005) and NTE INEN 1108 (2014). The first- traction source. Meanwhile, the other standard de- disinfection with chlorine products under some pu- its to define the water quality from the water ex ritytion level(Gibbons (NaClO, and and Laha, Ca 1999).(ClO) However,) is the most chemical used which will be used for drinking. In practice, only fecalfines qualitycoliforms criteria (microbiological of water extracted parameter) or treated, are has demonstrated be the most 2cost-effective tech- monitored because of the high cost of monitoring.) niquein Ecuador to remove (Cirelli E. and coli Mortier, 2005). This method- - The main microbiological contaminant in drink- (> 99.9%), but it is not ef ing(Kayser water et al.,resources 2015). are municipal and livestock ficient in the removal of other parasites. (Betan wastewaters, which have higher microbiological tocourt improve and Rose, the removal2004; WHO, of parasites, 2006). Therefore, but still verynew expensive.technologies Thus, (e.g. the microfiltration) quality of drinking have water appeared also - depends on the accessibility of adequate treatment. sonalloads (10³-10⁸and hourly) CFU/100 microbiological mL) (Villamar contamination et al., 2018). withIn Ecuador, Escherichia some colicoast rivers report temporal (sea Water: quality and women

(10² - 10⁴ CFU/100 mL) (Levy some privatization of water is permitted under et al., 2009). Condition that could get worse thanks Although water is publicly controlled in Ecuador notto the only hydrodynamic on the resources conditions available of their but also rivers on (Raohow et al., 2015). Safe drinking water in Ecuador depends handledcurrent legislation.and who has (Boelens the right et al.,to use2015). it. ThisThe rightdual sanitation. model could influence the way in which water is its qualityThe most is monitored commonly and used how microbiological it could influence indicator for drinking water quality is the pathogen to access resources in Ecuador is described by the bacteria Escherichia coli. However, the biological andEcuadorian inalienable. Constitution Water constitutes of 2008, which a strategic highlights na- variety potentially present in water encompasses tionalthat "The patrimony human for right public to water use, inalienable, is fundamental im- several levels (viruses, bacteria, protozoa and nem- prescriptibly, un-attachable and essential for life

described by WHO guidelines, which mention more atodes (Cabral, 2017). This variety microbiological is- "(Article 12-AC, 2008). In addition, it mentions the practice,"equality theseof rights rights and are opportunities still not effective of women despite and microorganismsthan 20 pathogen aremicroorganisms responsible potentiallyfor gastrointes pres- womenmen in access being tothe property" main pillars (Article of the 324-AC, family 2008). and re In- ent in drinking water (WHO, 2016). Several of these- One of the main reasons for not exercising certain intinal drinking diseases water (Rosado-García come into wateret al., through2017). Howev inha- rightssponsible is related for local to the food education security gap (Radcliffe, between 2014). men er, other microorganisms (e.g. influenza) detected treatment removes some pathogens microorgan- ismslation. ( E.(WHO, coli), but2016). several The conventional other parasites purification (viruses, and women, because illiteracy levels in Ecuador- are around 9.5 and 13.5%, respectively (INEC, 2015). This factor also influences the economic indepen protozoa and nematodes) persist after purification dence of women, where 94% of the economically treatment (Betancourt and Rose, 2017). In Ecuador active Ecuadorian female population are employed, LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA 442

also affect reproductive health and family planning. - gapbut onlyis even 33% wider have because adequate Indigenous employment. women In ruralearn ported a relationship between the parasites pres- areas and in all Ecuadorian Indigenous groups, the enceStudies (A. onlumbricoides Indigenous) and women their in higher Bolivia reproduc have re- educationabout 17% with less respect than men to men, (Radcliffe, but also 2014; the INEC,avail- the immune system would also explain the low rate 2015).ability The of time wage that differences women must not only combine denote work gaps and in tive rate (9 children per woman). The lowering of family administration. All these factors not only re- - enof abortionscould generate on this sensitivity Indigenous or resistance group (Blackwell in the fe- for women to take important roles in the manage- et al., 2015). Parasitic infections in pregnant wom- mentflect gender and administration differences, butof water also theresources. impossibility nant women’s mortality and diseases in children The ancestral role that Indigenous women have oftus, Indigenous influence birthor poor rate womenand infant (Afro mortality. descendants Preg had in the access to water resources is based on ag- - engaged in this activity, which is compatible with or mixed race) are concentrated in Ecuadorian ru riculture, since more than 75% of rural women are- Moreover,ral areas. Indeed, studies 70% indicate of maternal that one deaths of thehas mainbeen culture practiced by women is based on subsis- reported in Ecuadorian rural zones (INEC, 2015). tencedomestic crops, tasks rotating, (INEC, with 2015). agro-diversity, In general, the medici agri- (pregnant and non-pregnant) is diarrheal diseas- nal plants and combined with animal care, which causes of death in Indigenous Ecuadorian women- - uadorian female population also reports parasites es due to parasites (Hughes, 2004). The entire Ec andfavors drinking critical water thinking are and very activist important women features (Rad - cliffe, 2014). Therefore, water quality for agriculture nerable.(2.5%) as Infections one of the are causes one ofof maternalthe main death, causes and of - the youngest group of 15-year olds are the most vul- that worry Ecuadorian rural women. This fact has wherebeen reflected women inhave the beenanti-Water the main Law protagonists.protests car death causes in newborns in Ecuadorian rural ar- Theyried outhave by also Ecuadorian been active Indigenous in environmental communities, pro- eas (Finerman, 1987; INEC, 2015). On the other hand, tests due to water contamination by industrial ac- higher birth rate (4 – 6 children per woman) and in tivities of national interest (e.g. mining) (Kayser et arefant concentrated mortality (Indigenous: could be related 60%, Afro to the descendants: vulnerabil- 40%) in Ecuadorian rural areas where these groups not have easy access to water use rights since rights The relationship that women have with water haveal., 2015). always Despite been this,granted in the at rurala non-individual world women fami do- andity of its this quality population is direct, group due (INEC,to its fundamental 2015). role in food security and the health of her and her fami- understand especially when one considers that the ly nucleus. As the education gaps between men and relationshiply level (Radcliffe, of women 2014). with These food facts and are reproductive difficult to women are reduced, there is the possibility of insecurity at the family level is essential. corporating more women into water management Thus, water quality is an issue that has a special decisions. This condition undoubtedly opens the interest in women’s thinking, especially the micro- possibility of incorporating the water management biological contamination of water. Indeed, water´s ideas that these women have based on family health microbiological quality directly affects the health harmonized with respect to the environment. of the woman and her family nucleus. Some studies report the incidence of parasites (Ascaris lum- bricoides) in women is higher than men, often as resulted of lower incomes by women and therefore 5. Gender and waste management

- Banu Örmeci less access to good drinking water (González et al., to2001). basic There services is a direct(drinking relationship water and between sanitation) pover in Clean water and a clean environment are essen- ty (women 2% more poverty than men) and access tial for protecting public health. Past efforts in both

Ecuador (SEMPLADES, 2014). This condition could 443 LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA

developed and developing countries have largely id waste industry were reported to receive lower focused on providing clean drinking water while salaries and have higher work-related injuries and proper treatment and management of waste have turnover rates compared to their male counter- been given much less importance, and in some countries have been completely ignored due to lack A bottom-up approach is vital in developing wasteparts (Noel, collection 2010). and management policies which properly, water supplies are directly contaminat- of finances. If waste is not collected and managed providing clean drinking water to communities. In examiningprotects the the rights waste of management low-income issues women involving (Bisht, developinged negating countries the efforts and and water finances scarce spent regions, towards in- women2005). A andgendered developing perspective tools to is tackle also necessary these issues for adequate sewage and solid waste management af- - fect women and young girls because of many cultural and social factors and adversely impact their other(Dias andcreative Fernandez, approaches 2013). forEconomic waste collection and entrepre and health, education, safety, security, empowerment, managementneurial programs can helpthat toemploy improve microfinancing the employment and and overall well-being. conditions and opportunities for women in devel- Men and women both participate in solid waste - management, but there are deep segregations in lished sectors. In less developed sectors, however, terms of the quality of jobs and large inequalities in womenoping countries are more (Madsen, subject to 2006) harassment, with more violence, estab terms of pay. In developing countries, women and and health and safety hazards, and basic protection children constitute the main workforce for collect- of physical safety and human dignity would have a ing, sorting, recycling and selling valuable materials more transformative effect in these communities recovered from garbage and other solid waste. For compared to economic and entrepreneurial pro- - - Addressing gender inequality in solid waste example, women make up approximately 80 per handlinggrams (Oganda is necessary et al., 2017). and this can be achieved conditions,cent of waste domestic pickers in responsibilities,India and 56 percent hierarchi in Bra- through the training and education of women calzil (Diasgender and relations, Fernandez, and 2013). marginalization The strenuous of waste work workers to provide them with tools so that they can workers are some of the main challenges that they stand up for equality at home and work, increase face daily. Women waste workers with intersecting their leadership roles in their relevant organiza- identities, such as race, class, sexuality, and age, are tions, and contribute to their economic empower- further marginalized in their communities (Pur-

to the solid waste management programs result in ment (WIEGO et al., 2015a). With the participation betterdie-Vaughn jobs that and are Eibach, also 2008).safer for Investments solid waste made han- andof women addressed waste these pickers important from Latin needs America, by provid The- - ingGender a practical & Waste toolkit project for women initiated to the enhance discussion their ing women at a disadvantage with less income and political and economic power at their work place workdlers, opportunities.but these jobs are typically filled by men leav and in their communities. The toolkit consists of three parts and is available online for waste work- at various levels of solid waste management start- ers, practitioners, researchers, and policymakers ing Genderwith the differences household and responsibilities, inequalities can priorities be seen and values placed on waste disposal, decision-mak- - ing process at work and in the community, and em- (WIEGO et al., 2015a, b, c, d). - ployment opportunities. A well-established gender wardUnderstanding removing gender the issuesbarriers around and providing gender inan division of labour was seen in the waste manage- equitableequalities inwork the environment waste sector isfor the both first men step and to ment system of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam where women. This would help to improve the work con- the door-to-door collectors were entirely women, ditions and safety for all workers and increase the and it was men that purchased the collected goods, management programs resulting in savings as well In Port-au-Prince, Haiti women working in the sol- asefficiency protection of theof public waste health collection, and the separation, environment. and recycled, and marketed them (Mehra et al., 1996).

LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA 444

Conclusions These case studies demonstrate that water quality tions to make sure that happens. In regard to water is of extreme importance to the lives of women es- and water quality and even waste management, it pecially in developing countries. The quality of wa- is indeed ironic that women who are the main users ter affects women far more than men especially if and often producers of this important element criti- they must fetch and carry water under sometimes cal for life and health have little or no governmental dangerous conditions. Carrying heavy loads also or legislative control over this resource, its use and has health implications. Although both sexes are management. prone to water borne diseases and infections from contaminated water and parasites, women suffer more because of pregnancy, child birth and breast feeding. They are also the primary caregivers of Appendix A: Common Parasites persons already ill and infected and thus come into contact with disease more frequently. Problems as- Dayra Alvarez MT, MSc1 sociated with water quality take a huge toll on women and young children. There are also economic im- Diarrheal disease is one of the major causes of mor- plications for the family as unhealthy women are - dren everyday around the world, making diarrhea potable water, and the extra time to secure its qual- thetality second and morbidity leading cause in children; of death killing in children 2,195 chil un- itypoor by providers boiling it and producers.trying to make The itattempts usable asto wellfind - as all the other responsibilities that women have in the family impacts the time that women and young virusesder the (rotavirus,age of 5 (“Diarrhea: enterovirus, Common etc), bacteria Illness, ( GlobEsch- girls have to spend on education. The under-edu- erichiaal Killer” coli 2018)., Shigella Diarrhea species diseases etc) canand be waterborne caused by cation of women, in turn, sustains gender inequity. parasites include the four most prevalent protozoa Blastocystis sp, Giardia lamblia, Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium species (Wawrzyniak et al. andTarget end open 6.2 defecation” of the Sustainable emphasizes Development the need for specialGoals: “Achieveattention accessto necessities to sanitation of women and and hygiene chil- parasites can be transmitted through the ingestion dren for good water quality and waste treatment. of2018) contaminated (Azam, Peerzada, water or and food Ahmad with the 2015). infectious These Another important issue related to water qual- stage that can be the cysts of Blastocystis, G. lam- ity and gender but given far less importance is the blia and E. histolytica, and oocysts of Cryptosporid- management and control of waste water and its ium spp. The infection comes from poor quality of contents. In some areas and less developed coun- the water for consumption or because of poor hy- tries, proper waste management has been largely giene and sanitation conditions. Blastocystis is an ignored. In these countries young girls and women intestinal parasite with a wide genetic diversity, work as waste pickers and collectors, are paid sub- - stantially less than men and do primarily the menial eral population of industrialized countries and can work while men are the main administrators and with a prevalence that often exceeds 5% in the gen policy makers. A gendered viewpoint and policies of drinking water, sanitation and poor personal hy- which protect and strengthen the rights of women gienereach habits30-60% are in thedeveloping major risks countries. for contamination The quality workers are vitally needed in many countries. Giardia lamblia One of the key recommendations that emerges from these and other studies is that more wom- in children(Wawrzyniak et al. 2018) en must be included in the managerial and deci- has a prevalence in humans ranges from 2%– 3%- sion-making institutions especially in developing ertyin industrialized and poor quality countries, of drinking up to 30% water(Cernikova, in developing - countries. Giardiasis is directly associated with pov bility in providing the resources to maintain good countries. Governments must take more responsi Fasoid, and Hehlid 2018). Some biological aspects quality water for the population and more women - need to be in administrative and supervisory posi- versity of Panama, Panama. 1. Department of Human Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Uni 445 LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA

of the pathogens, G. lamblia and Cryptosporidium of the most common sources of infection for cryp- spp are the extremely resistant to chemical disin- tosporidiosis. One of the most important outbreak fectants and other adverse environmental effects Entamoeba histolytica has a of this parasite was in 1993, commonly involving the- (Marshallliving in the et developingal. 1997). world, where diarrhea re- immunocompromised patients resulting in 4,03,000 mainshigh prevalent the third in leading the first cause 2 years of death(Shirley of life in children et al. affectedWomen cases, are 5000 mothers confirmed and cases,care takersand 100 of fatali the home.ties(Fayer They R 2007).are care takers of illness and diarrhe- the water supply for drinking is untreated and the al diseases of their families. They play an import- reuse2018). ofIt ishuman common wastewater in communities very important where much for the of ant role in the collection, storage and water man- parasite transmission. Cryptosporidium spp. is con- agement for the consumption of their families. They sidered as one of the most common causes of diar- need to learn how to prevent these parasitic diseas- rhea in both the immunocompetent and immuno- es. Some authors, mentioned three hygiene-relat- compromised individuals. C. hominis and C. parvum are the primary causative agents of human crypto- washing hands before preparing foods and after sporidiosis, but their prevalence varies in different usinged behaviors the toilet, that safely protect disposing infants againstinfant fecesdiarrhea: and regions of the world. Cryptosporidium oocysts have safely storing water in the house(Clasen and Cairn- been reported in both surface and ground water - and in treated drinking water (Cernikova, Fasoid, cross 2004). Women also can learn that boiling wa ter with temperatures exceeding 70° C will kill the and Hehlid 2018). Waterborne transmission is one parasites(WHO/FWC/WSSH/15.02, n.d.).

Photo 1. Poor sanitary conditions at Guna Yala region, Panama Republic

No access to safe water, the sewage from latrines go directly to the water surrounded by the community. Children are the most susceptible population to develop intestinal diseases. ©Dayra Alvarez, Panamá. LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA 446

Appendix B. References to Sections

Section 1 El agua es salud: conoce su importancia, sus tipos y sus benefi- 20minutos.escios. - Últimas Noticias (2018). - eral/tipos-beneficios/#xtor=AD-15&xts=467263Agua, género y determinantes de la[Accessed salud 09 Sep. 2018]. [online] Available at: https://www.20minu Prosalus.esprosalus.es/es/noticias/agua-genero-y-determi (2018). - tos.es/noticia/1817766/0/agua/mineral/Servicios de aguas para la sa- | Prosalus. [online] Available at: https:// tipos-beneficios/#xtor=AD-15&xts=467263lud. - Who.int.globalchange/ecosystems/water/es/ (2018). OMS | [Accessed jeres?nantes-de-la-salud [online] EL [AccessedPAÍS 10 Sep. 2018]. [online] Available at: http://www.who.int/ G., S. (2018). Opinión | El agua: ¿cosa de mu- Situación del agua en . Available at: https:// RD10 Sep. ya alcanza2018]. la categoría de crítica. [online] elpais.com/elpais/2016/03/07/planeta_futu www.diariolibre.com (2018). ro/1457349350_436641.html [Accessed Las 11 Sep.mu- situacin-del-agua-en-rd-ya-alcanza-la-categora- jeres2018]. y su lucha por el agua. Available at: www.diariolibre.com/noticias/ Fondo Centroamericano de Mujeres (2018). El agua en el [online] Available at: paísde-crtica-IJDL239001 corre riesgo por [Accessed contaminación. 11 Sep. 2018]. [online] https://www.fcmujeres.org/las-mujeres-y-su- Metro República Dominicana (2018). lucha-por-el-agua/ [Accessed 16 Sep. 2018]. - Section 2 Available at: https://www.metrord.do/do/ - destacado/2017/03/21/agua-pais-corre-riesEl problema del agua. [online] - go-contaminacion.html [Accessed 11 Sep. 2018]. Bartram, J. and Hunter, P (2015). InRoutledge Bradely classiHand- Hoy Digital (2018). ficationbook of Waterof disease and Health transmission routes for wa Available at: http://hoy.com.do/el-problema- ter-related hazards. Chapter 3 www.bvsde.paho.org/acrobat/aguasa.pdfdel-agua/ [Accessed 11 Sep. 2018]. [Ac- , London, UK 20-37. Eds Bvsde.paho.org. (2018). [online] Available at: http:// Jamie Bartram, Rachel Baum, Peter A. Coclanis, Enfermedades transmitidas por David M. Gute, David Kay,Stéphanie McFadyen, elcessed agua, 10 lenntech. Sep. 2018]. Katherine Pond, WilliamWhy Gender Robertson, Matters: Michael a tutori J.- Lenntech.eswww.lenntech.es/biblioteca/enfermedades/ (2018). alRouse for water (Accessed managers. 11/09/2018). Multimedia CD and book- enfermedades-transmitidas-por-el-agua.ht[online] Available at: https://- Cap-Net/GWA (2006). - Enferme- let. CAP-NET International network for Capacity dadesm#ixzz5RH2yj4mr y riesgos asociados [Accessed a las 08 deficiencias Sep. 2018]. en los Building in Integrated Water Resources Man Organizaciónservicios de Mundial agua y desaneamiento. la Salud (2018). [online] Avail- agement, Delft. Cap-Net and Gender and Water- Alliance (Cap-Net/GWA). - Benny-Ollivierra,bles” and public C. perceptionand Badrie, of N. vending (2007). practices Hygien able at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_ inic practicesTrinidad, byWest vendors Indies. of Journal the street of Food food Safety, “dou health/diseases-risks/es/Salud [Accessed reporta baja 09 inci Sep.- dencia2018]. de muertes por dengue, malaria y cólera en Regional Process of the Americas www.diariolibre.com2017. (2018). - World27 (2007) Water 66–81. Forum 2018. Technical, Inter-Amer- bre.com/noticias/salud/salud-reporta-baja-in- Fletcher, J. 2018. cidencia-de-muertes-por-dengue-malaria-y-col [online] Available at: https://www.diarioli- ican Development Bank. Accessed May 12, 2018.- El agua es icWorld practices Water and Forum consumer – March perception 18 to 23, 2018. of food salud:era-en-2017-JH8922964 conoce su importancia, [Accessed sus 11 Sep. tipos 2018]. y sus Franklyn,safety during S. and the Badrie, Carnival N. (2015). festival Vendor on the hygien island 20minutos.esbeneficios. - Últimas Noticias (2018). - of Tobago, West Indies. International Journal of - Consumer Studies [online] Available at: https://ww w.20minutos.es/noticia/1817766/0/agua/min . 39 (2015) 145–154 447 LA CALIDAD DEL AGUA EN LAS AMÉRICAS | GÉNERO Y AGUA

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Nicaragua

The main problems Nicaragua faces in regard to water quality are caused by pollution from agricultural, industrial and natural processes in the geological environment that affect groundwater, as well as eutrophication and sedimentation in surface waterbodies. There have been significant efforts to mitigate and control this problem, such as projects designed to increase sanitation coverage in urban areas. This chapter includes an analysis of water quality with recommendations designed to substantially improve it

Concepción Volcano from Ometepe Island in the Lake Cocibolca, Nicaragua © iStock 453 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

The Challenges of Protecting Water Quality in Nicaragua

Katherine Vammen, Elizabeth Peña, Indiana García, Erick Sandoval, Mario Jiménez, Ivania Andrea Cornejo, Thelma Salvatierra, María José Zamorio, Claudio Wheelock, Analy Baltodano and Romer Altamirano

1. Introduction

Nicaragua has an abundant water potential (renewable water resources) of 27,059 m³ per inhabitant per year (FAO-AQUASTAT, 2013), which is above the average for Central America. needsHowever, to ensure in the accesspast two to decades,water for it the has population suffered a and progressive its development. reduction This of reduction10,830 m³ hasper ainhabitant number of per causes, year (Montenegro,the main one being2016), thea serious loss of amountwater quality for the in future Nicaragua. of a country which

- moteThe an Sustainable increase in Developmentwastewater treatment Goals, particularly and improve Goal its 6, reuseseek tothrough improve quality water control” quality through measures that control pollution from “the discharge of hazardous chemicals, pro enormous challenges for water management in Nicaragua. (UnitedThe mainNations, problems 2018). Achievingaffecting Nicaragua’s these objectives water entailsquality introducing are the factors measures of change that in pose water, caused by pollution from agricultural, industrial and natural processes in the geological environment in groundwater, as well as eutrophication and increased sedimentation in surface water bodies. The causes involved vary from the change in land use (deforestation) almost throughout the entire country, which leads to increases in erosion processes, the lack of adequate sanitation coverage in urban and rural areas of the country, leaching processes into groundwater and surface water that contain pollutants from poorly-managed solid waste dumps, and the location of waterbodies in areas of Holocene volcanism with active thermalism and seismic activity.

Katherine Vammen [email protected] Chapter Coordinator. Director of the Interdisciplinary Institute of Natural Sciences, Universidad Centroamericana (UCA). Elizabeth Peña [email protected] Researcher at the Instituto Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Na- turales, UCA. Indiana García [email protected] Chemical Engineering Faculty-UNI. Erick Sandoval [email protected] Re- searcher at the Instituto Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Naturales, UCA. Mario Jiménez [email protected] Water and Health consultant, epidemiologist. Ivania Andrea Cornejo [email protected] Researcher at the Instituto Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Natu- rales, UCA. Thelma Salvatierra [email protected] Researcher, Centro para la Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua. María José Zamorio [email protected] Coordinator of the Environmental Engineering Degree Program, Facultad de Ciencia, Tecnología y Ambiente, UCA. Claudio Wheelock [email protected] Researcher at the Instituto Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Naturales, UCA. Analy Baltodano [email protected] Researcher at the Instituto Interdis- ciplinario de Ciencias Naturales, UCA. Romer Altamirano [email protected] Professor, Facultad de Ciencia, Tecnología y Ambiente, Carrera Ingeniería Ambiental, UCA. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 454

General Characteristics of Water - Resources in Nicaragua The Environmental Performance Index System (EPO, 2018) evaluated Nicaragua in the Water Re- source category with a score of 0.00 rating it 143rd Nicaragua has an area of 130,373.47 km², of which- out of 180 countries and in terms of Water and San- 10,034 km² are lakes, crater lakes and rivers (INIDE,- itation with 41.96 meaning in the position 111. In the 2000). The hydrological system of Nicaragua is di- categoryThis chapterof Vitality on of NicaraguaEcosystems, seeks the scoreto describe result vided into six major level 4 watersheds: the Auton theed in current 50.27 to status reach ofa positionwater resources, of 105. focusing on omous Region of the South Caribbean Coast Ba their quality, existing efforts to improve it and rec- sin (RACCS) (9519), the Autonomous Region of the ommendations to move forward, with the aim of North Caribbean Coast Basin (RAAN) (9517), the San- limiting the loss of availability and improving the Juan River Basin (952), the Río Coco Basin (9516), the quality of water, which has been acknowledged as SystemRio Grande (Figure de Matagalpa 1 Basin (9518) and the Pa the resource that can most restrict the population’s cific Basin (9533), according to the Otto Pfafstetter quality of life. At the same time, good management km². All the surface). The waters Autonomous in the six Region basins ofdrain the of this resource can establish an essential guideline intoSouth the Caribbean Caribbean Coast with is the the exception largest, with of the 25 672.62Pacif- for the development and future of the country.

ic basin (9533). Of the 80 main rivers, 51 have their

Figure 1. Hydrographic Basins in Nicaragua according to the Pfaffstetter System

Source: ANA, INETER, GIZ and UNI, 2014. 455 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

largest tropical lake in area in the Americas. They - watersheds that flow into the Caribbean Sea, and 12 to the Pacific Ocean. Four of these are tributaries to bothare an shallow integral tropical part of lakesthe San which Juan are River polymictic Basin (Ba or Lake Xolotlán and 12 to Lake Cocibolca, which then exposedsin 952), to with the anaction area of of wind, 19 533.46 meaning km². that They their are Groundwater-Geologicalenter the Caribbean Sea via the San Juan River. - Formations and Aquifers industrialwaters constantly and domestic mix from wastewater top to bottom. and rainwater Lake Xo Geology of Nicaragua lotlán (1016 km²) was the receiving body of sewage, According to the Nicaraguan Institute of Territorial when the Managua treatment plant was installed. from the capital city of Managua from 1927 to 2009,- - aragua is the twentieth largest lake in area world- zoicStudies Platform, (INETER the and Paleozoic COSUDE, Nucleus 2004), Province, Nicaragua the is Lake Cocibolca, its indigenous name, or Lake Nic divided into six geo-structural provinces: the Meso Central Mountainous Transition Zone, the Southern wide (8144 km²) (Schwoerbel, 1987). This tropical Atlantic Coast Basin, the Ignimbritic Province, the lake is characterized by its shallowness: 60% of the graben. lake has a depth of less than 9 m, 37% between 9- VolcanicVolcanic Province eruptions and the have SE Partled to of the Nicaraguansedimenta- and 15 m while certain areas have a maximum depth lakesof 40 mare (Instituto fragile ecosystems Geográfico with Nacional, a different 1972; dynam Bathy- of Nicaragua and part of the Central region, the ar- icmetric of recycling Map of nutrients Lake Nicaragua). (Jorgensen, Tropical Tundisi, shallow Matsu- eastion withof fertile the greatest soils especially economic in activity the Pacific as a regionresult of agriculture. has not yet been fully studied. The two lakes, result- mura-Tundisi, 2012) and a special biodiversity that Groundwater located at the bottom of the tectonic graben. ing fromThe surface tectonic waters processes of Nicaragua in the Miocene are also Era, char are- - - The geological classification of Nicaragua is one of the determining factors for defining the aquifers lo- asacterized they will by hencefortha total of 16 be volcanic called inlakes, this Maardocument geo errascated groupin the country.are the mainQuaternaries, ground- alluvialwater reservoirs deposits, (logicalFigure formations, 3), distributed known along locally a chain as Craterof volcanoes Lakes, pyroclastic, ancient alluviaet al and rocks in the Las Si from the north to the south of the Nicaraguan Pacif- great hydrogeological importance. According to IN- ic. Most of them are situated in a tectonically active in the country (Losilla ., 2001) and therefore of- area called the graben or the Nicaragua depression, located inside of the volcanic craters. These water- ETERare shallow (2016), and Nicaragua prone to has contamination 12 main aquifers due tolocat the bodies of volcanic origin have different hydrogeo- characteristicsed in the Pacific of area, the environment. approximately Small 70% intramon of which- chemical properties, depending on the geological tane valleys are located in the Central and Caribbe- characteristics of their location and the active tec- an regions. tonic processes in their basin.

is suppliedIn its hydrogeological by groundwater bulletin used for (2010), irrigation, INETER in- 2. Impacts on water quality mentions that 80% of the Nicaraguan population region of Nicaragua. The following map (Figure 2) - showsdustry theand location drinking of water, the main specifically aquifers in in the the Pacific coun- opted the binding resolution that declared access to try in yellow. safe,In 2010, clean the drinking United Nationswater and General sanitation Assembly a human ad right that has been recognized by member states. Surface water This right extends to aquatic ecosystems, since water is a renewable natural resource that does not and Cocibolca (Nicaragua), (Figure 2) are the larg- begin in a tap or end in a toilet. However, our water The great lakes of Nicaragua, Xolotlán (Managua) sources have been converted into receiving bodies

est lakes in Central America. Lake Cocibolca is the WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 456

Figure 2. Main aquifers and Great Lakes of Nicaragua

Source: Compiled by Elizabeth Peña, based on data from INETER, 2016.

attempts are made to analyze the state of the water - qualityfor our makes wastewater it possible and solid to produce waste (UNEP,the informa 2017).- proving water management in hydrographic basins, tionRecognizing required and to plandiagnosing efforts tothe ensure impacts and on protect water whichbody and can find contribute solutions to orthat limit ultimately the impacts involve that im af- water sources with adequate quality for their infect water quality. tended use. The quality of Nicaragua’s water resources Nowadays, the quality of water in water re- has been subjected to various hazards such as the sources has a social and economic value as a source of water supply, associated with the various uses • by the population such as drinking water, irrigation •following: water, the means for preserving the biodiversity of toEutrophication geological activities of surface associated waters. with hydro- aquatic ecosystems and, of course, it has potential The natural physical-chemical influence due for the development and future of a country. When from tertiary volcanism. there are processes that interfere with the various • Pollutionthermal alteration in crater lakesin specific due to areas, urbaniza resulting- uses of waterbodies for human beings or degrade tion and the two great lakes of Nicaragua and ecological value in the preservation of ecosystems, groundwater. 457 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

• Contamination from agrochemicals and fertilizers due to agricultural activities. increased phytoplankton production, reduced light • Surface water pollution resulting from mining penetrationwater quality and with loss symptomatic of biodiversity changes at all suchtrophic as: (artisanal and industrial). - • Increase in sedimentation towards surface waters due to massive deforestation and changes useslevels of detected the waterbody by the simplificationfor humans, making of the itscommu treat- in land uses observed in recent decades. nity structure. Eutrophication interferes with the • Salinization of groundwater in coastal areas Microbiological contamination has been detect- and crater lakes. edment by more water difficult quality and monitoring therefore programs,more expensive. where • Contamination from wastewater due to inad- the presence of pathogens has been found through equate treatment, which affects the microbi- fecal contamination indicators, fecal coliforms and ological and chemical quality of the receiving Escherichia coli in almost a third of the rivers in Af- waterbodies. • - bodies due to poor solid waste management. rica,The Asia great and lakesLatin ofAmerica, Nicaragua, entailing Xolotlán a health and riskCo- Leaching into groundwater and surface water cibolcafor millions have of undergone people (UNEP, rapid 2016). eutrophication pro- Eutrophication and Microbiological cesses in recent decades caused by point pollution Pollution of Surface Waters from urban development and non-point diffuse The accelerated process of enrichment of water- source contamination in their basins. This is due, bodies with nutrients leads to the deterioration of in the latter case, to changes in land use in their

Figure 3. Crater Lakes of Nicaragua located in the Pacific Zone Chain of Volcanoes

Source: Prepared by E. Peña, 2018, based on data from INETER, 2015. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 458

basins that have led to an increase in erosion and, American Health Organization (PAHO) for drinking therefore, an increase in sedimentation in the lakes. water, and the Canadian water quality guide for the In the case of Xolotlán, it was mainly due to the urbanization on its banks, especially in the capital city - of Managua. Point pollution from the surrounding protection-1 of aquatic life in freshwater systems (5- municipalities and cities that lack proper wastewa- μg.l ) (CCME, 2007), observed in CIRA/UNAN mon ter treatment have contributed to the increase in itoring results in 2008-1 with concentrations-1 rang nutrients entering the two lakes. ing from 19.59 µg.l to 56.18 µg.l and in 2011 withet-1 Lake Xolotlán was the water body that re- aal range of concentrations from 18.8 to 25.0 µg.l ceived waste from the capital city of Managua from (CIRA/UNAN, 2008; CIRA/UNAN, 2011). Parello - er. element(2008)-1 also that reported exceeds-1 concentrations permitted concentrations of between 24.7in water µg.l and and limits 31.8 µg.l the usein the of lake.lake waterBoron for is anothirriga- 1927 until the installation of the Managua treatment may prevent aplant year in before 2009. theIn a installation study conducted of the bytreatment the Center plant, for -1 extremelyResearch in high Aquatic concentrations Resources (CIRA/UNAN, of nutrients 2008), were levelstion, since have concentrations been found by of Parello 1 to 2mg.l et al normal growth in certain crops (FAO, 1994). Boron mg.l -1 -1 -1 . The. effects (2008) on of found,-1 including total phosphorus (0.87 mg. l - 1.17 betweenwater quality 1.13 mg.l related and to 2.05 the mg.lhigh concentrations and-1 CIRA/UNAN of ) at an average of 16 sampling pointset al on four arsenic,(2008) with boron an averageand dissolved of 2.42 solidsmg.l could at least monitoringwhich takes dates into accountin 2007 totaland 2008.phosphorus, Calculation ortho of- phosphatethe trophic (caselevel of(Carlson, Toledo 1977;et al Toledo ., 1984),- basin and hydrothermal activities on the banks and cy and chlorophyll-a, detected the highest trophic partly be influenced by volcanism in the immediate- states of eutrophic and hypertrophic., 1984), predominant transparen in all the points distributed in the lake. It was con- insideAs ofa resultLake Xololtánof changes located in land in theuse Miocenein the Lake de - Cocibolcapression of basin, Nicaragua most (Parello, of its sub-basins 2008). have been transformed into land for the use as pastures, as a re- andcluded the that misuse “the lossof the of soilswater in quality its drainage in the ecosys basin”. sult of progressive deforestation over time (Vammen, tem was due to the influx of untreated wastewater Figure 4) Five years after the installation of the Mana- through a map of its sub-basins and the satellite im- (CIRA/UNAN, 2008). - 2006). Land use in the lake basin is shown ( withgua Treatmenttotal phosphorus Plant inbeing 2014 found and 2015a similar (CIRA/UN range age:This 75% changeis dedicated in land to the use use illustrated of different in types inter of- AN-CSRSR, 2014-2016), lake. After water analyzing was monitored, the tro- actionpastures, with 8.8% volcanic to agriculture geological and 15%features to forests. and soils phic state (result-1 of trophic-1 status analysis by Carl- causes an increase in erosion in the basin, which in son,of 0.542 Eutrophic mg. l , -result 1.038 mg.by Toledo, l Hypertrophic) (cal- turn leads to more sedimentation in the lake tributaries and boosts the acceleration of eutrophication wasculated observed by A. Baltodanoin the trophic and state K. Vammen, between witheutrophic data The most recent monitoring of water quality in andprovided hypertrophic. by CSRSR-Taiwan, This lake 2018),has lost very its potentiallittle change for Lakein the Cocibolcalake (Vammen, 2006). use as a source of drinking water and irrigation, pre- (Chang et al cisely because of changes in land use in its immediate was carried out from 2014 to 2016 ., 2017) in a project undertaken by CIRA/ and solid waste, which has impacted the quality of its UNAN and CSRSR-Taiwan: Project-Monitoring of the basin and because of the influx of liquid wastes, rain two Great Lakes of Nicaragua -Lake Xolotlán andhigh concentrations of dissolved solids (an average of ments.Lake Cocibolca, The results in orderof the toanalysis set up ofa Satellitethe trophic Remote level waters due to the influx of nutrients and excessively Sensing System for Future Water Quality Assess Moreover,-1 toxic metalloid arsenic has been the water with zones of high eutrophication located found1121.21 mg.lin other) from studies both sources in concentrations (CIRA/UNAN, exceed 2008).- have identified the mesotrophic to eutrophic state of issued by the Pan -1 at the entrance to the Tipitapa River that connects ing the guideline value of 10μg.l with Lake Xolotlán and around cities that do not yet 459 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

have an adequate sanitation system or where there tion, re-establishing riparian zones, re-establishing the upper part of the lake sub-basins as a forest reserve and more. There are currently several efforts is an influx of rainwater (trophic level calculated by to install and complete sewerage systems in the A. Baltodano, and K. Vammen, with data provided by cities around the lake and Ometepe Island such as CSRSR-Taiwan, 2018). According to calculations by- Carlson (1977), a third of the points on the various weresampling found dates to be indicated at the mesotrophic the mesotrophic level. level. The Usre- pointCárdenas, sources Granada into theand lake.San Carlos It is important which, over to time,note ing the Toledo calculation (1984), 13% of the points thatwill itaid is innot controlling only recommended the influx to of control nutrients domestic from There are already three cities that use water wastewater but also urban stormwater. In the case maining points were classified as eutrophic. - sewage system is partly operational, there are still from the lake connected to a treatment-purification criticalof Granada, points it has in beenthe lake observed precisely that, where although urban the system as drinking water: Juigalpa (60 535 inhabi streams carrying rain waters, which also carry sol- tants) (INIDE, 2018), San Carlos (51 313 inhabitants)- and San Juan del Sur (15 811 inhabitants), and there- are projects either underway or planned for Cárde idWater waste, quality flow into in it craterMiguel Torres).lagoons nas (7 539) and Rivas (53 208) with the aim of ob The crater lakes of Nicaragua have different chem- humantaining supply,drinking actions water arefrom expected the lake. to “As be a strength result of- ical characteristics depending on their origin, loca- the increase in the use of water from the Lake for tion, tectonic activities or volcanism, whether currently underway or in the past. Many of them have andened Sanitation to improve Projects, the management Miguel Torres), of the Lake which Basin” in- saline waters caused by the thermalism present volves(personal improving interview land with use director and preventing of AECID soil Water ero- around them or in the lake beds themselves (Parel- sion processes and therefore controlling non-point diffuse contamination of the lake. This implies mea- impacts from the changing seismic and volcanic sures such as regulating the use of fertilizers, im- processeslo, 2008). Theand/or great as a majority result of ofthe these human lakes activities suffer proving the means of managing livestock, reforesta- that have degraded their water quality.

Figura 4: Uso de suelo de la Cuenca del Lago Cocibolca e imagen satelital

Fuente: Datos se origen del Estudio de Uso del Suelo de la Cuenca del Lago Cocibolca (MARENA, 2011); mapas elaborados por Yelba Flores. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 460

The special characteristics of the water in these strong dominance of Cyanophyta, indicating wa- lagoons of volcanic origin with their aquatic ecosys- ters rich in nutrients and organic substances from on the properties of the water. Many of them also ex- domestic wastewater through the aforementioned tems,perience has various a specific anthropogenic form of biodiversity impacts, depending mainly in urbanits basin, channels. as well Attempts as the influx have of been storm made water on sevand- urban areas in Nicaragua. Although a Technical Stan- eral occasions to treat the waters with special bacterial systems to decompose the organic pollution, implementeddard for the Environmental and there is a Control lack of ofprotection Crater Lakes and management.(NTON 05 002-99, The MARENA,standard 1999)accurately exists, describes it is not sewagealbeit without system success,have not since been the solved. influx A of manage sewage- - mentwater planfrom was the notchannels implemented and the overflowin its micro-basin from the ral conditions, aquatic ecosystems of volcanic origin to control the loss of quality of its waters. Its poten- arethe regardedspecial characteristics: as fragile ecosystems “[...] owing due to to their their natu met- tial as drinking water has been lost due to the lack amorphic characteristics and their endorheic condi- of implementation of measures to protect the lake tions, which are highly susceptible to the impacts of from eutrophication and microbial contamination, pollution, eutrophication and sedimentation”. and the fact that it is a receiving body of sediment from its basin, which has considerably reduced the Nicaragua, four in Managua (with an urban popula- volume of water due to silting and the consequent There are five lagoons located in urban areas of depth loss. - Lake Masaya, located in the city of Masaya, is tailedtion of using1 388 927)information and one onin Masayathe impact (with on an quality urban causedpopulation by phenomena of 218 566), linkedand two to cases urbanization. have been de is located in a discharge area for groundwater from The waters of Tiscapa Lagoon, located in Ma- the secondaquifer, largest which (8.8km²)forms part of ofall thethe Masaya-Tismacrater lakes. It nagua, have suffered environmental impacts due to underground basin. Its water is also a major source poor management of its basin, involving the dragging and silting up of sediment as a result of the de- its importance as a potential source of drinking waterfor theand Managua for other aquifer aquifers (INAA-JICA, for drinking 1993). water, Despite the usage as a receiving body for storm water, as well as lake has served as a receiving body for sewage for domesticterioration and of solid its drainage waste dragged area (23.10km²) from the and urban its

the past eight decades. Firstly, in 1936 it received Thechannels lagoon of was San originally Isidro de recommendedla Cruz Verde assince a source 1958, wastewater from San Antonio Hospital and, in 1973, and from Jocote Dulce and Los Duartes since 1980. the first sanitation system for the city of Masaya expansionwas designed to sixfor pondsa population in three of 13,modules 533 inhabitants. with two of drinking water supply for Managua (Eckman,- In 1985, the second pond was built, followed by the- ity1893) was in suitablea 1964 Hazen for drinking and Sawyer water report and that and a again plan ofin actiona UN study in its (1975) basin statingcould prevent that its microbiological chemical qual stabilization ponds in series, in 1988 (communica - tion from the ENACAL authorities, Sergio Tercero ation area, which was partly restored through the TalaveraIn order and to Mario diagnose Gutiérrez the water Soto, quality 2012), status effluent of contamination. In the 1980s, it was used as a recre from which always poured into Lake Masaya. a one-year study, the results of which showed the thatinstallation it had undergone of recreational severe elements eutrophication, in the 1990s.while Lake Masaya, in 2012-2013, CIRA/UNAN conducted itsA study waters conducted indicated in the 2008 highest by CIRA/UNAN levels of the showed trophic state between eutrophic and hypertrophic. The mi- watersevere columnimpact onwas water found quality to be caused in an byanoxic the influx state crobiological quality of its waters also deteriorated, atof effluentsmost points, from monitored the oxidation through pond: four 1) 80% samplings of the and several studies have determined that its waters are no longer suitable for recreational use, show- was strongly affected, with evidence being found ofin high the annualconcentrations cycle, 2) of its organisms microbiological indicating quality fe- biodiversity has drastically changed, revealing the cal contamination, given the composition of domes- ing contamination of fecal origin (Chacón, 1994). Its 461 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

increase in sedimentation from eroded areas of varied from hypertrophic at the discharge point to their watersheds due to the change in land use, par- mesotrophictic wastewater to effluenteutrophic entering, depending 3) its on trophic the chang level- ticularly deforestation, contamination by domestic es in the volume of water in the lake and obvious- waters due to the lack of sanitation systems in cities ly related to the amount of rainfall during the year, and rural areas, indiscriminate use of their waters for irrigation in agriculture, which affects the eco- that exceeded the reference values to protect aquat- - icand organisms 4) concentrations and critical of episodes ammonium occurred were as found a re- izers and pesticides used in agriculture. ) through- logicalRío flow Viejo of isthe strategically river and contamination important for by Nicara fertil- out the water column. -1 gua, since it is located in the upper area of the San sult of the high concentrations (1.2mg.l - from the oxidation pond, although there was also The main source of contamination was effluent SouthernJuan River Caribbean Basin (Basin Coast 952), watershed in other words, of Nicaragua the ba runoff entering from its immediate micro-basin. (sinFigures of the 1Great and Lakes5 that eventually drain into the some influence at certain periods of the year from- ). The 1 553 km² basin of Río Viejo whetherThe Technical directly Standard or indirectly, for the Environmentalneither treated Con nor coversA diagnosis 12 municipalities was undertaken and the of157 the km-long quality river and untreatedtrol of Crater wastewater Lakes (MARENA, of domestic, 1999) stipulatesindustrial that or eventually flows into Lake Xolotlán. agricultural origin, nor storm water drainage is al- (Figure 5 - lowed in crater lakes, nor is the channeling of rain- duceavailability the multidisciplinary of the waters in informationthe Río Viejo that sub-basin would water carrying solid waste, all showing that it has be used to) indevelop 2010 and a strategy 2011 (Vammen, for the 2012)sub-basin to pro to not been implemented in this crater lake. guarantee an environmentally balanced state for -

years),A paleolimnological showed a sharp increasestudy (Fuentes, in sedimentation 2015), which in productionthe benefit inof thethe upperpopulation. part of Some the sub-basin of the conclu of the involved sediment dating (corresponding to 130- sions of this study include the following: 1) watering for the highest contribution of sediment to the - lakethe lake bed. since A study the of 1960s the biodiversitywith the last of decade certain account groups estationRío Viejo processes is high to were medium, found showing in all its the micro-ba impor- of organisms preserved in the sediment showed that sinstance and, of itssince protection the land and has reforestation,inclined slopes, 2) runoffdefor

- dominancesince the 1950s, of eight there species has been has increased. a tendency towards biologicalpredominates contamination over recharge due and to causesfecalism base (human flows the simplificationThe domestic of water biodiversity, treatment in other system words, in the andnot tolivestock) be maintained in the river in the and dry groundwater, season, 3) microwhich city of Masaya is currently being reformed and in represents a risk factor for consumption and rec- two years’ time, it is planned to inaugurate the new - Wastewater Treatment Plant in this city, a project ploitation of surface water in the use of water for - irrigation.reational use by the population, and 4) overex On the basis of the conclusions of the diagno- Agencyundertaken for International by the Nicaraguan Cooperation Empresa for deDevelop Aque- sis, some of the most important components of ducts and Sewers (ENACAL) funded by the Spanish the comprehensive institutional strategy recommended to improve integrated management in the eliminatingment (AECID). its Thismain project source willof pollution prevent the(personal direct discharge that currently flows into Lake Masaya, - tionsub-basin and introduce of the Río water Viejo treatment to ensure systems water quality for re- Watercommunication, quality Miguel in selected Torres, AECID). were to: 1) regulate the volume of water for irriga- rivers in Nicaragua The impact on water quality in Nicaragua has been plansturn-water to improve irrigation, the 2)disposal promote of goodsolid agriculturand liquid observed and documented in a number of rivers al practices in pesticide use, 3) work on sanitation- with high environmental degradation, such as an tion of activities by the population focusing on the waste, 4) environmental education and introduc WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 462

Figure 5. Location of the Río Viejo in the San Juan River Basin

Source: INETER, 2017. Prepared by Analy Baltodano. protection of wells and river water quality, to im- of estuaries and coastal lagoons. Most of them have prove integrated management in the sub-basin of environmental problems, which affect their quality - in the upper part and protection of recharge zones water from agriculture, of either domestic or indus- Río Viejo, 5) introduce protected areas particularly trialof water origin. and ecosystems due to the influx of waste The largest, most important estuary on the Pa- in the entire sub-basin, 6) rearrange urban centers- Estero Real (introduction of sanitary sewerage in La Trinidad, - areawith anand urban design population plans for of reforestation 12 538), currently in areas un cific is the , which flows into the Gulf of derway, 7) declare the upper part a forest reserve Fonseca, providing a significant amount of freshwa- - ter (approximately 1443 m³/year) (González, 1997). stockwith potential, access to 8)river establish and well water water protection sources (Vamzones- The Estero Real Natural Reserve Delta was rec in the riparian zone of the river, and 9) control live asognized a wetland by the and RAMSAR the productivity convention of as the a “Wetland mangrove of ecosystem,International as Importance”well as the importance in 2003, given of its its habitat values Watermen, 2012). quality in estuaries due to the passage of migratory birds through the and coastal lagoons

itsite. has The favorable point whereconditions the Esterofor shrimp Real farming River flows and Nicaragua has the enormous ecological benefit of thereinto the are Fonseca extensive Gulf areas has dedicated economic to benefits, this activity. since having two watershed drainage directions: towards et al - the Atlantic (Caribbean) and the Pacific. It has 910 itación, Investigación y Desarrollo Ambiental (CI- km of coastline with 509 km on the Caribbean and El Bravo . (2016), of the Instituto de Capac 325 km on the Pacific. Its coasts also have a wealth 463 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

was found, showing that untreated sewage is dis- Monitoring System to Improve the Prevention and charged into these saline water bodies (Saborío and AdaptationDEA-UCA), inCapacity “Development to Climate of Change an Environmental of the Fish-

Sandoval, 2008). ing and Aquaculture Communities: A Case Study of Deforestation and sedimentation the Estero Real, Nicaragua,” conducted six-month- in Nicaragua and its effects physical and chemical studies in 2013 and 2014 on on water quality the water in the Estero Real to examine water qual Forests and trees are important as modulators of middle.ity in a five-pointThe results transect, indicate beginning that there at has the been point a - where the river flows into the estuary towards the- duction of dissolved oxygen concentrations as it water quality flow in in the rivers water and cycle other (Bonell streams, and including Bruijn movesdeterioration away from of water the quality,mouth, reflectedwhich also in thecorre re- factorszeel, 2005). such Forests as temperature, can have asediment direct influence and nutri on- sponds to an increase in suspended solids, point- ent content and biological oxygen demand (Stelzer ing to sedimentation processes caused by soil ero- et al sion due to agricultural activities in the immediate - basin of the estuary. Pesticide, organochlorine and nants., 2003).before Forest they reach areas the can water, be barrier in other zones words, that organophosphate residues were also found in the theyact as limit filters erosion for sediments, and therefore nutrients the entry and contamiinto wa- - ter of soil solids with all their constituents. composition of DDT) used in the basin during the Nicaragua is a country with a forest potential cottonsediment boom (DDE, a metabolite resulting from the de The results of this study were used in the De- from the 1950s to the 1980s. estimated at 71.9% (forestry and agro/silvopastoral to Improve the Prevention and Capacity for Adap- vocation) of the total area of the country (MAGFOR,- tationvelopment to Climate of an Environmental Change of the MonitoringFishing and System Aqua- 2002). In 2015, INETER reported forest coverage of culture Communities, with support from FAO, the Coast30% (3,938,670 of Nicaragua, ha) of where the national one million territory. inhabitants Approx main product being an Environmental Monitoring imately 89% of forests are found on the Caribbean Manual, which includes the monitoring steps that The forests of Nicaragua have been subjected to can be replicated in other locations under environ- earn their livelihood from forests (MARENA, 2017).

aquaculture. thea severe conversion process of of important reduction areas (an average of forest of land 70,000 to mentalThe andmicrobiological climate pressure quality due of tothe fisheries water from and anotherha per year type in of the use, past particularly 50 years), whichagricultural has led and to - - ies, located in the western region, was affected by runoffthe Padre that Ramos, sweeps Aserradores away fecal matterand Realejo deposited estuar in conductedlivestock (INAFOR, by the Humboldt 2008). In Centerthe Socio-Environmen and the group of the pastures, stables and poorly built latrines, lo- organizationstal Crisis of Post in the Drought Nicaraguan Nicaragua Partnership Study (2016),on Cli- cated in communities close to these water bodies. mate Change, a comparative analysis of forest cov- In a bacteriological study (Sandoval and Saborío,

of black clams, the presence of Escherichia coli was er was conducted on the basis of official data from- 2008)found conductedin both the specifically summer months at the collectionand in winter, sites the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAGFOR)- the latter being the time when the highest concen- partmentson the Actual were Use prioritized. of Soil in 2011A reduction and updated of the infor open trations were recorded of this bacterium, an indi- andmation closed from broadleaved 2016 (January-April), forest was in observed, which six cor de- cator of fecal contamination in the three estuaries. The prevalence of Hepatitis A virus was also studied in those estuaries, while studying the mol- responding to more than 36,000 hectares, together- lusk Anadara - with a reduction of over 6,000 hectares of open and tration and therefore acts as a bio-accumulator. A closed pine forest for the departments of Madriz, Bo spp, since this organism is fed by fil aco, NuevaFigure Segovia, 6 Estelí, Chinandega and Jinotega.- Taking the land use maps for 1983, 2000, 2010 prevalence of 0.78% of samples positive to HAV and 2015 ( ) drawn up by MAGFOR and IN WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 464

Figure 6. Change in forest cover in Nicaragua 1983, 2000, 2011 and 2015

Land Use 1983 (MAGFOR- Plant Cover) Land Use Map 2000 (MAGFOR)

Land Use 2011 (MAGFOR) Land Use 2015 (INETER)

terms of the increase in pastures, crops (perennial km² loss of forest coverage in three decades. andETER annual) as a reference, and the corresponding we can see major decrease changes in for in- 1983Deforestation to 51,517 km² in leads 2015, to meaning the destabilization a total of 30,630.16 of hy- est areas. drological systems, affecting the water quality of rivers, lakes, wetlands and coastal lagoons. The effects can not only be seen in the interi- There is a significant increase in pasture area- or hydrological system but can also cause impacts (from 26,464.45 km² in 1983 to 45,730 km² in 2015) - for a total of 19,265.55 km². Likewise, in crops (pe ing industry, leading to a reduction in marine biodi- area.rennial Consequently, and annual), these it rose changes from 5717 have km² led in to 1983 a sig to- versityon water and quality therefore, in coastal widespread areas and changes affect inthe water fish 7643 km² in 2015 with a 1926 km² increase in total quality in coastal areas. nificant reduction in forest areas from 82,147 km² in 465 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

Nicaragua is committed as part of a regional These tropical humid forests of course receive a - high rate of precipitation, but they also have special characteristics in relation to water and its qual- Latin-American and Caribbean initiative to refor ity; they can prevent sedimentation processes in a est 2.8 million hectors in national territory up to- basin if the geological substrate allows it, provide 2020 which is organized from Initiative 20x20 of the- a humid environment to maintain high biodiversity paignsWorld Resourcesof reforestation Institute. in the The last National years; these Forest cam In- paignsstitute haveof Nicaragua involved (INAFOR)nurseries withhas organized species such cam as groundwater, which, at the same time, guarantees cedar (Hyeronyma clusioides), teak (Tectona gran- and maintain intense filtration of water to recharge deforestation of humid tropical forests involves a others with the objective in reforestation in zones lossbasic and/or flows intensive in the basin impact rivers. in terms Consequently, of these prop the- withdis), eucaliptosmajor problems. (Eucalyptus The policy camaldulensis) to reforest amongshould erties for the water resources. Figure 7 shows the take into account the situation of the water resourc- - es in these zones and the involved needs for the deserve, a tropical forest and the largest forest reserve velopment of an integrated management of water- hydrological system in the Bosawas Biosphere Re- sheds as well as the geology and soil characteristics. tion over the past three decades. It is important that it is not recommendable refor- in Central America (19,926 km²), and its deforesta est exclusively with trees that grow rapidly as they Example of sedimentation could have adverse effects due to the need for more in coastal lagoons water for growth and therefore could affect the eco- One of the most important Coastal Lagoons in Nic-

of Nicaragua, where the capital city of the South- correspondinglogical flow regime. to the low and highlands of humid aragua is Bluefields Bay on the Caribbean Coast forestsNicaragua, which are has predominantly 2,243,245 hectors collectively of forest clas area- - ern Autonomous Region of the Caribbean Coast- tected(RACCS) port is located. due to Theits shape. Bay has However, an area ofits approxi use for Thesesified ashumid Latifoliate forest areas Evergreen correspond Forests, to approxi whether- transportmately 10 400has beenkm² and under currently continuous operates threat as duea pro to in lowlands (0-600 m), submontane or montane.- the intense sedimentation caused by the rivers that - - eas,mately have 17% been of the exposed total area to the of thesame country deforestation. (MARE er that contributes a major volume of fresh water NA, 2010) and, despite being partly protected ar flow into it, including Río Escondido, the largest riv

Figure 7a. River System in Basins Figure 7b. Map of Deforestation of the Bosawas Biosphere Reserve (1987, 1999, 2005, 2010)

Source: prepared by A. Baltodano, 2018. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 466

Figure 8a. Map of Vegetation and land use in 2002 Figure 8b. Río Escondido showing a high degree of turbidity of water being discharged into Bluefields Bay

Source: MARENA, 2002. Photo: Svetlana Dumailo

- and suspended sediments (11 641 million m³ of sedi groundwater, accounting for 70% of the total for ment annually) (PARH, 1996) from its basin (surface domestic use (IANAS, 2015). For example, of the 200 radioisotopesarea of 11,517km²). to determine In a study the conducted sedimentation in 2009, rate the drinkingThis watertrend supplycould changesystems in existing the next in 2007,few de136- International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) used- rely on groundwater (ENACAL, 2008). - bolca water and other sources of surface water to resultsover the (Martínez past 100 years et al in sediment profiles of Blue supplycades due populations to an increase in the infuture. the use New of supplyLake Coci sys- fields Bay using 210Lead dating methodology. The tems are already under construction as part of which has caused great., changes2014) indicated in the water an increase quality the PISASH Project, for example, on the Caribbean ofin the lagoon,accumulation which ofcan sediments be explained since by the anthrop 1960s,- Coast of Nicaragua, where water from the Kukra ic activities involving land use change such as de- river will be used to improve the drinking water forestation, the expansion of the agricultural fron- -

Figure 8a system in Bluefields, and a new system under con tier, forest fires and an increase in the population waterstruction systems in Bilwi of inthe the cities RAAN of Acoyapausing the and waters Santo of of Bluefields. The land use map ( ) of 2002 the Likus River as a supply source. The drinking indicates that 77% is dedicated to pasture land,- as a new supply source. (personal communication matewhich events affects such Accumulation as hurricanes Rates caused of sediments greater soil in fromTomás Miguel have Torres).been improved, using the Mico River vulnerabilitythe Bluefields and Bay. increased Moreover, their frequent susceptibility extreme cli to erosion and the sedimentation in the rivers (Figure 8b Studies on groundwater quality (Briemberg, of1994) institutional focused capacity on pesticide to determine contamination water quality have Groundwater, Río Escondido). quality atbeen the conducted university since level the– such 1990s. as Thethe Centroestablishment para la - - Groundwatersources used tois currentlyensure the the supply main ofsource water of for drink hu- Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos de Nicaragua maning water consumption in Nicaragua. in urban A total areas of 68%of Nicaragua of the water are (CIRA/UNAN), the Instituto de Capacitación, Inves- tigación y Desarrollo Ambiental (CIDEA-UCA) and UNAN-León- has led to more research and moni 467 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

toring of water quality, and of groundwater at the - ble water systems using surface water are currently The massive use of persistent agrochemicals underter quality construction (Vammen on and the Hurtado, Caribbean 2010). Coast New of potaNica- ENACAL laboratories. without any management of cotton cultivation, wells have been found to contain saline water. mainlyin the organochlorinated in western Nicaragua, group in beganthe department in the 1950s of ragua in Bilwi and Bluefields, since many excavated - Toxic Pollutants - Agrochemical ant groundwater reservoir in the country, compris- and Metallic León and Chinandega. The aquifer, the most import- vial aquifer followed by a volcanic aquifer with an Agrochemicals ignimbritices three hydrogeological bedrock. The landunits, is an devoted unconfined to agricul allu- Nicaragua is a predominantly agricultural country. ture and partly under irrigation, which has its or- - According to ECLAC, in 2015, the agricultural sector pollutantsigin in the usedshallow in agriculture unconfined in alluvialthe medium aquifer, term. no thereforeaccounted plays for 14.3%a very ofimportant the national role in GDP the andnational em deeper than 70 meters and, therefore, exposed to- economy.ploys 33.5% Domestic of the country’s producers labor use force.pesticides Agriculture to con- dence of the presence of persistent (organochlo- trol pests to ensure their productive performance. A master's thesis (Delgado, 2003) found evi Nicaragua began pesticide importation and use use in cotton cultivation. One problem in the area is therine) abundance agrochemicals of excavated at 12 meters wells with due no to protection pesticide measures, which fails to limit the transport of pesti- countryin the 1950s, was mainlyMethyl forParation, cotton most cultivation. of the Persistent Although cides in the soils around the wells or the contami- Organicone of the Pollutants first pesticides (POPs) to werebe introduced gradually into intro the- nation of well water through the action of the wind. duced, such as DDT, toxaphene and others. These Another study (Moncrieff et al chemicals were not only used by cotton producers, conceptual model of pesticide transport, concluding but also by coffee, bananas, vegetables, rice, beans that the distribution and concentration., 2008) ofdeveloped pesticides a in the aquifer could be affected by an increase in the extraction of groundwater from the area. and corn farmers (UNDP/MARENA, 2004) A study in the department of Chinandega (Mon- Between 2004 and 2009, Nicaragua imported tenegro et al 16,290,666.45 kilograms of pesticides, with a total- - quat)of 249 and active three ingredients. fungicides The (Chlorothalonil, main ones observed Manco- ., 2009), in old banana plantations, were three weed killers (2,4-D, Glyphosate, Para showed the presence of Nemagon (DBCP) and oth er organochlorines in the water of 15 supply wells.- byzeb imported and Carbendazim) volume of (REPCAR,insecticides, 2010). herbicides and sisAlthough rate. Nemagon was used 40 years ago, DBCP In 2016, the main purchaser of agrochemicals can Apersist study upon toquality 140 years of water due forto itsconsumption low hydroly in - fungicides in Central America was Panama with 34- thousand tons, followed by Costa Rica with 32 thou rural community’set northeastal of Leon also detected sand tons; Guatemala, with 28 thousand tons; Nic agrochemicals specifically, Chlorpyrifos and DDT in tons.aragua, As withcan be 23 seen thousand in Figure tons; 9, CIF Honduras imports with of fer 21- wells.Salinization (González, ., 2007). tilizersthousand and tons agrochemicals and El Salvador, in Nicaragua with 13 thousandhave in- Saltwater intrusion into groundwater on both coasts of Nicaragua poses an extremely serious threat. The inappropriate, irrational use of these chem- icalscreased has approximately impacted public fourfold health in andthe pastthe 23environ years.- areas with heavy extraction of groundwater for irri- Along the Pacific coast, it could occur particularly in - ment in Nicaragua. In the 2004-2009 period, an ga,gation. there In have some been evaluations problems of theof overexploitation groundwater flow of average of 1,361 cases of pesticide poisoning were- groundwater,system in the whichPacific could Basin further (9533), affect León-Chinande groundwa- ration,registered use per and year, storage together practices with anof averagethese chemi of 183- deaths per year. Unfortunately, due to poor prepa WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 468

Figure 9. Development of CIF imports of fertilizers and agrochemicals from 1994 to 2017

200

150

100

0 2011 201 1 2015 2013 15 2012 2014 2016 14 1 16 1 2001 2010 200 2005 2003 2002 2004 200 2006 200 2000

Source: Central Bank of Nicaragua, CIF imports of intermediate goods.

during that period corresponded to children under cal substances, 10% of the poisonings registered- discharged their effluents into Lake Xolotlán, and 3) natural geothermal sources due to the volcanism 15. Pesticide-related deaths were caused by Para around Lake Xolotán. westernquat (57%), zone Phosphineof Nicaragua (36%), have shown Chlorpyrifos contamina and- The study on Environmental Pollution from- Methomiltion in human (MINSA, blood, 2001). breast Studies milk, undertaken cow's milk, in food the sultsMercury indicating in Lake levels Xolotlán, of contamination Nicaragua, in relationfrom mer toin general, water and sediments as a result of or- curythe Evaluation in the soils of and Human groundwater, Health Risk in the showed land reon the premises of the aforementioned factory and ganochlorine pesticides, alpha-BHC, pp-DDE, pp- channel used to discharge liquid waste into the lake transportedDDT, Chlordane by runoffand Toxaphene through the(REPCAR, drainage 2010). basin, (Peñathe surrounding et al area, specifically at the bottom of a contaminatingResidues from surface- these pollutantsand groundwater, has mainly coastal been Mercury has been used in industrial gold mining and artisanal., 2009). activities in the central area of the Nicaraguan Caribbean. Various studies show Nicaragua, in the department of Chontales, for ex- theand presencemarine water of residues resources from of bothorganochlorine the Pacific and insecticides, organophosphates, carbamates and tri- concentrations in the water of the river Sucio have azine weed killers in rivers, aquifers and coastal ar- beenample, found in Santo above Domingo what is allowed and La Libertad,for human where consumption and in sediments (André et al - study (Picado et al - negroeas of etthe al Pacific and Caribbean zone of Nicaragua man health and aquatic organisms of the river., 1997). Sucio A (Cuadra and Vammen, 2010, Delgado, 2003, Monte in the municipality, 2007)of Santo of the Domingo risk analysis took into for huac- Metals - mercury., 2009). and arsenic count the mercury concentrations found in the wa- Mercury is one of the metal pollutants with the ) greatest impact on the environment and human at a number of -1points downstream from an ex-1- health worldwide. In Nicaragua, several sources of tertraction (0.42-0.63ug.l site, concluding). ) and sedimentsthat the highest (1,14-11,07ug.g risk was mercury have been studied and found to have confor human health followed by aquatic organisms. taminated some of the water resources. The three - ed toAccording water quality to Altamirano, in Nicaragua M. isand the Bundschuh, natural con J.- main causes are: artisanal gold mining in various (2009), one of the environmental problems relat rivers in the country, 2) industrial processes that 469 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

centration of arsenic in certain areas, such as those in the northwest and southwest regions of Nicara- gua, due to the dissolution of the geological medi- in rural settings, 15% of the population still engage um close to mineralized structures, alterations by potablein this practice water service,(WHO and and UNICEF, wastewater 2017). collection, hydrothermal processes, which are usually in the treatmentENACAL and has disposal defined to itsthe goalsentire as urban “providing popu- proximity to tectonic structures parallel to the Nic- lation of Nicaragua”. Due to negotiations with var- araguan depression, which reaches groundwater ious countries involved in International Coopera- through faults and fractures. This will be discussed tion in the water and sanitation sector, progress has in more detail in relation to health later on. and modernization of WWTPs, the improvement of Wastewater treatment in Nicaragua theirbeen operationalmade over the management past 10 years and in wastewater the installation col- - lection in the sewerage system, mainly in urban ar- culture, industry and domestic use grows, an accel- - eration“At the sameis observed time as inthe the demand process for of water water in pollu agri- tion and the degradation of aquatic ecosystems due eas. Efforts have focused on sanitation in urban ar to the increase in the volumes of untreated waste- eas, since 56% of the population live in cities, while accelerate86% of the sewerage urban population coverage tolive improve in 46 cities the health with over 10,000 inhabitants (INIDE, 2018). The goal is to water”According (United to Nations the National Secretary Human General Development Antonio Guterres, United Nations, 2018). - levelsManagua of the and population other municipalities (ENACAL, 2014).

Plan for Nicaragua (2012), sanitation coverage in urban areas was 35.6% (measured as connections to- toIn process2009, a WWTP the domestic was installed wastewater in the of capital multiple city sec of- the sanitary sewer service) and 42.6% in rural ar torsManagua of Managua with a designed(Figure 10 capacity). The plant of 182,000 consists m³/d of eas; while the Rural Water and Sanitation Informa- a system of mechanical grids, aerated sand traps, tion System (SIASAR, 2018) reports that improved primary sedimentation tanks with inclined plates, guaranteessanitation coverage no human amounts contact towith 42.93% human in excreta.rural ar - eas. Improved sanitation is defined as a system that- - - mergedfilters and pipe. secondary The WWTP settlers is currently before their connected final dis to According to the 2017 WHO and UNICEF Prog- posal in Lake Xolotlán (Managua) through a sub- centageress Report of wastewater for Drinking treatment Water, Sanitation nationwide and from Hy nagua (La Prensa, interview with Marvin Chamorro, giene (2017), Nicaragua slightly increased the per 75% of the sewage system in the urban area of Ma The plant was designed to contribute to the res- same5% in period. 2000 to This 8% same in 2015 report and indicates for urban that centers, sew- torationKFW representative of the lake inand Nicaragua, has achieved 05/07/2017). a level that an increase from 10% to 13% was indicated for the has made it possible to install and expand tourist centers such as Salvador Allende port and others, erage connections increased from 28% in 2000 to which facilitate recreation for the capital’s popula- 39% in 2015 in urban centers. tion and domestic and international tourists. At this time a sanitation coverage of 51% exists The peri-urban municipalities of Managua, such in 30 municipalities with Wastewater Treatment as Ciudad Sandino, have a wastewater treatment systemsPlants (WWTP), affect the with water a generatedquality of receivingflow of 366,000 water- - bodiesm³/d. Itdue is to important the increase to mention of nutrients that evensuch as these ni- tants. Despite the treatment of the domestic waste- trogen and phosphorus, sediments, pathogenic or- waterssystem ofcovering Ciudad only Sandino’s 49,000 inhabitants, of the 108,000 which inhabi are ganisms and the organic load discharged through discharged into a natural channel that eventually

The percentage of the population that still prac- as Alpha Textil and Saratoga, which discharge their ticeeffluents open-air from fecalism WWTP. has been more than halved wastewaterflows into Lake and Xolotlán, rainwater there into arethis free same zones channel. such

Sur, wastewater treatment consists of stabilization from 16% in 2000 to 7% in 2015 and has practically In the municipalities of Tipitapa and San Rafael del been reduced to just 1% in urban centers, although WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 470

Figure 10. Managua Treatment Plant

Source: Students visiting the WWTP. ponds, which do not achieve the removal levels A second phase of the drinking water and san- stipulated because they operate with much greater itation program is currently being planned for an they were designed. flow rates and organic loads than those for which additional 22 cities throughout Nicaragua (Santo Integral Sectoral Program for Water Domingo, Ocotal, Jinotepe, Isla de Ometepe, León, and Human Sanitation (PISASH) Tipitapa, Waspam, El Viejo, Mateare, Chichigalpa, There are currently problems to achieve the quali- Camoapa, San Jorge, Buenos Aires, Somotillo, El ty of the parameters stipulated in urban areas that Sauce, Villanueva, Telica, La Paz Centro, Nagarote, have wastewater treatment systems, particularly SanThe Benito, Special San case Rafael of Masaya del Sur and Chinandega). systems with stabilization ponds that account for The city of Masaya - with an urban population of

- fourth largest city in Nicaragua, has the support of itationjust over Program 55% of the (PISASH) systems has installed promoted in urban water areas. and 127 903 inhabitants in 2016 (INIDE, 2018) – and the Since 2014, the Integral Sectoral Water and San - ing,AECID with through the main the objectiveCooperation of increasing Fund for Water sewerage and sanitation programs implemented by ENACAL, with Sanitation (FCAS), with $19 million USD in financ a $405 million USD budget for Phase I (2014-2021),- and improving wastewater disposal by means of re- gramincluding and the combined Spanish resources Agency for from International the European De- habilitationservice coverage and the through expansion 6274 of new treatment connections, infra- Union, the Spain-Nicaragua Debt Conversion Pro structure. It is essential to eliminate the discharg- velopment Cooperation (AECID) in conjunction- a major impact on its water quality for a number with the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), es into the Masaya Crater Lake, which has caused the Central American Bank for Economic Integra from the new treatment system in order to transfer renovationtion (BCIE) of and treatment the European plants and Investment sewerage Bank sys- itof to decades. a natural Plans channel are underway northwest to of divert the city effluent in an (EIB). The Program has planned the installation or - tems in 14 urban centers with populations of over area known as Bosco Monge. The project and these services5000 inhabitants, to guarantee where the therehuman is right low coverageto water, oras changes are scheduled for completion in 2020 ac inthere the wascities “very in the little Caribbean public and investment Central region for basic of Specialcording tocase AECID of Granada authorities. the country,” where economic development is ex- - pected as well as in border cities that have not been ect was inaugurated in Granada (with an urban In July 2017, the potable water and sewerage proj prioritized in the past (ENACAL, 2014). population of 101 298, making it the seventh largest 471 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

city in the country), one of the main cities in Nica- visions for the discharge of wastewater, which re- - city’s wastewater has impacted the water quality of trol of Contamination from Discharges of Domestic, theragua lake located as a result on the of shores the discharge of Lake ofCocibolca. gray and The in- Industrialplaced the andold DecreeAgricultural 33-95, WastewaterProvisions for in the Nicara Con- dustrial waters through a system of urban streams gua (La Gaceta

This project included the expansion of the sewage , 1995), as well as technical standard- network,or channels a pumping (CIRA/UNAN, station 1997) and for the many rehabilitation decades. NTON 05 027-05, NicaraguanLa Gaceta Compulsory Technical Norm for Regulating Wastewater Treatment Sys temsWastewater and their Reuse in rural ( areas, 2006). of a treatment plant that processes 6,000 to 6,200 In rural areas, particularly in scattered communi- m³ a day. All this was possible due to cooperation ties that do not have sanitary sewage systems, indi- funds from Germany (27 million Euros), Japan (4- vidual solutions are used, such as latrines or septic million Euros) and Nicaragua’s own contribution- (>2bolca million from theEuros). city’s Although liquid waste, this projectthe city’s has storm con or runs on the streets until it reaches a waterbody siderablydrainage systemreduced has the yet contamination to be improved. of Lake Coci ortanks. natural Gray channel. water is In poured places directlywhere latrines to the groundare not It is worth highlighting the importance of build- available, residents still practice outdoor fecalism. ing sanitary sewer systems combined with effective - treatment plants in urban areas, since in the rainy der the Alliances model, the government of Nicara- season, rainwater tends to combine with the waste- With funds from the World Bank and CABEI, un water that saturate latrines or septic tanks and then water and sanitation programs in rural areas of the runs off into areas where it can cause health prob- country,gua plans in to communities invest $160 millionon the AtlanticUSD in integratedCoast and

fact that latrines are non-hermetic means that they severelylems for contaminatethe population. the It underlying is also known aquifer that in “the ur- in the Central Region of Nicaragua. - tationOne and of hygienethe targets services of Goal for 6everyone of the SDGs and tois end6.2: open“to achieve defecation access by to paying adequate special and attention equitable to sani the citiesban areas, in Nicaragua where the whereconcentration wastewater of infiltration treatment is needs of women, girls and people in situations of plantshigh” (POG, existed, 2014). very It shouldfew functioned be noted properly. that in many The modernization and renewal of the treatment sys- - tem, coupled with the expansion of coverage and vulnerability” (UN, 2018). Given that in Nicaragua, need15% of to the design rural plans population to ensure engages improved in open sanitation defe treatment plants, is a step forward to ensuring ef- incation rural (WHO communities. and UNICEF, 2017), there is an urgent fectivethe rehabilitation treatment in or the construction urban areas of of efficient Nicaragua. new The new projects will undoubtedly contribute The PISASH Project and other sanitation ini- to improving the health of the population by increasing and improving drinking water and sanita- which guarantees the management and construction coverage, which will guarantee water quality. tiontiatives of infrastructure, by ENACAL have and a themore quality complete and continui strategy,- ty of the operation in conjunction with the mainte- Solid Waste Collection and Treatment nance of water quality in relation to its operation in Nicaragua remains a major problem and affects water for human consumption, adequate treatment waterThe lack quality, of efficient, since adequategarbage solidthat wasteis not collectioncollected and final disposal, in other words, supplying quality ends up in urban watercourses and natural streams, the water quality of the receiving waterbodies or eventually reaching waterbodies, and affecting pos- of wastewater and final disposal without affecting maintain the entire chain in order to guarantee ad- equateareas (POG, quality 2014). of all It water is important sources. to evaluate and ofsible solid water waste, sources.” while inhabitants Every day, onin the average, rest of every the La Gaceta inhabitant in the city of Managua produces 0.7 kg - Decree 21-2017 ( No. 229, of November country produce an average of 0.50 kg/day of waste. 30, 2017) enacts the Regulation establishing the pro On the basis of the above figures, experts estimate WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 472

that the total production of solid waste nationwide Wastewater reuse - Water reuse is not common practice in Nicaragua because the quality of the discharges still fails to tenamounts households to 3,500 dispose tons/day, of trash equivalent through to aan garbage annu - truck,al production or deposit of it 1.2 in milliona dumpster tons. or Only authorized four out con ofble to use it in activities such as irrigation, clean- ingcomply or aquaculture. with official Another standards, factor making is that itnowadays, impossi burn it, bury it, throw it into an empty lot or else nearly all the discharges from the systems that ex- tainer. This means that most households -56.6%- ist in the country, are eventually discharged into a receiving body of surface water as previously de- indump a collection it into a riversystem or stream”administered (INIDE, by 2005). municipal Solid waste collection exists in 75 of the 153 municipalities One example of industrial reuse takes place at in the country is disposed of in open dumps or land- thescribed San inAntonio the case Sugar of Lake Mill, Masaya. which uses its previ- governments. A total of 94% of the waste collected - are still no special facilities for the specialized treat- mentfills or of burned hospital to andreduce toxic its industrial volume. Although or hazardous here hasously been treated adapted effluent by other to irrigate sugar millssugarcane in Nicaragua. planta waste, a number of companies have begun provid- Thistions processin a ferti-irrigation is covered bysystem the Technical (SER, 2018), Standard which ing services to manage this special waste. Munici- Sugar Industry and Alcohol Distilleries for the Irri- - gationfor the of Use Sugar of Wastewater Cane Plantations from Effluents(Gaceta from the fectpal landfillsgroundwater receive or reach industrial runoff and water domestic and subse solid- It is important to advance water reuse practic- quentlywaste that be hasdischarged not been into classified, surface where water. it could af es in Nicaragua, since impacts on the quality, 2010). of wa- Although there are three technical standards ter limit access to the latter by the population and Gaceta wastewater of different qualities and characteristics could be used under controlled circumstanc- to regulate landfill design ( , 2002) -NTON 05 es in agriculture and other industrial activities, to 013-01: Technical Standard for the Environmental- cope with drought in the Nicaraguan dry corridor mentalControl ofTechnical Landfills Standard for Non-hazardous for the Management, Solid Waste; and other impacts that limit water. Wastewater TreatmentNTON 05 014-01: and FinalNicaraguan Disposal Compulsory of Non-hazardous Environ should be seen as a sustainable source of water, en- - ergy, nutrients and other byproducts, rather than a - burden affecting water quality. Selecting the type of Solidardous Waste; Solid Wasteand NTON (Gaceta 05 015-02: Technical Stan wastewater treatment system that could provide dard for the Management and Elimination of Haz - , 2002) - there are very tries should seek to develop the capacity to evalu- few landfills in Nicaragua. At present, there are only the most benefits depends on the site and coun six municipalities that have built Sanitary Landfills- Box 1 shows an example of wastewater reuse erate.(Managua, Most La are Libertad, associated Ciudad with Sandino, recycling Bluefields, projects, ate these opportunities (UN Water, 2017). Boaco and Santo Domingo) which continue to op with two-way reuse as fertilizer in urban orchards Another four cities have waste recycling projects andin a formunicipal obtaining slaughterhouse biogas used for in incineration León, Nicaragua, in the such as the one in La Chureca (Managua Landfill). same slaughterhouse. - - (Juigalpa, Matagalpa, Ocotal and Granada). ty and sustainable management of water and sani- Good human waste management entails ben Target 6.3 of the SDGs to ensure the availabili efits for society as regards public health and the- Improve water quality by reducing pollution, elim- environment. It has been estimated that every $1 inatingtation addresses dumping Wastewaterand minimizing Treatment the emission as follows: of inUSD moving spent recyclable on sanitation materials returns such $5.5 as USDpaper, to scrapsoci chemical products and hazardous materials, halv- andety (Hutton,plastic, while 2004). at Other the national countries level, are this interested activity ing the percentage of untreated wastewater and has attracted the interest of a number of enterpris- considerably increasing risk-free recycling and re- ing companies working with plastic, paper and reuse worldwide. In Nicaragua, this issue should be prioritized at the national, urban and rural level. cycled glass (Styles, 2015). 473 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

3. Water quality and health allel to the Nicaraguan depression are located (Al- tamirano et al

., 2009). - dueThis to section bacterial seeks contamination to document in two surface specific water health and uralArsenic origin whoseis classified presence in the in WHOdrinking Guidelines water canfor theproblems other relateddue to toxicto water substances quality in of Nicaragua: natural origin one affectDrinking-water health and Quality has been (2018) assigned as a substance a reference of natval- in groundwater, particularly arsenic. - ter for human consumption. Nicaragua uses the CA- Impact on health due to natural ue with a maximum allowable limit of 10μg/l in wa contamination of drinking Arsenic in Drinking Water as a reference in envi- water by arsenic PRE Standards (1993) and the WHO Guidelines for- In Nicaragua, one problem of great concern is wa- erally speaking, the chemicals of greatest concern ter quality in relation to health due to high natu- forronmental health inarsenic certain monitoring natural waters (4th Edition).are the excess “Gen ral concentrations of arsenic (As), which affect the quality of groundwater and, consequently, the health of the populations that use it for consump- of naturally occurring fluoride, nitrate/nitrite and tion. Some studies have found groundwater with arsenic” (WHO, 2018). - arsenic problems, mainly in the northwest and In May 1996, contamination of groundwater by southwest regions of Nicaragua, caused by extinct Sebacoarsenic Valley,was detected in the north for the of thefirst country, time in which a commu con- volcanism, mainly where tectonic structures par- nity artesian well in the community of El Zapote, in

tained 1320 μg of total As/l of water (Gómez, 2011).

Box 1. An Example of Wastewater Reuse in a Municipal Slaughterhouse Use of anaerobic biodigestion for wastewater treatment in the Municipal Slaughterhouse of León, Nicaragua

Anaerobic digestion not only makes it possible to treat wastewater with organic matter, but also to utilize the energy capacity of biogas and waste as biol (a natural fertilizer). The biodigester uses the anaerobic digestion (in the absence of oxygen) of bacteria in organic matter, transforming it into methane, treated water and organic fertilizer. Methane can be used as fuel in the kitchen or furnaces. The Institution BORDA and the Universidad Politécnica de La Salle (ULSA) have achieved the sustainable management of wastewater and solid waste from the León Municipal Slaughterhouse, through the decentralized water treatment (not managed by the national treatment institution) of wastewater (DEWATS), reusing it in wetlands, in addition to sludge. This treatment helps protect the Chiquito River, which crosses the city of León, into which the slaughterhouse originally dumped wastewater. This produced a foul odor, which harmed the population and affected the wastewater treatment ponds in the city. The treatment system has two types of use: water treatment for agricultural use in urban gardens, and collecting biogas for use in the planned furnace for the incineration of cattle.

1. Cattle in slaughterhouse 2. Cleaning of rests 3. Biodigestor-Reactor 4. Biodigestor treatment 5. Irrigation with of slaughterhouse for Biogas of waste Waters in 10 treated waste waters anaerobic chamberss WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 474

- years that the risk is increasing in urban areas, par- ternational institutions conducted new studies that - Following this finding, various national and in - communities and other regions of the country. Ac- ticularly during torrential rains, when flooding oc confirmed the extent of the problem in neighboring withcurs (PAHO,extreme 2005). weather Leptospirosis events. epidemics are of municipalities were detected, where certain water ten Thelinked largest to heavy experience rainfall andin the flooding management associated of sourcescording tocontained the results arsenic of these in concentrations studies, a total higher of 29 - sis epidemic broke out after a tropical storm. Known et al inleptospirosis Nicaragua ascases Achuapa began feverin 1995, (after when the a leptospirocity where thanAccording the national to thestandard results of of10 theμg ofvarious As/l of studies water carried(Gómez, out, 2011, water Barragne, sources 2004, contaminated Altamirano by .,arsenic 2009). the support of Mexico, Cuba and the Center for Dis- - it first appeared), it was diagnosed and treated with partments and the two autonomous regions into havewhich been the countryidentified is individed. nine (52.9%) Most of of the the munici 15 de- easeAs Control a result in of Atlanta, this experience, Georgia. capacities (Moreno, 2012).were palities affected are located in the north-central re- builtThat year,for the 2,254 diagnosis cases with and 48 epidemiological deaths were recorded. surveil- gion of the country (Departments of Nueva Segovia, lance of this disease, which made it possible to ad- - which occurred in the wake of Hurricane Mitch. Madriz, Estelí, Matagalpa), followed by municipal dressAs the regards second to largest the temporal outbreak, distribution recorded in of 1998, lep- itiesAccording located in to the experts Western on theRegion subject, of the the country identi- tospirosis cases in Nicaragua, since the experience (León, Chinandega) (CIEMA, 2009). - of Hurricane Mitch, small outbreaks have been reed by arsenic in Nicaragua could increase as studies ported with clear indications of high infestation of offication natural of waternew drinking pollution water by this sources element contaminat advance. rodents in rice crops and other basic grains. During Due to the broad distribution of arsenic as a natu- - ral water pollutant, it is currently considered nec- ported, with no deaths from leptospirosis (MINSA, essary to introduce the permanent, routine analysis the period 2003-2006, 273 positive cases were re of this toxin in drinking water sources in Nicaragua, in order to guarantee safe water for exposed popu- MAGFOR, UNAN León and PAHO, 2012). - lations and contribute to improving their levels of In 2007, three outbreaks were again reported, health and quality of life. It is also recommended to the most significant one being in the month of No- undertake a geological and toxicological evaluation larvember to those after reported Hurricane during Félix. the In inter-hurricane the period 2008 pe toof the sites where drilling wells are planned to pre- riod,2010, withthe number the majority of cases of casesof leptospirosis being from was rural simi ar- vent unnecessary economic expense before drilling. In short, leptospirosis in Nicaragua displays en- Leptospirosis in Nicaragua: demiceas (MINSA, behavior MAGFOR, with epidemic UNAN León outbreaks and OPS, that 2012). gen - Waterborne disease Lepto- tropical storms, which is associated with the pres- spira spp., clinically characterized by fever, headache, enceerally of occur the etiologicalafter floods agent caused in byits hurricanesreservoirs, andthe muscleLeptospirosis aches, is pulmonary a bacterial hemorrhage,disease caused meningitis, by contamination of waterbodies and the exposure of the population to leptospirosis for various reasons, a zoonotic disease with epidemic potential, which mainly in rural areas. myocarditis and uveitis (WHO, 2010). It is considered has a significant impact on health in several parts of 4. Role of women and water the world (MINSA, MAGFOR, UNAN León and PAHO, - quality in Nicaragua 2012),posed with to freshwater greater incidence from rivers, in tropical streams, climates. canals or lakesLeptospirosis contaminated outbreaks by the urine occur of indomestic people and ex Within the water problem, women’s participa- wild animals, such as rodents, cattle, horses, pigs tion is usually limited to obtaining water, focusing on the quantities available in the home. Although and dogs (WHO, 2010). It has been noted in recent 475 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

women are the ones who use water most for do- eliminate pathogenic bacteria and certain solids mestic tasks and the family, they also worry about present in the water of rivers and streams which obtaining good quality water for their families and have high levels of mineral salts and coliforms in nowadays they are the ones most interested in im- these areas of the country (Figure 11). proving and expanding their knowledge on water quality to ensure the environmental sustainability quality of wells with portable laboratories, women of the distribution systems managed by the Potable are Fromgradually building reducing filters the togender examining gap in thewater water cul- Water Committees (CAPS) in rural or peri-urban ar- - ter and Sanitation Committee in the municipality of their role of ensuring hygiene in the home and the Villanueva,ture (Gutiérrez, located 2017). in the Walkiria north ofCastillo Nicaragua of the near Wa a well-beingeas. Ensuring and water food securityquality inof thetheir home families. is part of gold mining operation, is concerned about the qual-

only related to the quantity, but also to the quality need a study to know whether our water can be of theIn water.Nicaragua, This iswater-related why, in many difficulties parts of the are coun not- drunk,ity of the because water itconsumed has not been in the analyzed municipality: in the four“We try, women are already breaking down gender bar- years since we made the connection. They carry out explorations with cyanide and we should be aware highest quality water reaches their homes. In an ini- riers and taking specific actions to ensure that the The Spanish Agency for International Cooper- of what we are drinking” (Gutiérrez, 2017). Citiestiative in promoted conjunction by the with Ecology the municipality and Development of Ach- Association (Ecodes) and the León-Zaragoza Twin- aboutation forclimate Development change, and (AECID, the fact 2016) that streams states that, and “Women are worried about the future, they talk uapa, approximately 50 women are “using potabili also worried about the quality of the water their zation techniques in the community of El Porvenir- familieswells are consume, drying up”. proving Likewise, once nowadaysagain that theywater are is and El Barro, from the municipality of Achuapa, in- a women’s issue. the department of León. With the support of Span- struction,ish cooperation they used workers, local they stones, built wood, water pipes purifica and tion filter systems” (González, 2017). For their con 5. Water Quality Monitoring (several types of sand with a chlorine mixer) that plastic drums. The small filters are a mixed bed As documented in this chapter, in Nicaragua, water quality is exposed to many types of impact in all sec- Figure 11. Achuapa women's group building - water purification filters water; potable water and its sources of mainland freshtors: urbanwater andand undergroundrural waters; aquifers; surface andthe environground- mental quality of aquatic ecosystems. The lack of water quality monitoring in many parts of the world does not allow for an accurate

inglobal many estimate countries of arewater regarded pollution as extremely (United Nations, expensive,2018). compared Although towater the valuequality of monitoring water resources programs and what can be saved in making decisions based on sci- et al - agemententific information, in a country the is coststhe use are of minimal water of (Lovett the right quality., 2007). for The consumption most important and thething protection for water of man the environmental quality of aquatic ecosystems. To ensure that drinking water is of the right quality, it is essential to have a monitoring system and a legal

Photo by José Luis González, published in Nuevo Diario, July 5, 2017. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 476

Box 2. Need for water quality monitoring for community development in Rural Areas "An essential component for planning community development is reliable information on the water resources it uses, particularly drinking water. Quality monitoring is an essential element for quality control and should be part of the efforts for the rational use and protection of water sources. Despite the high cost and insufficient coverage of the monitoring undertaken by institutions, whose responsibility is precisely to maintain updated water quality databases and to facilitate their access by interested parties, this information is essential and must be obtained by any possible means. Information on the quality of both surface and groundwater, is crucial to integral water resource management” (Salvatierra, 2018).

Water Quality Monitoring for Wetlands The world’s wetlands are disappearing due to the impact on water quality

“Owing to the degradation and loss of wetlands worldwide, particularly in Nicaragua, there is an urgent need for residents to monitor the water quality of wetlands for their current and future protection and conservation. Monitoring water quality in the freshwater wetlands of Nicaragua is necessary, both for their use as drinking water sources and because of the ecological role of these wetlands and the ecosystemic services they provide. Un- fortunately, traditional water quality monitoring using established laboratory techniques (microbiological assays and physical-chemical analysis) remain inaccessible in rural areas due to their high costs and lack of coverage in national health programs. Accordingly, the use of biological indicators contributes to the establishment of alternative forms of monitoring water quality. International experience has shown that knowledge of the biological diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrate fauna facilitates knowledge of the ecosystem’s conservation status and water quality. This monitoring can even be supported by building local capacities, through the training and organization of people who participate in the collection and classification of freshwater organisms under the guidance of specialists” (Maes and Salvatierra, 2014:2). The Convention on Wetlands in Resolution VIII.14 mentions that “a monitoring program should be an integral part of any management plan. However, even when a management plan is not yet in place, it is possible to implement a monitoring program”. The purpose of a monitoring program is to detect a “change or possible change in ecological characteristics” (Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention, 2010).

instrument that determines the guiding values to - guarantee quality, as well as to protect ecosystems aragüense de Acueductos y Alcantarillados Sanitar- in existing water resources. Universidad de Ingeniería (UNI); the Empresa Nic Box 2 highlights the enormous importance of monitoring water quality in rural areas in order to ios (ENACAL) and the Ministry of Health (MINSA). ensure integral water resource management, and 7. Recommendations in wetlands that play an essential role in maintaining water quality in coastal areas and surface water The following recommendations have been pre- bodies. There are currently a number of commercial and and the conclusions related to the topics highlight- research laboratories to perform water analysis, in- edpared in the based contents on the of need this chapterto comply have with detailed the SDGs the - impacts on water quality and its causes, water and health, gender and water quality, and water quali- cluding the following: Instituto de Capacitación, In ty monitoring. We have tried to present some mea- vestigación y Desarrollo Ambiental (CIDEA-UCA), sures that are urgent and necessary for the coming Centro de Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos de- years in order to improve water quality in Nicara- la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua (CIRA-UNAN), Laboratorio Médico Químico Ben goechea, Laboratorio Químico S.A. (LAQUISA) and gua and prevent environmental and health crises: 477 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

Nicaragua needs to progress in accordance aim of continuing to improve water quality to increase the recreational use of the lake. 1. sustainable management and sanitation for all) - andwith recommendationsSDG 6 (ensuring water based availability on the concluand its- ation, has increased sanitation coverage in ur- - 3. banENACAL, areas withthroughout the aid the of internationalcountry, especially cooper on the Caribbean Coast of Nicaragua. •sions Improve have been water included access for and the quality, specific espe tar- - gets ciallyof the inSDGs, rural namely: and peri-urban areas (Tar- cess to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygieneTarget services 6.2 of for the everyone SDGs is, and “To to achieve end open ac • Increase improved and adequate sanita- defecation by paying special attention to the tionget 6.1). coverage that does not cause second- needs of women, girls and people in situations ary impacts on receiving water bodies of the rural population still practice open defe- • Introduce measures to reduce contamina- cation,of vulnerability”. there is an Given urgent that need in toNicaragua, advance spe15%- tion(Target from 6.2). agrochemicals, erosion in watersheds, improperly treated wastewater, and to increase the coverage of improved sanitation solid waste without management or con- incific communities designs and and plans achieve for rural the areasgoal ofin eradiorder- cating open air fecalism in Nicaragua. • Introduce more innovation and use of ap- It is important to change the perspective on the propriatetrol (Goal techniques6.3). for the reuse and safe ecological value and respective use of crater recycling of solid and liquid waste (Target 4. lakes, taking into account the quality of their waters, their particular biodiversity and the • Advance in integrated watershed manage- richness of the landscape. The Technical Stan- ment6.4). that includes a change in governance practices and a cooperation policy in trans- dard for the Environmental Control of Crater • Introduce programs for the protection of industriallakes (NTON or 05agricultural 002-99, 1998) origin, clearly or statesthe chan that- ecosystemsboundary basins related (Target to 6.5).water resources neling“Treated of orrainwater untreated carrying wastewater, solid wasteof domestic, is not such as wetlands and forests, paying spe- allowed in crater lakes, either directly or indi- cial attention to tropical humid and dry - forests, rivers, lakes, crater lagoons, coast- dard must be promoted. Therectly” implementation (Section 5.1.1). of Enforcement an effective offorest this Stanman- Develop an integrated watershed management agement plan is an integral part of integrated al lagoons and aquifers (Goal 6.6). 5. watershed management, which should be spe- 2. of Nicaragua, which includes action plans in - prioritizedprogram with sub-basins emphasis to on take the stepstwo Great to prevent Lakes tics of the six watersheds of Nicaragua and their diffuse pollution and thus stop the increase in sub-basins.cifically developed It is essential according to introduce to the characteris measures erosion of the basin in order to address sed- to protect rivers, lakes, wetlands and coastal la- imentation and eutrophication in lakes. This goons to prevent the continued increase in sedimentation through an action plan based on given that it is important to continue with its use results of diagnostics of the particular charac- asprogram drinking is urgent water infor the the case population of Lake Cocibolca, that lives teristics and possible solutions to the problems in its basin and with a view to other planned encountered. It is advisable to include the resto- - ration of riparian zones and reforestation plans, especially in the upper basin, which could pos- theuses plan for theto establish future. Ina more the case effective of Lake drainage Xolot sibly be established as protected areas. It is im- lán, it is recommended to continue developing mixed with sediments and wastewater that is for coastal lagoons, subject to silting up by the notsystem treated that inwill the control WWTP the of influxManagua, of rainwater with the sedimentportant to swept include in by specific tributaries. management plans WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA 478

The growth of urbanizations implies an in- In order to improve water quality in relation crease in surface runoff and therefore greater to microbiological contamination, better con- 6. erosion. Special attention should be paid to the 13. trol should be exercised over wells dug in ru- basin around urban centers with land use con- ral areas, which requires the introduction of trol plans and to improving or establishing ef- protection measures at the farm level and in fective drainage systems. communities. There is an urgent need to prevent the contin- The transmission of disease agents through uation of deforestation throughout the coun- surface and groundwater has affected the 7. 14. health of the population in Nicaragua. It is im- particular. This depends on the will and action portant to improve protection measures for all oftry government in general and authorities in the Biosphere and the Reservesimplemen in- sources of drinking water and water for recre- tation and/or renewal of management plans. ation beginning at the watershed level. It is essential to promote more training and in- the reserves warrants special attention by all volvement of women in water quality control The resolution of social conflicts over land in- 15. measures in general and in domestic sources. tion projects should be introduced to take ad- It is important to improve the water quality vantagethe parties of local involved. resources Entrepreneurial and involve all produc parts monitoring system to include all elements with of the communities. 16. a risk of impacting water for drinking and oth- - er uses. cide management with better control and reg- • It is advisable to include monitoring that 8. ulationGood agricultural should be implemented practices and to betterprevent pesti fur- controls the proper functioning of waste- ther contamination of water resources. water treatment plants in order to guaran- Although good solid waste management mod- tee safe quality for disposal or reuse. els already exist in a few cases, it is essential for 9. Nicaragua to make more progress in streamlin- provide diagnostics and the necessary infor- - 17. mationIt is essential for water to increase quality control scientific with research a view to nal disposal in garbage dumps organized in the minimizing the impact on human health. In this ing urban and rural collection systems, the fi respect, it is important to build institutional capacities to promote research and information waterform ofquality landfills as well and as increasing economically. recycling. All analysis to improve environmental conditions Wastewaterthis can benefit should society be seen as regards as a source health of andwa- and to offer solutions in order to avoid affecting ter, energy and nutrients. It is important to ad- the population due to the use of water of inad- 10. vance in more reuse practices for these waters, equate quality. particularly in dry areas, to cope with periods It is necessary to improve the implementation of drought and maintain agricultural production. It is obviously necessary to have a good 18. monitoring system to evaluate quality accord- of environmental laws, particularly the General ing to its use perspective. theLaw most of National important Waters, measures No. 620. have Even yet though to be Law No. 620 was passed on September 4, 2007, Nicaragua, it is essential to control water quali- • 11. tyGiven due to the the volcanic presence nature of arsenic of certain and other parts met of- implemented, such as: Art. 114 of this Law, which states that at its- basis of the geological and toxicological evalu- calfirst Committee meeting, the from National among Council its members of Water to ationsals. Better of the planning sites under of well consideration drilling zones ison also the formulateResources and(CNRH), draw should up a national create a plan Techni for recommended. water resources with land management Special attention should be paid to industrial criteria and a basin approach for appro- and artisanal mining to control possible con- priate land use, and ensure the production 12. tamination processes, which are the result of and protection of water in the medium and the extraction steps and the elements used to facilitate the recovery of the metal. the National Plan for water production, long term. Art. 117, Law 620 stipulates that 479 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | NICARAGUA

once approved by the National Council of the dissemination of the information obtained. In order to preserve the wealth of water resources in Nicaragua, it is essential to develop Water Resources (CNRH), will become part- 20. governance that takes into account the ratio- cate ofthe the population National Wateron the Resources importance Policy. of every nal use of resources and their relationship with 19. aspectIn order of to water promote quality, scientific it is important research toand estab edu- each other. lish a database of information on water quality - Acknowledgment accessible to the public. Article 14 of the afore mentioned Law 620 states that the following- Special Thanks and Acknowledgements to Salva- tem.are water This system resource consists management mainly of instruments: geographic, meteorological,The National Water hydrological Resource and Information hydrogeologi Sys- resources and watershed management for his care- cal information and includes database manage- fuldor revision Montenegro and suggestionsGuillén, national on the expert content on ofwater this ment, network operation and maintenance and chapter

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- ológica del agua en los sitios de recolección A Snapshot of the World’s Water Quality: Sandoval E. y Saborío A. (2008). Calidad bacteri UnitedTowards Nations a Global Environmental Assessment. Programme (UNEP)- Anadara similis) en Chinandega. Revista Encuen- (2016). tro.de “conchas negras” (Anadara tuberculosa y Nairobi: UNEP. Re Einführung in die Limnologie. trieved from: https://uneplive.unep.org/media/ 2008/ Año XL, N° 81, 30-47. Managua: UC. Desaprovechado.docs/assessments/unep_wwqa_report_web.pdf Informe Mundial de las Na- Schwoerbel, J. (1987). UN ciones Water Unidas (2017). sobre Aguas el Desarrollo Residuales. de El los Recurso Recur- Stuttgart: Gustav Fisher Verlag. - sos Hídricos 2017. Secretaríajar Humedales de la Convención de Importancia de Ramsar Internacional (2010a). y otrosManejo humedales. de humedales: Manuales Marcos Ramsar para para maneel uso Paris: UNESCO, Retrieved from racional de los humedales http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/0024 76/247647s.pdf Acerca, 4ª de ed., SER vol. San 18. Antonio. Gland VammenCocibolca, K., Pitty Nicaragua J. y Montenegro y sus causas Guillén en la S. cuenca.(2006). (Suiza): Secretaría de la Convención de Ramsar. EvaluaciónEutrofización del proceso en América de eutrofización del Sur, Consecuen del Lago- SER San Antonio (2018). - cias y Tecnologías de Gerencia y Control. Instituto Retrieved from: http://www.nicaraguasugar. En Sistemacom/index.php?option=com_content&view=ar de Información de Agua y Saneamiento ticle&id=8&Itemid=175 Internacional de Ecología, InteracademicLos recursos Panelhídri- www.siasar.org/es/paises/nicaragua coson International de Nicaragua. Issues, 35-58. Rural (SIASAR) (2018). Retrieved from: http:// Vammen K. y Hurtado I. (2010). - CEPAL. Retrieved from:- Stelzerorganic R.S., matter Heffernan quality J. y on Likens microbial G.E. (2003).respiration The http://coin.fao.org/coin-static/cms/me andinfluence biomass of dissolved in a forest nutrients stream. Freshwater and particulate Biol- dia/5/12820625348650/fao_nic_recursoshidri- ogy, cos_cepal.pdf Gestión de Residuos y Proveedores Vammen K. (2012). Conclusiones del Estudio “Cali de Desechos. 48(11), pp.1925-1937. - dad y Disponibilidad de los Recursos Hídricos en- Stylescluster.org/pages/releaseview.action;jsession L. (2015). - la Subcuenca del Río Viejo”.Universidad Aporte y paraCiencia Lograr Vol. Retrieved from: https://dlca.log- un Estado Ambientalmente Equilibrado en Ben eficio a la Población. id=1270838B1EB9202214A1E5FD2737CB44?page 6, Núm. 9 (2012). Retrieved from: https://www.Report of Id=7897123Aplicação de modelos simplificados para lamjol.info/index.php/UYC/article/view/1953the First Meeting of the Leptospirosis Burden Ep- Toledoavaliação A.P, Agudoda eutrofização E.G., Tolarico em lagos M., e reservatóri Chinez S.J.- Worldidemiology Health Organization Reference Group. (WHO) (2010). os(1984). tropicais. Geneva. Retrieved opment. Goal CETESB. 6 Synthesis Report 2018 on Water from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/han Unitedand Sanitation. Nations (UN) (2018). Sustainable Devel dle/10665/44382/9789241599894_eng.pdf?sequ - Progresoence=1 para Agua Potable. Saneamiento e Hi- New York: UN. Retrieved from: Worldgiene Health 2017. Organization (WHO) y UNICEF (2017). d-sanitation/http://www.unwater.org/publication_catego ries/sdg-6-synthesis-report-2018-on-water-an Geneva. Retrieved from: https:// www.unicef.org/spanish/publications/index_9 6611.html WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 485

Panama

Panamá es un país con abundantes recursos hídricos y cuencas cuyo 80% tiene una calidad de agua considerada como aceptable o poco contaminada. Sin embargo, se presentan problemas estructurales de manejo de agua, sobre todo en las cuencas de los ríos que pasan por la Ciudad de Panamá. Esta situación pone una fuerte presión en recursos para la construcción y mantenimiento de una infraestructura adecuada para saneamiento.

Water Quality in Panama

José Fábrega, Elsa Flores, Manuel Zárate, Miroslava Morán, Denise Delvalle, Argentina Ying, Marilyn Diéguez, Euclides Deago and Kathia Broce

Abstract

The current status of water quality in Panama is analyzed from different perspectives, showing that despite having abundant water resources, Panama has a series of structural problems in the context of water quality. This situation is exacerbated by the strong demographic

the challenges posed by the future, integrated water resource management is regarded as thegrowth most in sustainable urban areas, option making for attention maintaining to sewerage and improving an increasingly the water important quality of issue. our rivers. Given However, in order for it to be successful, a modern regulatory framework and the allocation

the existing one are required. of sufficient resources for the construction of new infrastructure and the maintenance of

1. Introduction 1.1 Background

Panama is a country whose per capita water availability in 2014 was approximately 34,990 m³/inhabitant/year (http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ER.H2O.INTR.PC). Moreover, according to the National Water Security Plan (PNSH) 2015-2050: Water for Everyone, the total supply of fresh water in Panama is 119,500 million m³/year, 25% of which is used. This demand is distributed as follows: energy use 89.6%; transportation through the Panama Canal 7.4%; food safety 1.7%, human consumption 1.3%; industry and other items less than- ry0.05% in the (MiAMBIENTE, city of Colón 2016b).with the construction of the transisthmian railway, it was not until Although the isthmus installed its first water treatment plant in the mid-19th centu drinking water distribution and wastewater management networks were built in the cit- the beginning of the 20th century, when the Panama Canal was constructed, that the first

José Fábrega. [email protected] Chapter coordinator and corresponding author.Director and researcher, Center for Hydraulic and Hydrotechnical Research, Technological University of Panama; Secretary and Water Focal Point of APANAC; Distinguished Researcher of the National Research System of Panama (SNI). Elsa Flores. [email protected] Researcher; Center for Hydraulic and Hydrotechnical Research, Technological University of Panama. Manuel Zárate. [email protected] Environmental Consultant and Manager of Planeta Panamá Consultores, S.A. Miroslava Morán. [email protected] National Water Commission. Denise Delvalle. denise.borrero@ utp.ac.pa Researcher; Center for Hydraulic and Hydrotechnical Research, Technological University of Panama. Argentina Ying. yingargen- [email protected] Medicine Faculty, Universidad de Panamá. Marilyn Diéguez. [email protected] Water Quality Unit, Panama Canal Authority (ACP). Euclides Deago. [email protected] Director of Basic Sanitation, CONADES and Researcher at Center for Hydraulic and Hydrotechnical Research, Technological University of Panama. Kathia Broce. [email protected] Researcher; Center for Hydraulic and Hydrotechnical Research, Technological University of Panama. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 487

ies of Panama and Colón. The Aguas Claras water - - - ma has nearly 100 secondary treatment plants con treatment plants were built in Colón (1911), Monte centrated mainly in the cities of Panama, La Chor wastewaterEsperanza (1914) and stormand Miraflores water ran (1915), directly which into sup the rera and Arraiján, benefitting nearly 100,000 people plies Panama City (MiAMBIENTE, 2016b). However, (FOCARD-APS, 2013). - and Manzanillo in the Caribbean. waterMoreover, treatment in plant 2006, in the Panama Bay Sanitation which provides Project rivers,Previously, flowing intothe themultiple bays of sub-basins Panama in of the Panama Pacific was begun, marking the first phase of a large waste- rivers-were the sources of water supply for the pop- services to approximately 250,000 people and re ulationCity-those using of the carriage Matasnillo, systems Río Abajofor transportation; and Curundú isceives moderately 1.8 m³/s environmentally (FOCARD-APS, 2013). friendly. These proj- latrines were the main receivers of excreta, while Likewise, there is a single sanitary landfill, which- domestic wastewater and garbage were discharged ama City. Again, there is a striking difference in in- onto the beaches, swamps and mangroves. In the vestmentects (Bay Seweragebetween the and urban landfill) area are at locatedthe ends in of Pan the

- rest of the country, where major structural trans- rest of the country, the first aqueducts were only Canal Basin compared with urban centers in the built- areas between closely 1914linked and to 1920, the metropolis in the cities as of sources Agua urban population due to de-ruralization processes, ofdulce, agricultural Pesé and supplies Las Tablas - all private, (MiAMBIENTE, while the 2016b) rural haveformations, occurred together in various with cities the (Colón, densification Santiago, of Da thesector was generally overlooked. vid, Penonomé, Changuinola and others).

1.2. Main water quality problems Panama has 56 drinking water treatment plants The main water pollution problems are found in the withand 2,830an extremely Rural Water heterogeneous and Sewerage distribution. Boards with Cit- ieslegal in statusthe inter-oceanic (JAAR) (MiAMBIENTE, corridor, for 2016b),example, albeit are zones due to the greater demographic concentra- tionPacific and regions, the dense particularly hydrographic in thenetwork marine-coastal that feeds into them,1 in addition to the technological back- endowed with significant infrastructure capacity,- wardness in the agrarian and industrial productive while there is a major deficit in the provinces of- Los Santos, Herrera and Darién, as well as the in infrastructures of wastewater management, partic- servicedigenous conditions. districts ofThe Guna, proper Ngábé-Büglé management and Emand processes, and the existing deficits in the domestic berá-Wounana, which have the most precarious - industrial) poses an enormous challenge for Pana- ularly on the coasts of Panama Bay. final disposal etof alwastewater (whether domestic or to theEqually rapid increaseworrying in is the the urban pressure population, on water which re issources supplied in theby thePanama same Canal water Basin, used especiallyfor navigation due ruralma (Fábrega population in., 2015).this respect. However, According there is toalso the a processes in the canal. significant disproportion between the urban and- ma has access to improved sanitation facilities, in- 1.3 Objectives and scope of the chapter cludingWorld Bank, sewerage 80% systems,of the urban septic population tanks and in latrines Pana Provide an up-to-date portrayal of the status The main objectives of this chapter are to: (http://data.worldbank.org/ indicator / SH.STA.- 1. points of view (such as governance, health, pol- ACSN.UR). of Water Quality in the country from various Specifically, regarding the coverage of sewer- lationage services, with a sewerage the IDAAN system Statistical (in populations Bulletin N° with 26 found.lution and Sustainable Development Goals). (2010-2012) shows that the percentage of the popu 2. Establish possible causes of the situations - fewer than 1,500 inhabitants) -for which the IDAAN is responsibleet al - is 57%, which translates into approximately 45% of the country's total population 1. Panama has 52 basins comprising 350 rivers on the Pacific (Fábrega ., 2013). As for treatment plants, Pana coast (70% of the total) and 150 on the Caribbean coast. 488 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA

2. Water quality authorities ter and food meet the requirements for the prop- and governance er development of human life”. The constitutional establishment of the responsibility of the state re- Water governance in Panama is contained in a series garding water and sanitation means that the other of sectorial laws and norms (political constitution, laws of the country must be in accordance with it. formal laws, executive decrees, regulations, resolu- This general legal framework is developed in anoth- tions, national policies, etc.) comprising the guide- er set of norms which, although of lower hierarchy, lines that govern the quality levels for mainland wa- also seek to guarantee the rights protected in the ters for recreational use, with and without direct Constitution. In this respect, the regulations issued contact, and the rules for reusing treated water and by the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Commerce water quality standards for human consumption. - However, the evaluation of water quality (phys- Table 1, should ical, chemical and microbiological) for human con- beand highlighted. Industries (MICI) and the Ministry of the Envi sumption (drinking) is continuously undertaken ronmentThere (MiAMBIENTE), are other types oflisted sectoral in norms that es- by the most important suppliers, such as the Insti- tablish the framework for the operation and devel- tute of Aqueducts and Sewerage Systems (IDAAN) opment of the water and sanitation sector, such as and the Panama Canal Authority (ACP). For com- - - tity, whose functions would include the regulation, - control,the 1996 supervision Law No. 26 thatand createdoversight the of Regulatory public service En munities with populations of less than 1,500 peo provision for the supply of drinking water and sew- (MINSA),ple, JAARs which are the only water has laboratoriessuppliers for in human certain con re- gionssumption. of the The country, JAAR is as run a resultby the ofMinistry which, of in Health many this law, renaming the entity as the National Au- cases, these boards are unaware of the exact quality erage in Panama. Decree Law 10 of 2006 modified of the water delivered. forthority coercive of Public collection, Services inter-institutional (ASEP), whose regulations coordination(Executive and the Decree control No. of public279, 2006) service grant provision. it functions According to the 2010 Census, conducted by the - Comptroller General of the Republic, from 2000 to 2010, the Panamanian population increased from Another fundamental sectoral norm is the Gen When2,839,177 we to explore 3,405,813; the 12.3%issue of waterthis total quality corresponds in indig- eral Environmental Law (Law No. 41, 1998), which enousto various areas, indigenous the situation populations is different, (INEC,since, due 2012). to created the National Environmental Authority- - (ANAM), which in turn was modified by Law No. 8,- sider that water is fundamental for life, but that its ronmental2015 created protection, by the Ministry conservation, of Environment preservation (Mi their ancestral cultural patterns, these groups “con- andAMBIENTE) restoration as theand state the sustainable governing bodyuse of for natural envi resources to ensure compliance with and enforce- greatest power is manifested when it flows" (MIN - constructionSA, 2016 ). Accordingly, of water intakes any human for aqueducts, intervention for that ex- interruptsample, is seen this as flow a limitation is considered on the unnatural. use of water The monitorment of laws, activities regulations that modify and the the National water quality Environ refor personal hygiene and healing activities (PAHO/ gimemental and Policy. is also The responsible Ministry offor Environment making water must the domain of all the citizens in the country. Within the monitoring of the water quality of the rivers, it also 2.1WHO/MINSA, Legal framework 2016). has the responsibility of monitoring the quality of - the wastewater discharged into them. These regulations are valid for both the public and private Regarding the governance of water quality, the Po sectors. litical Constitution of Panama (2004) -in Title II Duties and Individual and Social Rights, Chapter 7 ofEcological the State Regime, to ensure Articles that the 118 population to 121- establishes, lives in a Panama also has a National Water Resources- healthy,among other pollution-free things, that environment, “it is the fundamental where air, duty wa- Policy formalized through Executive Decree No. 84,- 2007. Likewise, Decree 202, 1990, as amended by Ex ecutive Decree 441, 2008, created the Inter-institu WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 489

Table 1. Water Quality Regulations in Panama Name (Institution) Aspect covered Reference

Sampling Technical Regulation Official Gazette No. 23.41, DGNTI-COPANIT 21-393-99 (MICI) Sampling for biological analyses December 6, 1999. Technical Regulation Official Gazette No. 23.949, Physical, chemical, biological and DGNTI-COPANIT 22-394-99 (MICI) December 17, 1999. radiological requirements drinking

Technical Regulation water must meet Official Gazette No. 23.942, DGNTI-COPANIT 23-395-99 (MICI) Procedure to control drinking water December 7, 1999. December 30, 2003 (MINSA) quality January 20, 2004. Resolution No 507 Official Gazette No. 24.970, March 13, 2000. Technical Regulation Official Gazette No. 24.008, Reuse of treated wastewater DGNTI-COPANIT 24-99 (MICI) into water bodies and surface and Discharge of liquid effluents directly August 10, 2000. Technical Regulation groundwater bodies Official Gazette No. 24.115, DGNTI-COPANIT 35-2000 (MICI) wastewater collection systems August 10, 2000. Technical Regulation Discharge of liquid effluents directly into Official Gazette No. 24.115, DGNTI-COPANIT 39-2000 (MICI) August 10, 2000. Technical Regulation Official Gazette No. 24.115 Uses and disposal of sludge DGNTI-COPANIT 47-2000 (MICI) tional Committee on Drinking Water and Sanitation, company this management, to relations with uni- bringing together the main institutions in the sec- versities and private companies. tor, at both the operating and regulatory levels, and At the level of universities and technical train- - - - other research and education institutions. Lastly, it ing centers, the public sector includes the Univer should be noted 2016 saw the passage of the Nation- sity of Panama (UP), the Technological Universi al Water Security Plan 2015-2050 (MiAMBIENTE, Vocationalty of Panama Training (UTP), and the Training Autonomous for Human University Devel- 2016b): Water for Everyone, through Cabinet Reso- of Chiriquí (UNACHI) and the National Institute of versallution 114,access 2016. to This quality plan wateridentifies and specific sanitation goals ser to- vices,be achieved ii) Water in waterfor inclusive management, socioeconomic such as: growth, i) Uni opment (INADEH). The private sector includes the iii) Preventive risk management, iv) Healthy river SantaHere, María management La Antigua participates University (USMA) through and human the - Universidad Latina. lution created the National Water Council (CONA- at universities is conducted through undergraduate basins and v) Water sustainability. This 2016 reso theses,resource master's training degrees, and scientific and research research. projects Research on include guaranteeing the implementation of the ac- issues chosen by their faculties or research centers, GUA) and its Technical Secretariat, whose functions as in the case of the Center for Hydraulic and Hy-

2.2.tions Relations of the PNSH with 2015-2050. Non-governmental From a regulatory and quality management Organizations (NGOs) and universities pointdrotechnical of view, Research it is worth (CIHH) mentioning of the UTP. the services The structure and organization of the water and provided by the laboratories or university insti- sanitation sector of Panama is complex, as a result - of the multiplicity of institutions and actors that are part of it. Figure 1 shows the composition of the tutes such as the Industrial Water and Environmen sector, from the intervention of international coop- tal Quality Laboratory (LABAICA) of the UTP, the- eration agencies and national institutions that ac- Specialized Institute of Analysis (IEA) of the UP and the Laboratory of Water and Physical Chemical Ser vices (LASEF) of the UNACHI. It is also important to 490 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA

2.3. Monitoring, database mention that there are at least a dozen private lab- and availability of information oratories that also perform water quality analyses. Water quality in the country's watersheds is mon-

bilateral and multilateral credit and international the latter within its exclusive competence over the cooperationNon-Governmental agencies participate Organizations in the (NGOs) water and Panamaitored by Canal MiAMBIENTE, watershed. MINSA,In the case IDAAN of IDAAN, and ACP,Fig- sanitation sector mainly through training, technical ure 2 shows the behavior regarding compliance be-

advice and investment financing. tween the years 1999-2015. Figure 1. Composition of the Drinking Water and Sanitary Sewer Subsector

Executive MEF Optimal quality of life

Private Sector Bilateral and multilateral MINSA cooperation agencies Ministry of the President’s Oﬃce CONADES PAN ASEP Water and IDAAN sanitation services MIAMBIENTE ACP Other service providers Municipalities JAAR Universities

Private ﬁrms Wastewater discharges

Prepared by: Darío Delgado (OPS/OMS/MINSA, 2016).

Figure 2. Record compliance with IDAAN drinking water quality standards 1999-2015

.2 .0 100 1.0 100 6.1 6.0

0 .0 0 6.0 5.0 61.0 5.0 60 54.0 60 40.0 44.0 40 36.0 33.0 40 2.0 51.0 23.0 43.0 46.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 conducted Analyses 20 20 24.0 20.0 20.0 23.0 1.1

Analyses conforming to standards conforming Analyses 1. 1.0 14.2 12.0 13.0 15.0 0 0 2011 2015 2013 2012 2014 1 2001 2010 200 2005 2003 2002 2004 200 2006 200 2000

Analyses conforming to standards Analyses conducted

Source: Public Services Authority (ASEP, 2016). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 491

Figure 3. Water quality stations in the Panama Canal Hydrographic Basin

Source: http://micanaldepanama.com/nosotros/cuenca-hidrografica/

a water quality monitoring network was estab- In the case of MiAMBIENTE (formerly ANAM), andtotal, lower 100 rivers parts in of the the country watersheds were involved.monitored This by network became operational (through the provi- 277 monitoring points located in the upper, middle lished in 16 watersheds nationwide in 2002. This - ductivity,report presents temperature, Water Quality turbidity, Index total (WQI) dissolved values sion of equipment and training) in late 2003, largely- solids,comprising dissolved 10 water oxygen quality (DO), parameters: biochemical pH, oxygen con ternationalthanks to the Cooperation Water Quality Agency Monitoring (JICA) Techniques (ANAM, - Project (PROTEMOCA), sponsored by the Japan In- forms. The values corresponding to this monitoring ports presented by the then ANAM collected infor- demand (BOD5), nitrates, phosphates and fecal coli 2013). The last of the water quality monitoring re are available at: http:/miambiente.gob.pa/index. mation for the period 2009-2012, on 35 basins on the php/es/2013-02-20-08-51-24/biblioteca-virtual Pacific slope and 10 basins on the Atlantic slope. In 492 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA

ment of agricultural activity by young farm workers - and emigration to cities in the quest for social mo- ing Instations 2015, in located the Panama in reservoirs, Canal watershed rivers and (CHCP), prior- bility, experiences low densities of rural population, theity sub-basins ACP undertook (see Figure measurements 3 at 38 monitor- allowing natural resilience factors to adequately control polluting social processes through self-sub- nitrates, total coliforms, E. ).coli Twenty-five, total suspended param sistence practices. eterssolids, were chlorides, analyzed: sodium, OD, BOD5,total alkalinity, orthophosphates, calcium, At the same time, this abandonment is being re- chlorophyll, conductivity, total hardness, potassi- placed by large land units with intensive land use, um, magnesium, nitrites, pH, salinity, sulphates, towhich create new water quality problems. Private tal and dissolved solids, temperature, transparen- agribusiness has introduced the intensive use of cy, total organic carbon and microcystins.

3. Social and Health Aspects duesoil, towhich the isabundant usually deficientrainfall, easilyin nutrients. leach calcium, Soils in potassiumPanama are and predominantly nitrogen, while acidic their (IDIAP, high 2006) phospho and,- When we regard the environment as a system, we - in production. This requires improving fertilization ed in some way with society. We cannot, therefore, processesrus fixation through capacity good leads management to a lack of phosphoroustechnologies. addressfind that anywater environmental quality problems alteration without is concatenat locating Another problem of the Panamanian productive them within their close relationship with the para- scheme is the extensive transformation of natural digms and arrangements that dominate social life. - ma is located in the region with the highest biodiver- 3.1 Rural and urban areas ecosystems into simplified agroecosystems. Pana The countryside currently suffers from low human the existence of complex, intense natural metabo- growth in general, which as a result of the abandon- lisms,sity in whichthe world are (ANAM/CBD,also fragile. This2014), transformation which implies

Table 2. Percentage of the population with access to drinking water, according to the population censuses of 1990, 2000 and 2010 Population with and without access to drinking water by Census Provinces and 1990* 2000 2010 indigenous regions Yes No Yes No Yes No Total 81.2 18.8 90.2 9.8 92.9 7.1 74.1 Coclé 24.1 Bocas del Toro 60.2 39.8 25.9 74.6 25.4 Colón 75.9 91.5 8.5 95.1 4.9 Chiriquí 34.7 17.7 12.1 83.3 16.7 92.0 8.0 93.5 6.5 Darién 72.4 65.3 82.3 87.9 Herrera 3.4 31.9 68.1 58.4 41.6 27.6 14.3 1.4 78.4 21.6 93.6 6.4 96.6 1.4 Los Santos 85.7 96.1 3.9 98.6 Veraguas 11.2 Panamá 93.7 6.3 97.1 2.9 98.6 32.3 22.2 57.4 42.6 83.3 16.7 88.8 10.7 72.4 Kuna Yala 67.7 77.8 70.1 Emberá 89.3 27.6 Ngäbe-Buglé 29.9 38.6 61.4 Atlas Social de Panamá, Chapter 3. *Indigenous territories had not been created and indigenous areas were included in the provinces surrounding these regions. Source: MEF, WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 493

Figure 4. Infographic No. 34 of the PNSH 2015:2050 showing risk levels in terms of water quality in the river basins, in relation to the location of open-air dumps and water intake

Source: MiAMBIENTE, 2016b. inevitably drives the growth of opportunistic and the Atlantic area. The same happens in David city, undesirable species, which can only be controlled using pesticides or herbicides which, without prop- several important rivers, but currently surrounded er supervision, cause high levels of contamination by50 kmbroad from stretches the border of squatters, with Costa extensive Rica, crossed agricul byin natural water bodies, through organochlorines, tural and livestock production, albeit with intensive phosphorous chlorides, and so on. This happens at use of agrochemicals and industries with extremely the same time as devegetation and mechanization poor environmental management, in addition to a are leading to an increase in erosion, producing soil - losses and high degrees of turbidity and sedimenta- water treatment plants. Figure 4 shows the risk tion in rivers and estuaries. mapdeficient of water sanitary quality landfill in rivers and ain total relation lack ofto wastethe lo- inhabitants and only recently has a large-scale water treatmentToday, Panama plant Citybegun has to moreoperate than as part 1.5 million of the cation3.2 Health of landfills in the country. - of the District of Colón is that rivers and streams Panama Bay Sanitation Project. A worrying aspect The Panama chapter of the book Urban Water Chal- - sion,lenges the (IANAS, information 2015) addresses presented key has aspects been relatedupdat- flow directly into the Bay of Manzanillo or into the edto urbanwith a water more andholistic health approach. until 2014. According On this to occa the isGatun also reservoir,true that theso that lacustrine any contaminant load accumulates they con in - thetain bay goes itself is significantly due to the effects diluted of inthe their Canal waters. locks inIt “Análisis de Situación de Salud” (Health Status Anal ysis) (MINSA, 2015) report, and on the basis of the 494 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA

- the population, in addition to the lack of controls amanian population has access to potable water - (2010Table census, 2 it is estimated that 91.8% of the Pan ing the latter, in the provinces of Panama and Colón of the population does not enjoy water in hygien- to prevent losses in the aqueduct network. Regard ic conditions,). However, or in accordancein indigenous with areas, international over 50% the lack of a culture of rational water use coupled health agency regulations. The alleged causes range withalone, the losses lack reachof family percentages consumption of over meters. 40% due to from the dispersion of the inhabitants, scant access to populated areas, to internal migration process- Diseases transmitted by vectors associated with water - water”es and theof the cultural World influence Health Organization of first peoples. (WHO), In this in gue, chikungunya, Zika and malaria. Their percent- otherarticle, words, we use a thesource definition of water of “accessless than to onedrinking kilo- In Panama, the main diseases of this type are: den meter from the place of use and the ability to obtain due to the lack of drinking water, a condition that - requiresages of incidencepeople to store are still water significant in vessels and that mainly serve as effective breeding grounds for these diseases. areas20 liters would a day not for have each access family to member. an adequate It was pota esti- Figure 5 shows a sustained decrease in dengue mated that, by 2014, 25% of homes located in rural

ble water service and that 0.7% of homes would not fromThe 2014 Chikungunya to the present, virus from (Figure 5,517 cases 6) was in 2014 intro to- have any access to water (INEC, 2010). - 2,917 in 2016. - imentation,MINSA (2015)pesticide attributes contamination, the above inadequate to several wastewaterfactors: poor disposal, soil management, ecosystem deforestation, deterioration sed(ex- duced in Panama in 2014, when 68 cases were re acerbated by severe forms of environmental pol- ported (26 indigenous and 42 imported). In 2015, lution), unplanned urbanizations on the banks of there were 181 confirmed cases (162 native and 19 river basins or rivers, a sustained increase in the imported); in 2016 there were 11 positive cases (6 demand for water resources to meet the needs of indigenous and 5 imported); whereas in 2017, only 2 of the 317 suspected cases were positive. Since week 47 of 2015, there have been cases of infection with

Figure 5. Dengue cases and incidence rate according to year of occurrence in Panama 1993-2017

000 Cases Rate 250 46

000 200 6000 54 551

5000 41 4326 150 32

Cases 4000 304 325 202 334 2641 25 21 100 3000 2002 132 1605 2000 1461 inhabitants 100,000 per Rate 12 50 0 6 412 1000 31 424 310 15 0 0 2011 201 1 2015 2013 13 15 2012 2014 2016 14 1 1 16 2001 2010 200 2005 2003 2002 2004 200 2006 200 2000

Source: MINSA, 2017b WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 495

Zika virus in Panama, another arbovirus transmit- Figure 6. Incidence of cases of Chikungunya from ted by mosquitoes of the genus Aedes, with symp- 2014 to 2017 in Panama toms very similar to those produced by Dengue and 200 Chikungunya viruses, in addition to the fact that it

- 10 ple who have suffered the infection and with mi- is associated with Guillain-Barré syndrome in peo crocephaly in children born to mothers who have 160 been infected during pregnancy. On March 15, 2016, 140 the National Liaison Center of Panama informed 120 PAHO/WHO of a case of Guillain-Barré syndrome- es(GBS) of pregnant with concomitant women were Zika reported, virus infection. one of which From the end of 2015 to week 11 of 2017, 52 positive cas 100 was from Guna Yala with a positive result in 2015; cases of Number 0 together with 45 (one with a positive result from Malaria is a parasitic disease transmitted by fe- 60 malesabroad) of inthe 2016 genus and Anopheles. 6 (MINSA, 2017d)It is endemic in 2017. in Pan-

- 40 ama, with five foci located east of the cities of Pan ama and Colon, specifically in the Ngäbe-Buglé and 20 Guna Yala Counties, in the Bayano, Mortí, Jaqué and and mortality rate has remained low with a stable 0 trendPuerto in Piña recent area. years From (Figure 2001 to 7). 2017, the morbidity 201 2015 2014 - 2016 al diseases are the result of an unsafe water supply Moreover, it is estimated that 88% of diarrhe- cording to the WHO, the improvement of water sup- of the water samples were positive for some form and poor sanitation and hygiene (WHO, 2004). Ac of parasites, particularly Giardia to diarrhea, if serious consequences are accounted Blastocystis for.ply reducesIn Panama, between there are6% noand up-to-date 21% of morbidity statistics due on spp. in 35% and the etiology of diarrhea due to water consumption communities. spp. in 33%. These values confirm the contaminated with bacteria, enteroviruses, hel- deficient health conditions present in indigenous minths, free-living organisms and protozoa. The 4. Main problems impacting water quality in Panama havelast cholera studies epidemicbeen conducted was registered to determine from the 1991 pres to- ence1993, ofafter free-living which no amoebae cases have in recreational been reported, waters, nor 4.1 Eutrophication and no cases of primary amoebic meningoenceph- - alitis or granulomatous amebic encephalitis have ic ecosystems, consists of their evolution towards been documented. terrestrialEutrophication, conditions which due occurs to nutrient naturally accumulation, in aquat Studies such as the one by Álvarez et al the vigorous development of vegetation and sedi- which included several regions in the country, - Cryptosporidium. (2010), sp. - fromment humanaccumulation. and agricultural Eutrophication sources can with be summa conse- rafound and aPanama prevalence Metro of 6.4%had the of highest prevalences quencesrized as forthe theflow structural of fertilizers characteristics and plant andnutrients func- in children under five, showing that La Chorre - Arosemena et al with 16% and 11%, respectively. Another article by accordingtioning of tothe their aquatic degree system. of eutrophication, Reservoirs are (Mar clas- . (2014) detected enteroparasitosis sified as oligotrophic, mesotrophic or eutrophic in three indigenous communities, finding that 100% 496 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA

- water hyacinth (E. crassipes). Then, in the natural phic reservoirs have little or no aquatic vegetation succession of the aquatic species that occurred in andgalef, are 1983, relatively Carlson clear and while Simpson, mesotrophs 1996). are Oligotro water the reservoir, they were followed by water lettuce bodies with an intermediate level of productivity. (Pistia stratiotes) together with a varied number of They usually have clear waters and maintain beds grass species and other broadleaf species, as well as of submerged aquatic plants and medium levels submerged species (Hydrilla verticilata). of nutrients; while eutrophic ones tend to receive large amounts of organisms, including algal blooms. hyacinthIn 1948, (E. incrassipes order to control aquatic plants, the thyme”specific ( herbicideHydrilla verticillata 2,4 D was) in introduced areas where for it water had EachDuring trophic its class construction, has different and types subsequent of fish andbeen kept under control), which through had the replaced use of copper“water lyother during organisms the operation (Margalef, of 1983).the Panama Canal, the

of aquatic vegetation, initially with native species watersulphate hyacinth. (Von Chong, This period 1986). saw From the 1951 phenomenon to 1964, it andGatún subsequently reservoir experienced with foreign problems ones. The of then growth re- ofwas the the ecological only herbicide succession used, of specifically vegetation, towhen control Hy- cent conditions, created by the release of nutrients drilla invaded and seized the operating areas kept derived from the decomposition of organic matter that was exposed, led to the exponential develop- several manatees of the species Trichechus mana- ment of a vegetable biomass of alarming propor- undertus and a T. waterinunquis hyacinth were introduced control program. into areas In of 1964, the Panama Canal in order to control certain aquatic plants, hosts of the Mansonia mosquito. At the time, weretions (Vonthe rooted Chong, species 1986). ofThe water first hyacinthaquatic plants (Eichor to- - niaappear azurea in an obstructive form (Von Chong, 1986) tees would be needed for an impact on controlling it was determined that approximately 2,000 mana ), followed by the floating species of Figura 7. Número de casos y tasas de incidencia de paludismo en Panamá 2001-2017 semana 15

4500 P. vivox 10 4213 P. falciparum 4000 33 160 Associated / Mixed

Rate 3500 140

201 3000 120

2500 100 Cases 10 2000 0 1601

1500 1233 60 inhabitants 100,000 x rate

5 66 1000 1 40 64 40 5 6 24 62 556 3 353 500 33 3 20 25 3 62 4 4 3 20 1 1 6 5 2 0 0 2011 201 2015 2013 2012 2014 2016 2001 2010 200 2005 2003 2002 2004 200 2006 200

Source: MINSA, 2017c. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 497

- lated the Carlson Trophic Status Index (TSI) for the - vegetation in the Gatún reservoir to begin to be noticed (Von Chong, 1986). Gatún and Alhajuela reservoirs (Panama Canal Au- In 1977, the former Panama Canal Company re phyll-basedthority, 2010). trophic In the status evaluation index of (ChlorTSI) the trophic is stateused Canal.ported Hydrilla that “colonies verticillata of aquatic, a submerged macrophytes species, in asof the mainGatún index, and Alhajuelabecause this reservoirs, is the best the estimator chloro Lake Gatún were preventing the operation of the posed the greatest danger to navigation in Gatún andof the Total algal biomassPhosphorus (Carlson Surface and Simpson,Concentrations 1996). reservoir,Lake” (PCC, met 1977, the Dardeau,need to control 1983, Clark,Hydrilla 2015). verticil The- (totTPSC)Secchi Transparency have also been or Depth considered Evaluation as comple (STDE)- lataintroduction (Custer etof althe herbivorous carp, in the Gatún mentary. The index provides values that may vary Neochetina bruchi weevil was introduced to con- - ., 1979, in Clark, 2015). In 1977, the ing the limit with mesotrophy. Sameodes albiquitallis betweenAs shown 0 (oligotrophy) in Table 3 ,and and 100 based (eutrophy), on the results 50 be trol the floating hyacinth species, was introduced, isand important in 1979, to the note that in the process of butterfly natural successionattacked the of floatingaquatic vegetation, species of waterother hyacinth.plants have It reservoirof the ChlorTSI, the values the Gatúnof the andChlorTSI Alhajuela vary reservoirsin the waare generally classified as mesotrophic. In the Gatún

Ctenopheryngodonbeen replacing those idella that werewere introducedcontrolled. Inas 1978,bio- ter quality stations, between 25 (minimum in BAT- logicalover 250,000 control fingerlingsfor Hydrilla of, with the no herbivorous reduction in carp the 2014) and 50 (maximum in HUM-2016), and in the biomass of this plant being observed in the reser- ofAlhajuela, spatial distribution,between 32 (minimumit is possible in BOP-2011)to distinguish and areas51 (maximum where the in ChlorTSIERP-2010 values and PNP-2010). are lower Inon terms aver- - voir (Von Chong, 1986). of theBetween giant snail1986 andPomacea 1988, asp., person introduced who was it intoun age: in the Gatún reservoir, towards the ARN (38), aware of the “voracious herbivore” characteristics RAI (37), ESC (34), BAT (34), MLR (38), TME (36) and TMR (38) stations, and in the Alhajuela reservoir, ofthe the Gatún Hydrilla reservoir, became in thevisible area a offew La months Arenosa, later. La towards the mouths of the Boquerón and Pequení- ChorreraHuman activity (Gutiérrez, was largely 1991). Itsresponsible effect as a for controller spread- organicrivers where solids. the BOP station (37) is located. In both ing it throughout the entire reservoir. This is con- reservoirs,The high the level STDE of wateris influenced renewal, by as suspended a result of inits Pom- use for locks, as well as the removal of aquatic vege- acea sp.) and a moth larva (Parapoynx sp.), whether tation, creates less eutrophy. However, the increase firmedintroduced by Clark accidentally (2015), who or intentionally,states that a snail have ( been in suspended solids may have a negative impact on the biological controls that could explain the chang- water quality, which could lead to an increase in the - - tion, carrying total suspended solids has a negative es that occurred after almost 20 years. impactcost of treatingon the ecosystem raw water with for effectspurification. on the In aquatic addi Lastly, a comprehensive study of the aquat ic vegetation in the Gatún reservoir has not been undertaken since 1994. However, there have been- fauna4.2 Natural and flora. contaminants tionshort of studies species on using water thequality, photogrammetric (Jara, 2012) and meth trips- - to the Chagres River for the identification/loca- - ular management of vegetation which, in the case As shown in section 2.3, in 2013 the ANAM (current ofod Hydrilla(Jaramillo,, has 2013). been Other reduced studies since concern the appearance the reg rivers.ly MiAMBIENTE) Measurements prepared were made its last in monitoring the high, mid re- dleport and in thelower period parts 2009-2012, of each river,on 35 tobasins evaluate and 100the - of the snail mentioned earlier. Finally, since 2003 the ACP, through the Water Quality Unit, has been- indicesWater Quality rate the Index quality (WQI). of the The river WQI as classifies between wa ex- implementing the Water Quality Monitoring and ter quality on a scale of 0 to 100. Qualitatively, these Monitoring Program, which, since 2009, has calcu 498 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA

Table 3. Annual average of trophic states (ChlorTSI) for the period 2009-2016 Year Gatún Reservoir a/ Alhajuela Reservoir b/ 43 47 2010 42 2009 2011 40 48 2012 37 44 39 2013 44 2014 34 42 36 37 47 41 44 2015 Average2016 39 44

Observations: a) The annual averages indicate that, from 2009 to 2016, the annual average of TSI in the Gatún reservoir remains in reservoira mesotrophic remains state. in Thea mesotrophic T test for independent state. samples, with an alpha of 0.05, indicates that there are no significant differences in the TSI value of 2009 and 2016. b) The annual averages indicate that, from 2009 to 2016, the annual average of TSI in the Alhajuela

Source: Prepared by Marylin Diéguez (2018) based on data from the ACP.

Table 4. Ranges and ratings for WQI values used by MiAMBIENTE of drinking water for the majority of the population juela and Gatún reservoirs, which serve as a source Intervals Rating (descriptor) in the main metropolitan areas of the country (Pan- ama and Colón), warrant particular attention.

91-100 Excellent/Unpolluted - Moderate/Not very polluted Regarding the seasonal variation of the WQI in 71-90 Good/Fair Poor/Polluted the CHCP, in the historical period 2003-2013, high 51-70 Very bad/Highly polluted er average values (85-87) are observed in the dry- 26-50 cidingseason with (January-April) the start of withthe rainya peak season. in March Finally, ( 87), a 0-25 slightwhich decrease fall between is observed May and between June (83 August and 82), and coin De-

cellent or uncontaminated and very poor or highly contaminated. Table 4 presents the quantitative cember with values of between 80 and 81, and lower and qualitative correlation of this index. Table 5 average4.3. Heavy values metals in November (80) (ACP, 2016). - - ers evaluated. alization of coastal areas, pollution, overexploita- gives a summary of the indices found in the 100 riv tionRapid of populationresources and growth low environmental worldwide, the protection industri Hydrographic Basin of the Panama Canal (CHCP) contribute to the deterioration of marine ecosystems, creating public health problems and consid- similar number of samples were calculated at the erable economic losses (Tayeb et al In 2015, a total of 683 water quality indices for a been affected by anthropogenic activities,., 2015; Chen creat and- CHCP. As shown in Table 6, the results obtained are ingBroce, an environmental 2015). In Panama, problem, various particularly ecosystems in havema- very similar to the results for the period 2003-2013 rine-coastal ecosystems. The impact on these ar- (ACP, 2016). The percentage distribution of the ICA eas is directly caused by mechanisms such as the in the monitored reservoirs of Gatún, Alhajuela and accumulation of potentially dangerous substances Miraflores, the main rivers and the middle section in marine sediments, such as heavy metals, organ- emphasizesof the Chagres the River good and water the qualitypriority of sub-basins the various of ic pollutants, radionuclides, etc., as well as the en- waterthe CHCP bodies are of summarized the CHCP. The in valuesFigure of 8. the This of figure Alha- try of numerous outfalls, containing pollutants of WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 499

various origins (industrial, agricultural, urban, etc.) Table 5. Summary of WQI results in 100 rivers, within 35 et al hydrographic basins in the Republic of Panama for the Among the heavy metals2 or trace elements3, period 2009-2012 (Benali ., 2015). mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) stand Water Quality Index a/ No. of rivers out because of their toxicity and greater presence in 0 the environment (Orozco et al 4 many heavy metals enter the marine environment, Excellent ., 2003). Even though 40 mainly as a result of anthropogenic activities (do- Excellent/Good 34 mestic, industrial and agricultural waste), they are Good usually transported through the water cycle by nat- Middle 3 Good/Medium

Cd, copper (Cu) and Pb are used in industries Poor 1 suchural processes as mining, (Montero metal smelting and Tenorio, and paint 2010). manufac- Medium/Bad 8 1 turing. The residual discharges of these activities Very bad 1 without previous treatment may reach the atmo- Bad/Very bad sphere and be transported by the winds, while the Not reported b/ 1 runoff produced by the rains and rivers may go be- Other c/ 7 Total 100 - ducedyond the by localgeochemical source thatprocesses produces such them as weather (Barría- different sections (high, medium and low), it was decided to insert interme- ing,and diagenesis,Barría, 2004). desorption Heavy metals and ion may exchange also be (Chen, pro a/ Given that many rivers presented different but adjacent categories, in their diate categories. Thus, a Good/medium category, for example, means that in many chemical agents enter these systems through section.certain sections of the river, the WQI was good and that in others it was fair. the2017). transport In the caseof continental of estuaries sediments, and coastal which areas, be- b/ Río Chagres Basin, monitored by the ACP and described separately in this comes the main route of entry into the marine en- c/ Results for the Tocumen, Tapia, Guararé, Mensabe, Caimito, Río Abajo and- vironment. Thus, the anthropic or natural nature Juan Díaz rivers, which have good WQI in their upper sections; although their of the entry of chemical agents into coastal areas middle and/or lower sections show variations with more than one classifica tion. For example: i) Middle section: Medium WQI and Low Section: Poor WQI, - ii) Medium and low section: Poor WQI, ii) Medium and low section: Good WQI,- lution produced. Hence the importance of identify- Low section: Poor WQI. ingmakes the it activities difficult to developed determine in the areas origin surrounding of the pol Source: Data obtained from the Water Quality Monitoring Report on the Pana the water bodies, which makes it possible to cor- ma watersheds. Compendium of results 2009-2012 (ANAM, 2013). relate this activity and the concentrations of determined metals in a set place. Table 6. Percentage distribution of WQI in the Canal At the same time, domestic waters constitute Hydrographic Basin, 2015 and period 2003-2013 the largest individual source of metals such as Cu, WQI 2015 2003-2013 Pb, zinc (Zn) and Cd in rivers, lakes and, in some Moderate

(Cr), nickel (Ni) and tin (Sn) are regarded more 2% 3% cases, coastal areas. Elements such as chromium as indicators of industrial pollution (Montero and Good 78% 77% Excellent 20% 20% generated by paint factories, pottery with enam- Source: ACP, 2016. eling,Tenorio, photothermography, 2010). Metals such pyrotechnics,as Pb and its saltscoloring are glass, or chemical industries producing tetraethyl gan-gea .org/hojared/CAgua.html). Pb was includ- - ed in the list of priority hazardous substances of the lead and certain mining activities (http://www.sa 2. Highly dangerous environmental pollutants, because they are not biodegradable and because of their potential for bioaccumu- wasIII Conference agreed to reduce of the the North environmental Sea and confirmed concentra in- lation in living organisms. tionsthe IV of Conference Pb to levels held close in toDenmark natural (1995),concentrations where it 3. So-called because of their presence in small concentrations. -

(Montero and Tenorio, 2010). In Panama, the grad 500 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA

ual elimination of the use and sale of leaded gaso- Panama, several studies have been undertaken in coastal areas to determine the concentration of polluting substances. These studies have used various ofline the (Montero concentration and Tenorio, of this 2010) material (Law in 36 the of city’ May air17, analytical matrices to determine the concentrations and1996) the has consequent been a key improvement factor in the gradual of environmental reduction of certain heavy metals in water, marine sediments, quality. Cd, a metal that is basically produced by anthropogenic activities, is associated with the exploita- Rhizophorafish, mollusks mangle and leaf L in tissue the forest (Rodríguez, located 2008). on Cañas tion of Zn and waste from the plastics industry, The study undertaken by Rodríguez (2008) on- paints and metal alloys. Since it is not biodegradable, its uptake by phytoplankton can be of great theIsland, dry Tonosí, season, Los which Santos exceeds Province, the limitsfound allowedCu con forcentrations natural settings.of over 10 The μg/g concentrations (in both the rainyof Fe, andMn calcium metabolism in animals, creating a series of and Zn in mangrove sediments were below the limit ecological significance. Moreover, it interacts with - tion of heavy metals in leaf tissue (especially roots) healthIron problems (Fe), manganese in fish (Rodríguez, (Mn) and Zn2008, are Montero consid- for unpolluted sediments. Likewise, the concentra eredand Tenorio, essential 2010). microelements, especially in the functioning of enzymes. Fe is found in lower con- indicatorof Rhizophora of the mangle bioaccumulation L. yielded highercapacity Mn of valuesroots. centrations in water and in higher concentrations Forthan Fe those and foundCu, it inwas the determined sediment. This that finding the highest is an in particulate matter and marine sediments (Chen, concentrations were present in the foliar tissue compared to the sediment and water of the estu- within organisms. However, in high concentrations, arine channel. In the case of Mn and Cu, the com- itA., may 2017). affect Cu is the also photosynthesis essential because and of development its function parison of concentrations between the sediment of algae, as well as the development of marine an- and water in the estuarine channel of the mangrove imals during their early stages (eggs, larvae, etc.), showed high levels of these metals in the sediments,

which can cause their death (Chen, A., 2017). In which is generally the case (Rodríguez, 2008). Figure 8. Percentage distribution of WQI in priority dams, rivers and sub-basins and in the entire CHCP in 2015 (ACP, 2016)

Excellent Good Medium Poor Very Poor

100 2 2 16 0 20

0 42

60 4 50 100 6 1 40

Percentage distribution Percentage 5 30

10 16 3 1 2 2 0 Alhajuela Gatún Miraﬂores Rivers Sub-basins Middle Section CHCP Components WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 501

Figure 9. Infographics No. 32 of the PNSH 2015:2050. Projections of recovery of forest cover in Panama through the plan "Alliance for the Million Reforested Hectares”

Source: MiAMBIENTE, 2016b.

concentration times and a greater amount of sediment reaching the rivers, which reduces their qual- in whichAnother the key heavy study metals was conductedanalyzed had by Quiñonesvery low (2011) on the Catival River, on the island of Coiba,4 the basin more vulnerable to extreme events. Fig- ity. Likewise, evapotranspiration decreases, making values,mangrove with swamp the exceptionof Tamborcillo of lead Island (0.05 in Punta ppb) Chame(Quiñones, studied 2011). the Another presence research of Cd, Pb project and Cu on in the theures expected 9 and 10, recovery taken from of forestinfographics cover in 32 the and basins 33 of Anadara tuberculosa ofthe the PNSH various 2015-2050 rivers in (MiAMBIENTE, the country due 2016b), to the show im- abundant metal in its tissue was Pb, with Cu be- plementation of the Public-Private Initiative called ing the scarcest. Cd andmollusk, Cu showed finding a thatseasonal the most pattern of accumulation, but not Pb, which seems to be Figure 9), as well as the current forest - cover"Alliance status for per the basin million (Figure hectares 10). of Reforested Hectares"It is important ( to note that forest cover status is transferred to seawater by anthropic sources (Bar an aspect that is within the scope of the country to ría and Barría, 2004). reverse through medium- and long-term commit- Studies on the Juan Díaz River, which flows- ments, and policies in harmony with sustainable into the Bay of Panama, showed Cr concentrations development. ranging from 0.3 to 0.7 ppm. Zn and Cu concentrations were 4.302 ppm and 0.296 ppm, both below 4.5 Wastewater itthe was norm not values possible (5.0 to ppm make and a comparison 3.0 ppm, respective with the Background ly) (De Gracia-Nieto, 2003). In the case of Cd and Pb, According to projections of the National Institute of norm (De Gracia-Nieto, 2003). However, in the case 4.4of Pb, Deforestation they did not exceed the value of 1.0 ppm. Statistics and Census of the Comptroller General of Forest cover is essential for the health of basins and Panama (INEC, 2012), by 2015 it was estimated thattheir water quality. A deforested basin means lower the Panamanian population would amount to 3.98 million, with 67% (2.66 million ) concentrated in ur ban Aareas comparative and the remaininganalysis of 33%drinking (1.31 million)water and in 4. The author cites contamination with diesel during the stor- rural areas (UNICEF, 2016). age of this fuel in the working boat as a possible cause for this sewerage coverage in Panama at the national level showed that the total unattended population finding. 502 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA

has been considerably reduced in the past three water and sanitation subsector. As mentioned in

population with access to improved drinking water - sourcesdecades.5 From 1990 to 2015, the percentage of the section 2, institutions such as IDAAN, MINSA, ASEP- nitionand MiAMBIENTE of institutional are roles responsible is needed, managing which isvari re- and rural increased populations, by 11%, respectively), bringing the while coverage access of ous aspects of the sector. However, a better defi tothis improved service fromsanitation 84 to services95% (986 and 89% in urban - flected in the duplication of roles in governance and rose by 16%, from subjectservices, to andthe vision gaps inand regulation criteria of (DISAPAS, the political 2014). au- differences59 to 75% (84 could and be 58% due in to urban the scattered and rural nature popula of thoritiesLikewise, during wastewater each period and its of treatment government. have Conse been- thetions, rural respectively) population (UNICEF in the country, & WHO, the 2015). lack Theseof in- quently, current legislation on sanitary sewerage vestment in rural areas and the lack of established and control of the discharge of pollutant loads into - water bodies is not applied due to the lack of regu- formation is available on the percentage of waste- goals for this sector (DISAPAS, 2013). Very little in 7 standards (current- - lationly under (Quiroz, review) 2004). has Insucceeded the case ofin wastewater, regulating thisthe water treated in Panama. Authors such as Lentini passagesubsector. in 2000 of COPANIT (2011) placed Panama together with Bolivia, Colom On the other hand, investment allocated for bia, Peru and Venezuela as treating between 20% wastewater collection and treatment had been theand Juan30% Diazof their Wastewater wastewater. Treatment However, Plant, as a whichresult of the entry in operation in 2013 of the first phase of - minimal until 2003, when the Sanitation Project of- currently receives 2.2 m3/s, this percentage must Panama City and Bay of Panama began, with an in have increased from 5 to 10% (Panama Sanitation vestment of over $600 million USD. This lack of in CausesProgram, of 2017). the limited sanitation vestment contributed significantly to the marked- infrastructure in Panama insufficiency of sanitation infrastructures and the The complexity of the problems posed by wastewa- severe deficiencies in existing infrastructure, main ter and its treatment nationwide is due to the inter- ly in the country’s district capitals. In the 1970s and to1980s, the alack number of resources of wastewater to guarantee treatment their systems proper years, the population has quadrupled, with the ur- (STAR) were built, which have since collapsed due bandependence proportion of factors.multiplying For example,by more thanin the sevenfold past 60 - operation and maintenance (DISAPAS, 2014). STARs, led, among other things, to a lag in the continuous builtIDAAN, after theas the DGNTI-COPANIT main provider Technicalof the urban Regula sani- supplyduring andthe qualitysame period of drinking (DISAPAS, water 2014). and sanitation This has tions in 2000, are subject to the same conditions. services, particularly wastewater treatment (Mejía charge of receiving, operating and maintaining in tation service with 47.8% coverage, is the entity in Historically, by formulating laws and creating promoters of urban projects and state institutions institutions,and Rais, 2012). governments have introduced policies optimum conditions all the STARs delivered by the- and strategies to address the needs of the drinking - nancialthat develop constraints, and promote it has beenthis type almost of project impossible (Ex - forecutive the agencyDecree No.to assume 268 of 2008). this role. However, This has due mean to fi that, in certain cases, promoters cede the respon- 5. According to the WHO (http://www.who.int/water_sanita source of drinking water is one which, due to the type of con- tion_health/monitoring/jmp2012/fast_facts/es/), an improved sibility for their operation to the owners, which struction, appropriately protects water from the external con- causes handling and maintenance problems, until tamination, particularly from fecal matter. - tion to this situation, the IDAAN does not enforce (sewerage systems, septic tanks or pit latrines), this included 6. According to the World Bank, In addition to health services the STARs eventually collapse (Silva, 2014). In addi solutions such as improved ventilated pit latrines, pit latrines the collection of sanitary tariffs associated with the

7. See Table 1. with slabs and composting toilets (http://data.worldbank.org/ indicator/SH.STA.ACSN.UR). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 503

Figure 10. Infographics N° 33 of the PNSH 2015:2050 showing the current status of forest cover in Panamanian river basins

Source: MiAMBIENTE, 2016b. provision of sanitary sewer service and wastewater especially wastewater collection and treatment. At treatment, which help offset the operating costs of the latter. thepresent, health 18.9% sector, of which public makes investment them ispriority allocated areas to Projections for the drinking water the drinking water and sanitation sector, and 8.4% to and sanitation sector To undertake this investment and achieve the pro- In recent years, major efforts have been made to in- posedwithin goals,the Government's institutions such Strategic as MINSA, Plan (MEF, IDAAN 2014). and crease and improve potable water and sanitation the National Council for Sustainable Development services throughout the country, and considerable - investments have been programmed for sanitation, ter and sanitation projects throughout the country. (CONADES) work together, developing potable wa 504 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA

The various institutions implement programs - such as the Panama Sanitation Program (PSP), ter-institutional efforts related to the water sector. which depends hierarchically on the MINSA and CONAGUA, seeks to coordinate and implement in

townships of the district of Panama and the nine In this respect, CONAGUA indicates that in the short townshipswhose goal of is theto clean special up districtthe wastewater of San Miguelito, of the 23 term, the PNSH 2015:2050 contemplates (2015-2019) as well as to improve the sanitary conditions of the the construction of new STARs at the national level (MiAMBIENTE, 2016b). 5. Sustainable Development Goal 6 two main districts of the province of West Panama: Arraiján and La Chorrera (PSP, 2017). Others include 5.1 Improve water quality homesthe Basic which Health have Program latrines, of and CONADES, the Complementa whose goal- by reducing pollution ryfor Water 2020 is and to buildSanitation 300,000 Program, hygienic created bathrooms to meet in the demands of the aqueduct systems and Sewers were replaced by the Sustainable Development of the City of Panama that could not be covered (CO- In 2016, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)- veloping countries to achieve. According to Profes- The Ministry of the Presidency, through CON- Goals (SDGs), which are broader and easier for de NADES, 2014). in fact a new geological epoch, in which human ac- improvements to oxidation ponds, construction of tivitysor Jeffrey is playing Sachs, a “The threatening world has role entered in the a basic new era,dy- ADES, also undertakes rehabilitation projects and various communities in the interior of the country The growing urban population, together with sanitary and STAR networks and sewage systems in thenamics more of thecomplex Earth” problems (Sachs, 2012). of air, water and soil sewerage systems in various districts and provin- pollution, have required cities to implement a cial(CONADES, capitals. 2017). Some For of these its part, projects IDAAN include plans theto build con-

- Sustainable Urban Water Management System tionalstruction Water of the Security corresponding Plan (PNSH), STAR which, (IDAAN, through 2016). (SUWM). A key factor for the above is for there to Lastly, 2015 saw the entry into force of the Na be water policies and regulations. The Law for the Regulation of Water Resources of Panama, passed

Box 1. Microplastics (Author: Denise Delvalle)

Origin: In 1935, Wallace Carothers of DuPont Enterprises invented the first synthetic polymer and called it nylon. Today, the following types predominate in the market: polyethylene (PE, high and low density), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS, including EPS expanded) and polyurethane (PUR). Current plastic production worldwide is approximately 300 million metric tons per year (Rocha Santos and Duarte, 2017). More than seven decades after its invention, scientists estimate that approximately 4.8 to 12.7 million metric tons of plastic end up in the oceans (Rocha Santos and Duarte, 2017). It is difficult to calculate the exact figure because plastics are constantly degraded under physicochemical conditions (radiation, erosion, wind, temperatures, friction, acidity, chemicals) into smaller fragments called microplastics or nanoplastics. Microplastics are defined as small plastic particles or fragments less than 5 mm in diameter. Primary microplastics are manufactured for industrial and domestic purposes and added to cosmetics and personal care products. Secondary microplastics are the result of the effects of climate and the fragmentation of larger plastic objects. We can also classify plastics by their origin from larger plastic objects (macroplastic) from land-based sources and marine sources such as fishing and the maritime sector, including their use in maintenance processes, such as abrasives for blasting in shipyards. Microplastics are not detected by wastewater treatment plants, and have significant differences in their concentration and a variety of distributions. Nanoplastics are found in the size range <100 nm, which is invisible to the human eye, yet present in the digestive systems and muscle tissues of benthic and marine microorganisms. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 505

Plastic use, production and recycling in Panama: The use of plastic products in Panama is estimated at 54.6 (thousands of tons), with PET products being the most common. Average production for the period 2013-2014 was estimated at 2.3% of the total production of the national manufacturing industries (Environmental Com- pany Gatún https://empresaambientalgatun.wordpress.com/category/plastico/). However, there are eight “Recycling companies in Panama”, most of which export plastics to other countries, Plastiglas, SA and Reciclas (SIP, 2009), which are the only ones that recycle this product. Globally, it is estimated that only 5% of the plastic produced is recycled, a small amount is reused, approximately half is buried in landfills while the remainder ends up in the environment and eventually enters the aquatic ecosystems. According to the Comptroller General of the Republic, between 1997 and 2010, Panama exported 42 million kg (net weight) of used plastic materials (Rivas, 2011). Recently, the Urban Home Cleaning Authority (AAUD) launched a project financed by a private company to collect PET bottles in public places (Rodríguez, 2016). Impact of microplastics: The impacts are closely related to the chemical properties of plastic polymers. For example, they can absorb persistent organic pollutants on their surface, filter them into the water, transport harmful bacteria, alter entire food chains in marine ecosystems and bioaccumulate in the muscle tissue of fish and other seafood. In 2017, the Technological University of Panama undertook a research project to calculate a national base line of microplastics present in sediments and water. The project began taking samples in the Panama Canal watershed, in places in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and will be extended to other provinces during its second phase. It will also analyze water samples from the Juan Díaz Wastewater Treatment Plant, in order to determine the volume of primary plastics in wastewater in the country. The amount of this emerging pollutant that will enter the ocean will largely depend on the scope and effectiveness of wastewater treatment. Solid waste collection is crucial to prevent more plastics from entering the oceans. Waste management should take the life cycle of plastics into account and create strategies according to circular economy models backed by new and better standards regarding plastic use in the country.

- if rivers can be regenerated by removing the con- er the elements of sustainability, urban planning, crete structures that were built in the past to cor- inthe theeconomy, mid-1960s or aspects (MICI, related 1966), to does climate not change. consid All these variables must be taken into account to implemented on the banks of these rivers and the achieve sustainability. rect their courses, as well as if “green” practices are The regulations regarding land use and air qual- restoration of the initial environmental conditions. finalPanama quality Cityof the was water selected is improved to participate through in the On the other hand, regulations regarding water ity have not been put into effect (MEF, 2009a, b, c). - and the recent construction of a mega Wastewater International Development Bank (IDB) initiative Treatmentquality have Plant been (WWTP) in force has since contributed 2000 (see to Table reduc 1)- Programknown as focuses the “Emerging on environmental and Sustainable aspects Cities such Pro as water,gram” air (IDB, quality, 2017). energy, One of greenhouse the three gas pillars emissions, of this partly improved the quality of most river basins. and noise and solid waste management, culminating Theing the government discharge plansof effluents to build into another Panama WWTP Bay and in in the recovery of the spaces of the city to turn them the short term.According to the authorities, a water into sustainable centers again. The Municipality of quality monitoring program is to be implemented

Due to the population growth in Panama City, anPanama old logistics launched and a pilot industrial plan in area2015, (Curundú)which includes and in certain rivers and streams in 2017 (Molina, 2017).- a high-density municipality (Exposición-Calidonia), dangered sustainable urban development. A recent the degradation of urban fluvial ecosystems has en- the banking district (HYPERLINK "http://mupa.gob.- sitiespa/urban-interventions"). in urban planning processes. It also created an Urban economic study conducted in China (Chen, 2017) re Laboratory to guarantee the participation of univer veals that property value increases by almost 5% 506 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA

5.2 Increasing the efficiency of water use In the rural environment, the Ministry of Agri- culture (MIDA) has undertaken initiatives to implement the use of rainwater collection for use in agri- ofThe water purpose use in of all Sustainablesectors, ensure Development the sustainable Goal culture and livestock. However, there is still a need extraction(SDG) 6.4 isand to supply“significantly of fresh increase water to the address efficiency the problem of water scarcity, and considerably reduce the number of people suffering from a shortage of for regulations designed to achieve efficient water management in irrigation networks (http://www. org/sdgatlas/sustainable-development-goals.html). fao.org/3/a-i3442s.pdf Panamá). this liquid by 2030” (http://datatopics.worldbank. 5.3 Integrated water resource management at all levels Average annual rainfall in Panama is 2928 Panama has initiated truly integrated water re- Itsmm economy (http://datos.bancomundial.org/indicador/ depends mainly on the Panama Canal, - AG.LND.PRCP.MM?name_desc=true&view=map).- ment, approval and implementation of its Nation- lons of freshwater are pumped into the oceans for sources management (IWRM) since the develop eachwhose ship activity that crossesrelies on the water. Canal. Fifty-five The Panama million Canal gal was recently expanded through the construction of a al Water Security Plan (PNSH) 2015-2050: Water for third set of locks. A key factor in this project was the Everyone and the creation by Cabinet Resolution preservation of water resources through a recycling No. The114, AugustPNSH was 23, 2016,built ofafter the a agency national responsible consulta- for monitoring this, CONAGUA. -

americas/news/the-panama-canal-example-of-sussystem and the optimization of future efficiency by- thetion ultimateand the contributionsgoal of guaranteeing of more thanthat water1,500 peo im- reducing total water use by 7% (http://eird.org/ provesple. This the National quality Plan of life, has supportsfive goals inclusive for achieving eco- - nomic growth and ensures the integrity of the essarytainability-and-water-use-efficiency.html#.WRmjj- to address the relationship between drinking environment in the country. They include the fol- water,UjGyI)) wastewater in each of the and locks rainwater in the tonew restore set. It theis nec ur- - - Wastewater re-use and rainwater management lowing: 1) Having universal access to quality wa areban increasinglywater cycle (Hobanimportant and and Wong, necessary 2006). elements ter and sanitation services; 2) Having the water re - quired for inclusive economic growth; 3) Preventive- - tionalrisk management; framework and4) Healthy education hydrographic and awareness). basins, to achieve efficient water use. An important ad Theand 5)PNSH Water contemplates sustainability short, (normative medium and and institu long vance in Panama has been its leadership in Ener forgy and buildings Environmental and infrastructures. Design or LEED In Panama, certification this ecological(Leadership construction in Energy andinitiative Environmental has been support Design)- term actions that have been identified following an userIWRM sector approach. of water This should approach consider is understood actions in at three levels of integration. A first level within each ed by the Law on the Use and Rational and Efficient of water sources8 and development of water infra- Regulation of Energy (UREE) since 2012 (National- three directions: supply management (protection atSecretariat is the government of Energy, institution HYPERLINK responsible "http://www. for its energia.gob.pa/ "). The National Energy Secretari

- buildingsimplementation. in various Panama categories currently that has have 94 projectsalready waiting to be awarded the LEED certificate and 23- 8. Alliance for a Million Hectares Program:Emblematic MiAM BIENTE program, designed to reforest one million hectares by - been certified (Pellicer, HYPERLINK "https://no 2025, with the broad participation of society and the private - sector.MIAMBIENTE is advancing in the elaboration of detailed ticias.gogetit.com.pa/edificios-verdes/"). Pana water measurements in the basins of La Villa, Santa Maria, Rio Panama will be able to prioritize the use of water, using high sci- ma is also part of the World Green Building Coun Grande, Chiriquí, Chiriquí Viejo and Chico.With these studies, - cil, a global network of more than 70 Councils of sion and sustainability. this kind around the world (World Green Building entific standards and applying criteria of equity, solidarity, inclu Council, HYPERLINK "http://www.worldgbc.org"). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 507

structure9), demand management (education,10 theme of water in its work agenda and promotes regulation,11 numerous initiatives designed to improve water building (development of human resources, information systems, financial12 process mechanisms) improvement and13 capacity, among - others); a second level of integration refers to the ernizationgovernance. of Examplesthe legal framework of these initiatives of the main include water coordination of multisectoral actions and it is pre- supplierthe updating in the of country.the 1966 In Water water Law governance, and the mod it is 14 At this also necessary to understand how different levels level, actions related to various sectors are coordiof management are presented by territorial scale, in ciselynated, at such this as level feasibility that CONAGUA and prefeasibility operates. studies order to legally recognize what works and strength- for the establishment of multipurpose reservoirs in en it or seek alternatives.

i.e. domestic. At this level, all people without excep- sub-basin),six watersheds protocols in the countryfor improving (Bayano, the Indio, exchange Santa The first level of water management is private, ofMaría, information La Villa, betweenParita rivers sectoral and theinstitutions Perales Riverwith whether at home or in industry. Most of the irriga- respect to surface and underground water intakes tion decidesystems on at efficient the farm use, level pollution in Panama and payment, are also (location of wells), and the control and registration at this level. One form of integration, for example, of water users and concessions. which would be following the runoff of the basin, The third level of integration of water manage- is still pending,15 although for this purpose, work is ment is related to the rest of the powers of the state. being promoted, such as those already mentioned

National Assembly of Deputies has adopted the At the community level in the rural area, the In Panama, in addition to the Executive Power, the by MiAMBIENTE through the ACP. - - work of the JAAR has been recognized in Panama- pre-feasibility studies for the establishment of multipurpose res- nian legislation by Executive Decree No. 1839, is 9. On behalf of MiAMBIENTE, the ACP undertakes feasibility and latory framework as co-responsible agencies with thesued state December for the 5, administration, 2014, which defines operation, their main regu- ervoirs in six basins in the country (Bayano, Indio, Santa María, tenance and expansion of rural potable water sup- La Villa and Parita basins and Perales River sub-basins).At the Panama and others, also implement investment projects in wa- - same time, institutions such as IDAAN, CONADES, Sanitation of ter and sanitation.The Ministry of Agricultural Development, for ple. These are attended by the Directorate of the its part, is developing the construction of drinking troughs, res- Sub-sectorply systems, of serving Drinking populations Water and of Sanitary up to 1,500 Sewer peo- ervoirs, minidams and irrigation systems. age (DISAPAS). 10. Within the PNSH, the need has been anticipated to strength- Moving up the territorial scale, municipalities en human resources in issues related to water management. have gradually been strengthened by Decentraliza- 11. Work is currently being done to reform the legal framework of IDAAN and the Forestry Incentives Act, which will make it pos- from property tax may be allocated to areas such as sible to compensate conservation actions and sustainable man- tion Law No. 66 (2015), which states that resources agement of natural resources and water sources. aqueducts, waste management and others that affect water resources. Traditionally, the population and plans to have an Integrated Monitoring and Alert System for 12. MiAMBIENTE is developing a Watershed Information System solutions to their problems; hence their enormous achieve better management and response to disasters, including potentialresorts to asmunicipalities pillars of good as the water first sitemanagement. for finding the National Civil Protection System (SINAPROC) designed to those of a hydrological nature. Strengthening municipal management has begun to 13. An Investment Monitoring System is being developed for all be promoted by the Decentralization Secretariat in water management in Panama, which is expected to improve the coordination with the Association of Municipalities design and planning of actions. - - of Panama (AMUPA). 14. The National Water Council (CONAGUA), chaired by the Min sible for the Potable Water sub-sector), the Ministry of Agricul- istry of Environment, comprises the Ministry of Health (respon tural Development, the Ministry of the Presidency, the Ministry - 15. Some systems are operating with various difficulties, such as ter shortages, sedimentation and problems of distribution and Remigio Rojas in the Province of Chiriqui, which suffers from wa Canal Authority and the National Aqueduct and Sewer Institute. access to farms. of Economy and Finance, Public Services Authority, the Panama 508 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA

At the metropolitan level, the Panama Sanita- In the international context, Panama has main- - sible for the expansion of sewage networks, con- (Sixaola and Changuinola). For the Sixaola basin, structiontion Unit of sewagehas been collectors strengthened, and the and operation is respon of ly two large transboundary basins with Costa Rica the treatment plant to serve the municipalities of - tionalin 2009, Technical the Binational Commission, Commission approved of thewithin Sixaola the bill is currently being drafted to enable it to main- River Basin (CBCRS) was created as a Special Bina- tainPanama, the highSan Miguelito,standard ofArraiján performance and La achievedChorrera. to A framework of the Agreement between the Govern ment of Costa Rica and the Government of Panama date (accredited three times by ISO 9001, ISO 14001 on Cooperation for Border Development, ratified by- waterand OHSAS management 18001). through basin organizations. In readyLaw No. has 7518, its operating July 10, 1995 regulations. in Costa Rica and Law No. At the basin level, the MiAMBIENTE formalizes 16, August 10, 1994 in Panama. This Commission al formalized, six of which already have management Panama has made within the commitments it has this regard, 23 basin committees have already been Lastly, there are the agreements and advances- management tools. The mandate of the basin com- work Commission for Climate Change.17 In this re- plans and two of which have Regulation Plans as gard,assumed Panama as a member has a National of the United Climate Nations Change Frame Strat- - mittees and the ordinance tools are based on Law reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as indicated in 44 ofA Augustregional 5, or2002 subnational and its regulations scale involves through zoning Ex egy, which includes 11 aspects and has a plan to byecutive climatic Decree regions. 479, 2013.At this level, management sys- to Mitigation of Climate Change (NDC)” of Panama tems linked to the protection of ecosystems are also the document “Nationally Determined Contribution usually established, for example, in protected areas, which has direct implications for the conservation to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) “(MiAMBIENTE, 2016a).

Theseof water measures sources. are Panama reinforced has 89 by protected the approval areas, of 6. Conclusions with an area equivalent to 34.43% of the country.- Despite being a country with abundant water re- the text of the Executive Decree creating the Nation sources, Panama has a series of structural problems al System of Protected Areas, in January 2007, and in the context of water quality. A rapidly growing LawAt 41 the of 1998 same (General time, also of withinEnvironment) the landscape and Law lev 8- urban population and equally swift economic de- el,of 2015there (which is the created National MiAMBIENTE). Action Program (NAP) to velopment place enormous pressure on the country to be up to date in the construction of proper 16 strategy, which includes a infrastructure for sanitation. Moreover, pressure diagnosisCombat Drought and an andaction Desertification plan already alignedbeing imple with- on water quality in our rivers and lakes is increas- the ten-year UNCCD - ing. All this, coupled with poor resource distribution, means that most of the opportunities are con- mentedAt the for national critical areas: or centralized Cerro Punta, level, Sabana IDAAN Ver is centrated in the metropolitan area, which in turn agüense, Comarca Ngäbe-Buglé and Arco Seco. means that more development hubs are required in policies (including those involving the hydroelec- the country. the main drinking water supplier. Energy sector

tric sector) are issued by the Energy Secretariat.- onlyIn slight relation polluted to water water quality, quality. 80% However, of Panamian the riv- pectBoth ofservices water management(water and energy) is related are to regulated risks, an isby- watersheds have a WQI equivalent to acceptable or suethe handledPublic Services by the National Authority Civil (ASEP). Protection Another System as water qualities in their upper part, which deterio- ers flowing through Panama City tend to have good

(SINAPROC). change adaptation. 17. Recognizing that Water Security is at the heart of climate 16. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PANAMA 509

rate in their middle and lower sections. In the case ter treatment plants, wastewater treatment plants of the Panama Canal, water quality in the reservoirs and sewerage systems in the main provincial capi- and rivers is good to excellent. tals. Although the National Water Security Plan is a As regards health, dengue continues to be the step in the right direction, it should be periodically main health problem related to water, although in reviewed. recent years there has been a steady decrease in - the number of new cases. Similar behavior has been source Management should be reinforced, ideal- observed for Chikungunya, which after reaching a ly atLikewise, the basin the level, issue as the of Integratedmost sustainable Water way Re to keep Panamanian surface water bodies in good - condition over time. In terms of meeting Sustain- iespeak cite in 2015,lead andhas declinedcopper as in therecent main years. pollutants in ecosystems.Regarding Another the issue important of heavy pointmetals, is mostthat manystud better understand the challenges we are facing (cli- of the studies have been conducted on mangroves. mateable Development change, population Goals, itgrowth, is important etc.). Itthat is therewe all- fore up to the state to propose a modern regulatory the country, it is important to emphasize the impor- framework and not only allocate resources to the tanceRegarding that the theissue issue of waterof sanitation is acquiring. conditions Invest in- construction of new works, but also to the mainte- ments in the country can be seen in both new wa- nance of existing infrastructure.

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Gaceta Oficial

la República de Panamá”. 24.613- Reglamento Técnico DGNTI-COPANIT 23-395-99 August 6, 2002. debe(MICI) cumplir por el cual el agua se reglamentan potable. Gaceta los Requisitos Oficial Ley No. 8 de 2015, que crea el Ministerio de Ambi físicos, químicos, biológicos y radiológicos que queente descentraliza(MiAMBIENTE). la Gacetaadministración Oficial 27.749-B. pública, y N° Ley No. 66 de 2015, que reforma la leyGaceta 37 de Oficial 2009, 23.942, 7 1999. Reglamentotratadas. GacetaTécnico Oficial DGNTI-COPANIT 24-99 (MICI) Ministeriodicta otras de disposicionesAgricultura Comercio (MEF). e Industrias sobre la Reutilización de las aguas residuales 27.901-A October 30, 2015. N° 24.008, March 13 2000. Digital Reglamentodirectamente Técnico a cuerpos DGNTI-COPANIT de agua y masas 35-2000de agua (MICI) (1966). Ley que regula el uso de las aguas. (MICI) sobre la Descarga de efluentesGaceta Oficial líquidos GO. Panama: MICI. 1-23. - Ministeriobiental de calidadEconomía de suelosy Finanzas para (MEF)diversos (2009a). usos”. superficiales y subterráneas. N° GacetaDecreto Oficial “Por elDigital. cual se establece la norma am 24.115, August 10 2000. - Reglamentomente a sistemasTécnico DGNTI-COPANIT de recolección de 39-2000 aguas (MICI) resid- Panama: MEF, 2009:1-26. - uales.sobre Gacetala Descarga Oficial de efluentes líquidos directa Ministeriotales de de emisiones Economía para y Finanzas vehículos (MEF) automotores”. (2009b). GacetaDecreto Oficial “Por elDigital cual se dictan normas ambien (MICI) sobre usos y No.disposición 24.115, August de lodos. 10 2000. Gaceta ReglamentoOficial Técnico DGNTI-COPANIT 47-2000 . Panama: MEF, 2009:1-8. - - Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas (MEF) (2009c). SA) sobreNo. el 24.115 Procedimiento , August 10, para 2000. controlar la cal- DecretoGaceta Oficial “Por el Digital. cual se dictan normas ambiental Resoluciónidad del No agua 507 potable. de 30 de Gacetadiciembre Oficial de 2003 (MIN es de emisiones para emisiones de fuentes fijas”. (MICI) sobre toma de Panama: muestras. MEF, Gaceta 2009:1-15. Oficial N° 24.970, Reglamento Técnico DGNTI-COPANIT 21-393-99 January 20 2004. - Resolución de Gabinete N° 114 del 23 de agosto de- (MICI)N° 23.941, por Decembe el cual 6,1999.se reglamenta la Toma de dos2016, y “Quecrea el aprueba Consejo elNacional Plan Nacional del Agua de (CONA Segu- Reglamento Técnico DGNTI-COPANITGaceta 22-394-99 Oficial ridad Hídrica (PNSH) 2015-2050:Gaceta Agua Oficial para No.to

muestras para análisis biológicos. GUA) y su Secretaría Técnica”. InternetN° 23.949, References December 17,1999. 28.104ª, August 26, 2016. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.ACSN.UR (Retrieved July 31 2014) http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ER.H2O.INTR.PC (Consultado en octubre de 2016) http://datatopics.worldbank.org/sdgatlas/sustainable-development-goals.html http://datos.bancomundial.org/indicador/AG.LND.PRCP.MM?name_desc=true&view=map http://eird.org/americas/news/the-panama-canal-example-of-sustainability-and-water-use-efficiency.html#.WRmjj-UjGyI http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3442s.pdf http://www.energia.gob.pa/ http://www.iadb.org/en/topics/emerging-and-sustainable-cities/responding-to-urbanisticas http://www.industriales.org/economia/perfil-de-la-industrimanufacturera-en-panama. octubre 26 2009 http://miambiente.gob.pa/index.php/es/2013-02-20-08-51-24/biblioteca-virtual http://micanaldepanama.com/nosotros/cuenca-hidrografica/ http://www.sagan-gea.org/hojared/CAgua.html http://www.worldgbc.org https://agua.org.mx/biblioteca/contaminacion-del-agua-por-metales/ https://apronadpanama.blogspot.com/2011/10/el-mercado-de-reciclaje-de-plastico-en.html/ https://empresaambientalgatun.wordpress.com/category/plastico/ https://noticias.gogetit.com.pa/edificios-verdes/ WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 514

Peru

Peru ranks 17th worldwide in terms of the amount of water available to its inhabitants. However, there is a huge asymmetry between the water supply of Peru and its distribution, since 62% of the population can only access 1.8% of the available water in the country, 34% has access to 97.7% and 4% to 0.5%. The greatest demand for water is for agricultural, industrial and mining activities, leaving only 7% for human consumption. Added to the problems of water pollution, in the past 30 years, water availability has been drastically reduced and its quality has been affected by population growth and the lack of water management.

Peru: the double challenge of water quality and water security

Nicole Bernex, James Apaéstegui, Betty Chung, María Luisa Castro de Esparza, José Bauer, Raúl Espinoza, César Vidal, Pablo Tsukayama, Martín Cabello-Vílchez and Katiusca Yakabi

1. Introduction

a. Background

The twentieth largest country in the world, Peru is home to 0.4% of the world population.- Although it possesses 5% of the world’s surface waters, the combination of the asymmetry- of water supply and population distribution means that the United Nations Food and Agri culture Organization (FAO) ranks Peru 17th worldwide as regards the amount of water avail able per person. In fact, the local situation is very different for the 62% of the population of the country concentrated in the Pacific region, which only has access to 1.8% of available- water; the 34% who live on the Atlantic slope with access to 97.7% of available water; and the 4% who live on the slopes of Titicaca and have access to 0.5% of available water nation wide. The greatest demand for water is in the agricultural sector, which accounts for 86%, followed by population use with 7%, industrial use with 6% and mining use with 1% (ANA, 2017). “Water pollution in Peru is as old as the existence of cities, because rivers and seas andhave agriculture, served and as continue well as theto serve role of as industrial final disposal complexes points and for sewage”large cities. (ONERN, The problem 1985). Thiswas largelyis due to overlooked the impact in ofa countrythe development where annual process, per capita particularly resource mining, availability the fishing was extremely industry

population growth and the lack of water management, water availability was drastically re- ducedhigh (120,032 while its m³/inhabitant/year). quality was also affected However, (Table in 1the). following three decades, as a result of

million,The Nationalwhich will Institute lead to ofa greaterStatistics demand and Informatics for water ofand Peru an estimatesincreasing that contribution by 2021, the of country will surpass 33 million inhabitants and that by 2050 the population will reach 40

Nicole Bernex [email protected] Chapter Coordinator. PhD in Geography; Professor at the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú; member of the National Academy of Sciences; National Focal Point of the IANAS Water Program. James Emiliano Apaéstegui Campos japaéstegui@ gmail.com Ph.D. in Geosciences, Researcher at the Geophysical Institute of Peru and at the Scientific Institute of Water. Perla Betty Chung Tong [email protected] MSc in Chemistry. María Luisa Castro de Esparza [email protected] PhD in Public Health. Lead auditor at the Canadian Association for Laboratory Accreditation Inc. (CALA); Regional consultant of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO/WHO). José Bauer Cuya [email protected] PhD in Sciences with mention in Microbiology. Director of the Biomining and Environment Unit of the Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia. Raúl Arnaldo Espinoza Villar [email protected] Ph. Dr in Applied Geosciences and Hydrology, Hydrochem- istry, Soil and Environment. Researcher at the Geophysical Institute of Peru. César Enrique Vidal Cobian [email protected] PhD in Geology. Member of the National Academy of Sciences; member of the Geological Society of Peru. Pablo Tsukayama Cisneros pablo.tsukayama@ upch.pe PhD in Molecular Microbiology. Head of the Laboratory of Microbial Genomics, Department of Cellular and Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Philosophy, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia. Alfonso Martín Cabello-Vílchez [email protected] PhD in Biopharma- ceutical Sciences. Coordinator of the Laboratory of Protozoa and Pathogenic Endosymbionts, of the "Alexander von Humboldt "Institute of Tropical Medicine”, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia. Katiusca Susana Yakabi Brediñana [email protected] MSc in Environmental Development. Professor at the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 516

- cies, gaps in knowledge, management shortcom- ofpollutants water resources to waterbodies. seriously The affects National the Waterquality Re of certain successful experiences and possible strate- watersources itself Plan acknowledgedand its environmental that, “The environment, intensive use giesings to and replicate recent advances.in order to Emphasis reverse water is placed quality on and jeopardizes the continuity of undertaking ac- problems, thus improving the health of ecosystems tivities that are sustained by water and guarantee and populations, with the aim of achieving water security at all levels. b.its Mainavailability” water (ANA, quality 2013: problems16). Information has been scarce and unreliable for de- 2. Regulatory framework for was acknowledged in an extremely preliminary way. water quality and governance Thecades. amount It was onlyof domestic in 1979 that wastewater the volume discharged of effluent a. Legal framework by discharge from the mining industry into surface The rules for protection and conservation of nat- into seawater was 503 million m³/year, followed - water with 244 million m³/year and industry with ural water sources in Peru were instituted in 1969 44’650,000 m³/year. In 1981, effluent from the min sixby thetypes General of water Water according Law (D.L. to their No. type17752) of anduse, itsin ing industry into seawater amounted to 43,616,400 Regulations (D.S. N °261-69-AP), which established- m³/year while effluent from the fishing industry ofinto pollution these same had watersemerged totaled in the 38,590,000 country as m³/year a result addition to the limit values of 23 parameters estab- of(ONERN, oil exploitation 1985). It wasin the also rainforest. noted that This a newoccurs type as inglished the for six the classes different of water types according of water. to In their 1989 typethis a result of eliminating the saltwater that is extract- ofRegulation use, but modifyingwas modified the limit(D.S. valuesN °007-83-SA), of certain leav pa- ed together with oil, which is discharged into rivers, affecting the hydrobiological fauna. A case in point The bodies responsible were in the Health and rameters, such as the BOD for Class II. - is CorrientesFigure 1 River-Loreto,summarizes intothe whichcomplexity 1,300,000 of them³ Agriculture sectors. However, since 1999, interest in problemsof saltwater of waswater dumped quality, in increased a single yearby informality, (1984). protecting the environment has increased. The En- - vironment and Natural Resources Code was enacted tion, but also causes several acute territorial con- (D.L. No. 613) and fifteen years later, in 2005, the Gen- which not only increases the cost of water purifica eral Environmental Law (Law No. 28611) was passed.- Subsequently, in 2008, with the creation of the Min c.flicts, Objectives over either and water scope quality of or the its quantity.chapter istry of the Environment (MINAM), the Environmen This chapter describes the state of the art of water tal Quality Standards (ECA) for Water were enacted - standards(D.S. N°002-2008-MINAM), were updated several in which times, four most categories recent- of use and 16 subcategories were established. These quality in Peru, the multiplicity of existing deficien Table 1. Water Resource Distribution in Peru, 1985-2013 Population Drained volume Availability vs. population ratio Slope (Inhabitants) (Million m³) (m³/inhabitant/year) 1985 2013 1985 2013 1985 2013 3,370 Atlantic Pacific 10’274,838 18’801,417 34,624.64 34,136.00 1,816 Titicaca 12,423 5’931,366 10’018,789 1’998,751.68 1’895,226.00 336,980 189,167 Total 17’025,024818,820 1’246,97530’067,181 2’043,548.2610,171.94 1’935,621.006,259.00 120,032 64,3765,019

Source : ONERN, 1985: 100; ANA, 2013. Compiled by the authors 517 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU

and promotes the integrated management of water dischargely in 2017 (D.S.limits N°004-2017-MINAM), for the manufacturing, together agricultur with- resourcesThe Law by ofwatershed. Water Resources The value regulates of water the is con use- althe and Maximum energy industries Permissible have Limits yet to (MPL). be established. However, sidered in its economic, environmental and social - - coordinates the actions of all its members to im- cializedThat same technical year, MINAM body createdand steering the Agency committee for Envi for plement,aspects. The monitor ANA, asand the evaluate governing the bodyNational of SNGRH, Water ronmental Assessment and Control (OEFA) as a spe strategy, at the various levels of government. At the the National System of Environmental Assessment- Resources Plan and its water quality improvement- and Control (SINEFA) in Peru. - In 2009, the Law on Water Resources was en reportsinstitutional on the level, quality the Water of surface Resource water Quality circulating Man (ANA),acted (Law the governingNo. 29338) body to replace of The the National General Water Wa inagement certain Office stretches of the of theANA river. monitors and produces ter Law, designating the National Water Authority The Ministry of Housing, Construction and San- authority. ANA is responsible for the administration itation (MVCS) is responsible for the National Poli- ofResource water resources.Management It grantsSystem water (SNGRH), use rights,as the sole ap- cy on water, sanitation and wastewater treatment proves authorizations for the dumping and reuse of services. It also draws up the investment plan and treated wastewater, conducts water quality monitoring with an annual monitoring plan for basins, of the environmental instrument, a requirement authorizes works in natural sources, forms Water fordefines authorizing the budget the for dumping the sector. and The reuse certification of treat-

Management Plans. Resource Councils and approves their respective ed wastewater, is the responsibility of the General Directorate of Environmental Management of the Figure 1. Problems of environmental quality in Peru

High concentrations Non-compliance with Lack of environmental regulation of contaminant load in water environmental regulation

Landﬁll hub Illegal dumping Informal activities in basin

Existence of mining liabilities Presence of solid waste on river banks Discharge of untreated RA

Water Contamination

Deterioration in population’s quality of life Disorder land management Disorderly jurisdiction and authority

Impact on population's health Alteration of landscape Evasion of payment of compensation

Social conflict caused by water use Modification of river flow Minimal water quality monitoring of Generation of contamination hubs Lack of discharge infrastructure

Lack of authority for control of discharges and insuﬃcient budget Increase in untreated discharges Dumping of untreated eﬄuents for management and monitoring

Source: Ocola, J.J. (2016). Protección del agua - vigilancia y control de vertimientos. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 518

MVCS. In the case of sludge generated in wastewa- - ter treatment plants, the Housing sector has enact- tion with them, are the Church initiatives in vari- - Working closely with NGOs, and often in conjunction for sludge reuse. ed SupremeThe National Decree Superintendence N° 015-2017-MVCS, of theSanitation regula Churchous parts also of hasthe itscountry, own experiencesfrom the Episcopal involving Com the mission for Social Action (CEAS) and CARITAS. The Project of the Archbishopric of Huancayo), and wa- Services (SUNASS) is the supervising body of the- terwater, quality air and monitoring soil quality (Marianista (“The Mantaro Project Revives”in Otuz- esService and monitors Provider their Company compliance, (EPS). Itas approves well as ser the- co and Sanagoran). rates and Master Plans of the EPS, and supervis - tional Council of Science, Technology and Innovation vice quality conditions. Since 2017, as a result of the Since 2015, the various repositories of the Na hadFramework new functions Law for and the competences, Management notand only Provision in the and Innovators (DINA), Free Access to Information urbanof Sanitation area, but Services also in (D.L. the rural N ° 1280), area, SUNASSwhich have has (CONCYTEC), the National Directory of Researchers

- havefor Innovation made it possible (ALICIA) to andmeasure the National the progress Register made of tionsgone fromand municipal “regulating management 50 service providing units”. firms, to inResearchers water sciences, in Science the growing and Technology number of (REGINA), master's 28,000MINAM providers, is responsible [including] for community issuing the organiza environ- and doctoral theses, articles and published studies, as well as laboratories (Hydraulics, Fluid Mechan- - - mental policy and rules related to the Environmental- Quality Standards (EQS) and the Maximum Permis ics, Hydrology, Sanitary Engineering, Microbiolo ofsible environmental Limits (MPL) instruments, according to plansthe sector and activitiesor activ createdgy, Parasitology, in the past Biotechnology three years, such and asWater the Nexus Quality). In- intendedity. ECAs areto improve a mandatory the quality reference of natural for the waters.design Likewise, new institutes in water sciences have been MCVS, together with the Ministries of the productive Arequipa (food, water, energy and environment), the sectors, are responsible for regulating and approv- stitute of the Universidad Nacional San Agustín de

Center for Water Research and Technology (CITA) ofing the environmental instruments, Environmental the Universidad de Ingeniería y Tecnología (UTEC),- Impact Studies (EIA) and Programs of Adaptation cionalWater deScience Ciencias Institute (ANC). - ICA, A strong the Universidad interdisciplinary Peru waterand Environmental must also have Management a favorable ofopinion the projects from the in ana Cayetano Heredia(UPCH) and the Academia Na their environment. The approval of EIAs related to - trend and more joint work between academia, firms shipANA. ofIn coordinationthis context, the between implementation the sectors, of MPLthe ANA and and the State have been observed. In August 2018, R.J. andWater-EQS MINAM. requires establishing a dynamic relation andN ° 237-2018-ANA private1 universities created theand Academic the Canadian Water Interna Board,- comprising representatives of the ANA, 17 national b. Relations with NGOs, universities and research centers tional Resources and Development Institute (CIRDI). - - 1. Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia-UPCH, Universi Since 2011, the ANA has maintained close relations projects linked to water management, which vari- dad de Lima-ULima, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Mar with numerous NGOs for the integration of social cos-UNMSM, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú-UNALM, Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina-UNALM, Universidad - qualityous ministries management and SUNASS within havethe framework also done. Severalof inte- de Ingeniería y Tecnología-UTEC, Universidad del Pacífico-UP, Universidad Científica del Sur-CIENTIFICA, Universidad Nacio NGOs have been working for over 10 years on water - - nal de Ingeniería-UNI, Universidad San Ignacio de Loyola-USIL, - Universidad Nacional Pedro Ruiz Gallo-UNPRG, Universidad Na grated water resource management (IWRM). Ex cional del Altiplano-UNAP, Universidad Nacional de San Cris de Ayala in Cusco, Water for People in Cajamarca, - amples at the regional level include Guamán Poma tóbal de Huamanga-UNSCH, Universidad Nacional del Centro del - - Perú-UNCP, Universidad Nacional de Cajamarca-UNC, Universi Labor in Arequipa and, at the national level, Solu dad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa-unas, Universidad Na ciones Prácticas, CARE, SPDA, TNC and CONDESAN. cional de Trujillo-UNT and Universidad de Piura-UDEP. 519 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU

c. Monitoring and data bases The water quality data are drawn from the mon- • Nitrites itoring carried out by the ANA in the surface wa- • Total nitrogen ter sources of the basins and sub-basins, as well as • Total suspended solids - • Oils and fats en from individual studies on the sea, conducted by • the coastal zone (2009 - 2017). Other data are tak- • istry of Production). Other sources are state insti- • PhenolsMetals (list of 26 elements, ICP) the Marine Institute of Peru (IMARPE of the Min • SaltsTotal (chlorides,Oil Hydrocarbons sulfates, (C9-C40) etc.).

tutions, such as SUNASS (drinking water quality),- A report on the water quality of ANA, based on OEFA (water quality of surface and groundwater and discharges) and surveillance data from the Gen parameterseral Directorate as part of Environmental of the surveillance Health programs - DIGESA of the monitoring of 41 basins up to 2015, shows that the the(2005-2009). aforementioned The monitoring institutions. includes All results a long indicate list of phosphorus,parameters exceeding ammonia the nitrogen, values of aluminum, the RCTs-Water iron, concentrations of the parameters in water at the manganese,were thermotolerant arsenic and coliforms, lead. These BOD5, results COD, were total time of sampling. The parameters characterizing the entire basin (Figure 2). At present, water anal- • Flow (l/s) ysesfound of specificallythe aforementioned in waterbodies, institutions although are carried not in •the waterHeat-resistant of surface coliforms bodies are given below: out at laboratories accredited by the National Insti- • Conductivity • Dissolved oxygen (DO) amount of data from state institutions. • pH tute of Quality (INACAL). Peru currently has a large • Temperature • 3. Main problems impacting • Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) water quality • TotalBiochemical phosphorus Oxygen Demand (DBO5) • Phosphates a. Eutrophication • Ammoniacal Nitrogen Peru is no stranger to eutrophication. Many of its lentic water bodies have seen an increase in nutrient levels, which initiates this process. Neverthe- Figure 2: National monitoring status regarding compliance less, this is still scarcely monitored or studied. In with Environmental Quality Standards for Water -

recent years, Lake Titicaca has gone from an oligo 254 being the most severely affected (Montoya et al., Col. Tt 13 trophic to a mesotrophicet al state, with the Bay of Puno 244 Mn population growth and uncontrolled tourism in the 140 2015; Komárková . 2016). This is mainly due to 11 region, which increases the amount of waste dis- As 1533 charged into the lake (Fontúrbel et al - 254 Pb 13 ., 2003, Fontúr 260 region, Mariano et al - Fe 132 bel, 2004). In a study of seven lagoons in the Junín- 6 . (2017) concluded that inten DQO 155 sive fish farming is an important factor in the eutro 51 Cucancocha and Ayhuin lagoons were mesotrophic, DBO5 1601 whilephication the Habascocha, process, noting Tipicocha, that the Huascacocha Tranca Grande, and 0 200 400 600 00 1000 1200 1400 1600 100 Pomacocha lagoons were eutrophic. Not in compliance with EQS-Water In compliance with EQS-Water problem, with many dams showing signs of eutro- Artificial reservoirs are not unrelated to this

Source: ANA, 2017. Compiled by the authors *Col. Tt.=Heat-resistant coliforms phication. According to IMARPE (2008), in the San WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 520

tern is also observed in other stretches of recent were found due to the accumulation of waste from volcanism with hydrothermal activity in the Circum theLorenzo inhabitants dam, areas of the in thearea, process especially of eutrophication the one near the dike. In the Poechos dam, areas in the process of eutrophication were found near the banks. At the Pacific Ring of Fire (Vidal and Cedillo, 1988). same time, reports prepared by the Autonomous andIn mix. the The oceans, annual and interaction within the of 250these territorial marine currentsmiles, the has Humboldt a clear paleontologicaland El Niño currents expression interact in indicate the presence of high nitrate values in cer- the stratigraphic record of the formations in the Authoritytain areas, ofindicating the Chira-Piura intense Hydrographiceutrophication Basin pro- Neogene of Sullana and Pisco. These regions have - diatomites interspersed with phosphates, both bio- cation of the waters due to the high concentrations genic and sedimented in underwater basins. Phos- cesses. Matienzo (2014) shows a risk of eutrophi of mass mortality events and cycles due to drastic Majes-Siguasof nutrients inSpecial the Jequetepeque Project dams River. were Ineutrophic, a study changesphates have in the extensive temperature, fauna pHand and flora salinity as evidence condi- inconducted response in to October which the 2014, same ANA Project reported proposed that thein- tions of ocean currents. Diatomites register normal tegral dam management. According to the Partici- events involving a mixture of currents with massive

natural phenomena at sea shows that they are a patory Assessment of Water Resource Management consequencemortality of algae of the alone. encounter Global between knowledge marine of these cur- of the Chancay-Lambayeque basin (Typsa, ANA and rents. In coastal ecosystems, there are indications ofCRHC, drinking 2012), water the Tinajones to several dam cities. shows problems of that the mass marine mortality cycle could resume eutrophication,In the Peruvian leading rainforest, to conflicts lakes over and the supplyoxbow in a few decades, as a consequence of the deoxygen- lakes are also experiencing problems of eutrophication. In this region, it is more common for the process to occur naturally due to the amount of organ- ation and eventual acidification of the Pacific Ocean ic matter in the contributing basin, as well as the on theOn the coasts mainland, of Peru precipitation and Ecuador weathers, (Alvites, erodes 2016, amounts of sediment transported by rivers. This andFischetti then &transports Christiansen, rocks, 2018, sand, Heffermann, clays and 2018).soluble phenomenon is accelerated by the high tempera- - tures, typical of the region, although it varies ac- et al polymetallicsalts in variably mining acidified districts. drainages These with regions an anoma cover lous load of metals when it flows through countless- b.cording Natural to local contaminants hydrology (Riofrío ., 2003). drothermal magmatic origin and are grouped into The main natural trends in the current hydrological metallogenicbetween 5,000 strips and 25,000of different hectares geological each, areages, of andhy principally developed during the subvolcanic Ce- nozoic of the Western Cordillera. In particular, the cycle in Peru are oxygen loss and local acidification- great arsenic anomaly of certain rivers is known ernof coastal slope of marine the Andes, water tropical in the rain Pacific with Ocean, high An the- deancontinual snowfalls increase due in to desertification the South American along the summer west monsoon and the evapotranspiration of Amazoni- and documented, such as the Chancay-Lambayeque an forests with possible wind and rain currents of carryriver inanomalous Cajamarca concentrations (INGEMMET, 2017,of copper, Bernex lead, and Southwest Atlantic origin. The continuous weather- zincKorswagen, and/or 2014).mercury Locally, in certain these stretches sulphated of waters their ing of the high-Andean mineralized regions produc- watercourses. There is no systematic mapping of es sulphated acidic waters with a variable metallic - load of arsenic, antimony, copper, lead, zinc and, oc- rently under exploration or exploitation have me- casionally, mercury. In Peru, the waters of the Cap- the 150 to 200 mining districts and only those cur- lina-Tacna river basin have naturally high concentrations of arsenic, which is related to the presence teorological stations and monitor water and efflu of volcanic rocks and thermal springs that emerge ents (Boltan, 2017, Bernex, 2017). The same is true of - most watersheds that do not have sufficient water resource monitoring or management (Bernex and in the Western Cordillera (Carlotto, 2014). This pat Yakabi, 2016). 521 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU

The contribution of nutrients and salts from poorly documented and requires more hydrogeo- agricultural activity, through wastewater from the logical,Evolution geochemical by natural and geophysical tendencies studies. is complex, The activity, affects water resources. On the one hand, most advanced recent efforts are in the ANA, the they are a potential source of contamination for groundwater which, in some cases, exceed the lim- - INGEMMET, the Geological Society of Peru, but also- human consumption, while on the other, they cause in NGOs such as Oxfam and international efforts fo theits ofeutrophication nitrites and nitrates,of water makingbodies, themimpairing unfit wa for- cused on anthropogenic pollution, such as the Glob ter sources. al Alliance on Health and Pollution (GAHP) (Lancet In the case of pesticides, there are no studies Commissions Report, 2017). or estimates in Peru of the amount of pesticides c. Agrochemicals released into the environment, or studies to de- In Peru, agriculture is the productive activity con- termine the compounds and amounts that could tributing the largest amount of nitrogen and phos- be reaching surface or groundwater, much less re- phorus. Despite the fact that over two million hect- search on their effects on ecosystems and public ares are under irrigated agriculture, studies on the impact of fertilizers on water bodies are almost as in the case of fertilizers, is through the data on non-existent. There are only periodic evaluations thehealth. amount The onlyof pesticides means ofimported estimating (Figure this figure, 3), al- of fertilizer use in the country. However, for a cou- though this is also distorted by illegal commercial- ple of decades or less, the measurement of some ization, contraband (northern border), street vend-

- and adulterations (north coast, central and south- ingof the programs. chemical Nevertheless, forms of nutrients owing in to water the (NH4+,lack of ing in various regions of the country, falsifications- knowledgeNO2-, NO3-, oftotal their N) effects has been they included were not in givenmonitor the - ern highlands). in 2012, the national supply of pes existenceticides increased, of companies reaching that aimported value of or 16,474 formulat tons- required attention. The 2012 agricultural census in ed(INEI, pesticides 2013) ofwas imported also reported, products. none Although of them theac- dicates that some 971,200 producers (43.9%) use knowledged having acquired, imported or commer- importedchemical fertilizers,(urea, nitrates, a 50% sulphates, increase overphosphates), 1994. In cialized POP pesticides in recent years (CONAM, 2013, a total of 905,798 tons of these products were- updated information on this point, there is likely to pastwith 75%decade, being the used national on the supply coast, 20%of fertilizers in the moun has beDIGESA clandestine and SENASA, use and 2006).marketing Although in addition there to is the no increased,tains and 5% with in anthe upward rainforest. trend Likewise, that is expected during the to increase and formal use of registered pesticides.

- d. Heavy metals reach approximately 1,200,000 tons in 2018. - The evaluation of water quality carried out by ANA At the same time, approximately 1'370,000 agri Althoughcultural producers there is no (62%) evidence use ofsome a greater type ofincrease, organ theyic fertilizer, must be employing taken into a total account of 19,700 because tons ofin their2012. (2012) considered physical-chemical parameters- contribution of nutrients and their actual or poten- loids(pH, electrical(arsenic) conductivity,and microbiological BOD, and (heat-tolerant metals such tial transfer from agricultural wastewater to natural coliforms),as Lead, Mercury, due to their cadmium, use as iron, environmental copper), metal indi- water bodies. The most commonly used fertilizers cators of the impact on natural waterbodies. available on the market are phosphate compounds, The results obtained on the quality of water ammonium salts, potassium and magnesium salts, and urea, the latter being the most commonly used heat-tolerant coliform parameters, arsenic, lead andresources cadmium in theare periodaffecting 2000-2012 the quality show of water that there- superphosphates ( polyphosphates), all with a high sources for irrigation (in the three slopes) and pop- contentones in 2012, of nitrogen, followed phosphorus by ammonium or magnesium phosphate and potassium salts (sulphates and chlorides). ulation purposes (Amazon and Pacific regions). Likewise, heat-tolerant coliform parameters, BOD5 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 522

Figure 3. Importation of pesticides for agricultural use by type (use), 2007-2012

Rodenticide Insecticide Herbicide Fungicide Acaricide 20,000

16,000

12,000 Tons

,000

4,000

0 200 200 200 2010 2011 2012

Source: MINAGRI, 2015 - National Service of Agrarian Health (SENASA). Figure 4. Waterbodies that exceed environmental quality standards in percentages, by type of use nationwide

UPPT Irrigation Conservation 100 4 0 0 6 0 6 5 60 55 55 50 50 40 40 40 2 2 25 30 22 1 1 20 14 10 10 5 5 6

Percentage of data exceeding EQS exceeding data of Percentage 10 1 0 pH CE Cterm DBO As Cd Fe Hg Pb Parameters Use by population Use for crop irrigation Use for conservation following treatment and animal drinking water of aquatic environment Cadmium Heat-resistant Coliforms Lead Arsenic Iron Cadmium Heat-resistant Coliforms Lead Mercury Iron pH Lead DBO₅

Source: Castro de Esparza, 2016.

ment. The parameters in question are associated with discharges of wastewater from the population, pH,and arsenic, lead (Amazon cadmium, hydrographic lead and mercury region); (Titicaca BOD5, mining environmental liabilities, informal mining region),cadmium, have arsenic also affected and lead the (Pacific quality region),of water andre- and others related to the natural characteristics of sources for the conservation of the aquatic environ- the watersheds (Figures 4 and 5). 523 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU

e. Deforestation main elements that create concern for public - health.Lead, Thus, cadmium, lead is arsenicfound in and high mercury concentrations are the sociated with slash-and-burn for small-scale agri- - In Peru, between 75 and 90% of deforestation is aswater in Tacna, mercury in Madre de Dios due to in- formalin Cerro and de illegalPasco mining,and La Oroya,and cadmium arsenic within ground wider migrate,culture (territories mainly to the <5 Amazonian ha) and large-scale regions to agriculexpand dissemination due to the use of contaminated fer- theture. agricultural The first is frontier characteristic for commercial of populations and subsis that- tilizers and the elimination of batteries in the envi- tence purposes. In the case of the deforestation of et al the Amazonian forests, in addition to the loss of biodiversity and natural resources, a series of impacts wereronment. analyzed Sánchez in urine. (2013) samples reviewed from five Peruvian studies associated with the deterioration of the functions of communities- between 2005 regarded and 2013 as - exposedwhere thirteen and unexposed. elements ecosystems in the availability and quality of water, - num and lead were present in almost all the sam- increased vulnerability to climate change and alter- Elements such as arsenic, cesium, cobalt, molybde- loss of fertility and erosion, reduction of CO2 fixing, the Peruvian Amazon, coffee and cacao are the main exposureples of the to participantsother elements evaluated, varied confirmingbetween loca ex- cropsations associated of landscape with beauty deforestation, have been as identified. well as live In- tions.posure. This The situation percentage must of be people analyzed with confirmedin greater detail, and requires immediate preventive actions Deforestation, whose objective is the change to avoid the exposure of populations and prevent ofstock land activity use for (GGGI, agricultural GDI and or SERFOR, livestock 2015). purposes, poisoning. None of this can be achieved without the generally results in an increase in the rates of sur- participation of the central government, public and face runoff, soil erosion with the consequent loss of private institutions, and the population in general. et al. al.,

nutrients (Croke & Hairsine, 2006; Creed

Figure 5. Waterbodies for population use that exceed environmental quality standards, in %, by hydrographic region Paciﬁc Amazon Titicaca 100 0 1, 0 0 63,3 55,6 5, 60 52,1 4,4 50 45,2 3, 36, 36,1 40 32,4 32,3 2, 30 26,2 23,3 1,0 16,3 20 14,1 5, ,6 ,5 ,1 6,5

Percentage of data exceeding EQS exceeding data of Percentage 10 4, 4,0 4,0 0, 0 pH CE Cterm DBO As Cd Fe Hg Pb Parameters Paciﬁc H.R. Amazon H.R. Titicaca H.R. Cadmium Cadmium Arsenic Arsenic Iron Iron Heat-resistant Coliforms Arsenic Cadmium Iron Heat-resistant Coliforms Lead Lead DBO₅ DBO₅

Source: Castro de Esparza, 2016. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 524

- - son et al - ares were cultivated, nearly half of which had prob- 2011)periments and the that loss evaluate of organic and carbon quantify (Wang-Erlands the potential on the Peruvian coast, of which about 750,000 hect impact of., deforestation2014). Although on there water are resources numerical in theex Amazon (Coe et al oflems the of coast salinity were and affected poor drainage. by over-irrigation Brack observed, and that25 years mineral later, saltsthat about(chlorides 40% ofand the sulphates) irrigated soilssur- the physical effects., of2009), water in erosion 2005, the (turbidity), work of FAO but withoutand CIFOR quantifying (Center forthem Forest systematically. Research) indicated theface salinizationas a result ofof poor agricultural drainage soils conditions in the coastal(Brack changes in water quality due to deforestation is lim- areasand Mendiola, of Peru is 2004).a contaminating According process to Pastor that (2010), is on itedThe in Peru. number Probably, of specific one studiesof the most oriented important towards is the increase. For this reason, small agriculture has et al Moreover, this part of the country is characterized basinsthe study in thedeveloped Andean by Amazon Lindell transition., (2010), in northwhich- byfinancial sandy soils, limitations with the for exception addressing of certain the problem. fertile ernevaluates Peru. theThis quality study undertakesof water in athe quality output assess of 48- valleys, whose source of water comes from rivers ment, considering natural factors that characterize - the hydrochemistry of rivers and deforestation. The terized by low rainfall; Therefore, since water is a scarcein the Pacificresource, basin. the Itspossibility climate isof arid developing and charac this part of the country will depend on the implemen- most important conclusions are that, between 396- tation, administration and management of water tassiumand 1649 concentrations m.a.s.l., lithology and plays a considerable a key role in part water of manganese,chemistry, explaining uranium, >70%magnesium of the variationsand HCO ,in with po excesses of irrigation water used in many of the val- concentrations increasing exponentially as the alti- leysresources. of the ANAcoast, recognizes in the lower that, part “as of a these result valleys, of the tudinal gradient is reduced. Forest cover varies3 be- this has led to the elevation of the water table and the salinization of major agricultural areas, which - represent agricultural environmental liabilities and forestationtween 7% and on the99% concentrations in the basins studied,of the solutions but the inauthors the river do not studied. observe However, a significant these impactobservations of de should be contrasted with current studies and an g.require Wastewater remediation actions” (2016). effort made to generate information to determine Point sources include industrial and domestic the natural conditions of channels in the southern waste, the use of cleaning and beauty products, Peruvian basins, where deforestation may expose and food residue that contaminates surface wa- mineralized lithologies that will have a greater im- ters. Wastewater is usually expected to be treated pact on the amount of water. In general, the impact at treatment plants, although in Peru, it is often dis- of deforestation on the quality of water resources charged directly into rivers, with no form of treat- in Peru is perceived by the population through pa- ment. This is compounded by the non-point sourc- rameters such as turbidity. However, studies must es formed by the runoff from agricultural lands be undertaken and in some cases compiled and sys- (chemical fertilizers) and urban areas and the erosion of deforested lands and forests, which are dif- the actual impact. tematized in order to provide scientific evidence of The level of the impact of discharges in their var- f. Salinization iousficult forms to control into andsurface not usuallywater willtaken depend into account. on the - size of the population, the degree of commercial mation at the national level regarding the issue of and industrial development, the level of treatment Since the 1970s, there has been no updated infor of municipal and industrial wastewater, and the in- were affected by salinization. According to the intensity of agriculture. formationsalinity. In compiled1973, ONERN by therecognized National that Development 306,701 ha - - age systems; the production of wastewater was in mately one million hectares suitable for irrigation In 2016, 61% of the national population had sew Institute (INADE), at that time Peru had approxi the order of 960.5 MMC/year (30 m³/s) and only 525 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU

no contamination of the waters in the aquifer has year were discharged directly into rivers, lakes and been found, it is striking that the regulations and 20.62% was treated (198 MMC/year); 4,761 MMC/ methodologies to address this issue are still incip-

coastal marine areas. Between 2010 and July 2016, Perhaps the most important activity affecting ANA has identified 4147 polluting sources in the theient qualityin the country of water (Espinoza, through leaching2007). processes is monitored basins; 45% of which corresponded to- agriculture. The continuous or excess application cathe and hydrographic Amazon slopes. basins Of located the total in thepolluting Pacific sourc Slope- and 55% to the hydrographic basins in the Titica - cal-chemicalof fertilizers acidifiesproperties soil, of promotessoil. Thus, erosion, chemical affects com- wastees, 90% dumps, correspond industries, to domestic etc.). wastewater and poundsorganisms applied (flora through and fauna) fertilizers and alters dissolve the physiin the 10%From to industrial the volume wastewater of water (mining use in tailings, the country, solid soil solution, are retained by clays and organic mat- one can infer that the sectors that generate the greatest volume of wastewater are the sanitation the porosity of the soil. Salts and acids that reach sector, which has incentives for the treatment of waterbodiester, and filter affectthrough their to physical-chemicalwaterbodies as a result proper of- - - dustrial beer, paper, cement and tannery sectors, ruvian coast exceed the concentration of nitrates, its wastewater, followed by the mining, fishing, in whichties. Evidence must be indicates related to that the certain use of fertilizerswells on the or Peor- environment. The hydroelectric and agro-industri- et al allal sectorsof which have have yet MPL to forformulate their discharge discharge into limits. the Another critical factor is the impact on water Firms whose discharge authorizations have been qualityganic matter of mining that is activities. mineralized Historically, (Legua mines., 2016). in - Peru have been abandoned, leaving the area in a est volume of discharge of treated water is from similar condition to when they were operating. In theapproved sanitation total sector, 586, accordingbut in number, to ANA. more The mining larg other words, tunnels, open pits, tailings dams and companies comply with this environmental procedure. As for the other sectors, there is an increasing erosion, the generation of acid waters and progres- sivetailings soil have destabilization. been left outdoors, Accordingly, subject the to country’s flooding, discharges to protect the quality of surface water. environmental liabilities are a potential source of Thenumber challenge of firms of requestingthe country authorization shared by all for sectors their toxic substances that can be leached from these fa- - cilities, and cause the contamination of the surface cordance with the pollutants they generate, so that and groundwater into which they discharge (Tovar, theyis to doimplement not damage efficient the quality treatment of our systems water sourcin ac- - senic, lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel and cyanide - (if2007). used Elements in the leachingthat can beprocess). infiltrated Although included some ar mentales. MPL instruments are economic-environmental that must be implemented. instruments water quality data are available with these param- that must be complied with and EQS are environ eters, it is still necessary to improve understanding h. Leaching into groundwater of this issue and the regulations governing it. A ma- and surface water bodies jor contribution for the country would be to devel- With respect to water quality in relation to leach- op a methodology that considered exposure to the ing processes, there are limitations such as the lack leaching of materials, which can determine the ap- of existing information on the subject, the disinter- plication of weighted ranges to calculate the level of est by the regulatory entities in the country, cou- vulnerability of aquifers whose waters are used to pled with the lack of methodologies to control the supply cities. leached material. One of the efforts aimed at addressing this issue analyzes groundwater contam- i. Emerging pollution ination as a result of the generation of leachates - from the decomposition of bodies buried under- stances or biological agents, whose presence in the - environmentEmerging pollutants is not necessarilyare unregulated new. chemicalWhat is subnew erine, putrescine and pathogenic viruses). Although is the concern over their possible consequences ground in a district south of the city of Lima (cadav WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 526

- the immunological processes that predispose hu- ples of emerging contaminants include drugs, hor- mans to acquire the infection and subsequently the formones, aquatic abused ecosystems drugs, and and personal human health.care and Exam hy- disease caused by these free-living amoebas are not giene products, among others (Petrie et al known. The main sources of infections were always These substances are introduced into the environ- associated with direct contact with water (Cabel- ment through residential and industrial wastewa., 2015).- - ic systems in Peru harbor multiple microorgan- hospitals, agricultural activities and veterinary use. ismslo-Vilchez, with pathogenic2016). These potential studies suggestand contain that aaquat large ter, wasteIn particular, from treatment the unregulated plants, and sale effluent and use from of number of antibiotic resistance genes that can be antibiotics for human and animal health, and their exchanged with human and animal pathogens. Di- possible introduction into aquatic ecosystems, pro- agnostic methods with greater sensitivity and new mote the evolution of antibiotic-resistant patho- tools based on molecular biology and genomics will gens and contribute to this global public health provide a better description of these emerging pollutants and their possible effects on health and the environment. thatproblem several (WHO, classes 2014). of antibiotics A recent can microbiological be detected in treatedstudy of wastewater, peri-urban and communities that hundreds in Lima of bacterial showed resistance genes derived from human excreta and 4. Social and economic aspects environmental organisms can survive treatment systems and be reintroduced into soils and surface a. Human health and water quality - Access to drinking water is fundamental to health, son et al a basic human right and a component of effective inwaters hospitals through and communitiesthe use of treated in other effluent parts (Pehrsof Peru health protection policies. Most health problems re- to determine., 2016). the Similar scope studiesof this problem are being and conducted its tem- lated to water are due to contamination by microor- poral and geographic variation. ganisms (bacteria, viruses and protozoa), although There is also growing interest in the study of there are a considerable number of serious prob- free-living amoebas as contaminants of aquatic sys- lems resulting from the chemical contamination of tems. These are eukaryotic microorganisms capa- drinking water. ble of growing in a wide range of aquatic and ter- The presence of bacteria in water has almost al- restrial environments, and include species with ways been studied. Escherichia coli (fecal coliform high pathogenicity in humans, such as Acanthamoe- bacteria) has been used as the principal indicator ba Naegleria fowleri, Bal- of contamination, which makes it possible to deter- amuthia mandrillaris, Sappinea pedata and, more mine the level of water quality to decide whether or recently,, mainly Paravahlkampfiathe genotype T-4, francinae. (Hoffman not it is suitable for human consumption. However, little or nothing is known or has been studied about - the presence of protozoa in this same source. Pro- & Michel, 2001). All these amoebae can be called tozoa are capable of harboring many bacteria and/ three“brain highly eaters”, pathogenic because theyspecies, cause there substantial are Verma de- or bacterial groups, including viral particles such as moebastruction vermiformes of the brain, Vanellas mass. In sp. addition and Vahlkampfia to the first rotaviruses (which cause diarrhea in newborns). sp., all of which are capable of harboring pathogenic In addition to classic bacteria, there are also envi- bacteria in humans. These free-living amoebas ex- ronmental mycobacteria capable of causing hospi- ist in any habitat, but they move faster through waterbodies. In Peru, preliminary studies have shown - that cerebral amoeba infections are more common tal-acquired diseases, which are usually difficult to than described in global prevalence studies. Amoe- identify because other types of bacteria (Gram pos- bae associated with cases of primary acute menin- itive) go through them. Cabello-Vilchez (2016) has gitis and granulomatous meningoencephalitis have giveidentified an idea 1000 of theCFU/1L levels of of Mycobacteria bacterial contamination sp. in drink - thating waterusually at go a unnoticed hospital in in Lima. microbiological These data control could quences. No standard treatment is available, and - been identified, both of which have lethal conse guides. Likewise, the presence of free-living amoe 527 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU

bas is usually undetected, either because of the small number of microorganisms or simply because access potable water service through indoor con- these organisms are not sought. It is estimated that 54% of the rural population- The situation worsens when there are high lev- - Althoughnections andthe usethat of 21% sanitary have seweragelatrines is systems,fairly wide al- ed that the prevalence of chronic malnutrition, ac- though only 3% of the latter are in good condition. cordingels of malnutrition to the World and Health anemia. Organization INEI (2017) standard, report allspread, of whom most are are from not ruralused families.properly. However, Four out thereof 10 It also indicates that the highest rates of malnutri- children under 5 do not have access to clean water, tionis higher were inreported rural (25.3%) in children than with urban mothers areas with(8.2%). no the ingestion of water contaminated by human/ animalare many excreta other thatwater-related contain pathogenic diseases “caused microor by- ganisms or water contaminated by chemicals”. The schooling or only with primary education (27.6%) latter may be infectious, toxic or indirectly related acuteand in diarrheal children diseases under three can also (13.6%). be observed A fluctuating (Fig- Table 2). uredecline 6). inThese the number variations of children can be explained under 5 affected by exter by- The average annual cost of the effects of the de- (Cabezas, 2018) ( affect the quality of life in general, including water andnal factors generate such greater as droughts, vulnerability floods in and human pests, health. which ficiencies in water quality, sanitation and hygieneet al. on environmental health amounts to 3,300 million soles (World Bank, 2013). According to Larsen Figure 6. Children under 5 affected by acute diarrheal diseases 00,000 00,000 600,000 500,000 400,000 Number 300,000 200,000 100,000 0 200 200 200 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Table 2 Water-related diseases Type Of Diseases Explanation Examples Cholera, typhoid, salmonellosis, Helicobacter pylori Water-borne Fecal contamination and enteric organisms infection, Hepatitis A and E, poliomyelitis, amoebiasis Organisms that spend part of their Fasciolosis, paragonimiosis, Schistomiosis, Water-based cycle in water Dracunculiosis

Water-related Vectors that breed in water Malaria, dengue, Filariasis, Onchocerciasis, Yellow fever, Pediculosis, ricketssiosis, scabies, trachoma, Arbovirosis (Mayaro, Oropuche, EEV) Water-washed conjunctivitis, leptospirosis, free-living amoebas, typhus, contact with contaminated water Related to poor personal hygiene and diseases transmitted by ticks Organisms that thrive in water and enter Water-dispersed through the respiratory tract Legionella

Source: Cabezas, 2018, modified. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 528

Figure 7. Relationship between access to sanitation and poverty (% of population), 2015

100 60 0.4 .4 4.0 50 0 41.1 63.5 40 60 30.6 30 20. 40 16.6

Percentage (%) Percentage 16.1 (%) Percentage 23.4 20 1. 1.3 20 10

0 Costa urbana Sierra urbana Selva urbana Costa rural Sierra rural Selva rural 0 Region

Sanitation (% of population) Poverty (% of population)

Source: ENAPRES, 2016. Compiled by: Institute of Peruvian Studies.

c. Education levels in communities and the average number of sick days due to environ- Peru is among the countries in the Americas that (2013), the number of annual deaths stands at 1073 - to being a mining country for centuries and have - miningmental riskwaste, factors Peru totals has accumulated61,549 (2012). wasteIn addition from ageinvest masks least the in education,criticality ofwith the $20,114 situation USD of per educa stu- tiondent inbetween rural areas the ages and of the 6 and importance 15 (2015). of This existing aver departments in the country, as well as mining oper- gaps. Drop-out rates, isolation and widespread theations significant without presencesocial and of environmental illegal mining responsiin all thepoverty combine with multiple shortages of well- bility, which have a severe impact on human health. trained teachers, materials and infrastructure. The b. Poverty - 2017 Education Census of the Ministry of Education ing the extremely high rates of poverty and extreme (MINEDU) indicates that regular basic education Globally, Peru has made great progress in revers- in rural areas comprises over 51,260 institutions, which serve 1,234,449 students (16% of national- totalpoverty population, that existed and until while 2001. the Atincidence that time, of thepoverty per students) (MINEDU, 2017). It specifies that 42% of centage of poor people accounted for 54.8% of the- total rural enrollment and 80% of rural primary enrollment are in multigrade schools (48% of national- in cities was 42%, in rural areas of the country, near- ever,Institutes despite of Educationthe advance (IE), in theas a expansion result of the of coveratom- ly eight out of every 10 inhabitants (78.4%) lived in age,ization a considerable and dispersion population of population of students centers. -mainly “How indicatedpoverty. In in theFigure rural 7 , Sierra,areas with 83.4% the of greatest the popula pov- in the Amazon- still lack access to complete basic ertytion havesurvived the lowestin poverty access (INEI, to sanitation 2002). However, rates and as education and more institutions are required at the therefore, the highest rates of Acute Diarrheal Dis- secondary and initial levels”. ease (ADD) and hygiene-related diseases. d. Gender Despite being the second country in South Amer- themLikewise, have access the harsh to safe conditions water, while experienced the depart by- - mentstowns inof ruralTacna, areas Madre were de observed.Dios and TumbesOnly 2.2% have of the highest levels of safe drinking water. (Figure 8). ica to have developed its IWRM policy and strategy in 2009, creating normative instruments that reflect the Dublin principles, Peru failed to inte 529 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU

Figure 8. Population with access to safe water in the rural sector (%), in 2015

14 Madre de Dios 11. 10. Cusco 6.3 5.5 Arequipa 5.1 3. Lima 3. 2. Ayacucho 2. 2. San Martín 2. 2.3 Average 2.2 Pasco 1.3 Department 1.2 Piura 1.2 0.6 Huánuco 0.6 0.6 Amazonas 0.4 0.3 ncash 0.3 0.1 Ucayali 0.1 0 2 4 6 10 12 14 16

e. City and countryside grate the gender dimension into its last Policy, re- In urban and rural areas, water quality is severely - affected by the poor disposal of the solid waste gen- tutions supported by companies, academies and erated, which, during its decomposition, generates viewed in 2015. Nowadays, numerous public insti- by-products in the form of liquid and gases (leachates), which alter the quality of water. Information civil society are helping to fill this gap. In rural ar- on the volume of solid waste generated is only avail- eas, 95% of sanitation service providers are chaired- able for urban areas, through what was declared by motionby men ofand the 5% equal by women, inclusion according of men andto the women diag local governments in the Information System for innostic decision-making sheet of the MVCSpositions (SUNASS, within 2018). the sanitation The pro sector would help to ensure more equitable conditions in water and sanitation management and ac- ofSolid which Waste was Management residential, while(SIGERSOL). the rest In came 2015, fromover the7.5 million industrial, tons commercial of solid waste and were other produced, sectors (SINIA- 64.8% JASS, women should play their role as facilitators 2 and Callao account incess. the As implementation noted by Ricalde of follow-up(2018), “At and the monitoringlevel of the Figure 9). actions in the performance of tasks related to the MINAM). Lima Metropolitana3 promotion of families in healthy housing”. Howev- for 56.9% of solid waste production ( er, there are some women who, in addition to par- the onlyAccording departments to D.L. equippedN °1278, thewith final this disposalinfrastruc ofsolid waste must be carried out in landfills. However, the organizations established (committees, boards andticipating associations), in 25% ofattend the management various health positions education of ture are Lima (3), Callao (1), Ancash (2), Cajamarca and hygiene workshops. They also participate in (1), Junín (2), Loreto (2), Ayacucho (3), Huancavelica- training sessions for boards and other associations (2), Huánuco (2) and Apurímac (3), which receive- less than 50% of the solid waste generated annual- subsidy Program, mothers' clubs, health promoters ly (MINAM, 2016). The remaining volume has differ and parents grassroots associations) organizations addressing (the "Glass a wide of range Milk" ent final destinations: one part is recycled, but an of issues (education and community health, habits, was omitted, since it obscured the other regions. 2. The value of the solid waste produced by Metropolitan Lima water, use of latrines, solid waste), which contributes to improving the quality of life of their homes. Management. 3. Legal instrument enacting the Law of Integral Solid Waste WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 530

Figure 9. Solid Waste Production (ton/year) and number of dumps nationwide (2015)

400,000 100

0 300,000

60 200,000 40

100,000 20 dumps of Number Solid waste production (tonyear) production waste Solid 0 0 Ica Lima Junín Piura Puno Tacna Pasco Cusco Callao Loreto Ancash Ucayali Tumbes Huánuco Arequipa Apurímac Ayacucho Cajamarca Amazonas Moquegua San Martín La Libertad Lambayeque Huancavelica Madre de Dios Madre

Source: National System of Environmental Information, Solid Waste-Statistics (Barras: generación de RR.SS. Puntos: número de botaderos). MINAM, 2012. http://sinia.minam.gob.pe/temas/residuos-solidos/estadisticas/# Table 3. Types of state investment in water and sanitation, 2017 Concept Percentage Investment in expanding coverage Investment in rehabilitation 80.1% Investment in strengthening business and micro-measurement 16.2% Total 100%3.7%

Source: D.S. Nº 018-2017-Housing. other large part is disposed of in open-air dumps, f. Investment in water quality programs burned or incinerated, or dumped into natural wa- - terbodies, with harmful consequences for the environment and people’s health (such as the spread recognizesIn the 2017-18 three report concepts submitted of investments, to Peruvian present Con- of pathogenic microorganisms, heavy metals, toxic edgress in Table on July 3. In 28, order 2017, to the reverse Peruvian the existing Government gaps substances and hydrocarbons found in leachates from waste). The presence of organic matter occurs Peru approved the National Sanitation Plan (D.S. No. in all productive sectors. Compounds are generated between city and countryside, the Government of through bacteria and microorganisms, which acid- investment required for narrowing existing gaps. ify water, eliminate vital oxygen for aquatic species 018-2017-HOUSING) and determined the amount of- and make water unsuitable for human consump- - increaseIn recognition in the past of ten this, years. the Several 2017 budget mechanisms has in water is also affected by solid waste on the surface, havecreased also by been 72% created, over the such previous as the year, Safe the Water largest In- tion, which also creates health problems. Ground However, water quality is only monitored in a few cases.due to Water the infiltrationsurveillance of coverage leachates is much through greater soil. purposevestment is Fund to narrow (FIAS) coverage (D.L. No. gaps 1284), in designedwater, sew toat the urban than the rural level, where northern re- agefinance and wastewater programs, projects treatment and nationwide, activities as whose well gions and forest departments have less surveillance Financial Study for Water Projects in Peru was unas to improve the services EPS currently provide. A coverage: of under 30%. 531 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU

A country with a historic mining tradition, Peru available at the national and local levels, which pro- motedertaken, private which and analyzed public investment the financial for instruments the imple- - mentation of water projects (Figure 10). The goal positsnow has of waste over 8,000 produced abandoned by currently mines, abandoned including, or“all inactive the facilities, mining effluent, operations, emissions, which remains constitute or de a solutions to undertake the most effective projects. permanent and potential risk to the health of the is to prioritize investments and develop financial population, the surrounding ecosystem and prop- - erty” (Figure 11). MERESE (Law N° 30215, Law of Mechanisms of - preserve,Compensation recover for and Ecosystem sustainably Services), use ecosystems were cre ica and the sixth largest gold producer in the world, thatated, provide which areecosystemic financial services.mechanisms At present, designed there to withPeru gold is mining the leading creating gold economicproducer inopportunities Latin Amer for the poorest rural areas in the country, such as being collected for their design and development. - are 22 MERESE Water cases in which information is lation live in extreme poverty. However, informal g. Industry, mining, agriculture miningthe Amazon, activity where takes 41% place, of thein which indigenous mercury popu is and other sectors used, posing a threat to the health of people and the

the industrial use of water and its management, as mining units operating in processing plants pro- wellThere as arelimited significant access to information existing information. gaps regarding ANA duceenvironment. wastewater The and ANA tailings notes and that clear more fell than forests. 250 - The average discharge of treated wastewater from trial units nationwide. Average annual discharge of has registered and monitored over 100,000 indus However, it should be noted that the mining sec- treated mining waters amounts to 251.72 hm³/year. treated industrial wastewater in Peru is 2.81 hm³/ wastewater, whereas the sanitation sector reuses hydrocarbonsyear. According and to just DAR over (2017), two approximately tons of lead and five tor reuses approximately 6,175 hm³/year of treated hexavalenttons of arsenic, chromium 122 tons are of dischargedbarium, 488 into petroleum the sea In agriculture, more than one million hectares from industrial activities. under4,074 hm³/year irrigation (DAR, produce 2017). return waters with agro-

Figure 10. Concept of financial model

Financial Instruments Source of financing Appropriate Framework Tariffs and Taxes Transfers Organism seeking Legal and regulatory framework Private or Public Company Initial Public Offering financing Nat/Reg/Loc Government Guarantees Private Pension Funds Assets (equity and funds) Risk mitigation Sovereign Investment Funds Tax-funded works Cash-flow analysis Public Organism Trusts Private Company Efficiency measures Holding Company Bilateral Financing Institution Social Impact Banks Mutual or water Funds Cross-subsidies Banks Green funds Institutional Governance Individual Investments Bonus structure Performance-based financing Definition of PPP contract Credit rating Regulating body Insurance

Conceptualization of Financing Model

Source: ANA, 2017. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 532

chemical residue, nutrients and high salinity. Aver- Figure 11. Record of environmental waste age annual discharge of treated agricultural waste-

Colombia Ecuador water in Peru totals 1.83 hm³/year. Average annual practicereuse of treatedof reusing wastewater treated amountswastewater. to 6,018 This hm³/ can beyear. observed The agricultural in the reuse/discharge sector benefits most relationship, from the - where 42.13 hm³ correspond to reuse, whereas dis charge only amounts to 14.93 hm³ (DAR, 2017). h. Environmental conflicts Cajamarca Brasil heavy metals have led to socio-environmental con- Environmental contamination problems due to- nation-free environment and one that that does not Ancash flicts. The exposed population demands a contami

alter their health status. In August 2017, the ANA Lima Junín typeConflict of water Prevention quality, and followed Management by cases Unit linked found to that over 50% of water conflicts are related to the Huancavelica related to the perceptions of actors about the al- water quality-quantity. The remaining conflicts are leged effects on the amount and timeliness of water Puno Bolivia supplies. In terms of geographical location, the re- Mining Environmental Liabilities (MEL)

Between 51 and 124 MEL - gions of Puno and Apurimac account for over 30% Between 15 and 50 MEL - Between 1 and 157 MEL of water conflicts; the regions of Ancash, Cajamar centage, while Arequipa, Huancavelica, Madre de MEL not recorded ca, Cusco, Ica, Junín and Loreto have a similar per- Chile transparencyDios, Moquegua, and Tacnacommunication and Ucayali permit have access the low to - theest numberresults of of the conflicts. participatory Efforts monitoring by ANA to ofachieve water publishedSource: G.T. in Vigilancia El Peruano Epidemiológica de Riesgos Ambientales Team [They up in rivers, upstream and downstream of mining op- dated the Environmental Mining Waste Inventory, RM N°102-2015-MEM/DM, erations. However, trust is a slow process requiring on March 9 2015]. close contact and mutual understanding.

b. Improving water quality by reducing pollution 5. Achieving Sustainable Some entities work to protect public health from Development Goals (SDG 6) exposure to water with high levels of heavy metals and arsenic, using the strategy of multiple bar- a. Guarantee the availability and riers to reduce the risks associated with the drink- sustainable management of water and sanitation for all strategies include land use management in the ba- The country is committed to ensuring that each sining water(protection supply of (Castro water desources), Esparza, selection 2016). Adapted of the person has access to safe drinking water, regardless best possible source (quality, quantity, continuity), of whether they live in the city or the countryside, adequate wastewater management, adequate wa- on the coast, in the mountains or the rainforest, and ter treatment, well designed and built distribution that water must be properly treated and chlorinat- systems, O&M, and users with good practices and ed, thus reversing the current low levels. use of systems. 533 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU

In Arequipa, alternatives are being developed ities of agencies), capacities (specialized and per- to prevent mercury use in gold mining. One alter- sonal technical knowledge), information (dispersal native is the direct fusion of gold ore concentrates and fragmentation of primary data), objectives (co- - herence between sectoral and subnational policies) rax is a substance that poses a low risk to human and administration (basins do not coincide with po- health,with borax with for a minerallow environmental recovery (Eppers, impact, 2017). which Bo - is easily available and low-cost. Tests have shown - that this method is superior to amalgamation and litical limits ), in accordance with the OECD princi requires less time. Another advantage is that it can ples of water governance (Pinto, 2016). The ANA ini be applied with the equipment used by most min- tiatede. Protection this process and with restoration the support of the OECD. ers in small-scale mining and artisanal mining, with of aquatic ecosystems - sionals designed and manufactured an equipment prototypeminor modifications. to recover gold A group in which of Peruvian the use of profes mer- Several state institutions (MINAM, MINAGRI, ANA, SUNASS, SEDAPAL) have coordinated and efforts- with national and international institutions (CIFOR, cury is avoided (Oro ECO-100V and Oro ECO-100H) CONDESAN, SPDA, Forest Trends), international co- the(Oro black Perú, sand 2010). being The devicerecovered, was successfullyand without tested using ectoperation for Water (USAID Security. and Canadian Other cooperation cooperation) agencies in the mercury,in Madre farde Dios,less cyanide. with 95% Another of the goldexample present of im in- implementation of the Green Infrastructure Proj-

after the corresponding microbiological diagnoses, andsuch universities as SDC, GIZ, are and actively intergovernmental working in various institu proving water quality is the Chili River basin where, partstions suchof the as country GWP South to restore America, ecosystems WWF, companies and improve water security levels in all regions. Thus, on affected.the ANA generated an Early Warning System for the coast, among other ecosystems, it was possi- Harmful Algal Blooms (SAT FAN) in the reservoirs ble to restore the Ite wetland, an old tailings dump c. Increasing the efficiency of water use: Nationwide, although agriculture employs approx- - - landsarea, whichin the Cuscois now mountain home to range,over 126 the resident wetlands and of themigrant Alto Mayo-Tingana bird species; thesector Huasao in the and rainforest, Lucre wetand imately 86% of water availability, efficiency in wa- curityter use through is only 30.35%. storage Achieving and control efficiency of overexploita requires- tionpaying of aquifers;attention (ii) to threeregulation/control key aspects: (i)of thewater water se Lakef. Developing Rimachin in international the Pastaza range. supply in canal systems; and (iii) drainage systems cooperation and capacity building -

and the technical efficiency of use in systems af ofIn internationalthe Peru Report cooperation for the 8th in Brasilia the process Water of World mod- companiesfected by problems with environmental of waterlogging and socialor flooding responsi and- Forum 2018: Sharing Water, ANA highlights the role salinization of soils (MINAGRI, 2015). For mining - has meant using management criteria and rules for ernizing water resource management in Peru (IDB, bility, moving towards efficient water management beingWB, JICA) developed, and of with the creationthe support of eight of Israeli Water coop Re- source Councils. The Blue Planet Program is also- d.each Integrated process (Espinar, water 2017). resource patory and experiential methodology with nature, management at all levels eration and UNESCO. This program has a partici- - ing. Another initiative to reverse the gaps in water ernance gaps must be reversed, at the level of pol- andto encourage sanitation, the while development strengthening of scientific capacities, think is Inicies order (sectoral to strengthen fragmentation IWRM processes,of functions water and gov re- - sponsibilities), accountability (lack of monitoring - - althe governments, SDCA SABA-PLUS local Project, governments, currently communities being repli - withcated water in 14 regions and sanitation with the boards,participation and health of region and and evaluation of results), financing (mismatch be tween financing and the administrative responsibil WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 534

education actors, among others. The project facili- - tated the self-management of services through the 5 development of competencies in the administra- sion for the Prevention and Environmental Recov tion, operation and maintenance of systems. eryb. Pilot of the experiences Lake Titicaca Basin. The Water, Climate and Development Program g. Support and strengthen the GWP South America participation of local communities The Program is located in the hyperperiphery of All international cooperation projects consider the strengthening of local communities in their operative plans, with a view to achieving interactive par- Metropolitan Lima in the sub-basin of Santa Eulalia, ticipation and being able to assume commitments makingthrough this which sub-basin 50% of a the valve water for thethat water supplies and theen- in water quality and quantity management, as well capital passes and 70% of electricity is produced,- as in the restoration of ecosystem services. The ed by climate change processes. Phenomena such recognition of and respect for traditional cultural ergy security of Lima. However, it is severely affect knowledge is therefore extremely important, creat- and affect local agricultural production. ing security and trust in communities, which in turn as droughts and floods impact water availability- drives participation. ened local governance and facilitated the creation Between 2014 and 2017, the PACyD has strength- lic and private actors, to participate in the planning 6. Successful experiences in improving of aactions Specialized for the Working conservation Group and that recovery integrates of pubeco- water quality and quantity systems that provide water services. It has formu- a. Watershed restoration and protection plans lated five projects for the recovery of ecosystem Since the creation of the ANA and on the basis of Aservices research in projectthe districts was alsoof San formulated Pedro de for Casta the (1),re- a process of greater institutionality, accompanied coverySan Juan of dethe Iris Huaccha (2) and microbasin San Pedro in de Carampoma. Laraos (2). by dialogues and trans-sectoral works, several successful cross-sectoral experiences of watershed people, and are included in the Multiannual Invest- restoration have been undertaken, with the partic- mentThese Plan projects of the will Water benefit and Sewerage approximately Service 7,000 for ipation of various actors. An example of this is the - - PACyDLima and will Callao implement (SEDAPAL), a project so their for theimplementa construc- Educational4 As part Intervention of the process Plan offor increasing the environmen citizen tion andis guaranteed. recovery of During amunas the in lastSan quarterPedro de of Casta, 2018, talparticipation, recovery of actions the Tingo were River undertaken micro-basin to (2013-clean a pre-Hispanic system for recharging aquifers. This 2015). project will be implemented with the participation among residents to keep solid waste separate and of the Peasant Community of San Pedro de Casta notthe banksto contaminate of the Tingo the Riverwaters and of theraise river. awareness A pro- and will enable the recovery of approximately two - kilometers of amunas. - posal for “Educational guidelines for the environ - citizenshipmental recovery in basins” of the was Tingo successfully River micro-basin”formulated. tookIn a coordinationdiagnosis of the with water the Nationaland sanitation Rural serviceSanita and “Guidelines for strengthening environmental- fortion population Program (PNSR) use in of the the rural MVCS, population the PACyD centers under tion for the prevention and environmental recovery Another example is the “Environmental Educa part of the activities of the Multisectorial Commis- (PC) of the sub-basin. The main findings include the of the Lake Titicaca-Puno basin” program, which is fact that the district of Santa Eulalia (in the lower part of the sub-basin) has 13 PCs that lack a water 4. Initiative developed with the participation of specialists from -

5. Initiative developed in partnership with the Regional Govern the Ministry of the Environment, the provincial municipality of ment of Puno, the Regional Office of Education of Puno (DRE) Pasco and the Universidad Nacional Daniel Alcides Carrión. and the Local Education Management Unit of Puno (UGEL). 535 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU

and sanitation system, are supplied by springs and efforts are recent and, although the results show an increased awareness of the environment, there is a conspicuous absence of a clear policy oriented to- notcanals, have and a chlorinationuse blind wells system; or the there open isfield a low for theap- wards solving the lack of wastewater treatment in preciationdisposal of oftheir the excreta. water and Moreover, sanitation 90% service of PCs doby the country. These shortcomings are compounded the population and technical weakness in the provi- by the limited water governance and gaps in envi- sion of the service, by both the Municipality and the ronmental regulations, which would allow greater JASS. In this respect, the PACyD, in conjunction with clarity in the institutional competencies related to water quality monitoring. process for the sensitization of the population and A critical point is the weak research capacity the MVCSstrengthening and the SUNASS,of each servicehas been provider. coordinating Imme a- and lack of technologies for wastewater treatment. diately afterwards, interventions will be planned to Since pollutants originate from different sourc- improve the service (provision and infrastructure), es (such as mining and petroleum waste, industri- linking natural (water quality, conservation and real and population discharge, illegal mining, solid covery of ecosystems) with social aspects. waste), a complex and interdisciplinary approach is required. Thus, the capacity required by the coun- c. Education, training and try for water quality management must be sup- raising public awareness ported by human and economic resources capable Among other successful experiences, ANA has of answering questions related to causes, effects, - treatments and costs. In turn, they must be able to cilitate learning processes at the local level. In this address the problem of emerging pollution associ- trained “water culture promoters” nationwide to fa ated with climate change (such as fasciolosis and - amoebas). regard, the government has created the Youth for youngWater professionalsRural and Urban from Marginal various specialties Water and toSani en- the long-term strategy of the state, which should be gagetation in Service professional (SERUMAS), internships, a program acquire that practical allows orientedSignificant to informing actions the worth population noting areabout related the im to- knowledge and use them in solidarity to improve pact of water pollution on health and the environ- the quality of the most vulnerable populations living in rural areas and marginal urban neighbor- paradigm shift towards water resources, where the creationment. This of constitutesa water culture a significant will allow advance the popula in the- - tion to actively participate in the recovery and pro- hoods. The National Environmental Education undertakenPlan 2017-2022, in theapproved community, by D.S. for Nº which,016-2016-MIN among and the dissemination of knowledge make it possi- otherEDU, guidesmeasures, the environmentalmunicipalities will education be supported actions bletection to work of the on environment.long-term mechanisms Likewise, oriented information tothrough the implementation of education, culture wards payment for ecosystem services, as well as and environmental citizenship programs. It will for drinking water service, sewerage and wastewa- also promote the organization of community envi- ter treatment. ronmental promoters and volunteers. In order to The main recommendations revolve around capacity building to improve quality management, - through a strategy and an environmental research gram.complement For its part,this, MINEDUMINAM has created developed the “Learning initiatives to plan that will make it possible to implement re- touse improve drinking education water responsibly” and capacity Educational building, such Pro as gional environmental and technological research

water treatment or preservation on the basis of lo- the “Clean Beaches” Campaign. calcenters, problems. in order In turn,to find such appropriate plans should solutions establish for 7. Conclusions and Recommendations rigorous studies and protocols to ensure the quality of the information obtained. These centers must Taking stock of the main characteristics associated obviously be coordinated by expert professionals with water quality in Peru, it should be noted that trained in the necessary issues. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | PERU 536

At the coordination level, it is important to es- micobacterias no tuberculosas en el siste- tablish short-, medium- and long-term goals and ma de distribución de agua en un hospital de targets that align with the government’s efforts in Revista Biosalud, education. This will make it possible to achieve results in a coordinated way and establish strategies Lima (Perú)”. 17 (2): 7-24. DOI:- from broader perspectives for the creation of a wa- cionadas10.17151/biosa.2018.17.2.1 con el agua en el Perú. Revista Peruana ter culture oriented towards water conservation. Cabezas,de Medicina C. (2018). Experimental Enfermedades y Salud infecciosas Pública rela

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Decreto Legislativo N° 613, Código del Medio Ambi Decreto Legislativo Nº 1284, Creación del Fondo de ente de los Recursos Naturales. 8 de setiembre- Inversión Agua Segura. 28 de diciembre de 2016. de 1990. DecretoAgua Supremoy establecen N° Disposiciones 004-2017-MINAM, Complementa Aprueban- Ley N° 28611, Ley General del Ambiente. 13 de oc Estándares de Calidad Ambiental (ECA) para tubre de 2005. - Decreto Supremo N° 002-2008-MINAM, Aprueban rias. 7 de junio de 2017. los Estándares Nacionales de Calidad Ambiental- Decreto Supremo N° 015-2017-VIVIENDA, Aprue- para Agua. 30 de julio de 2008. ba el Reglamento para el Reaprovechamiento Ley N° 29338, Ley de Recursos Hídricos. 30 de mar de los Lodos generados en las Plantas de Trata zo de 2009. miento de Aguas Residuales. 21 de junio de 2017. Ley Nº 30215, Ley de Mecanismos de Retribución Decreto Supremo N° 018-2017-VIVIENDA, Aprueba por Servicios Ecosistémicos. 28 de junio de 2014. el Plan Nacional de Saneamiento 2017–2021. 23- Decreto Supremo Nº 016-2016-MINEDU, Aprueba de junio de 2017. el Plan Nacional de Educación Ambiental 2017- Resolución Jefatural N° 237-2018-ANA, Confor 2022. 9 de diciembre de 2016. mación de la Mesa Académica del Agua. 14 de Decreto Legislativo N° 1278, Ley de Gestión Integral agosto de 2018. de Residuos Sólidos. 22 de diciembre de 2016. Decreto Legislativo N° 1280, Ley Marco de la Gestión y Prestación de los Servicios de Saneamiento. 28 de diciembre de 2016. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 540

United States of America

Physics and economics provide principles for evaluating the efficacy of water quality policies. Analyses of current water quality legislation indicates that, while effective in some ways, they have significant physical and economic deficiencies. Managing water quality poses many problems but the most important are: 1) toxic contaminants; 2) non-point source contaminants; 3) managing salinity; 4) monitoring; and 5) governance. The U.S. is an example of the “Water Paradox in Developed Nations.”

Aerial view of the Hoover Dam, located on the course of the Colorado River, United States of America © iStock 541 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Water Quality and its Management in the United States of America

Henry Vaux, Jr.

Introduction

which water is commonly put. Indeed, instances of water borne disease are rare, water of suitableWater quality quality in is the available United for States industry is said and to agriculture be sufficiently and most good waters to support are suitable most usesfor rec to-

there are a multitude of water quality problems. Some arise anew as a consequence of eco- nomicreational and purposes. population Yet, growth. in a country Others as are geographically problems that vast may and have varied been as effectively the United managed States, historically but are no longer well managed because the physical and biological causes have outgrown the policy and institutional arrangements that were designed to address them. Still others are long-term problems that have proven to be intractable historically. The pace of technical change and economic growth coupled with the stagnation or decline of the institutions and resources available for managing water quality mean that future levels and patterns of water quality may be seriously jeopardized. - - mostThe unlimited history suppliesof water ofquality pristine in the natural United surface States waters. is somewhat As the populationmixed. European and economy explor grewers and in theearly ensuing European years, arrivals waterways to the came moist to eastern be used and as receptors middle western for both lands industrial found and al

time the extent and severity of the localized instances grew until few regions of the country weredomestic entirely waste. free This of bothled at areas first ofto persistentlocalized instances contamination of significant and more water frequent pollution. acute Over but

temporary episodes of pollution. Early action to address water pollution was itself localized anand ineffective regionalized. strategy. Early federal legislation that appeared in 1948 assigned responsibility for managingWith the water management quality to ofthe water states quality ( 33 U.S.C. in the 1251-1376. hands of P.L. the 80-854). states the This levels turned of standards out to be and the stringency of regulations tended to become bargaining tools, part of an effort to an effort to attract new industrial and other economic development. When states competed for economic development by offering standards and water quality regulations that were weaker and less effective than those offered by competing states, the results were almost always weaker standards and regulations in many or all states. Water quality in the aggregate thus

continued to decline over time. In the late 1960s, the continued deterioration in the quality of

Henry Vaux, Jr. is Professor of Resource Economics, Emeritus, at the University of California. Riverside, and Associate Vice President, Eme- ritus, of the University of California System. His area of expertise is the economics of water resources in which he is widely published. Pro- fessor Vaux is a National Associate of the U.S. Academy of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. He was the founding chair of the Rosenberg International Forum which he managed for nearly 20 years. He currently serves as the U.S. representative to the Water Committee of the InterAmerican Network of Academies of Science. He was awarded the Warren Hall Medal for excellence in water research by the Universities Council on Water Resources. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 542

the nation’s waters began to draw increasing pub- Figure 1 illustrates the principle as it follows from lic attention. One widely publicized incident dramatically underscored the deleterious state of the That law holds that matter and energy are always conserved.the Law of So Conservation too with the and resources Energy and and materiel Matter. - - nation’s waters by mid-20th century. The Cuyahoga River, which flows through Cleveland, Ohio and dis rawthat flowresources through and production materials andthat consumption are used in prosys- charges into Lake Erie, had become little more than duction.tems. Beginning The production at the left process of the transforms diagram are those the prolongedan open sewer efforts filled to largelyextinguish with it industrial received wastes.nation- resources and materials into a) useful goods and alThe publicity. river itself This caughtincident, fire coupled periodically with reports and the of services and b) the residuals of the production pro- similar disastrous levels of contamination in oth- p. These residuals typically do not have any er waterways and the fact that swimming and oth- value and left unregulated are discharged to one or er water contact sports were frequently banned to cess,more WR of the environmental waste sinks - land, air or protect public health, set the stage for enactment water. The useful goods and services are purchased - by consumers and in the processes of consumption undergo a further transformation, the consumptive of the Clean Water Act of 1972 and the Safe Drink transformation, in which the trash or garbage that States.ing Water These Act Actsof 1974 will which be described remain toand this evaluated day the results from consumption, the residuals of the con- inpillars more of detail water later quality in this management chapter as theyin the continue United c, are also discharged to the to provide the legislative and legal basis for manag- environment. For purposes of explication it is as- ing water quality. Much of the contemporary assess- sumedsumptive in processes,the diagram WR and the underlying symbol- ism that regulations do not exist. However, lessons two Acts. about regulations, their stringency and how they mentThe of remainderwater quality of this in thechapter U.S. beginsis in four with sections. these can be applied do emerge from this analysis. - One major result, called the Principle of Materi- ples of water quality management based upon the The first of these derives and discuss some princi that enter the production process, Wres, is approx- ideal world water quality management schemes alsimately Balance, equal holds to the that weight the weight of the of residuals the resources from wouldLaw of be Conservation consistent with of Energy these andprinciples. Matter. In In the an p, plus the weight of second section the legal framework governing wa- c, - productive transformation, WR cussion includes a detailed description and evalu- the residuals of consumptive transformation, WR ationter quality of the in current the United national States laws is discussed. governing The water dis (Ayers,res Kneesep and d’Arge,c 2015). That is: - ry section. In the third section, water quality prob- Where1) W = WR + WR lemsquality that including need to those be address identified in contemporary in this introducto time Wres = the weight of the resources and material that enter production processes p = the weight of the residuals of production andframes recommendations are identified andfor actions. analyzed. A fourth and c = the weight of the residuals of consumption final section contains some concluding comments WR WRSeveral important corollaries follow from this Managing water quality: some underelying theory • Corollary 1: There are only two ways to reduce principle:the weight (quantity) discharged to the envi- The principle of materials balance, which is derived and materials that are put through the produc- embodies a number of useful lessons that should tiveronment: and consumptive a) reduce the transformation weight of the resources – called befrom heeded the Law if the of Conservationmanagement ofof Energywater quality and Matter, is to throughput; or b) capture the residuals from be optimal in an economic sense. The schematic in the productive and consumptive transforma- 543 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

tions and recycle them through the system as Figure 2. Incremental costs and benefits of resources. This is what recycling is all about. pollution control • Corollary 2: The more stringent the standard $ for one sink the laxer the ambient quality of the other sinks. In other words, the land, air and wa- MCC ter sinks are interrelated – not independent— and it is simply not feasible to control the qual- p ity of all three sinks very tightly thru the simple expedient of promulgating standards. It is also important to recognize that that different sinks have different capacities to dilute or transform MBC different kinds of wastes. These capacities vary from place to place. Q Q There is a second important principle from economics that should be considered in the fashioning Where: of water quality control policies and standards. This MCC marginal costs of pollution control in USD MBC = Marginal beneﬁts from pollution control un USD$ eliminate pollution totally. This is illustrated in Fig- Q Optimal quantity of pollution control principleure 2 where holds the that, optimal in most point cases, –the it optimalis inefficient mount to P Incremental price of optimal control of pollution abatement is found where the marginal

intersect (are equal). Stated differently, in most instances,costs of controlsome amount and the of marginal pollution benefits will be of econom control- cases optimal pollution or optimal control of pollu- ically optimal. The rationale is that at some point tion will be at the point where the costs of an addi- the incremental costs of treating or controlling additional quantities of pollutants will exceed the in- damages averted) as a consequence of treatment. Amongtional unit the ofseveral treatment exceptions just equal to this the principle benefits are(or unit of pollution in question is controlled. In most cases where the pollutant in question is so virulent cremental benefits that would be conferred if the that it will cause enormous damages in terms of human health and loss of life. Another example arises Figure 1. Schematic of the Principle in instances where the costs of cleaning up or atof Material Material Balance tenuating a pollutant are themselves huge, perhaps

Resources borderingThese principles on being infinitelyprovide useful large (Baumolguidance and in Productive Oates, 1993). Transformation strategies. They also provide useful criteria against whichdevising to effectiveevaluate andexisting efficient pollution pollution control. control It is Residuals of clear that water quality management should be Production part of integrated pollution control strategies that (WPp) explicitly acknowledge the interrelatedness of the Goods and servces three sinks, land, air and water. In the next section, Residuals of the major national laws and policies governing the Consumption (WP ) c discussed. In that discussion it will emerge that one Consumptive ofmanagement the shortcomings of water of quality pollution will controlbe identified policy and in transformation -

the United States is that it is sink specific and pro WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 544

vides little or no acknowledgement of the interre- - latedness of waste sinks. Simultaneously, it is also es on the quality of water in the surface waters of clear that these policies were not designed to be thelution country. control It doesin the not United address States. problems The Act of ground focus water pollution. The Act also focuses on point However, it is true that the data required to assess consistent with principles of economic efficiency. are expensive to obtain. pointsources such which as aare sewer generally outfall, defined a discharge as discharges pipe or efficient strategies may not always be available or to a waterways that emanate from an identifiable- charges of heated waters that exceed the ambient temperatureconfined discharge of the fromreceiving an industry, water body including (See Boxdis Water quality laws and policies 1). The Act also addresses non-point source discharges which, because they are defuse, complicate There are two major federal laws and associated the problems of regulation. However, actions and polities that govern water quality and its manage- policies to address non-point source discharges are not emphasized to the extent that policies focused on point source discharges are. ment in the United States. They are: 1) the Clean- The Clean Water Act was passed by Congress Water Act of 1972 and 2) the Safe Drinking Water- - esAct generally of 1974. A is third also law,germaine the Toxic but Substancesis not related Con to trol Act of 1976, aimed at controlling toxic substanc and signed into law in 1972. It has been as amend in water or susceptible to being in water are treated ed several times since then, most notably in 1977,- directlywater pollution under the exclusively. terms of Rather, the Safe toxic Drinking substances Wa- 1981, 1987 and 2014 (For a complete overview see: itBearden remain et. controversial al.2010). The and law the is complexsubject of and con al- are described and evaluated. However, at the out- tinuingthough itdebate. is now As more noted than above, 40 yearsan earlier old partsversion of set,ter Act,it should amended. be noted Below that the while details these of these laws lawsand policies are the most important and most visible for establishing and enforcing water quality stan- there are numerous other federal laws, parts of dardsof this toAct, the passed States. in This 1948, proved assigned unworkable responsibility and which are directed at improving and maintaining - water quality. In addition, the States and Territo- ter quality standards with the federal government. ries also have their own laws and policies which are Thethe 1972 principal Act vested objective the authority of the Act to waspromulgate to make wa all consistent with the major federal laws but modify - - - of the nation’s surface waters fishable and swim ciesand strengthenof states and them territories in a variety cannot of ways.be devised Under and/ the weremable to by be 1983. illegal. The However, Act was basedthe Act on provided the proposi that orConstitution enforced to of weaken the United or modify States the the intent laws and of feder poli- dischargerstion that discharges could obtain into anydischarge waterway permits in the after U.S. al legislation. The state laws and policies as well as the minor federal laws and policies are too numer- - ous to be considered further here. However, they vironmentalmeeting certain Protection conditions Agency. specified The bypermits the law were and are important to the extent that in some instances subsumedby the regulator, under whothe general was identified heading as of thethe U.S.Nation En- they strengthen one or more aspects of federal legislation and, in other instances, they serve to adapt the features of the federal law to some unique cir- aal permit Pollution which Discharge itself is Elimination part of an effectiveSystem (NPDES). enforce- cumstances which are found frequently in a coun- mentToday, system. all point Those sources who dischargers discharge inwithout the U.S. a holdper-

Clean Water Act of 1972 try as vast and variable as the United States. ofmit regulatory are subject requirements to significant aimed fines. atThe industrial Clean Water and called the Federal Water Pollution (Public Control Law 92-500; Act, lays 86 municipalAct has two dischargers. main parts. The firstsecond encompasses authorizes afed set- outStat the816). fundamental The Clean Waterbases Actfor modernof 1972, technicallywater pol-

eral financial aid to municipalities and other public 545 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Box 1. Important concepts in waste water treatment and management

Levels of Treatment Discharge Standards. Discharge standards express Primary Treatment. Primary treatment is the basic lev- the biological, chemical, physical (and in some cases, el of treatment. It involves the removal of solids and quantitative) standards that must characterize wa- floating material from waste water. ters that are discharged to a surface waterway or oth- Secondary Treatment. Secondary treatment ener receiving body. The stipulation and enforcement tails the removal of suspended compounds and col- of discharge standards is one way of achieving ambi- loids, usually through natural biological processes ent standards. It should be noted that discharge stan- that entail the biochemical oxidation to convert sus- dards are effective with point source pollutants where pensions and colloids to constituent chemicals. Such there is a point where the discharge in question can be treatments are usually accomplished in aerobic envi- monitored. They are usually ineffective in controlling ronments utilizing microorganisms that are found in non-point source pollution because of the difficulty adjacent and nearby streams. Together with primary in identifying where the standard is to be applied and treatment they remove a significant majority of the enforced. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) found in the feed Technology Based Standards. Technology based wastewater. standards specify the types of technology and relat- Tertiary Treatment. Tertiary treatment involves ed operational considerations necessary to achieve the removal of specific compounds beyond those that the ambient standard. They are usually based on cost are usually removed by secondary treatment. Nitrogen and effectiveness considerations. They achieve pollu- and phosphorous are the primary examples but there tion management by specifying what must be done to are many others and the level of tertiary treatment re- waste streams rather than by the impact of the waste quired will depend upon the specific composition of streams on the environment. the waste water in question. The methods of tertiary Input Standards. Input standards specify the quan- treatment may be biological, chemical and/or physi- tity and quality of certain inputs that may be applied cal. Tertiary treatment is sometime called “Advanced in specific production processes in order to affect the Waste Water Treatment”. quality and quantity of the residuals, both productive and consumptive that are subsequently generated. Types of Standards output. Stated differently, they specify the quality and Different types of standards are typically employed quantity of the inputs to the production process in orin specifying the goals and objectives of wastewater der to impact the quality and quantity of the residu- treatment systems specifically or broad regional and als. They have been proposed as an effective means national water quality goals. There are several differ- of dealing with non-point source pollutants but they ent types standards. They are discussed below: have rarely been used in the United States and do not Ambient Standards. Ambient standards speci- have a substantial record of effectiveness. They will fy the desired physical, chemical and biological char- usually be quite costly to enforce. acteristics of receiving media, water in the present case, which collectively form the goals of water quali- Technologies ty management actions and policies. The specification Best Available Technology (BAT). The most effective of an ambient standard is simply the statement of an waste treatment technology, including processes, objective or a set of objective. The standard itself is not without regard to cost or affordability. fulfilling. It must be attained by other means such as Best Practicable Technology (BPT). The most effec- the specification and enforcement of discharge stan- tive waste treatment technology, including processes, dards, pollution fines or other pricing mechanisms subject to constraints on costs and affordability. The both individualy and collectively. constraints are established by the regulator. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 546

entities to assist in the construction of wastewater rizing the federal government to participate in the treatment plants that meet the required standards for discharge. The regulatory process begins with the estab- wasfinancing to be borneof facility by states construction and localities in the as amount were the of lishment of surface water quality standards. The operation75% of the and capital maintenance cost. The costs. remainder The ceiling of the on cost the responsibility for promulgating the standards rests federal contribution to capital costs was reduced to with the States though all standards are subject to - Federal approval. For states that fail to establish standards or are unable to establish standards that One55% ofby the the early Municipal problems Wastewater with the Treatmentgrants program Con merit federal approval, the federal government it- wasstruction the lack Grants of training Amendments programs of for1981 facility (P.L. 97-117). opera- self is authorized to establish the standards. The tors and the consequent inadequate pool of trained federal review responsibility is exercised by the operators. This problem proved vexatious in the - early years of the program although, with time, it dards themselves express the maximum concentra- was overcome. tionsEnvironmental of biodegradable Protection wastes, Agency heat (EPA). and pH The that stan are As noted above the basin Clean Water Act of permitted in the waterways of the state in question. These ambient standards are to be achieved by a set of technology standards. 1972 has been amended and clarified four times. For industry, the initial requirement was to since its original passage. The first two pieces of- amending legislation, the Clean Water Act of 1977 treat the waste stream. The Act called for the ad- (P.L. 95-217) and the Municipal Wastewater Treat employ the Best Practicable Technology (BPT) to ment Construction Grant Amendments of 1981 (P.L.- - gional97-117) circumstances were intended and to adapt to situations and expand that parts had quiredvancement further to Best that Availableambient standardsTechnology specify (BAT) the by notof the been original anticipated legislation in the tooriginal specific legislation. local and The re maximum1989 to improve allowable the level concentration of treatment. of Thepollutants Act re provisions of both of these acts are many, detailed needed to permit the stream to be used for which and complex. Treatment of all of them them is be- ever use the standard called for. These maximum - allowable concentrations serve as checks to ensure tions were the creation of program focused on toxic that the ambient standards are, indeed, met. They yond the scope of this paper. The significant excep- require the States to establish the Total Maximum wastes in the 1977 Act and the reduction of the ceil if the achievement of the ambient standard is to be ing Aon third the federalpiece of cost amending share from legislation, the 75% the to 55%Wa- Daily Load (TMDL) of pollutants that must be met termandated Quality by Act the of 1981 1987 Act. assured. When the appropriate (BPT) technology (P.L. 100-4), was notable in adoes part notof the achieve planning the for TMDL pollution additional control treatment and also toa numberaddress ofnon-point respects. source Perhaps pollution. first and This foremost con- partmay beof therequired. enforcement The specification process. of TMDLs is thus it provided specific programmatic authorizations For regional and municipal wastewater treat- that had focused almost exclusively on point sourc- ment systems the treatment technology is required trasts with the 1972 Act and the 1977 Amendments to be that which achieves at least full secondary implement programs aimed at managing non-point treatment of the waste stream. Again, where the use sourcees. The 1987pollution. Act authorized Within this the statesauthorization to devise they and were encouraged to develop programs aimed at the protection of ground water. Such protection proof secondary treatment is insufficient to achieve the ActTMDLs was for passed, the body the fundingof water needs in question for constructing additional always true that it is cheaper to prevent ground wa- treatment facilitiesmay be required. to provide In full1972, secondary at the time treat thegrams were potentially significant since it is almost ment were well beyond the capacity of most regions up after it has occurred. The Act also made available - ter pollution in the first place rather than cleaning it gress included in the legislation provisions autho- implementation costs of non-point source control and municipalities financially. Accordingly, the Con grants covering up to 60% of the development and 547 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

programs. Although the nation has continued to provisions of the various pieces of the water pollu- struggle with the management of non-point sourc-

- tion control legislation (Liebsman and Laws, 1987). es, the promulgation of implementation of Best- strengthenedTaken as a whole in response the 1987 to emerging legislation circumstanc illustrated- Management Practices (BMPs) has served as a sig eshow and the to original experience Act ofwith 1972 programs could be thatmodified had perand- problemnificant start. for the As nation. noted a later in this chapter man formed at levels less than anticipated. agement of non-point sources remains a significant- justments in the national clean water program. - The 1987 Act authorized other important ad islationThe Cleanwherein Water minor Act changes of 1972, as were amended enacted, in 1977, was and authorized new programs and strengthened 1981 and 1987 and in numerous other pieces of leg programsFirst, it targeted for dealing specific with water them. pollution Among these problems were focused on a single sink –water– fails to incorporate theto some principle extent from flawed the frommaterials the beginning. balance that The emAct- phasizes the interrelatedness of all sinks. This sig- aspollution problematical. control Second, strategies it changed targeted the at fundamen specified- taltoxic nature discharges of the thatfederal/state had previously relationship been identified that had nificant omission had been repeated earlier with This was accomplished by phasing out of the waste- both the Clean Air Act of 1970 (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.- waterprevailed treatment since theconstruction authorization grants of program the 1972 Act.and P.L. 84-159) and the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1954 - of(P.L. which 89-272) focused and itson successorsingle waste the receiving Resource sinks. Con Thereservation was and little Recovery or no recognition Act of 1976 or (P.L. acknowledge 94-580 ) all- governmentreplacing it with provided State anWater initial Pollution grant to Control capitalize Re ment that these sinks were interrelated. Thus even volving Funds. Under this arrangement the federal - strategies means that there are instances and re- theest revolvingloans from fund the and revolving the states fund added and these20% to loans that gionstoday wherethe single one sinkor more focus of ofthe U.S. sinks pollution is overutilized control amount.were repaid Eligible into theprojects fund wherethen received the money low became inter and one or more of the other two are underutilized. available to support other projects. The other im- The failure to pursue broadly integrated strategies portant feature of the revolving fund arrangement of residuals management remains one of the major was that a variety of water quality projects were eli- shortcomings of environmental management in the gible to receive funding loan – not just the construc- - tion of waste water treatment plants as had pre- ly be managed optimally because the costs of pol- viously been the case. Among the eligible projects lutionU.S. today. control This are means rarely that considered water quality ad compared will rare - nicipal wastewater treatment facilities; b) projects ofidentified control non-pointin the Act pollution were: a) sources; construction c) construc of mu- ofwith the the Act benefits and this of control. revolves around the proposition of decentralized wastewater treatment sys- The is an additional flaw in the underpinnings tems; d) creation of green infrastructure projects; and e) projects to enhance and protect estuarine managementtion that efficient such wastethat at disposal the equilibrium practices point should the waters. In addition, the Act devolved to the states costsseek toof balancethe last additionalthe costs and unit benefits of treatment of residuals or reg- partial responsibility (subject to Federal oversight) - achieved from the last unit of control. This means thatulation there (control)should is some optimal just belevel equal of topollution the benefits and for the management of the national (NPEDS) per only in rare instance will it be economical to clean strengtheningmit program. (Leibsman of the general and Laws, enforcement 1987). mecha- nismsThe both third Federal major andfeature State of programs the 1987 Act by increaswas theup all pollution (Dolbear, 1967). The problems of thatmeasuring information and monetizing must be counted the costs as costs and benefits of con- areasing fines that and faced even special imprisonment, circumstances where could called seek for. are difficult to be sure and the costs of obtaining redressFourth and or relieffinally, from it made some provision of the more whereby stringent local goal of zero discharges nationally and established trol. However, the 1972 Act specified an ultimate WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 548

a deadline for the achievement of that goal. In this Title XIV. It is important to note at the outset that way, the Act failed to acknowledge that the some of there is a clear distinction between the Clean Water Act, as amended, which focuses on the pollution and quality of the nation’s surface waters, and the Safe factthe costsis that of the clean-up zero discharge would not goal generate has never sufficient been Drinking Water Act, as amended, which focuses on achievedbenefits toand make probably those never costs will worth be bearing.achieved. The At the quality of the nation’s drinking water supplies. of expectations. three authorizations that are crucial to maintain- best the specification of such goals create false sets ing Thehealthful Safe Drinking drinking Water water. Act First, of 1974 it empowered established argue with the proposition that the Act has served - the Incountry spite ofwell. these The fundamental nation’s waters flaws are it is now hard de to- fy and set standards for contaminants in drinking waterthe Environmental including those Protection with the potential Agency toto appear identi - monstrably cleaner than they were in 1972. This mental Protection Agency to establish and enforce inhas the occurred throughput despite of materialsthe significant in the population economy and regulationsin drinking towater. ensure Second, that contaminants it required the remain Environ ab- changeseconomic in growth both the in quantitythe last 40 and years, quality the ofincreases residu- sent from drinking water. Third, it authorizes the - States the assume responsibility for oversight and ed the Act remains controversial. On the one hand, enforcement of standards and regulations once thereals. Yet are more groups than that 40 years argue after that itthe was Act first does enact not - go far enough, that it is only infrequently updat- tection Agency is required to maintain a contami- ed and that there are important classes of pollut- they have been approved. The Environmental Pro ants that are either under regulated or not regulat- years. The Agency is also required to evaluate at nant candidate list and to update that list every five On the other hand are groups, that feel that the Act and make a determination as to whether to proceed representsed at all (e.g. unwarranted Adler, Landeman government and Cameron. intrusion 1993). on least five contaminants on this list every five years industries, businesses and public institutions. The A contaminant is selected as a candidate for fact that there are countervailing dissatisfactions standardwith regulation setting or and not (Tiemann,regulation 2017).if it meets three probably attests to the political wisdom of those critical criteria. • Contaminant may have adverse health effects. Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 • Contaminant occurs or has a likelihood of oc- who fashioned it in the first place. currence at levels and frequencies that consti- (P.L. 93-523) tute a public health concern. waterborneShortly after illness the mid-twentieth in a number century of urban the commu United- • nities.States beganThese tooutbreaks experience belied significant the commonly outbreaks held of reduction. believe that virtually all drinking water supplies in Regulation offers an opportunity for health risk the country were safe. The government responded Once a contaminant has been selected for regu- with the National Community Water Supply Study lation the Agency must establish a Maximum Con- to examine the safety of drinking water supplies where there are no anticipated adverse effects plus - sometaminant margin Level of Goalscarcity. (MCLG) The whichstandard is atis thethen level set ciesnation-wide in the quality (Bureau of drinking of Water water Hygiene, nationally 1970). Theand alsostudy documented found that thereconcerns were about substantial the capacity deficien of as close to the goal as is feasible. The Agency then drinking water treatment systems to deliver puri- mustas a Maximum then propose Contaminant a rule and, Level after (MCL) time forwhich com is- ment, issue a national drinking water regulation that is enforceable. The standards are generally set fied water suitable for drinking (Bureau of Water areHygiene, found 1970). in the The National needs Community for and the Water antecedents Supply and are to be applied with treatment echnologies of the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, as amended, utilizing the best scientific information available incorporated into the Public Health Service Act as In cases where small systems (serving less than Study. The Safe Drinking Water Act (P.L. 93-523) was that are understood to be feasible (Tiemann, 2017). 549 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

there are provisions that allow for relief though not been extremely reluctant to involve the federal for10,000 microbial consumers) contaminants. can show financial hardship governmenticant context in here. any activity The U.S. having Congress to do has with always the In addition, to standards and regulations the management of ground water. The lone exception is ground water that falls within the jurisdiction of problems. One of these is lead which was used ex- two or more states. Such ground water is called in- Safetensively Drinking in older Water pipes Act and addresses can appear several in the specific water terstate ground water. The circumstances that led transported in these pipes. The Act authorizes the to the passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act had regulation of the use of lead in plumbing by requir- illustrated clearly that regulation of drinking water ing that plumbing be lead-free. The Act itself de- could be devolved upon the States without any restriction at all. Thus, the provision of the Act that - allows the States to assume primacy for standards tionfines still“lead-free” further. as Concern no more about than 0.2%.lead is Subsequent especially and regulations is consistent with the federal reluc- pronouncedamendments because to the Act body-burdens have tightened are cumulative.this defini tance to become involved in ground water manage- A variety of other programs have been authorized ment and in the management of some local surface - waters.

to provide financial assistance to small communi obtain if a State is to qualify for primacy in the man- rectify.ties and school districts who find that existing lead agementThe Act of drinkingspecifies watercertain quality. conditions First, which it must must set problemsDrinking are water beyond supplies their derived financial from capacity ground to water quality standards that are as least as high water also acquire special attention in the Safe as those promulgated by the federal government. Drinking Water Act. Data on ground water use for It must develop effective procedures for enforce- drinking water supplies are apt to be confusing. - The data show that the vast majority of public water citizens from violating the standards and regulations.ment, including And, it must a system maintain of fines inventories, sufficient monitor to de and accomplish routine inspections. Finally, States areter supplyserved systems by systems (91%) that employ employ ground surface water. water. Yet must plan for the provision of safe drinking water This68% apparent of the drinking contradiction water consumersis explain by in the fact U.S. supplies in the event of emergencies. Virtually all that most metropolitan areas, where the majority of people reside, are supplied with surface water conditions for primacy and do, in fact, exercise pri- while the small systems that predominate in rural macy.of the TheU.S. exceptionsStates and areTerritories the State have of Wyoming, fulfilled the - District of Colombia and several native American tribes which are autonomously governed as a con- suppliesareas are drinkingsupplied waterby ground is thus water subject (Environmen to strin- genttal Protection regulations Agency, under the 2010). terms Ground of the waterAct includ that- There are numerous amendments to the Safe ing identical standards and regulations regarding sequence of Treaties or legislation (Tiemann, 2017). - orate protections from underground injections that Drinking Water Act. The Amendments of 1986 (P.L. mightcontaminants. imperil Thethe qualityAct provides of ground specific waters and elabused establishment99-339) were of wide strong ranging requirements and focused for disinfec on theas drinking supplies. Additionally, aquifers that speed with which EPA regulated contaminants; the are the sole source of drinking water receive spe- creation of well head protection programs (sup- cial protection and are eligible for federal funding tion and infiltration of public water supplies; the to support ground water quality in waters that are - sole source and to support state ground water qual- ported by demonstration projects): strengthening EPA’s enforcement authorities. Additional amend In terms of the locus of authority, the Act au- resourcesments in 1988to the (P.L. greatest 100-572) health and risks in 1996 and (P.L.increase 104- thorizesity protection the statesprograms to assume (Tiemann, primary 2017). responsi- the182) emphasisattempted on to theadd prevention regulatory offlexibility, pollution. target The bility for the management and enforcement of the standards and regulations. There is some signif- maintenance of security of public water supplies ef- Amendments of 2002 (P.L. 107-188) focused on the WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 550

forts to plan for and respond to bioterrorism aimed regimes of governance and appropriate responses to public pollution management challenges. In this section each of these problems is discussed in turn. theat public nation water well suppliesin protecting (Bearden, drinking et. al., water 2010). quality. SinceThe Safeits passage Drinking and Water implementation Act of 1974 hasthere served have Toxic Contaminants (Chemicals) been few outbreaks of water-borne illness and plen- Toxic chemicals which can enter or are susceptible tiful supplies of healthful water have been available of entering drinking water supplies are regulated - under the terms of the Safe Drinking Water Act of taminants including chemical, biological and radio- - logicalin most contaminants locales throughout are regulated. the nation. There Some are, 91 how con- ment of enforceable regulations, where indicated, ever, signs that the quality of drinking water may and1974 also as amended.stipulates Thethe processes Act provides through for establishwhich ad- not be as well protected in the future as it has been ditional contaminates can be added to the list. New in the past. This is particularly the case because of contaminants with the potential to be toxic appear the profusion and widespread distribution of toxin the environment every day. They come from inic chemicals that are susceptible of appearing in dustry, agriculture, pharmaceutical chemicals, min- drinking water supplies. In addition, much of the in- ing and natural gas extraction. The Safe Drinking frastructure that supports the gathering, transport Water Act requires that potential contaminants and treatment of drinking water supplies is in need - - quires further that research be undertaken for the dressed aggressively the threats to drinking water purposebe listed ofon deciding a Contaminant whether Candidate a contaminant List and should re qualityof renewal are andlikely maintenance. to grow quite Unless rapidly this (Venkatara task is ad- be regulated and at what levels. The legislation also requires that a decision to regulate or not be made address in fashioning the water quality manage- - man, 2013). The future challenges that the U.S. must- cussed in the next section. showson at least that thefive numbercontaminants of contaminants in each five being year add pe- ment policies of the future are identified and dis riod. Venkataraman (2013) provides evidence that

Water Quality Management Theed to crux the of Contaminant the problem Candidate is that existing List is programs growing faster than the capacity of the EPA to evaluate them. in the U.S.: Future Challenges that identify and evaluate new contaminants are inadequate scaled and funded. Moreover, this problem is being exacerbated by that promulgate the fundamental strategies and the current federal administration which has re- Despite flaws –both basic and situational– the laws duced and will continue to reduce the funding avail- served the nation reasonably well. This is true for bothpolicies the for qualitative managing condition water quality of surface in the and U.S. some have assessments needed to evaluate potential contam- ground waters and also the quality of drinking wa- inants.able to Thissupport means both that the evenresearch as the and number the scientific of po- ter supplies nationwide. However, a number of potential contaminants grows the capacity to evaluate tentially severe water quality problems loom. They them for possible regulation is shrinking. It appears will require both resources and political will if they only logical that under such circumstances the like- are to be addressed effectively. Although these prob- - ulation before it has done real damage whether to especially challenging. Three of these are problems humanslihood of or a the significant environment. contaminant In spite escapingof these facts, reg oflems pollution are numerous that have there been are well five thatknown appear for manyto be decades but have proved particularly vexatious and of polls that show sharp declines in public aware- resistant to effective solutions. They are – toxic con- nessVenkataraman to the fact (2013) that the reports threats the to results the healthfulness of a number taminants, non-point source contaminants and sa- of water supplies are largely hidden from view. linization of water and land. Two others concern the ability of the nation to respond to water quality management problems by devising appropriate tryingCranor to regulate (2017) toxics.has documented He posits two at crucialsome length ques- the general difficulties faced by the government in 551 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

tions which underlie virtually all decisions about cleaning up its surface waters and maintaining rel- when and how to regulate. atively good water qualities thereafter. The expla- • When in the life of the chemical should it be nation for this success lies largely with the fact that evaluated to determine whether it has delete- management and regulatory policies have been rious health effects? largely focused on point sources of pollution. Sim- • ilar success has not been achieved in the regulation should be required to protect public health? and management of non-point source contaminants What kind and how much scientific evidence even though the importance of non-point source He goes on to show that the vast majority of pollutants has been acknowledged in the Clean Wa- chemicals that are introduced into markets are not ter Act. The Act authorized several programs fo- evaluated prior to such introduction. While a strong cused at managing non-point sources but there is case can be made for requiring evaluation of chem- general agreement that they have not been very icals prior to release to markets the default practice successful. This is attributed to the fact that only a is to release them and assume that there will be no small fraction of the federal funds appropriated for deleterious effects. With respect to the quality and pollution control were aimed at non-point sources quantity of science needed to evaluate new chemicals, Cranor documents many instances in which regulating non-point source contaminants. industry (and others) have insisted that regulation andNon-point because of source the inherent pollutants technical are characterizeddifficulties of by the fact that their sources are diffuse. They in- unambiguous results. Frequently, it is not feasible clude sediments, nutrients, chemicals and con- tomust develop be based such on conclusions science that either is sufficient economically to yield or taminants and pathogens. They tend to be carried - potential contaminants on the basis of their risk po- logic phenomena that move dissolved or suspend- tentialscientifically. and simply The effect assume then that is a the failure lack to of evaluate science edby solidsstorm acrosswater flows,the landscape snowmelt surface and other or percolate hydro about possible impacts means that those impacts to ground water. In this latter case gravity and soil will be benign. This sort of phenomenon has led to structure play important roles in mobilizing the pol-

which decisions about the need for regulation must pollutants makes the regulation of them extremely bethe premised enunciation on theof the notion “precautionary that little information principle” orin lutants (Puckett, 1995). The diffuse nature of these- - late directly and hence must be regulated indirectly ning or severely limiting the proposal to proceed to bydifficult. controlling In fact, or they regulating are almost the impossibleactivities that to regu gen- insufficient information should be grounds for ban erate them. This tends to be a very expensive prop- The problem of proliferation in the number of osition and the expense is even greater when the newdevelop chemicals or release developed to market for (Cranor,release each 2017). year cou- costs of necessary monitoring are also counted. The pled with inadequate regulation and a system of in- consequences of unregulated non-point source pol- centives that induces producers to resist regulation lution include sedimentation of waterways; human bodes ill for the future of water quality generally caused nutrient enrichment (usually from phospho- and drinking water in particular. There are no obvi- rous or nitrogen) of lakes and streams (eutrophi- ous, workable solutions to this problem because of cation); biological and chemical contamination of water supplies; and, ground water contamination. to avoid the conclusion that the nation must await Thus, for example, the highly visible problem of eu- somethe lack catastrophic of resources event to developthat could them. have It been is difficult avoided by proper regulation before developing reason- with nutrients is primarily due to non-point sourc- able regimes of regulation based on available sci- trophication or artificial enrichment of waterways ence to protect the health and welfare of the public. There are a variety of strategies and techniques fores that regulating are not non-pointeffectively source regulated pollution (Puckett, that 1995). have Non-Point Source Contaminants The record of the last half century suggests that the - nation has done a reasonable and effective job of tegratedbeen developed Watershed over Management”. the last 50 years. This Today, concept these inare frequently subsumed under the heading of “In WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 552

corporates the proposition that the management of nance; as well as informal collective arrangements. water and related land resources should be carried Point\non-point source trading whereby relief from out on a watershed basis since watersheds are the basic hydrological units. The concept also embod- in exchange for control of non-point source pollu- - specified point sources regulations can be granted - iestion the of propositionchemicals (fertilizers that Best Managementand pesticides) Practic and federaltion has government also been proposed could mandate (Ribaudo such and arrangeGottleib,- esthe (BMPs) unwanted should transport be employed of sediments, if erosion, nutrients applica ments2010). Itbut is thisprobably is quite true unlikely that states in the and absence even the of and other contaminants are to be kept to an abso- subsidies which are likely to be very expensive in the aggregate. There are instances in which watershed residents have organized voluntarily to work luteTechniques minimum (Mostaghimi,that can be employed Brannon, to Dillahain integrat and- collectively for the control of non-point source pol- edBruggeman, watershed 2001). management which would minimize lution but these are few in number and it is unlikely non-point source discharges to places outside the that strictly voluntary organization could solve the problem on a national –or even perhaps– regional • Conservation tillage to reduce erosion and sed- scales. watershed include: The picture that emerges is one that suggests • Contour farming and strip cropping. that non-point source pollution is not susceptible • iment flows. of being controlled at a national or state level easi- • rotationBuffer zones, especially adjacent to waterways. technology standards can be mandated but that • PrecisionUse of cover farming crops for and nutrient appropriate and croppest doesly or inexpensively.not guarantee Best that Managementthey will be effective.Practices Oneand management. reason why the effort to control point source emis- • sions has been much more effective than companion • Sediment detention structures and constructed efforts to addressed to non-point source emissions wetlandsRotational where grazing. necessary. is the assymetric level of federal investment in con-

The appropriate mix of these techniques varies funds appropriated for water quality management from place to place and depends upon local condi- trol efforts. It is estimated that 90% of the federal tions and activities. The variability of hydrologic - and other environmental conditions across water- essince on non-point1972 have beensource used problems. to address This pointunderscores source sheds nationally means that centralized, command pollution problems. The remaining 10% were focus and control regulation –as might be employed at the support. The fact that most programs of non-point federal level– is not especially practicable. More- sourceboth the control need will for balancedhave to be government devised and financial implemented locally or regionally will complicate any national effort to deal with these problems further. theyover, mustthe current be employed difficulty on witha largely utilizing voluntary the array basis. of Finding ways to design and implement programs to TheseBest Management means that itPractices is unlikely stems that from expensive the fact steps that manage non-point source pollutants effective will will be undertaken at all and it creates a problem within the watershed where agricultural, industri- foreseeable future. al and other operators who are otherwise indepen- likely remain a serious problem in the U.S. for the Problems of Salinity in Agriculture and Elsewhere dentThere must areact cooperativelya variety of ways (Mostaghimi, in which residentsBrannon, All naturally occurring waters contain dissolved ofDillaha a watershed and Bruggeman, might organize 2001). to manage non-point mineral salts. So long as those salts are in low con- sources. These include the formation of special dis- centrations they do not create qualitative problems tricts, which function as local units of governments; - the establishment of cooperatives that establish regulatory regimes through processes of self-gover- for all but a few uses of water. Waters with “signif icant” concentrations of salts (defined as greater than 5000 parts per million) are considered to be 553 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

- their food supply. The management of salinity and - its contribution to the deterioration of water qual- of impaired quality for most uses. Good quality wa whichter is defined water isas subjectedhaving saline to aconcentrations phase change offrom be future. Now, however, salinity is poised to become alow liquid 600 ppm.to a gas Activities concentrate like irrigated salts. Thus, agriculture as water in aity water will continue quality toproblem be a problem for cities into located the indefinite in the is evaporated or transpired the salts remain in the root zone and accumulate unless they are mana- Phoenix, Arizona is the prime example. Phoenix is gaged. Above some threshold level, which differs by arid and semi-arid portions of the U.S. The city of- crop, salinity concentrations result in reductions of tion. It is located in an arid region with an average yield and in relatively higher concentrations con- the 5th largest city in the U.S. in terms of popula strain productivity altogether. Salinity can also be introduced into crop root zones by high water ta- fromannual remote precipitation locations. of 200Much mm. of thatIts water water supply is quite is bles or by natural soil salinity, which can be dis- salty.made Theup of estimated a significant quantities quantity of of salt water imported imported to

millionsolved in hectares. irrigation Of waterthis, it (Gratton,is estimated 2002). that perhaps the Phoenix area each year are 2.2 X 108 kg. while Irrigated acreage in the U.S. totals about 22.26 the amount exported is only 2.2 X 105 kg. This is not a sustainableThe current situation. most visible (U.S. Bureausymptom of Reclamation,of increasing 30% is subject to salinization. This is significant for- urban2015). salinization is found in the increasing salini- production because about 45% of crop production ty content of the wastewater streams reaching the commonis accounted method for by of the combatting 28% of hectares salinity thatis to are apply ir wastewater treatment plants. The concentrations waterrigated in (U.S. addition Department to what ofthe Agriculture, crop demands 2014). for The the that might be expected from the import of salt have purpose leaching salts from the root zone. This in- crement of water is called the leaching fraction and widely used in the Phoenix Area. The softeners work the quantity of it depends upon the salt concentra- bybeen employing magnified an by exchange the fact thatcolumn water which softeners exchange are tion of the water and the crop in question. Where hardening elements (zeolites) for sodium ions. The water tables are high and/or the leaching fraction is water softening then contributes addition mineral not readily drained it is necessary to provide drain- salts to the waste stream. The severity of the prob- age facilities to remove the water from the root zone lem becomes clear when it is recognized that vir- - tually all of the treated wastewater in the Phoenix ing subsurface drainage tiles to remove the water area is recycled. It is used for landscape irrigation fromvia gravity the root flow. zone. This The is commonlydrainage water done isby normal install- (golf courses and public landscaping) and ground ly quite salty and presents a major disposal prob- water recharge. Desalting these waste streams will lem. Ocean disposal and evaporation ponds are be relatively expensive even though desalting costs frequently used for this purpose but are not with- tend to be sensitive to the salinity of the feedwater

where irrigated agriculture is practiced, water and one way or another the increased costs of a relative- soilout theirsalinity own threatens set of problems agriculture (Orlob, productivity 1991). Thus, and ly(National expensive Research and scarce Council, water 2008). supplies The are point only is likethat- can pose a related threat from saline drainage wa- - ters which may be a necessary outcome of manage- puts an be achieved by reducing water use (in an ment efforts to protect soil and water productivity alreadyly to get watermore expensivestressed area) with time.and regulating Reducing saltimple in- ments such as softeners that contribute to the prob- The salinization of agricultural lands is a problem(Pitman that andgoes Lauchli, back thousands 2002). of years. The Sume- salinity will become a pervasive problem that will rian civilization, the great Mesopotemian and the impactlem (U.S. most Bureau consumptive of Reclamation, uses of 2015). water. With Thought time, Hohokam of Americas are among the civilizations and research are only now beginning to be applied thought to have been destroyed by the salination to this problem as it effects urban areas located in of their agricultural lands and subsequent loss of arid and semi-arid environs. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 554

Monitoring to water provision and sanitation facilities. Infra- The successful management of water quality (and structure for both water supply and sanitation is water quantities) depends upon the generation aging. Moreover, aging facilities are being required of appropriate data on the trends and state of wa- to serve larger populations and to a higher level of regulations is dependent upon monitoring. Oth- - erter thingsquality. equal, Effective the enforcementmore sophisticated of standards the water and quality then was true in previous years. In 2013 the quality management system, the more data on wa- American Society of Civil Engineers (2013) conclud ter quality is needed for both system design and complyed that agingwith currentdrinking and water future systems water face regulations. a deficit system operation. There is simply no substitute for Theof $USD report 11 Billion concluded to replace also that and the renew costs facilities of treating and good water quality and water quantity data. It is a and delivering drinking water are in excess of the basic and essential piece of the water management funds available to sustain drinking water systems. puzzle. Modern methods of monitoring rely on so- The concern extends to both facilities which can be phisticated technology and are often costly to ac- federally underwritten as well as to local utilities quire and maintain. Monitoring will almost always the report made note of the fact that elected politi- cianswhich seem continue currently to have unwilling operating to provide deficits. the Finally, funds managingbe a publicly data supported is not widely activity appreciated since the benefits by the needed to sustain and renew both drinking water are widespread. Yet, importance of gathering and- and sanitation. This, in turn, places the protection litical support needed to garner adequate funding of public health and the delivery of public services topublic. support Indeed, essential it is very monitoring difficult activities.to generate the po in future jeopardy. The picture with respect to quality is very much States over the last two or three decades where, for the same. Many of the wastewater treatment facili- example,This hasthe beennumber especially of stream true gauging in the stations United ties subsidized with federal dollars under the Clean of budget stringencies. The continuing pressures investment in renewal and rehabilitation will be onhas water been significantlyquality from reducedeconomic as and a consequence population badlyWater neededAct are nowin the approaching near future. 50 The years prospects in age and for growth are occurring at a time when the resources needed funding and renewal appear dim. Part of the and will needed to monitor the qualitative conse- problem lies with the fact that the public appears quences of these pressures on the nation’s waters to be unaware of the threats posed by the aging of have become inadequate. There is no evidence that critical drinking water and waste water treatment this trend of increasing inadequacy is likely to be reversed in either the near or more distant future. a number of polls that show sharp declines in pubic - concernsfacilities. Venktaramanabout the quality (2013) and reports availability the results of water of niques and protocols for water quality monitoring supplies. He attributes the lack of awareness to the inYet, the there future will if be sharp a need declines for new in and water improved quality tech are fact that threat to the availability and healthful of to be avoided. Developing and maintaining the wa- water supplies are largely hidden from view. Per- ter quality monitoring systems needed for the fu- haps, more importantly, he notes that the price of ture will be on of the nation’s major water quality water supplies and wastewater treatment services challenges. - posable income. This means that consumers only Problems with Infrastructure1 coverin the aU.S. small are portionvery small, of what averaging is required just 0.3% to deliver of dis safe water supplies and provide sanitation services. infrastructure of all sorts. This is attributable to The urban water supply and sanitation situa- manyThe United years Statesof deferred has very maintenance serious problems and a lack with of political will to get on with the tasks of renewing - infrastructure from basic transportation facilities tion in the United States provides a good example supplyof the “Water and sanitation Paradox servicesin Developed is now Nations” very much (Ven in jeopardyktaraman, despite 2013). Thethe quantityfact that andthey quality were onceof water the

1. Parts of this discussion draw heavily on Vaux, 2015 555 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

envy of the world. Public apathy and an apparent streams in an integrated fashion that acknowledged not only all three sinks – land, air and water – but of the capital and operating costs of such systems threatensunwillingness the futureof users adequacy to pay aand significant quality of portion water the laws of physics govern and there is no dispute supplies and water quality generally. Overcoming aboutalso the the interactionsaccuracy and between veracity them.of the relevant Even where sci- this apathy will require both education and devel- ence some departure from the prescriptions of that opment of the political will to attend to these criti- science had to be accepted as a price of getting any cal infrastructure issues. of the case where the science is uncertain? Governance effectiveThe inherentpollution uncertainty control programs of much at all.science But what has The history of water quality and the management been used in a strategic sense to block regulatory - effective management requires the intervention plished by the targets of regulation and rule-mak- andof water supervision quality in by the the United federal States government. illustrates howThe ingactions who (Cranor,insist that 2017). no regulations This is frequently should be accom estab- setting and enforcing of water pollution standards lished unless there is complete certainty about the becomes an object of competition when left to the science. Such strategies often rely upon the em- states. States have an incentive to set standards low and/or lower them in an effort to attract new business or attract business from other states that may ployment of “experts” willing to testify that there- have more stringent standards. The result is either are valid scientific disagreements that should be- no standard or some lowest common standard that tionarysettled first.principle” Another should such be strategy, applied frequentlyin all instances em allows for unacceptable levels of pollution. Similar- whereployed anby activityenvironmentalists might result holds in some that environmen the “precau- ly, federal responsibility and oversight is required to protect and safeguard the quality of drinking wa- that where the science is inadequate to support ter. Only the federal government has the resourc- sometal damage. activity Theor an “precautionary action permit principle”might be sought holds es needed to support the science upon which safe the presumption should be that virtually complete drinking water standards can be based. And, only the federal government is in a position to ensure in question is permitted or allowed. that a common set of drinking water standards is scientificAll things certainty equal, should policies obtain should before be based the activity upon established and enforced nation-wide. This is not the best available science. However, strategies de- to say, that the federal government cannot devolve signed to obfuscate or falsely contest the credibility standard-setting and enforcement to the States of existing science may tend to discredit available wherein the federal government retains oversight science which is solid and sound. Focusing on the and supervisory policies to ensure that the states certainty or lack of certainty of the available science carry out mandates such as those contained in the is frequently disruptive and also frequently dis- tracts from the objectives of the policy-making ef- the primacy accorded to the federal government by fort in question. The democratic government of the modernSafe Drinking water Water quality Act and of 1974safe asdrinking amended. water Despite laws - there are concerns that must be addressed if past pears to invite this kind of squabbling over science successes will be a prelude to the future. fortype the that purpose currently of prevails disrupting in the the United policy States process ap It has been said more than once that a camel is rather than trying to ensure that appropriate poli- a horse constructed by a committee. Participatory cies are enacted, based on the best available science democracy is messy and depends upon the willing- and directed toward the most urgent goals where - water pollution or other kinds of environmental mises. Thus, for example, the processes that led to contamination are concerned. In the next several theness pollution of the participants management to strategiesfind workable that werecompro ad- years thorough reviews of water quality management will be necessary as a part of a long overdue which treated waste receiving sinks individually. need to update those policies in response to con- Hence,opted in the the country 1970s led has to failed an overarching to manage approachits waste temporary circumstances. Those reviews should WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 556

account for available science and set the stage for Conclusions the use of sound science in fashion of water quality management policies for the future. - There is a second critical problem with gover- ple supplies of good quality water. Over time water nance that plagues the country today. The senior qualityFrom its declined beginnings as population as a country and economicthe U.S. had growth am political leadership eschews science. Thus, for ex- generated wastes, some of which were disposed of ample, climate change is dismissed as a hoax per- either accidently or by design in water bodies. In petrated by the Chinese for the purpose of damag- - egies were adopted in an effort to attenuate the de- the top environmental agencies have expressed an clinethe 19th in water and early quality 20th and centuries provide a thenumber means of ofstrat im- intenting the to economy. roll back Senior many environmentalofficials appointed regulations to lead proving it. These included the construction of more and generally encourage further development of storage to dilute pollution and a federal law vesting hydrocarbons and other mineral deposits on pub- the responsibility for managing and improving wa- lic lands that have been historically reserved for enter quality with the states. Neither of these strate- vironmental and recreational purposes. Although most of the regulations issued pursuant to the laws were adopted that proved to be reasonably ef- Clean Water Act as amended and the Safe Drinking gies proved workable. At the mid-20th century two Water Act as amended have not been rolled back state of the nation’s surface waters and provided some regulations and procedures related to the meansfective. forThe improving Clean Water and Act regulating of 1972 addressed their quality. the management of toxic waste have been relaxed (Cra- - in response in an increase in waterborne disease. tions were forthcoming that would further weaken The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 was adopted waternor, 2018). quality It wouldregulations not beincluding surprising those if related other ac to successful in meeting their stated objectives. the governance of drinking water quality. BothDespite of these these Acts, asapparent amended, successes proved reasonablythere are The problems related to the regulation of wa- - ter quality and drinking water safety at the national tionally, economic and population growth has con- level are problems that are likely to persist in the tinuedflaws in with each the act result that that need today to be both corrected. Acts need Addi up- absence of new and innovative water quality legis- dating if they are to be as successful in the future as lation. The problems with current political leader- they have been in the past. The Principle of Mate- ship at the national level are problems that direct- - ly threaten environmental quality (including water quality), public health and safety and a host of other conclusionrials Balance that which it is isimportant based upon to manage the Law waste of Con in programs that enhance public welfare. All of these anservation integrated of Energy fashion. and That Matter is, that leads the to threea derivative waste programs have traditionally been under the pur- sinks –land, air and water– should be considered view of the national government. The prospects for together and the interrelationships between them should be acknowledged by modern water pollu- policies and policies related to the provision of en- vironmentalsolution of the quality problems and thecreated services by anti-scientific provided by it are clouded further by apparent public apathy. Futuretion control water strategies. pollution The management Clean Water Actstrategies of 1972 - shouldis sink treatspecific water as asis theone Airof three Pollution sinks Controlthat need Act. to ber of public opinion surveys that reveal pervasive be managed holistically and with explicit attention publicVenktaraman apathy (2013)to issue reports related the to water results quality of a num and to the relationships between the sinks. The Clean sanitation. Whether these disturbing trends in en- Water Act also authorized a very large wastewater vironmental quality and the making of policies for - the governance of environmental quality can be re- sidized with federal funds. The program has been versed likely depends upon whether levels of pub- highlytreatment successful program but which the facilities was significantly are nearing sub the lic concern can be aroused to the point where these end of their designed lives and will need to be recurrent trends can be reversed through electoral placed. There is no evidence yet that the federal gov- processes. ernment is prepared to address these challenges. 557 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

in surface waters and ground waters comes from careful regulation of toxic contaminants to prevent non-point sources. Control of these pollutants will The Safe Drinking Water Act if 1974 requires require more attention from all levels of govern- concentrations. New contaminants appear every ment federal, state and local than they have received daythem from from industry, appearing agriculture in drinking and water pharmaceutical in specified in the past. It appears that some adaptation of in- production. The measures for identifying and evalu- tegrated watershed management holds the most promising prospects for managing this problem. An are inadequate to meet the demands of today. There intergovernmental institutional arrangement that areating several new contaminants possibilities forprovided rectifying for in this the problem. 1974 Act might be successful would take advantage of the Substantial new resources can be made available resources available to the federal government and to increase the number of contaminants that are provide those to states who would be required to evaluated and subsequently regulated each year. establish and oversee the creation and operation Alternatively, policies can be adopted to control of local, watershed based, districts which would be contaminants prior to the time they are released to required to develop and implement integrated wa-

dangerous contaminants only after they have been at controlling non-point source pollution. The fed- releasedmarket. Currentand may practice already callshave fordone identification damage to the of eraltershed government management would programs provide the aimed resources specifically and environment and public health. In addition, aging oversight while the states would provide additional water supply and sanitation facilities threaten the oversight and enforcement of the requirement that quality of drinking water and a major national pro- such districts be effective and sustainable. gram to rebuild and upgrade infrastructure should include these facilities. Salinity – Agricultural and Urban - In the long-run salinity –be it agricultural or urban– ty problems that must be addressed in a timely fash- destroys the productivity of the land and increases There are also a number of specific water quali- the costs of urban water supplies and sanitation. So, ity ambient waters and healthful drinking water long as the import of salt to a basin exceeds the ex- ion if the nation is to enjoy the benefits of high qual port salinity will become an increasing severe problem. Managing saline drain waters will be crucial supplies. These are dealt with in the final section. Recommendations withwhere exceptionally agricultural high lands saline are afflictedinputs and with drainage highly Contaminants problemssaline water will supplies ultimately and behigh forced water out tables. of produc Lands- Contaminants are now pervasive in the environment and new contaminants are released every and manage the residual salt balances in effective tion. It may be beneficial to retire such lands early with the problem at its current scale. Solutions to of water supply and sanitation as the problems of theday. problemExisting institutionswill require are both not substantially equipped to augdeal- saltways. disposal Urban becomesalinity promisesincreasingly to increasesevere. It the is not cost a mented resources to support contaminant identi- stretch to imagine circumstances in which the costs of controlling urban salinity lead to outmigration. Desalinization is quite expensive though the costs thirdfication party and evaluation evaluation of chemicals and tougher before regulations. they are are sensitive to salt concentration of feedwaters releasedRegulations will thatultimately require have careful to be and adopted independent if wide- and the use of desalinization technology may buy considerable time for urban areas.

Non-Pointspread “public Source poisoning’ Pollutants is to be averted. Infrastructure - problem caused by public apathy and general ne- Earliersource contamination.legislation has beenToday, fairly much effective of the pollution in clean glect.United Water States supply has a and severe sanitation infrastructure infrastructure renewal is ing up and regulating significant amount of point WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 558

Governance The current posture of the political leadership in to see how this problem can be overcome without the environmental institutions of the federal gov- massiveno exception infusions to the of moneygeneral from problem. national, It is state difficult and ernment focuses on eliminating science as a basis local tax bases as well as from rate payers. What is in policy-making and abandoning many of the cur- needed most at the moment is a large scale and ef- rent regulations. These circumstances threaten real fective education program designed to alert the harm in the form of unregulated toxics and the republic to the seriousness of the problem; the conse- laxation of regulations intended to protect and ad- quences of doing nothing; and the costs of address- vance public health and safety as well as the gen- ing it. It is true that decentralized water supply sys- eral welfare. There are two remedies and both are tems and more use of recycled water may help. The needed. First, through the electoral process pick se- long deferred nature of the renewal problem to- nior leaders who will rely on science and scientif- gether with the fact that many local purveyors do ic evidence. Second, invest in education at all levels not now have reserve funds or a means of getting and cultivate a populace that is largely aware of the them from existing rates suggests that the prob- need for science as well as reasonable regulations lem cannot be solved short of increases in rates and to protect the environment, public health and the taxes. general welfare.

References

Supply Study – Analysis of National Survey Find- Adler, Robert W., J.C. Landeman and D.M. Cameron. Bureauings. ofWashington,D.C. Water Hygiene. 1970. Community Water 1993. The Clean Water Act: 20 Years Later - (Washington, DC: The Island Press). pp. 320. - American Society of Civil Engineers. 2013. Report Copeland, Claudia. 2016b. Clean Water Act: A Sum www.infrastructurereportcard.org/Card for America’s Infrastructure (2013). http:// mary of the Law. Congressional Research Ser http:// vice. CRS Report RL 30030. Washington, DC - Copeland, Claudia. 2016a. Water Quality issues in- Andreen, William L. 2003. Water Quality Today – ington,the 114th DC. Congress: An Overview. Congressional Has the Clean Water Act Been A Success? Ala Research Service. Report 7-5700. Pp. 1-17. Wash bama Law Review. Vol. 537 Ayers, Robert U., Allen V. Kneese and Ralph C. d’Arge. Cranor, Carl F. 2017. Tragic Failures: How and Why 2 0 1 5 . E c o n o m i c s a n d t h e E nv i r o n m e n t : A We Are Harmed by Toxic Chemicals (New York, Materials Balance Approach (New York, NY:- NY: Oxford University Press). pp. 252. - Routledge). pp.121. Cranor, Carl F. 2018. Personal Communication. 1-8-18. Baumol, William J. and Wallace E. Oates. 1993. Eco Dolbear, F. Trenery, J. 1967. On the Theory of Opti nomics, Environmental Policy and the Quality of mum Externality. American Economic Review. Life. Engelwood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.) pp. Vol. 57. pp. 90-103. - 377. Douglas, Thomas J. 1976. Safe Drinking Water Act of Bearden, David M., Claudia Copeland, Linda Luther,- 1974 – History and Critique. Boston College En James E. McCarthy, Linda-Jo Schierow and Mary- vironmental Affairs Law Review. Vol. 5. Issue 3. vironmentalTiemann. 2010. Protection Environmental Agency Laws: (Washington, Summa Article 5. pp. 1-44. ries of Major Statutes Administered by the En Environmental Protection Agency. 2010. Factoids: Drinking Water and Ground Water Statistics for DC: Congressional Research Service) Report # 2009. Available at: https://nepis.epa.gov/Excel/ 7-5700. pp.22-30. zyPGF.cgi/P100N2VG.PDF?Dockey=P100N2VG.PDF 559 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Gratton,of California Stephen Division R. 2002. of Irrigation Agriculture Water and NaturalSalinity tems. In Andre Lauchli, Andre and Ulrich Luttge, and Crop Production. (Oakland, CA: University eds. Salinity: Environmental -Plants-Molecules (Springer, Dordecht) pp. 3-20. - Resources). Publication 8806. pp. 1 – 8. Puckett, Larry J. 1995. Identifying Major Sources of Lawrence R. and Elliott P. Laws. 1987. The Water Nutrient Water Pollution. Environmental Sci Quality Act of 1987: A Major Step in Assuring the ence and Technology, Vol. 29, No. 9. pp. 408A Quality of the Nation’s Waters. Environmental- Point-NonPoint- 414A. Trading – Can It Work? Journal Law Reporter. 17ELR 10311. - Ribaudo, Marc O. and Jessica Gottleib. 2010. Mostaghimi,ment Practices Saied, for Kevin Nonpoint Brannon, Source Theo Pollution A. Dilla ha and Adriana Bruggeman. 2001. Best Manage- of the American Water Resources Association. liam and Adel Shirmohmammadi, eds. Agricul- Vol. 47. No. 1. pp. 5-14. - Control: Selection and Assessment in Ritter, Wil Tiemann, Mary. 2017. Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA): A Summary of the Act and Its Basic Re ture and Nonpoint Source Pollution: Watershed quirements. Congressional Research Service. Management and Hydrology (Washington, DC: Report 7-5700. Washington, D.C. pp. 1 – 27. Lewis Publishers) pp. 257-304. U.S.usbr.gov/lc/phoenix/programs/cass/cass/html Bureau of Relcamation. 2015. Central Arizona National Research Council. 2004. Confronting the Salinity Study, Technical Appendix O. pp. 1-12. Nation’s Water Problems: The Role of Research - (Washington, DC: The National Academies U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2014. 2013 Farm Press). http://doi.org/10.17226/11031. Agriculture).and Ranch Irrigation Survey. U.S. Census of Ag National Research Council. 2008. Desalination: A riculture Washington, DC: U.S. Department of- National Perspective (Washington, DC: National- tureAcademies Problems Press) and pp. Possible 298. Solutions in Ariel Vaux, Jr., Henry. 2015. An Overview of Urban Wa- Orlob, Gerald T. 1991. San Joaquin Salt Balance: Fu cas.ter ManagementA Perspective andfrom Problems the Academies in the of U.S.A. in and Management of Water and Drainage in IANAS, Urban Water: Challenges in the Ameri Dinar and David Zilberman, eds. The Economics- Sciences. (Mexico City, Mexico: InterAmerican Agriculture (Boston, MA: Kluser Academic Pub- Network of Academies of Science). pp. 504-523. lishers) pp. 143 -167. - Venktaraman, Bhawani. 2013. Access to Safe Water: Pitman, Michael G. and Andre Lauchli. 2002. Glob A Paradox in Developed Nations. Environment. al Impact of Salinity and Agricultural Ecosys Vol. 55, No. 4. July/August. pp. 24-34 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 560

Uruguay

The traditional perception among the Uruguayan population of the abundance and good quality of water resources obscured latent problems. This has changed in the past decade, given the evidence of water quality problems, associated with the increase in agricultural production. The challenge for the country in the present and near future is to shift to a more integral view of the socio- hydrological cycle, in an attempt to reconcile the economic development model with water conservation, on the basis of scientific knowledge.

Sauce lagoon, the largest body of water in department of Maldonado, Uruguay © iStock 561 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

Water Quality in Uruguay: Current status and challenges

Jimena Alonso, Federico Quintans, Javier Taks, Daniel Conde, Guillermo Chalar, Sylvia Bonilla, Rafael Arocena, Signe Haakonsson, Luis Aubriot, Guillermo Goyenola, Pablo Muniz, Analía Marrero, Marisa Hutton, Natalia Venturini, Ana Laura Pita, Karen Iglesias, Mariana Ríos, Natalia Zaldúa, Franco Teixeira de Mello, Alvaro Soutullo, Gabriela Eguren, Matías Victoria, Fernando López Tort, Leticia Maya, Matías Castells, María José Benitez, Andrés Lizasoain, Estefany Bertoni, Viviana Bortagaray, Matías Salvo, Rodney Colina, Karina Azuriz, Natalia Castagnet, Victoria Evia, Ana Fernández, Ximena Lagos, Laura Marrero, Fernanda Milans, Matías Piaggio, Nicolas Rezzano, Julieta López, Lorena Rodríguez, Saúl Garat, Margarita Pintos, Alejandro Iriburo, Beatriz Brena and Hernán Méndez

Abstract

to be noticed in the quality of water resources, modifying the traditional social perception. TheIn Uruguay, great challenge the effects is to of reconcile increased the production economic anddevelopment agricultural model productivity with water have resource begun

development and technical innovation. conservation, mainly through the implementation of proper regulations, based on scientific

1. Introduction

Most of the country lies within the basin of the Uruguay River which, together with the- Paraná and Paraguay rivers, comprise Río de la Plata. Surface water courses drain into six major watersheds: the RiverFigure Negro 1(68400 km²), the River Uruguay (45300 km²), the Riv rateser Santa which, Lucía combined (13400 km²), with Río a high de la intensity Plata (12100 of precipitation, km²), the Atlantic lead toOcean high (9300 surface km²) runoff, and whoseLagoon annual Merin (27800average km²) indicates ( a good). Most availability of these basinsof water have resources soils with in lowrelation infiltration to the

number of inhabitants (18900 m³ per capita). Soil and climate features make Uruguay a particularly suitable territory for agriculture and livestock farming. With a GDP of over $52,000 million USD and a per capita income of

Jimena Alonso [email protected], Federico Quintans [email protected], Javier Taks [email protected] y Daniel Conde [email protected] Universidad de la República (UdelaR), Coordinators, editors and authors of sections 1, 5 and 6 of the chapter; Guillermo Chalar, Sylvia Bonilla, Rafael Arocena, Signe Haakonsson, Luis Aubriot, Guillermo Goyenola, Pablo Muniz, Analía Ma- rrero, Marisa Hutton, Natalia Venturini, Ana Laura Pita, Karen Iglesias, Mariana Ríos, Natalia Zaldúa, Franco Teixeira de Mello, Alvaro Soutullo, Gabriela Eguren, Matías Victoria, Fernando López Tort, Leticia Maya, Matías Castells, María José Benitez, Andrés Lizasoain, Estefany Bertoni, Viviana Bortagaray, Matías Salvo y Rodney Colina UdelaR, authors of section 2; Karina Azuriz Obras Sanitarias del Estado (OSE), Natalia Castagnet Institución Nacional de Derechos Humanos del Uruguay (INDDHH), Victoria Evia, Ana Fernández, Ximena Lagos, Laura Marrero, Fernanda Milans, Matías Piaggio, UdelaR, authors of section 3; Nicolas Rezzano, Julieta López, Lorena Rodríguez UdelaR, Saúl Garat, Margarita Pintos, Alejandro Iriburo OSE, Beatriz Brena y Hernán Méndez Intendencia Municipal de Montevideo (IMM), authors of section 4. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 562

Figure 1. Map of Uruguay, highlighting the dense main water network and the principal river basins US $15230, it is currently considered a high-income country (World Bank, 2018). Between 2003 and 2016, GDP experienced average annual growth of total4.5%, exports. with the agroindustrial sector being the main sourceAlthough of wealth cattle generation, products accountinghave historically for 78% been of the main export item, the burgeoning development increase in both area and intensity- has led to a in- creaseof agriculture in soil productivity-which has experienced and in recent a significant years has displaced livestock as the main income generator - for(especially the country. soybean), In 2017, beef, agroindustrial and forestry sales and exceed dairy ed US $9 billion, the main products being grains- marily an agricultural country and an exporter of agriculturalproducts (Uruguay goods. XXI, 2016). It is therefore pri Since the beginning of this century, the temperate region of South America has seen an increase in Figure 2. Evolution of fertilizer imports in Uruguay between 1998 and 2016 to data from the Directorate of Agricultural Statis- the rate of land use change (FAO, 2009). According 1600000 of rainfed crops increased more than fourfold be- 1400000 tics (MGAP-DIEA, 2003, 2015), in Uruguay, the area 1200000 to the cultivation of soybean, which increased elev- enfoldtween 2000during and the 2015. period This increase(Table 1was). Forestry largely dueex- 1000000 panded even more, increasing its occupied territory 00000

600000 during the same period more than 30 times, while Imported volume Imported volume (ton) 400000 mediumdairy activity producers intensified, (Table in 1). the latter case with a significant decrease in the proportion of small and These changes also resulted in a threefold in- 200000 crease in the importation of nitrogen and phospho- 0 rus fertilizers (Table 1, Figure 2), while the amount 2011 2015 2013 2012 2014 2016 1 1 2001 2010 200 2005 2003 2002 2004 200 2006 200 - 2000 of pesticides rose by 20%, with herbicides register ing the highest growth in imports (30%). Source: MGAP-DGSSAA data. Table 1. Evolution of agricultural and forestry area, industrialized milk and importation of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers in Uruguay between 2001 and 2015 (DIEA, 2003, 2015) Type Sugar harvest 2000-2001 Sugar harvest 2014-2015 341000 Soybean (ha) 12000 1334000 Rainfed crops (ha) 1500000 Forestry (ha) Industrialized milk (thousands of liters) 1047 58000 1800000 Fertilizer imports (ton) 300000 2927 800000 Source: DIEA, 2003; 2015. 563 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

to ignore First Nations and pre-colonial natural en- With an approximate population of 3,400,000 vironments.ily urban and In European fact, several culture, species which of animals has tended have inhabitants (INE, 2015), according to Tabaré- become extinct during the occupation of the territo- lionAguerre people (minister and one of of agriculture the objectives between of government 2010 and ry, while many others are endangered, mainly due 2017), Uruguay is able to feed approximately 30 mil to the loss of habitats (Soutullo et al In short, although the country has limited in- policiesSince is theto boost outset, this the productive country hascapacity been by linked 30% dustrial development and its economy., 2013). is predom - to(Presidencia, livestock, and 2014). pastures are its emblem. Since the inantly agricultural, its territory and ecosystems - have undergone more changes than the population most entirely for agricultural purposes since colo- realizes. nialcountry times. is Privatepredominantly property flat, has it been has thebeen main used form al In general terms, water resources meet the of ownership, government lands are scarce and drinking water to populations. However, in a coun- - needs of users, the first priority being the supply of tineconservation ecosystems, work understood is carried as out those in less existing than in1% the of of productive use, a large number of water courses the country (MVOTMA, 2016a). Accordingly, pris- aretry whereexpected nearly to have95% ofhigher the land concentrations is under some of type nu- nization, are practically nonexistent. With a popu- trients than the population might expect or admit same condition as they had prior to European colo while some of them are likely to have problems of eutrophication (Kruk et al - thelation country density has of a approximately very small population 19 inhabitants/km² in rural ar- and 95% of the population residing in urban centers,- between productive activities., 2013; and OAN,the sustainability 2017). In re guay is characterized by large expanses of natural ofcent water, years, mainly national for conflictsrecreational have uses begun and to foremerge sup- countryside,eas (INE, 2015). where The nature general dominates. perception However, is that Uru this plying the population, due to the deterioration of its conception has been formed on the basis of a heav- quality (Figure 3).

2. Current water quality Figure 3. Ramírez beach (Río de la Plata) on the coasts of issues in Uruguay Montevideo, where an accumulation of cyanobacteria can be seen in the foreground This section will address key issues concerning wa-

case of eutrophication in the main water bodies in ter quality in Uruguay. It begins by exploring the-

analyzesUruguay theand presence their reservoirs, of heavy andmetals includes in sediment, a spe cific example on the subject in Cisne lagoon. It then-

specifically in the coastal area of Montevideo, de- fectsscribing of agrochemicals a specific case on of aquaticorganic biota,pollutants particularly in that area. This is followed by the identification of the ef - ly,fish, enteric and a virusescase study in variouson the presence aquatic matricesof pesticides are in fish at a RAMSAR site in the Uruguay River. Last- cial and topical, do not cover all the water quality explored. These specific issues, despite being cru of the main challenges the country must face now orproblems in the short in Uruguay, term. but they do represent some

Photo: Luis Aubriot. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 564

Table 2. Characteristics of the main rivers in Uruguay River TP TN Basin area Flow Large dams (n) 13413 2 Negro 70714 71 Santa Lucía 200 (<10 – 1060) n=298 920 (105 – 3000) n=160 116 440000 114 (62.8 – 913) n=88 725 (350 – 6000) n=94 930 The median and range (minimum - maximum) of the concentration of total phosphorus (TP) and total nitrogen (TN), the drainage basin area, main Uruguay 50 (11 – 887) n=473 990 (90 – 3300) 4622 66

channel flow (historical average) and number of large dams (volume> 3x106m³) are shown).

2.1 Water quality and trophic status of also been reported in various water bodies in the rivers and reservoirs in Uruguay et al the health of animals that drink from water sourc- The increase in agricultural, forestry and dairy ac- escountry with cyanobacteria.(Bonilla ., 2015).There Toxinshave been can alsoreports affect of tivities is recognized as one of the main causes of - eutrophication and deterioration of the water qual- sociated with the intake of high concentrations of ity of rivers, reservoirs and coastal areas around cattle deaths in the Negro River basin, probably as - A synoptic analysis is provided here on the cur- eral studies indicate that this process is occurring renttoxins state (Font, of 2016).eutrophication of the main lotic eco- rapidly,the world causing (Smith, serious 1999, Moss health 2010). problems In Uruguay, in inland sev - Figure 1). These three rivers re- - ceivesystems anthropic in the country: impacts theof variousSanta Lucia, types Negro and their and (Oyhantçabal and Narbondo, 2014) and aquatic eco- watersUruguay are rivers used (for multiple purposes (potabiliza- systems, as wellet al as in their use et for al fishing activi ties,et al recreation andet drinkingal water supply (Rodrí transport, recreation and industrial activities). Ac- guez-GallegoThese impacts ., 2017;are in Arocena addition to those. 2013; generatPacheco- cordingtion, electric to the power total nutrient generation, concentrations fishing, irrigation, (Table ed by., 2012; traditional Chalar livestock.., 2011). Studies evaluating the integral ecological quality of streams in the San- hypereutrophic. et al 2), all three systems are classified as eutrophic and superior and Tacuarembó show widespread alter- Santa Lucia river ationsta Lucía in riverthe natural basins cover (Arocena of riparian ., zones2008), and Negro the channels, due to the action of cattle, which causes a the country’s main source of drinking water, supply- physical impact (trampling and herbivory) and pro- This river is located in the south of Uruguay and is vides organic matter (excrement). Moreover, dairy regulated by three reservoirs. The use of water re- production (with a high concentration of livestock) ing 60% of the population. The water supply flow is and agriculture in areas adjacent to streams con- land use of the basin, its urbanization and industri- tribute to the eutrophication of water bodies. alization,sources for which drinking has watercaused conflicts several with environmental the type of One of the main consequences of eutrophication problems and severe symptoms of eutrophication. is the appearance of potentially toxic cyanobacteria Cities in the basin do not have sanitation or else it blooms. These events are recorded in various bod- - ies of lentic and lotic water in the main basins in ents (except for the cities of Florida and Canelones). the country (Ferrari et al is incomplete and lacks tertiary treatment of efflu- of these blooms, with high levels of microcystins terhouse, dairy, textiles, beverages), began to use (toxins), can have harmful., 2011, effects Bonilla, on human 2009). health, Many Moreover, 23 of the 54 operating industries (slaugh either through direct contact in recreational activities or as a result of drinking contaminated drink- complete liquid effluent treatment in 2016. Land ing water. Microcystins (hepatotoxins) are the most ofuses the comprise surface oflivestock the basin, (71.3%), followed including by agriculture the dairy frequent toxins in the world, as is also the case in farms and milking parlors that cover more than 25%- est, wetlands, water bodies and rocky soils (Achkar (16.2%) and forestry (4.2%), with 7.2% of native for Uruguay, although blooms with neurotoxins have 565 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

et al - environmental deterioration was the appearance in gorria and Palmar), and its largest direct tributaries ., 2012). One of the most notorious symptomsDolichosper of- (Chalarcated in etthe al main channel (Rincón del Bonete, Bay mum sp.). with high production of geosmin, giving by these tributaries, dendritic morphometry and theMarch water 2013 an of unpleasant cyanobacterial taste bloomsand smell. ( the greater residence., 2014). The times contributions of the water of in nutrients summer The river has experienced progressive eutro- determine the eutrophic nature of these reservoirs, phication since the last decade, reaching record in keeping with traditional models of eutrophica-

, respectively) with - levelsa tendency of total to phosphorusstabilize at high(TP) -1intermediatein 2011 (median values and tion (Salas and Martino, 1991). Studies show that range: 510 and 183-1060 μg PT l since 2000, there has been an increase in the occur -1 - rence of cyanobacterial blooms. As in the Uruguay meter(218-358 upstream μg PT l of, minimum the water and treatment maximum plant in of2015). the River (Chalar, 2002), during the summer months, The Canelón Grande Stream discharges one kilo highcyanobacteria bio-availability in the Negroof phosphorus, River are intensifiedrelative lim by- - itationa set of of synchronic nitrogen, increase factors: temperaturein residence increase,time, in- houseOSE. This industry, stream human has settlements hypereutrophic without conditions sanita- crease in transparency and stability of water col- tion,caused animal mainly husbandry) by specific and contributions intensive agriculture,(slaughter umn. Cyanobacteria blooms have been recorded while their TP contributions can account for more in open waters in the three reservoirs. dominated - by Microcystis spp. and sometimes co-dominated by ter periods. Dolichospermun et al than 50% of the river’s load, mainly during low wa Negro River Uruguay River spp. (González-Piana ., 2011). The available information on the water quality of this region focuses largely on three large dams lo- - The Uruguay River is one of the main tributaries of the Río de la Plata basin. Potentially toxic cyano

Box 1. Eutrophication of the Cisne Lagoon

The small Cisne lagoon, located in the south of Uruguay (department of Canelones), receives waters from a basin with an area of no more than 50 km2. It has been used to supply drinking water to a large sector of the Costa de Oro (Canelones) since 1970. The system is under heavy environmental stress due to the intensification of land use. Consequently, the average concentration of total phosphorus in the lagoon water increased from approximately 100 to 700 μg PT l-1 in less than 25 years. These high levels of nutrients create significant environmental and health risks, jeopardizing the continuity of the drinking water supply. The aforementioned environmental situation, coupled with an intense socio-political conflict caused by pesticide use in the basin, established the basis for the Cisne Lagoon Basin Commission to be formed by the end of 2014. This area has made it possible to advance the adoption of precautionary measures, productive reconversion and the expansion of monitoring. The 2016 and 2017 monitoring campaigns have yielded promising results in the sense of a change in the upward trend in phosphorus levels. In any case, it is not yet possible to conclude that the process has been reversed. In addition, it should be noted that the levels were still many times higher than what is desirable for a source of water for human consumption (ca. 500 μg PT l-1 in the summer of 2017). The case of the Cisne lagoon basin is undoubtedly paradigmatic and typical in terms of the relationships between the intensification of land use and consequences on water quality. At the same time, strategies for handling the problem are rare at the national level, particularly because of the small territorial scale and the agro-productive/agroecological reconversion approach promoted by local authorities in the basin. Is it possible to permanently reverse the process of environmental degradation in the Cisne lagoon basin and achieve a sustainable local development model? What would be the alternative source of drinking water for the Costa de Oro if the Cisne Lagoon underwent an abrupt change of status? WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 566

Box 2. Origin, sources and distribution of organic pollutants on the coast of Montevideo

Sediment in Montevideo Bay shows evidence of chronic organic contamination, with high concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbons (AH) and aromatic polycyclic hydrocarbons (PAH) (SAHs = 15.7 - 327 μg g-1; SPAHs = 196 - 65501 ng g-1) (Figure 4). These hydrocarbons are derived from fresh and degraded petroleum, as indicated by the pristane/phytane ratio>>1 (Colombo et al., 1989) and the high concentration of the unresolved complex mixture (UCM), respectively, and also from petroleum combustion, as indicated by the predominance of high molecular weight PAHs with 4-6 aromatic rings (Commendatore et al., 2012). The main sources of these compounds are oil transport and refinement, port activities and vehicle emissions (Venturini et al., 2015). Together with a significant anthropogenic contribution of hydrocarbons there is, as indicated by the perylene/SPAHs>10 ratio (Venkatesan, 1988), a natural contribution of hydrocarbons derived from higher inland plants, which would be associated with the continental contribution of the Rio de Silver (Venturini et al., 2015). In addition, high concentrations of wastewater pollution indicating compounds, both of fecal origin (S Steroids = 2.28 - 34.8 μg g-1, coprostanol = 0.05 - 21.2 μg g-1) and derived from domestic and industrial detergents have been registered in this area. (SLABs = 76.3 - 7779 ng g-1) (Figure 4). This is associated with the inadequate treatment of this type of effluent or even the absence of treatment. By contrast, sediment from the coastal area near Montevideo has moderate to low levels of organic pollution, compared with other coastal cities in the region and the world (Venturini et al., 2015 and references included therein).

bacterial blooms have been detected along the riv- temperature increase and extreme weather events Dolichospermum (heavy rains and prolonged droughts) (Van Vliet et (Kruk et al et al - al - er, mainly of the filamentous genus gy of water bodies and their status. The increase in ., 2015, Ferrari ., 2011), regulated large- rainfall., 2013; could IPCC, create 2007) awill greater directly contribution affect the hydroloof nutri- centrationly by hydrological of nutrients conditions. is high Blooms(O'Farrell are and inversely Izagu- ents to water due to runoff and the washing of ag- associated with rainfall and river flow, since the con ricultural soils, increasing the load of nutrients in km²) was built on this river to generate electricity water, while drought conditions could lead to a de- andirre, supply2014). Indrinking 1978, the water. Salto Various Grande studies reservoir suggest (780 - that the reservoir is eutrophic (Conde et al ing the residence times of water and contributing and that it has frequent types of toxic cyanobacte- tocrease the appearancein the flow ofof rivers algal blooms.and reservoirs, In this increascontext, ria blooms such as Microcystis and Dolichospermum., 1993) all relevant measures aimed at reducing the nutri- (Kruk et al ent load in rivers and reservoirs should be urgently adopted in order to reverse the current trend of in- related to the., 2015). intensive The TP agricultural load in the activity headwaters under of- creasing eutrophication and water quality loss. the reservoir is proportional to the river flow and

Prospectstaken in its basin and soil erosion (Chalar, 2006). 2.2 Heavy metals in the sediments The increase in the scope and intensity of agricul- of the coastal area of Montevideo tural and livestock activities, coupled with the pre- Anthropogenic activities developed in coastal areas dictions of climate change for the region, suggest a cause serious pollution of surface waters and sed- scenario with eutrophication and deterioration of iments, and the coastal area of Montevideo is no - exception to this global pattern (Muniz et al cent studies have shown that a majority of aquatic ecosystems,the water quality both oflentic aquatic and systems lotic, have in Uruguay. total phos Re- of sediment metals has taken place in the coastal., 2015, phorus values that exceed the current standard al- zone2011). ofIn Montevideo,Uruguay, most including of the recent the last development sections of the most important tributary channels of this coast- - al portion. The main antecedents of metals in the trientslowed byin -1the legislation water coupled for all typeswith the of water forecasts (limit: of 25 μg PT l (Decree 253/79). The high levels of nu surface sediments at the bottom of the Río de la 567 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

Plata estuary show consistently high levels in the el of Cr contamination in the system. In the inner- - decreasing towards the adjacent coastal zone. De- logical studies have shown the anthropic impact of innermost zone of Montevideo Bay and the Port, metalsmost portion derived of fromthe Bay industrial of Montevideo, and port geochrono activities years, Hutton et al highspite valuesa significant of Cr, Pb, decrease Cu and inZn ain time the portscale area of 10-15 and on the spatial distribution of heavy metals in the close to the mouths. of (2015) the Miguelete recently reportedand Pantano still- coastalduring mostarea of of Montevideo the 20th century. show interestingThe latest studies chang- so streams, which are in the ranges of being able to - Table 3), and centrations in the innermost region of Montevideo compromise water quality. es over time: most metals have decreased their con causeAnother adverse recent effects study on biota conducted (PEL; in the Arroyo - (MunizBay and et port al area, notably Cr andet al Pb, but there have also been significant decreases in Zn and even Ag Carrasco basin (Mello, 2011) highlights the high lev ., 2015; -Rodríguez ., 2010).

Table 3. Maximum, minimum and average values of several metals studied along the coast of Montevideo* BI BE ZE ZO BI BE ZE ZO

As Cu Min Min 32.4 Max 7.4 Max 5.7 5.9 6.0 3.6 28.5 28.2 25.1 Average Average 32.4 32.4 8.1 6.3 7.9 120.5 37.8 36.6 36.6 7.24 6.7 6.1 6.7 6.3 99.4 33.6 TEL TEL 18.7 PEL 41.6Cd PEL 108Ni Min 0.4 0.4 Min 14.3 11.4 Max 1.4 0.7 Max 20.4 0.6 0.5 13.5 12.6 Average 1.1 Average 17.4 17.4 0.5 0.6 16.4 19.8 19.8 0.48 0.5 0.6 15.1 17.5 4.21 TEL 0..8 TEL 15.9 PEL Cr PEL 42.8Pb Min 22.4 20.4 Min 47.1 Max 217.1 32.1 Max 21.2 28.7 29.3 19.8 17.6 16.8 Average 32.3 Average 117.2 41.6 30.8 139.2 23.5 40.8 30.2 163.2 28.3 27.9 21.5 17.6 22.5 112 TEL 52.3 TEL PEL 160Zn PEL Min 73.1 Max 160.8 58.7 83.8 Average 390 89.8 93.1 128.1 124 380.2 82.4 83.1 82.7 271 TEL - PEL * TEL and PEL values are also presented for each metal (TEL: threshold effect level, which means the concentration below which there is no bi ological risk of any kind; PEL: (probable effect level, i.e. the concentration above which there will probably be some biological risk, affecting the kgaquatic-1 of dry biota. sediment. Between TEL and PEL it is understood that there may occasionally be an effect on aquatic biota). The values correspond to seasonal studies conducted in 2010 and 2013. Internal bay=IB; External bay= EB; East Zone= EZ; West Zone= WZ. Concentration values are all given in mg WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 568

Figure 4. Concentration of total aliphatic hydrocarbons (∑AHs; above) and total linear alkylbenze (∑LABs; below) in the sediment in Montevideo Bay 500 ∑ AHs 400

300 dw -1 g

µ 200

100

0 L1 L Z1 L5 L3 L2 B1 L4 Z5 L L6 L Z4 B5 B3 Z B2 PC P L11 B4 Z11 L12 Z13 Z12 L10 Z10 C3S C3E PyS PyE C3N PyN C3W PyW Zmal Zzoppa 20000 15000 ∑ LABs 10000

5000

4000 dw -1 3000 ng g

2000

1000

0 L1 L Z1 L5 L3 L2 B1 L4 Z5 L L6 L Z4 B5 B3 Z B2 PC P L11 B4 Z11 L12 Z13 Z12 L10 Z10 C3S C3E PyS PyE C3N PyN C3W PyW Zmal Zzoppa

Note: (L8-Z9: Montevideo West, B1-B5: Montevideo Bay, Z5-L12: Montevideo East).

The prohibition of the use of fuels with Pb, the - decrease in the activity of tanneries, the shift from als studied, sediment concentrations are below the traditional to digital photography and greater con- IMM, 2009). Nevertheless,Table for3, suggesting several of that the metthey - will not cause adverse effects on biota. tem into the Miguelete and Pantanoso streams are threshold level (TEL, sometrol and of improvementthe explanations of the for effluent this remarkable discharge sysde- 2.3 Effects of agrochemicals crease. At the same time, the adjacent coastal area on aquatic biota is now relatively homogeneous from the point of Although the change in the productive matrix in view of the concentration of metal elements, with a - marked increase in the western portion of Montevi- - deo (Muniz et al Uruguay has been established and projections indi most unspoiled coastal portion of the Department levelcate that on thethe potentialintensification effects of of land exposure use will to contin pesti- (Muniz et al ., 2011), which 15 years ago was the- cidesue, there in aquatic is little biota. scientific evidence at the national - - rived from irregular., 2004). Inurban this settlementsrespect, it is inworth this areanot - ofing the the coastal recent strip emergence of Montevideo of untreated (Muniz effluents et al de toryMost studies of the on availableeffects at studies different use levels fish asof anorga experimental model. These include field and labora ., 2011, 569 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

nization (from molecular to changes in population aff. fasciatus collected in Melilla, alteration of cere- and community attributes), associated with certain bral acetylcholinesterase activity has been detected - due to exposure to a mixture of organophosphorus dertaken on basins located in Melilla (Montevideo), pesticides and carbamates, used in the production aagricultural rural area withitems. intense In this horticultural respect, field and studies fruit unac- of deciduous fruit trees (Pistone et al tivity, showed alterations in the metabolism of the regard, studies under controlled conditions of ex- Astyanax aff. fas- ., 2012). In this ciatus, collected in a sector of Cañada del Dragón intoxication in A. aff. fasciatus at concentrations of whereheme groupdeciduous in fish. fruit Samples trees are of grown, showed a posure to methyl azinphos (reduced (48 h) locomotor showed signsactivity of - and feeding, increased-1 respiratory rate, spiral or er- et raticbetween swimming, 1 and 4 mgamong l others). At the same time, alsignificant accumulationTable 4). In the of protoporphyrin,Arroyo Juncal basin, copro a porphyrin and uroporphyrin (Carrasco-Letelier - (Table 4). ., 2006) ( this In study other estimated parts of-1 the that country, the LC50 such (48 as h)the for basins this regardingpattern of differentialboth their foodaccumulation and position of specific in the porwa- species is 2.31 mg l - phyrins was observed in fish with different habits,- et al., mulation in species associated with sediment (Co- of the Uruguay River and the Arroyo Colorado, en- terrydoras column. paleatus There) comparedwas a significantly to those foundhigher inaccu the imensdocrine of effects Cyprinus were carpio observed exposed in underfish (Rivas controlled water column (Jennynsia multidentata, Gymnogeo- 2014; Vidal, 2007). In the first case, immature spec- phagus meridionalis and Cheirodon interruptus) ence of forestry production (Paysandú Dept.) and Figure 5 a-c). At the same time, in conditions to sediments from areas under the influ A. (Matteo, 2008) ( agriculture (New Berlin, Dept. of Río Negro, mainly field and laboratory studies with specimens of soybean crops) showed significantly higher levels

Table 4. Variation of metabolism of heme group in Astyanax aff. fasciatus of the Cañada del Dragón* Río Zone A Zone B p-value NS 0.034 Liver mass (g) 53.63 ± 23.20 (7) 94.79 ± 38.62 (10) Coproporphyrin * 239.18 ± 49.93 (7) 188.53 ± 29.87 (10) 0.010 Uroporphyrin * 257.33 ± 57.32 (7) 196.22 ± 28.91 (10) 0.018 -1 Protoporphyrin * 634.72 ± 122.64 (7) 476.27 ± 74.72 (10) * Values are expressed as a mean ± DS (number of samples). * nmol g of liver tissue. NS: not significant. Zone A: Land use intensive fruit growing. Zone B Land use grasslands and wetlands. Table 5. Cerebral acetylcholinesterase activity in groups of Astyanax aff. fasciatus exposed under controlled conditions to increasing concentrations of methyl azinphos (organophosphorus pesticide) for 48 hours* Specific AChe activity Methyl azinphos (mg l-1) Inhibition (% Control) (nmol min-1 mg-1 protein) Control 0a 0.01 60.38 ± 5.53 (19) 0.10 44.49 ± 3.68 (20) 26b 1.00 27.07 ± 5.06 (20) 55c 2.00 9.45 ± 2.63 (19) 84d 4.00 9.02 ± 2.10 (20) 85d - 8.28 ± 1.45 (19) 87d * Los valores son expresados como media ± DS (número de muestras). Letras distintas indican diferencias significativas entre gru pos (Test de Tuckey p < 0.05). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 570

Figure 5. Patterns of accumulation of specific porphyrins in fish in the Cañada del Dragón: a) Uroporphyrin, b) Protoporphyrin and c) Coproporphyrin

0 0 0 A B C 0 0 0 60 60 60 50 50 50 40 40 40 30 30 30 20 20 20 Uro (absorbance units g of liver) of units g (absorbance Uro Proto (absorbance units g of liver) of units g (absorbance Proto 10 liver) of units g (absorbance Copro 10 10 C. paleatus J. multidentata C. paleatus J. multidentata C. paleatus J. multidentata G. meridionalis Ch. interruptus G. meridionalis Ch. interruptus G. meridionalis Ch. interruptus

of vitellogenin than the control group (Figure 6). In Figure 6. Levels of plasma vitellogenin in immature Arroyo Colorado, an effect was observed at the pop- specimens of “common carp” exposed to sediment in the ulation level, involving a process of masculinization Uruguay River * in females of Cnesterodon decemmaculatus, which 12 - b b b b reaches an incidence rate of almost 15% in areas un- 10 position,der the influence biomass, of diversity, agricultural density activity. and size structure)At have the assemblybeen registered level, changes in basins (specific where com the main use of soil is for rice production in rotation 6 by rice cultivation are highly unstable (change in 4 thewith composition pastures. The and assembliesdominance ofof species) sites influenced and the

Uro (absorbance units g of liver) of units g (absorbance Uro 2 farms, when assembly is dominated by species clas- a most significant effect occurs after the drainage of- 0 fect is observed (in successive harvests, changes are Control Paysandú Nuevo Berlín Las Cañas Juan Lacaze sifiedgreater) as tolerant.and, therefore, At the thesame changes time, a recorded cumulative could ef be associated with land use, with greater effects being observed in the eastern rice area than in the *Vertical bars indicate a confidence interval of 95% while the letters show et al statistically significant differences. et al - culturalnorth of andthe countryforestry (Eguren pesticide residue., 2013). in the mus- - Ernst . (2018) detected the presence of agri pounds per sample), in most cases, levels were be- (with an average of 4 and a maximum of 21 com iscle continuous of fish for agriculture human consumption in three of fromthem localitiesand pas- compound that recorded the maximum value was on the Uruguay and Negro rivers (the main activity low the quantification limit) in (11-85 a sample μg kgof one).Prochilo The- dus lineatus (detritivore-1 and migratory species). In tures and afforestation in one of them). A total of 15- chlorpyrifos (194 μg kg fedfungicides, crops (mainly 10 insecticides barley, andsorghum, five herbicides soybeans were and do not exceed the maximum values for human con- wheat),detected, with 28 of fungicides which are authorizedbeing the most for use frequent in rain- sumption.quantifiable In relation cases, the to land concentrations uses, the authors registered note ly recorded. Although the presence of pesticides that the average number of pesticides per specimen was detected in 96% of the 149 samples analyzed was significantly lower in the locality where the 571 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

dominant land use is pasture and forestation (San Norovirus (NoV) and human Astrovirus (HAstV) in wastewater that is directly discharged (untreat- the amount and composition of pesticides was sig- Gregorio de Polanco, Río Negro basin). Moreover,- courses in the country, used for recreation, drink- al areas with the livestock area. inged) waterinto the for Uruguay human consumptionRiver, one of theand mainnavigation. water nificantly different when comparing the agricultur Fortnightly samples were taken during a one-year 2.4 Presence of enteric viruses in various aquatic matrices - In South America, the study of enteric viruses in tos).period The in aforementionedfour cities on the viruses Uruguayan were studiedNorthwest be- various environmental water matrices (study area causecoast (Bellathey represent Unión, Salto, the main Paysandú viral agentsand Fray respon Ben- concerning environmental virology) has been ex- sible for acute gastroenteritis in children under -

tensively developed in Brazil and Argentina. Re thesefive. The enteric results viruses, of these revealing studies the demonstrated extent to which the garding Uruguay, until the beginning of this decade- theypresence had ofspread, a high withpercentage high viral (80%) loads, of detection from this of guayan(2010) therewaters. were no published studies reporting the presence and frequency of these viruses in Uru wastewater to the Uruguay River. NoV was the virus One of the first studies conducted examined the most frequently detected, with 51% of the samples presence and genetic diversity of Rotavirus (RV), analyzed showing positive, followed by RV with

Box 3. Presence of pesticides for agricultural-forestry use in fish in the Esteros de Farrapos National Park and islands in the Uruguay River

The intensification of soy and forestry use in the basin of the Esteros de Farrapos National Park and Islas del Río Uruguay Ram- sar site (basin 19 in Figure 1) and extensive pesticide use creates a risk of soil, water and biota contamination in the area and among the local population, as well as impacts on other local productions. In response to the concern of local residents over the environmental quality of the area, the Vida Silvestre Uruguay NGO undertook a participatory research experience to evaluate pesticide concentrations in various environmental matrices of the protected area and its watershed, including commercially important fish. Fish species with different feeding habits (piscivorous, omnivorous and iliophage) were chosen to represent different levels of the aquatic food web. The fish were collected in 2010 by the fishermen of Nuevo Berlín in their everyday work. Table 6 summarizes the main results found. Endosulfan was found at all levels of the trophic network, including species that feed directly on the sediment (Shad), omnivorous species (Boga and Yellow catfish), and a mainly piscivorous species (Wolf fish); likewise, it was found in both purely migratory (Bogue, Shad) and resident species (Wolf fish and Yellow catfish). Given that the importation, production and use of Endosulfan have been banned in Uruguay since 2011, these results highlight the importance of re- peating these studies to evaluate the efficiency of the measures taken. DDT and DDE, one of their degradation products, were also recorded in the wolf fish caught. DDE was found in five of the six specimens analyzed, with lower levels than those found of DDT. The detection of these compounds may be due to the high persistence of these substances, although there is also the possibility that they have continued to be used illegally despite the bans imposed in Argentina in 1990 and in Uruguay in 2005. Finally, it is worth noting that the analysis of shad individuals in the wake of a massive mortality event within the study site found Endosulfan in concentrations 52 times higher than those recorded in the live fish collected in the river. By way of reference, the Admissible Daily Intake value recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) for Endosulfan is 0.006 mg kg-1 of body weight, while for DDT, the Tolerable Daily Intake is 0.002 mg kg-1 body weight. These preliminary results suggest the usefulness and efficiency of evaluating pesticides in fish as a biomonitoring tool, and raise the need to advance the evaluation of the biological and ecological effects of chronic exposure to persistent pollutants and the risks these compounds may pose for biota and public health. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 572

Table 6. Results of presence of pesticides for agricultural-forestry use in fish in the Esteros de Farrapos National Park and islands in the Uruguay River Species Pesticide Positive cases Concentration range (mg kg-1) Hoplias malabaricus Total endosulfan Hoplias malabaricus DDT < 0.0001 5/6 0.009 - 0.052 Prochilodus lineatus Total endosulfan 3/3 0.020 - 0.023 3/6 Total endosulfan 1/3 0.011 Pimelodus maculatus Total endosulfan 3/3 Leporinus obtusidens Total endosulfan 3/3 0.011 - 0.038 Prochilodus lineatus* 0.418 - 1.81

was conducted in which the presence of enteric vi- each city was analyzed separately, these enteric viruses was evaluated at a WWTP with tertiary treat- ruses49% and were HAstV present with with 45%. very At the similar same frequenciestime, when - way of a summary, from the results obtained, it was ment and subsequent disinfection with UV light. By This(50-51%), city is with the only the viralone of detection the four frequencyanalyzed with be NoV, HAstV and human adenovirus, HAdV) showed aing wastewater slightly lower treatment in the cityplant of withBella a Unión stabilization (40%). aobserved decline thatin both the thefour percentage enteric viruses of positivity studied (RV,and pond system. the viral concentration throughout the process, As expected, since they are excreted in high con- showing that this combination of processes is ef- centrations in the fecal material of infected individ- fective in reducing the impact of enteric viruses on uals, these enteric viruses were present in high concentrations in wastewater. The viral concentrations or loads detected in these samples ranged from treatedDue effluents to the presence released ofinto high environmental concentrations water of . entericbodies (A.viruses Lizasoáin, in untreated pers. comm.). wastewater, and low- Considering-1 each virus, a slightly higher concentra-1- 4x103 cg l (genomic copies per liter) to 4x107 cg l - and HAstV were detected with a higher frequency guay,er concentrations these viruses in WWTPhave been effluents, studied as wellin several as the tion of RV than of NoV and HAstV was observed. RV- recreationalabsence of WWTP bodies inof water several used major for citiesdifferent in Urupur- able high circulation of these viruses in these pop- ulationsin the colder in the months winter of months. the year, Through reflecting the a genet prob- - ic study of these viruses, it was observed that the cosposes (southern by the Uruguayan region of population. the country), In recreational enteric vi- three enteric viruses studied showed a high genetic waters in various places in the city of Barros Blan diversity (Victoria et al et al., - et al torialruses distributionRV, NoV and withPicobirnavirus the presence were of both detected human in ., 2016, 2014, Lizasoáin and90% bovine of the samplesviruses, analyzed,revealing showingthe high riska wide of infecterri- 2015,of the Tort city of Montevideo., 2015). Likewise, for a period the NoV of six studied months in wastewater from landfills located on the east coast At the same time, preliminary results of a study be- ingtion conducted of the inhabitants on surface of waterthat city samples (Gillman, from 2016). two wereAlthough detected the in various 33% of processes the samples used and in inwaste high- waterconcentrations treatment (Alberti, plants (WWTP)2012). do not complete- citymajor of rivers,Montevideo) the Uruguay indicate River that and these the Santarivers Lucia have moderateRiver (which pollution supplies by waterHAdV toand a largebovine part Polioma of the- variously eliminate processes the viruses (Zhang from et altreated effluents, high virus, once again showing fecal contamination that removal rates of up to 6 log10 have been reported in is not only anthropogenic but also due to the pres- of departmental capitals still do., 2016not have ). In aUruguay, WWTP, ence of cattle on the coasts of these water courses includingdespite the Montevideo. large number In view of cities of these with data,WWTP, a study 32%

(V. Bortagaray, pers. comm.). 573 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

is committed to the defense, promotion and pro- both human consumption in rural and suburban ar- tection of the human rights recognized in the Con- eas Inand Uruguay, agricultural groundwater activities. is Onefrequently study detectedused for is an autonomous state body operating within the semi-emergent wells in the Department of Salto. stitution of the Republic and International Law. It- Theand quantifiedresults show RV, contamination NoV and HAdV of inthese waters wells from by es in water pollution problems or other drinking - waterscope ofissues the Legislativehave been Branch.recorded Several by means experienc of two ral contamination of the Salto aquifer and its vul- RV in 32% of the samples analyzed, showing the vi human rights violations related to the subject, and b)mechanisms: concerns raised a) complaints by members filed of regarding social organiza alleged- nerabilityIn conclusion, to the infiltration we can say of that wastewater wastewater through con- tions and/or government agencies during activities tributessoil (P. Gamazo, a high load pers. of comm.). enteric viruses to the receiv- organized by the INDDHH. ing bodies, which are often rivers used for various human activities such as recreation and water in- INDDHH related to water quality, which are still un- take for consumption. However, it has been ob- The main complaints received in 2017 by the • these WWTPs have the capacity to remove a sig- der investigation,Department of concern Paysandú. the followingIt was reported problems: that served, in both Uruguay and other countries, that inLack two of rural drinking schools water in inthe Rural Department Schools ofin thePa- (Zhang et al - nificantis not high number in rivers, of virusesthe continuous in their contribution final effluents of ter, supplied by emerging wells, is not potable, wastewater (mainly., 2016). untreated) Although viralto these contamination bodies neg- meaningysandú, on that the bottled west coast water of forUruguay, drinking tap andwa atively impacts the water quality of the various wa- cooking must be purchased. The complain- ants stated that the contamination of these water wells was due to the use of agrochemicals ter resources in Uruguay. in the adjoining plots of land, where there are 3. Social Issues soybean crops, in addition to the problematic geological structure of the groundwater used This chapter on the social and economic aspects in due to the geochemical characteristics of the relation to water quality begins with the expression aquifer from which it is extracted, in addition of this relationship at the citizen level, based on the to the suspension of the service offered by the denunciations that the National Institution of Hu- state provider of potable water, State Sanitary

to present information that partially explains this collectiveman Rights awareness, collected aspects in 2017. of Since risk perception then, in order and • ThereWorks is Board a lack (OSE), of treatment in its program of waste forgenerat small- edtowns in the and process rural schools of purifying (see 3.3). water from the water for human consumption, the relationship be- tweeneveryday structural strategies poverty for generating and vulnerability confidence among in (Department of Canelones). A complaint was the inhabitants of small, scattered rural local com- Santa Lucía River, in the Aguas Corrientes plant munities and between the inhabitants of irregular Corrientes and its residents, due to the lack of urban settlements have been highlighted. Finally, a treatmentfiled for alleged of the damage sludge generated to the locality by the of Aguaswater sectoral economic analysis is conducted of which account for most of the contamination of surface and ground water courses, industries and agricul- purification process carried out in the plant of downstreamthe OSE public of thecompany, water intake.waste Thefrom complain which is- antsdischarged stated directlythat the intoriver the bed Santa and Luciathe native river, ture, as well as the most severely affected sectors: forest have been damaged, affecting the recre- 3.1tourism Human and artisanal rights and fishing. water quality ational and economic activities of the popula-

public information. The National Institution for Human Rights and the tion, and mentioned the difficulty of accessing Ombudsman’s Office (INDDHH), created in 2008, WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 574

• Contamination of drinking water sources due

- inafter referred to as the Santa Lucia River Action ingto use water of agrochemicals.sources due to the In 2016,use of a agrochem complaint- Plan, MVOTMA, 2015) and the National Water Plan was filed regarding the contamination of drink- (MVOTMA , 2017); and criticism of the reform of the ment of Canelones. Although the Municipality Law of Irrigation with Agrarian Destiny, approved oficals Canelones in the Cisne made Lagoon progress basin, in preventive in the Depart and by3.2 the Representations, Uruguayan Parliament beliefs in 2017. and control aspects, there was concern about the perception in an agro-city on the Uruguayan coast who violated the regulations. This prompted Several of the issues linking human rights and wa- aeffective request collection for information of fines about imposed data on for those the ter quality for human consumption are mentioned - in a recent anthropological doctoral research proj-

that,whole due country to the to breach the Ministry of the regulations of Livestock, relat Ag- The research addresses the problem of occupa- edriculture to the andprotection Fisheries of water (MGAP), sources, which between replied tionalect (CIESAS, and environmental Mexico) undertaken exposure by to Eviaagricultural (2018). - pesticides in a medium-sized city and its sphere of nomic sanctions were established for compa- nies2013 and/or and 2016, individuals, ten resolutions on which involving the collec eco- The research methodology combines qualitative andinfluence quantitative in the social Uruguayan research agricultural techniques, coastline. with a predominance of ethnographic observation in do- Attion the of samesaid fines time, had there not havebeen beeneffective a series in 2016. of mestic and productive spaces (Hammersley and problems related to water quality in the country, et al - reported by spokespersons of various social organizations and collected during the National As- segmentsAtkinson, 2014,that Emersoninclude urban ., and2011). suburban A survey landcon ducted between April and May 2017 in two census - semblies of Human Rights and in the most recent- talfound problems”. that concern for “water and contaminated discussion on “Water, Society and Human Rights,”- water courses” ranked fourth among “environmen dicatorsorganized enabling by the oneinstitution to link problemsin April 2017. in the The health fol - oflowing the population concerns were with highlighted: environmental lack causesof health and/ in cernEthnographic among various observation social groups found and thatthat waterthere or linked to water quality; lack of effective manage- is“contamination” a shared perception was athat common the quality emerging of the conwa- ment authority for water issues, diffuse responsibilities and inter-institutional coordination, main- is mainly expressed in terms of concern over the ter distributed by OSE is not always reliable. This - water cannot be drunk”. The sensory elements that MA)ly involving of the Ministry the National of Housing, Water Territorial Board (DINAGUA) Planning “contamination” of the water or the fact that “OSE and the National Environment Directorate (DINA Ministry of Public Health (MSP); concern over the strongare most smell significant and taste for or the a smellpopulation and taste and ofused chlo at- impactand the on Environment water resources (MVOTMA), of large productive MGAP and proj the- the domestic level to assess water quality are: 1) a ects, such as a new cellulose processing plant on the comes out white”). An inquiry into what are pre- Negro river; restrictions on institutionalized social rine, and 2) water color and turbidity (“the water- functioning, advisory functions and their low num- sumed to be the causes of this “contamination” re berparticipation in relation in tothe existing Basin Commissions hydrographic due basins, to their as encompassesvealed four main both causes:agricultural the waterpesticides may and contain fer- well as to the lack of participation of citizens in wa- traces of “products used in the field” (a term that ter management and protection plans, particularly - the Action Plan for the protection of environmental tilizers); “they add a lot of chlorine” to the water; quality and the availability of drinking water sourc- awater wastewater in the zone treatment has a plant,high concentration as a result of ofwhich “ni - thetrites” collector and “nitrates”, pipe pours and/or this wastethe city directly does not into have the es-Santa Lucía River Hydrographic Basin (here 575 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

same river as the water intake for the potabilizing opted at the level of domestic groups as part of the self-care strategies developed by domestic groups

plant just a few meters away. The first two causes the quality of water provided by the network. otherlisted twoare describedare processes as recent that have processes existed (“in for longer.recent (Menéndez, 2009; Haro , 2000) due to the distrust in years”, “this used not to happen before”), while the- 3.3 Drinking water in rural Uruguay The Program for the Supply of Drinking Water seemNeither to thebe knownofficial orwater used quality as information monitoring sources stud - byies the nor general their results public. (for example, DINAMA, 2016) terior of the country was a management program On the basis of the analysis of the qualitative comprisingto Small Towns projects and thatRural involved Schools technical, in the rural social, in commercial and administrative aspects within the between a) water for food consumption, and b) wa- material, a first major division has been identified company which has a monopoly on the supply of bathroom). Within water for food consumption, it drinkingframework water of the services tasks carried throughout out by theOSE, country. a state waster forfound domestic that a distinction hygiene (floor is made cleaning, between laundry, water - clare access to drinking water and sanitation a fun- types of infusions) and water used for cooking. The damentalUruguay was human the right,first countryas a result in ofthe which world it tocreat de- “for drinking”, water that is boiled (for mate or other ed this Program. The target population to be supplied was ap- aforementionedstrictest criteria forsurvey “purity” shows and that restrictions with respect on the to thetype source of source of water to use used apply for to drinking, “drinking it water”. was found The - mostproximately vulnerable 300 ruralpopulation schools, from which the translatessocioeconom into- ic4000 and homes health andpoint 6850 of view. students, This constitutingpopulation was the that: 51% buy bottled water, 26.5% use the pub- chaselic network of bottled (OSE), water, 15.7% while use the well main water source and of 5.9% wa- rainwater, underground sources (artesian wells, tercombine used towater prepare from food the OSE and/or network cook withit is networkthe pur pipes,previously etc.) and/or supplied fetching by unsafe from sources: surface sources. Untreated A major challenge has not only been to provide safe water production infrastructures, but also to water (OSE), with 79.4%, followed by 16.7% that ensure the sustainability of this service over time. bottleduse water water from for wells/water cooking. There cisterns, is a 2%widespread combine - beliefwater thatfrom bottled the OSE water network (sometimes and wells referred and 1% to buy as ing while the remainder entailed extensions of ex- - Eighty-five per cent of the solutions involved drill to date and an additional effort is required to oper- “mineral water”) is water with better quality, a bet- ateisting and water maintain networks. these OSEsystems systems located have in doubled remote erter practicetaste and that "healthier”, was found, because complementary it does not to have the villages. From the outset, ensuring the participa- purchase“products” of attributed bottled water, to the iswater the network.use of domestic Anoth tion of rural communities was crucial to contribut- - ing to the sustainability of the Program. To this end, rect drinking and for infusions and/or cooking. Fi- schoolchildren and rural teachers were trained by nally,water itfilters. was foundFiltered that water it is can a common be used bothpractice for dito the bacteriological acceptability of water and con- tributethe OSE to to the perform care of basic water quality and related controls facilities. related to seek and fetch water from “semi-upwelling” wells- - that are considered “purer” than water from the tonetwork have water because potability the water analyses. comes Accessout “clean” to these be The program began in September 2010 and end- wellscause depends the wells on are neighborly "deep,” although relations it and is unusualmutual ed in June 2016 with an investment of $12.2 million- assistance. The purchase of bottled water, as well corporatedUSD, half of intowhich the was system donated for waterby the qualitySpanish mon gov- as access to water from semi-upwelling wells, can ernment. In early 2018, all the systems had been in be interpreted as preventive health practices ad- drinking water systems in the country. itoring undertaken by OSE laboratories for all the WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 576

3.4 Poverty and urban waters - lation of Garbage Collectors in Montevideo (IMM,- The last census, conducted in 2011, shows that in dicators2012), this than group neighboring of people groups,(estimated even at within20 612, theac Uruguay there are 589 irregular settlements at the- samecording settlement, to the 2008 and census) are in have a situation higher poverty of greater in habitantsurban level of irregular inhabited settlements by 165,271 peopleand natural (78% wa in- vulnerability and risk regarding various types of Montevideo) (INE, 2015). The link between the inhealth situations. productive activities that produce a negative impact Social practices of populations in these areas in- onter them,courses reinforcing is significant the forconditions the productive of vulnerabili and re- clude imaginaries and representations associated ty and health risks of women, children and young with the natural features of the area and their man- - - habitants have unemployment rates that are high- ra and fauna), and uncertainty in the face of extreme erpeople than (Batthyany,the national 2009).average In while these the areas, vast majori the inagement (water, wetlands, vegetation, associated flo ty of their population have income levels below the and representation as institutionalized waste spac- poverty line, with an unemployment rate in women es.events The involvingrepresentation water of(rain, the flooding,marginalized deterioration) space has to do with occupation in places conceived of as pe- showsnearly doublean inverse that relationship of men (29% to women the national and 16.9% one risk, not included in planning processes, where the withmen) a (MIDES,greater proportion 2016). The of demographic childhood and structure youth presenceripheral, “backwardof state institutions, areas, with monitoring low value and highcon- than of older adults, high fertility rates in adolescents from households with over two unmet ba- In the present and future, the challenge is to use sic needs (six times higher than those in this same atrol multidisciplinary is less visible (Delgado, approach 2018). to rethink the policies group in households where basic needs are met) regarding the management of water resources and environmental quality, which requires an integrating approach that recognizes the profound link be- characteristics(MVOTMA, 2013). of total or partial absence of sani- tween populations and ecosystems and the need tationIrregular solutions, settlements non-existent in Uruguay or dilapidated have similar drain- to create management strategies focusing on their age systems, a lack of public lighting, public spaces, mutual well-being. green areas and urban facilities, and poor environmental quality due to the existence of rubbish 3.5 Economic instruments for dumps, proximity to water courses and the pres- water quality management

- issues related to water quality management, alence of flood zones. The proportion of homes that- thoughUruguay regulation has very mechanisms few economic do exist instruments in the form for can be flooded is 13.4%, compared to 3.9% of the na tionalThe average, basins and of onlythe Miguelete,24% of homes Pantanoso are connect and for non-compliance, which, if they were well de- Carrascoed to the sanitationstreams in network the capital (INE, city 2015). of Montevideo signedof prohibitions and their andmonitoring regulations capacity that were impose credible, fines have poor water quality and irregular settlements would serve as a market mechanism. These include - the land use and management plans, implement- ple. These streams receive domestic and industri- alon wastewater, their banks, with inhabited seasonal by variationsa total of 115,763 (MVOTMA, peo - theyed by promote the Directorate the implementation of Natural Resources of cultural of prac the- demic problems such as informal waste dumping, tices,MGAP, which as a code ensure of good sustainability agricultural in practices land use since and discharges2009). Despite of untreatedsome state urban control, sewage there areand still indus en- management for agricultural production. Another - Informal waste dumping is directly linked to the ac- ronmental Control of DINAMA and/or the Industri- trial effluents with nutrient loads (MVOTMA, 2017). example is the practice of the Directorate of Envi responsible for granting and monitoring industrial recenttivity of study waste on collection the Characterization and classification, of the which Popu is- drainageal Effluent authorizations. Unit of the Municipality of Montevideo, significant in irregular settlements. According to a 577 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

connection to the public water and sanitation net- this type of service. The expansion of the system workOn compulsory the other hand, for allLaw owners No. 18,840 or potential of 2013 makes buy- towardsMontevideo the beinginterior the of first the city country in the initially region toinclud have- ed the construction of sewerage networks in the or subsidies to facilitate connection by households main cities and their gradual extension to other ur- withers of fewer properties, resources. which includes lines of financing ban areas. This made it possible to achieve gener- - according to the Population and Housing Census developmentThe National of Watereconomic Plan, instruments passed in 2017 - of (MVOT a fee conductedal coverage byof dynamicthe National sanitation Institute of 58.9% of Statistics in 2011, forMA, water2017), proposesuse, which the is incorporation mentioned in - withinthe Water the - (INE, 2015). beCode noted (1978) that and this theinstrument Law on is National mainly designed Water Poli to In the 1990s, construction began on new plants managecy (2009), the but resource never regulated. rather than Moreover, its quality. it should At the receivingfor the treatment water bodies. of domestic Thus, effluents attempts prior were to made their same time, there may be economic instruments that tofinal enable discharge, its use in for order recreation to improve by direct the contact,quality toof cause negative externalities on the environment, preserve the biota and quality of the environment. such as exonerations for the use of fertilizers in ag- Since applied treatment technologies have changed ricultural activities. over the decades, there are currently several treat- In short, if a national policy is to be developed to ensure compliance with national standards re- country. garding water quality, it must be developed in an in- mentThe and Montevideo final disposal sewer solutions system servesoperating more in than the tegrated manner, considering both those who generate the externality and those who perceive it. network zones and separate network zones, which 82% of the department’s population. It has unitary- - 4. Water quality evaluation, terlead outlet. the effluents In the interior to pre-treatment of the country, and final where dispos cov- al systems in Río de la Plata through an underwa control and protection primaryerage at thetreatment, urban leveladvanced is below primary 40%, treatment of both drinking water supply and sanitation at (physicochemicaland final disposal treatment),solutions include: secondary pretreatment, treatment anUruguay early stage, achieved which high probably levels ofcontributed urban coverage to the (conventional activated aeration sludge, extend- widespread perception among the population of an ed activated aeration sludge, percolating beds, ox- abundance of water resources as regards quantity and quality. However, measures designed to protect (activated sludge with nitrogen and phosphorus re- water at the watershed level came to a standstill, moval),idation ditches,stabilization UASB pond reactors), systems. tertiary However, treatment there coinciding with the rapid increase in productive ac- are still some localities in which direct discharge is tivities, particularly agriculture. This chapter pro- - is making in the evaluation, control and protection sibleundertaken for sanitation without managementprior treatment in (López,the capital 2015). of ofvides water a general quality, description which includes of the monitoringprogress Uruguay water the Bothcountry, the and Municipality the Administration of Montevideo, of the Sanitary respon quality, action plans for the protection of water and the improvement of its quality at the basin level and systems in the interior of the country, have sanita- lastly the challenges of supplying drinking water to tionWorks plans of the to guide State future(OSE), works responsible in terms for of sewerage expand- the population. - 4.1 Sanitation and Solid ing coveragethe plans andsustainably. incorporating Other treatmentexisting systems and final in Waste Management thedisposal country facilities. correspond Both institutions to the sanitation are implement solutions - plementation of dynamic sanitation systems, with - Uruguay was a pioneer in Latin America in the im implemented by the Movement for the Eradication of Rural Insufficient Housing (MEVIR). MEVIR sys WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 578

tems include small towns or neighborhoods of lo- ing not only the level of quality that can be achieved calities in the interior of the country. They have dy- by putting the solution into operation, but also the namic sanitation networks for the treatment of this effort required to maintain the standard of operation throughout the entire life of the system. The sanitation component of the National Wa- intotype theof effluent,water body. generally with treatment systems - for stabilizationThe main challenge ponds prior in terms to their of finaldomestic disposal ef- opment, to delineate the roads to be followed in termster Plan of (MVOTMA,sanitation at2017) the iscountry currently level under in order devel to be considered for areas that do not have sewer- universalize service. fluents currently concerns sanitation solutions to Final disposal of solid waste age. The systems implemented in Uruguay, which The success of waste management lies in the cor- reached 41.8% of the country's population in 2011 rect performance of its various stages, especially in Although(INE, 2015), these mostly solutions comprise could fixed be considered impermeable as regard to the analysis of alternatives, design, con- adequatetanks, fixed sanitation filtering tanksunder and certain septic conditions,tank systems. in struction, operation and maintenance of the recov- practice, they do not usually guarantee the mini- ery and disposal sites. At the national level, due to mum criteria of design, construction, operation and the investment levels required, as well as to the op- maintenance that would enable them to be consideration and maintenance costs involved, only the ered as such. Individual systems currently in the country in- With the exception of the leachate treatment landfill alternative is usually considered (OPP, 2011). means of a barometric truck (or vacuum), water- proofclude: tankswaterproof with a tanks robber with that periodic discharges cleaning the liq by- leachateplants at collectionthe Felipe and Cardozo treatment (Montevideo) systems, andin most Las ofRosas the rest (Maldonado) of the country, sanitary there landfills, is a low which level of have at- tanks, septic tanks (with or without cleaning by uid effluent onto the land or public roads, filtering into the ground or public highways, septic tanks investment.tention to the They final usually disposal do services not have (SDF) waterproof of solid- barometric truck) with effluent discharge liquid ingwaste, of thewhich base operate of the withcell or an rain insufficient drainage degree systems of or irrigation system, septic tanks followed by con- structedfollowed wetlandby an infiltration or treatment system plant, into uncontrolled the ground obviously causes negative environmental impacts, discharge onto the land or public thoroughfare, suchor leachate as the collectiongeneration or of treatment gases, soil (OPP, contamination, 2011). This etc. A similar situation occurs with the sludge dis- contamination of surface and groundwater -as a charged by barometric trucks for cleaning water- result of poor leachate management - and the pro- proof tanks and septic tanks. liferation of vectors, among other factors. This is - compounded by the disadvantages of the limited control of the type of waste received, meaning that sanitationIn 2004, constitutes the Constitution a fundamental of the human Republic right, in potentially hazardous solid waste can be received whichcorporated implies in itsensuring Article that 47 the the fact entire that population access to and disposed at these sites. has adequate sanitation solutions. To this end, the The challenge in this sector is the improvement various available solutions and technologies must of waste management in various departments in be considered -both dynamic and static solutions, the interior of the country, with the resulting min- collective and individual systems-, analyzing the ad- imization of environmental and health impacts, es- vantages and limitations of each one in order to de- design, construction, operation and maintenance pecially4.2 Water as regards treatment final disposal national projects. challenges aspectsfine the mustviable be options contemplated for each that case. guarantee In all of these, a lev- The Administration of the Sanitary Works of the el of protection for users and the environment comparable to that achieved through a dynamic system the production and distribution of drinking water with centralized treatment. This involves consider- State (OSE) is the state agency responsible for

throughout Uruguay. Maintaining adequate quality 579 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

for this supply poses a series of growing challenges, ly, there has been a need to adapt and innovate in since many of the water bodies used as a source of treatment, which is being carried out through four different lines of action according to the particular

pollution.raw water industrialare affected and by theclimate intensification change, but of landalso that allow drilling in areas with a low presence of byuse the in changes the contribution in the regulations basin, urban that are and becoming specific arsenicsituation: (the i) strengtheningmost commonly hydrogeological used alternative); studies ii) increasingly stringent. In this respect new investments in infrastructure and inputs are required, as well as the development and local adaptation of conventional treatment: flocculation and filtration; new technologies to address emerging problems. iii) Reverse osmosis: being successfully applied in- Another aspect that should be highlighted is the four locations; iv) Adsorption, at the study stage: ironthe development removal. of filters with OSE’s own technol the media, which demand high quality water, part- ogy, using waste material from the filters used for pressure exerted by the Uruguayan population and Surface sources the fact that in recent years, there has been grow- lying due knowledge to the tradition and public established information by OSE,on the and care to - of the environment and water quality. plyEpisodes for the of country’s algal blooms capital in and the metropolitan past five years area, in As a way to guarantee the safety of its drink- asboth well the as Santa in the Lucía area river of Maldonado basin, the sourceand Punta of sup del

been developing a strategy based on Water Safety concern regarding the occurrence of such episodes. Plans.ing water These supply plans systems, are an sinceintegral 2012 form the agencyof risk hasas- InEste particular, (main resort) these havewere increased linked to thethe population’spresence of sessment and management encompassing all stag- taste and odor in the water distributed to the pop- es of the supply system, from the catchment basin to ulation, causing enormous repercussions. Although its distribution to the consumer. They are designed the management of these situations is not seen as to systematize and organize the management prac- the greatest challenge, due to its low frequency of tices traditionally used for drinking water and guar- - antee their implementation. tion of technology in the aforementioned plants that wouldoccurrence, enable the treatment OSE is workingto be improved on the by incorpora applying - ozone in combination with activated carbon or bio- groundThe water company wells, operates most of which 62 water are treated purification con- - plants for surface water and more than 800 under ment the treatment used for many years to control chlorination in drilling for groundwater supply. thelogical effects filters. of Thesealgal blooms, improvements by incorporating aim to comple acti- ventionally for the purification of surface water and vated carbon at the beginning of the process. The Underground sources communication strategy and the provision of timely As regards drilling for groundwater supply, labo- information for the population during these events ratory analysis routines performed as a means of is also regarded as a challenge for the organization. A critical aspect of algal bloom events is the of pollution in the aquifers, with the exception of control in the OSE have failed to reveal problems- the presence of four toxins in both raw and high wa- ban areas and Atrazine in an isolated case that led possible presence of algae toxins. The OSE analyzes tothe the occasional suspension presence of the drilling of nitrates located in specific in an area ur anatoxin. Microcystin is the only one of these cur- of intensive agricultural use. The main problem of rentlyter: microcystin, regulated by saxitoxin, national cilidrospermopcin guidelines and its andre- aquifer quality is linked to the presence of naturally occurring arsenic, common in the western and achieved through the combination of conventional southern coastal regions of the country. This prob- treatmentmoval does and not activatedpose specific carbon. difficulties, Its presence since ithas is lem has been exacerbated since the change of regu- not been detected in the water leaving any plant, - in certain drilling holes meant that the water is no tions have been detected in water from the sourc- longerlations inacceptable 2011. As a forresult, consumption. levels of arsenic Consequent present- even in those places where significant concentra

es (e.g. the Negro River). Conventional treatment WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 580

has also been successful in the complete removal the aforementioned methodologies, a great deal of of cilidrospermopsin and anatoxin, although only work must be done to improve the hydraulic man- one case of presence in raw water has been detect- agement of water bodies. In the particular case of ed. The toxin that currently poses the greatest challenge in terms of its removal is saxitoxin. The most consulting studies show the need to maintain ad- notorious episode involving this toxin occurred the Santa Lucía river basin, recently contracted- duce the occurrence of algal blooms. One line of Sauce, which supplies the Maldonado-Punta del actionequate inflow this rates respect as a is fundamental to increase themeasure capacity to re of in 2015 in the water treatment plant of Laguna del the hydraulic regulation of the basin to achieve the The presence of high contents of organic matter inEste raw area. water and the consequent generation of tri- residence times in water bodies through reservoir halomethanes (THMs) as a consequence of their re- management.permanence of adequate flows and the reduction of action with the chlorine used in conventional treatment for disinfection, is regarded as one of the main 4.3 The experience of the Municipality of challenges to be solved in relation to the quality of Montevideo in water quality monitoring the water supplied. This problem becomes critical and the control of industries when supply points are a long way from the plant, Montevideo extends along the coastal strip of the meaning that it is important to minimize the use of chlorine and use other oxidants (chlorine dioxide of the most outstanding features of the city. There or ozone) to reduce the amount of organic matter. isRío also de anla Plataextensive and itsnetwork numerous of water beaches courses, are onethe Another important aspect is the growing presence of agrochemicals in water sources. In this is- and its wetlands, which, upstream of the Depart- sue, institutional interaction is key, which is why ment,most importantis used as a one source being to thesupply Santa drinking Lucia water River to the capital and the metropolitan area. Historical- which provides advice on the preparation and co- ly, the main streams in Montevideo -Pantanoso, Mi- work is undertaken in conjunction with MGAP,- in the framework of water safety plans, according to the sewerage network, receiving wastewater dis- toordination which compounds of the monitoring are used OSE in undertakesagricultural with pro- guelete, Carrasco and Las Piedras- have been linked duction and at what times. In this respect, the chal- - streamscharges, andboth the industrial sanitation and system domestic. (Figure The Río7). de la ability of compounds and application frequencies. PlataIn and keeping Montevideo with the Bay environmental are the final receivers policy of Anotherlenge is to critical achieve associated an efficient point follow-up is the ofcontrol the vari of the Department, the Municipality of Montevideo, the washing of machinery at points of access to the sources; short courses are particularly vulnerable - to this problem. torsthrough the water the Service quality for of beaches the Evaluation and the of main Quality wa- Accidents that may affect the quality of water, tershedsand Environmental of the department. Control, systematically moni both in the plant and in the sources and distribu- - tion systems, are aspects that are addressed in the Water Safety Plans (see Box 4), in which the identi- of theBeaches Department and coastal (Figure contributions: 7) and is Thisundertak moni- - entoring throughout includes the40 samplingyear. Monitoring points along is carried the coast out ply source and the treatment and distribution sys- twice a week in the non-summer season (April to temfication is crucial. of risks In associated this respect, with work the is basin, being the done sup to October), intensifying to three/four times a week incorporate routine indicators that will permit the during the summer period (November to March). early detection of problems associated with possi- Although its main objective is to control the quality of beaches for recreational use and thus prevent risks to swimmers’ health, the sampling design al- toble maintain critical events and improve identified the as qualityrisks. of the water lows for the study of long-term time series to inter- suppliedLastly, to although the population the actions are based currently on technolog planned- ical improvements of treatment in the plants with on the behavior of the sanitation system and their pret, for example, the influence of external factors 581 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

impact on water quality. Physicochemical (salinity, the factors determining the water quality of Monte- turbidity, temperature) and microbiological param- video beaches is the impact of the intense rains at eters (fecal coliforms) are studied and cyanobacte- the local level, which requires performing discharg- rial blooms (visual detection, chlorophyll, cyano- es on the coast. For this reason, the Municipality of bacterial toxins) are monitored. Montevideo discourages the use of beach water for Historically, the water quality of Montevideo beaches was affected by the sanitation of the city. have shown that after that period, the quality of wa- Their recovery for recreational use was made possi- terbathing for recreational in the 24 hours use is after restored. rainfall, This since information studies is disseminated through the institutional website

ofble the by thecity construction was discharged. of a 2300mHowever, pipeline given inthat Punta the The second important factor with an impact sanitationBrava, through system which is unitary, sewage in from other the words eastern sewage part on(IMM, water 2018a) quality and issigns the onphenomenon all swimming of beaches.freshwater cyanobacterial blooms. This usually occurs during

and rainwater flow through the same pipes, one of

Box 4. Water Safety Plans

WHO considers that “The most effective means of consistently ensuring the safety of a water supply system is through a risk assessment and management approach that includes all steps of the water supply from source to consumer” (Bartram et al., 2009) in what are called Water Safety Plans (WSP). The purpose of WSP is to systematize and organize the management practices used in drinking water and to guarantee their applicability. WSP methodology is based on many principles and concepts from other risk management approaches such as the multiple barriers approach and Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points, as well as the ISO 9000 quality management systems (Torres Ruiz and Pardón Ojeda, 2009). In Uruguay, there has been significant progress in regulatory matters, since the WSP Regulation prepared by the Regulatory Body (URSEA) was recently approved and, in addition, the National Water Plan (MVOTMA, 2017) set goals for the number of systems with the use of WSP. Taking into account the specificities of a given system, a WSP should provide a reference framework to identify hazards, assess and manage risks, including control measures, monitoring and management plans (under routine conditions and establishing contingency plans for exceptional conditions), as well as documentation relating to all stages of the water supply system. Considering the instructions in the latest editions of the WHO Guidelines (WHO, 2011), and understanding the importance of incorporating the concepts of drinking water supply safety, the OSE has launched a program for the development and implementation of safety plans for drinking water throughout the country. The design and implementation of PSA began in 2012 in a pilot system, which selected the Supply System of the City of Do- lores with 17,174 inhabitants (INE, 2015). This town already had a water production management system certified in accordance with ISO 9001:2008. To begin with the dissemination of the WSP in other supply systems, training activities were undertaken to introduce the topic at the institutional level, raise awareness and train government employees. A series of general documents were also prepared, including a General Manual for the Preparation of Water Safety Plans and a generic Risk Matrix, whose objective is for Supply Systems to have an initial document from which specifics can be generated. As a continuous training strategy, a course was included in the company’s training plan, which addresses the WSP as a central issue and its implementation in the OSE’s supply systems. We also worked on the use of support tools for WSP developed by the Information Technology Management Section of the OSE, and its use for the analysis and follow-up of various aspects related to the performance of the supply system. The country scale of the company, and its responsibility for the management of drinking water service from source to home, places the OSE in a particularly favorable position for the successful implementation of this methodology. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 582

Box 5. Water quality monitoring in the Atlantic coastal lagoons

In 2015, DINAMA, the Eastern Regional University Center of the University of the Republic (CURE), the OSE, the National Direc- torate of Aquatic Resources (DINARA-MGAP) and the Departmental Intendancy of Rocha established a collaborative monitoring among the various institutions based on in their abilities, experience and interest. This agreement includes the monitoring of the Garzón, Rocha and Castillos lagoons at least in summer, autumn and spring. In this monitoring program, CURE undertakes the logistics of collecting samples in the lagoons, the Regional Laboratory of the OSE performs the collection of samples in streams, the SNAP and the IDR collaborate in the field logistics, and samples are analyzed by the various institutions according to their analytical capabilities. Within this framework, an approach is adopted at the high, medium and low basin level, with sampling sites where the streams rise, downstream and in the various zones of the lagoons (North, Center and South), and the adjacent coastal area. Physicochemical variables, nutrients in water and sediment, chlorophyll, BOD, dissolved and particulate organic matter, bacterial diversity, fecal coliforms, abundance and phytoplankton composition, zooplankton and ichthyoplank- ton and submerged plant cover are analyzed. The general policy of this agreement is to feed the DINAMA database and share information among institutions. The ecosystem functioning of coastal lagoons is highly complex, which requires long-term studies. The scale at which this approach is carried out will make it possible to capture a greater degree of spatial and temporal complexity of these ecosystems, which in turn will contribute to the understanding of fundamental processes such as the maintenance of water quality, and biodiversity, among other factors. This will make it possible to identify sites with the highest level of deterioration and need for monitoring, while relating it to changes in land use and the climate, and making it possible to draw up strategies for sustainable use, regulation and control, and to evaluate the effectiveness of the policies currently in force. It is essential to note that this collaborative and inter-institutional form of work allows for the generation of long-term basin monitoring at the regional level, which a single institution would be unable to do. The experience and lessons learned in this program can serve as an example for designing future programs throughout the country for water quality monitoring.

the summer season, more in the years affected by ed points in minor watersheds. Sampling is carried

- the El Niño phenomenon, when discharge from out four times a year and comprises 29 points in Thethe Uruguaypredominant and Paraguay genus in rivers blooms is extremelyin Montevideo high the Miguelete, Pantanoso, Las Piedras and Carras isand, Microcystis therefore,, distinguished salinity of the by Río its de potential la Plata tois prolow.- co streams and 10 points in the lower basin of the duce toxins called microcystins. Monitoring results incorporatedSanta Lucía River. into Giventhe National the strategic System importance of Protected of are periodically reported to the population in re- the Santa Lucia River and its wetlands, which was ports published on the institutional website (IMM, was incorporated into the Monitoring Program for Areas in February 2015 (Decree 55/015), this basin season and an annual report is also published sum- proposes to evaluate water quality from a microbio- marizing2018a). Weekly the results reports for are the drawn whole up year.in the It summer should logical,major basins physicochemical in Montevideo and inecotoxicological 2009. This program point also be noted that the Municipality of Montevideo of view, in order to identify the main pressure ele- - ments and their evolution over time, using the ISCA mental management of many of the beaches, which contributedachieved the to ISO the 14001 environmental Certification and for tourist the environ development of the city. (SimplifiedMontevideo Water streams Quality currently Index) ashave a simplifying,varying de- integratinggrees of environmental tool of multiple deterioration factors (IMM, in 2018b). the various basins. This is due to wastewater discharges, evaluateInland the water impact bodies: of sanitation In 1997, the plans. main This streams pro- which, in some cases, come from the formal sanita- gramin Montevideo has continued began to tothe be present monitored and incorporat in 1997 totion system, but mainly from irregular population 583 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

settlements on its edges, as well as from the indis- 4.3 Action plan for the protection of environmental quality and the addition to extending the coverage of the public availability of drinking water sources sanitationcriminate disposalservice toof solidpreviously waste unserved(IMM, 2018c). urban In- in the Santa Lucía river basin ized areas, sanitation plans have made it possible to eliminate direct discharges into the Miguelete, Pan- strategic value for the country, since it is the source - ofThe raw Santa water Lucia for River potabilization and its watershed and supply have to a Mon high- scaping works have also been carried out, together withtanoso the and rehousing Carrasco and streams re-furbishment in dry weather. of irregular Land population settlements within the framework of tevideo and its metropolitan area with 1,873,199 coordinated management plans, which have had a industrialinhabitants planting (INE, 2015). of a Thewide soils variety in its of river crops, basin al- major impact on the water quality of the streams (13,433though km²)they areare alsomainly used used to support for livestock a large and sector the in Montevideo, particularly in the urban area of the of horticultural, fruit, wine, poultry and pig farming, Miguelete stream. This made it possible to improve and the country’s dairy activity, together with an inwater quality in terms of the ISCA index, from the dustrial park used for processing these products. In - has experienced a major increase, as in the case of category of “diluted wastewater” in 2001, to the cat- the pastdairy 15 sector, years, whichthe productivity has doubled of certainits production sectors egory of “raw water” or “medium water”, which has remained constant since 2003. The water and sedi- This situation accelerated the eutrophication of wa- icologicalment quality terms, of the has lower extremely basin high of the nutrient Santa levels. Lucía terwithout courses, significantly which had increasing been observed the area in theoccupied. water River, although good in microbiological and ecotox prompted concrete actions designed to prevent and indicators (OAS, 1992, JICA, 2010, 2011), but had not Figure 7. Evolution of the industrial loads in Montevideo and taste were detected due to the presence of geo- mitigate the effect until March 2013, when an odor flow (m3d) BOD5 fats and oils smin in drinking water in Montevideo and the Met- TSS S- Cu total ropolitan Area. Pb P total NH4 It was then that the National Directorate of the - 25000 00 - 634 Environment of the Ministry of Housing, Territori 2132 2035 al Planning and the Environment (DINAMA-MVOT 600 MA) drew up the Action Plan for the Santa Lucía 20000 - 1162 River (MVOTMA, 2015). This Plan established two 144 tevideo System, which corresponds to the water- 530 shedareas of with Aguas different Corrientes, types inof additionwork: Zone to the A, the San Mon José 500 110 - 15000 er between Aguas Corrientes and the mouth of San River Basin and the stretch of the Santa Lucía Riv 400 loads (kgd) 24 loads (kgd) 10000 José;The Zone Plan B, thewas remainder designed asof athe series Santa of Lucía measures river 14 basin until it flows into the Río de la Plata. 22 200 to control the contribution of nutrients to water- 6326 courses within the basin to halt and reverse the deterioration of water quality. These measures con- 5000 10 156 133 100 62 6 31 • The implementation of a sectoral program to 1016 1035 650 sisted of: 65 , improve environmental compliance of indus- 0 1, 0 5 1,6 0 1 2012 2015 - Number of active industries and year gentrial and discharge phosphorus into the levels. entire Santa Lucía River basin and demand the reduction of BOD5, nitro WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 584

Box 6. Water, sediment and biota quality study of the Río de la Plata This study has been carried out in the context of the Environmental and Social Management Plan of the works included in the Urban Sanitation Plan (PSU) IV since 2009 (IMM, 2018d). In addition to extending sanitation coverage to previously unserved areas, PSU IV entails the construction of an underwater pipe in Punta Yeguas for the final disposal of sewage effluents from the west side of the city and enables the recovery of water quality in Montevideo Bay. This monitoring, which began in 2007 to evaluate the impact of the works, is designed to study the environmental quality of the system, through physical, chemical, microbiological and biological variables, before, during and after the construction of this pipe and to ensure that these works do not affect the ecosystem uses of the receiving body. 43 sampling points are studied 200 and 2000 m from the coast between the mouth of the Santa Lucia river and the Carrasco stream. The results confirm that Montevideo is located within the zone of the salinity and turbidity front of the Río de la Plata, whose location varies depending on the flow of the river, and show that the system is in an advanced trophic state, with high nutrient concentrations ( IMM, 2018e). Rainfall fluctuations in the entire Río Uruguay-Paraná basin, linked to El Niño-La Niña events, produce major variations in the discharge from Río de la Plata and consequently modify salinity, turbidity, nutrient load and organic matter on the coast of Montevideo. These oscillations influence fecal contamination indicators, as well as the occurrence of cyanobacteria blooms. In the summer season, when salinity in the Río de la Plata remains low, there is a higher incidence of cyanobacterial foams with high toxicity and concentration of chlorophyll a. The high variability in rainfall, which is expected to increase in the context of climate change, is a challenge.

Control of Industries in the Department of Montevideo The industrial sectors that emit the greatest amount of discharges are food, beverages and tobacco, electricity, gas and water, chemicals and textiles. Approximately 12.3% of these effluents are emitted as a result of the production of inputs for other productive sectors of the country, while the remainder represent a direct sale by the sectors that discharge effluents into water resources to meet their final demand for either the domestic or external market (Piaggio, 2013). Since 1967, the Municipality of Montevideo has had regulations related to the disposal of industrial wastewater (Decree 13.982 and Resolution 16.277), which establish the obligation for all industrial establishments located in the Department to have an effluent treatment system, prior to the discharge of the latter, either into collectors, water bodies or by scattering and/or infiltrating the land. In 1997, a management tool was launched, based on the presentation by the industries of the quarterly activity report (WQI), in which they provide data on the production, supplies, emission and operation of their effluent treatment plants (PTE), with physical-chemical analyses of effluent, under the technical responsibility of a competent professional. The aim is for the company to develop a system that will enable it to evaluate its operating processes for treatment daily and assume its responsibility in the self-control of the PTE and therefore the effluent discharged. In 2014, UEI was incorporated into the UNIT ISO 9001:2008 certification, the quality management system of the Quality Assessment and Environmental Control Service, through the “Industrial effluent monitoring program” process. This program applies to businesses located in the Department of Montevideo which, due to their productive activity, produce residual effluent daily and/or because of their characteristics, create or may create significant environmental impacts. The objectives of the Program include: a) evaluating pollution from the companies involved, b) establishing a monitoring plan that makes it possible to guarantee compliance with current regulations, and c) evaluating the spatio-temporal evolution of industrial pollution. The companies responsible for 90% of the pollution of industrial origin in Montevideo have been identified, according to their actual or potential contribution, creating the Industrial Effluent Monitoring Program, which are inspected on a quarterly basis. Industries responsible for less than 10% of pollution of industrial origin are controlled with the aim of ensuring annual monitoring and control. One of the goals of the Program is to continue with the publication of a semi-annual report on the Municipality of Montevideo website, showing the degree of compliance with the regulations by each company enrolled in the program. Figure 7 shows the evolution of the loads contributed by industries located in Montevideo, first controlled by the Pollution Reduction Plan (period 1997-2012) and subsequently by the Industrial Effluent Monitoring Program (period 2012 to 2015). In 2012, the authorities began to evaluate the loads of nutrients directly discharged by industries into the Department’s water courses 585 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

• Implementation of a sectoral program to im- those lacking permits, within a maximum peri- prove environmental compliance regarding in- • aod potable of six months, water reserve. in the basin declared ZONE (A). nitrogendustrial dischargeand phosphorus into the levels, entire Santaprioritizing Lucía • ObtainDeclare opinions the “Casupá within stream the hydrologicalscope of the basin”Santa River basin and demand the reduction of BOD5,- the measures comprising this Plan, ensuring • Declarethe cities as of priorityFray Marcos, Area San(A) Ramónsensitive and to San the theLucía effective River Basinparticipation Commission of the with various regard stake to- ta Lucía. - holders comprising it.

river basin declared AREA A: Santa Lucía Riv- The full implementation of this Plan is a comer (upstream of the confluence with the San plex process due to the fact that several of the mea- CanelónJosé River, Chico Santa Stream) Lucía Chico, and Arroyocompulsorily de La Virre- sures require the creation of legal and management quiregen, San all Joséthe rural River, localities Canelón located Grande in Stream this basin and tools to facilitate them, as well as the participation to control the use of nutrients and pesticides and coordination of various government agencies, through the implementation in the area of the not all of which were involved in its implementa- - tion in the same way , which is why the results to-

FertilizationPlans for the will Use, have Management to be undertaken and Conserva on the that the greatest advances were made in the con- basistion ofof Soilssoil analysis (Decree to 450/008 achieve of and the maintain MGAP). day are uneven. Amorín and Larghero (2017) state- - ment,trol of withpoint a sources, similar whereamount approximately being invested $30 in mil the • Suspendthe phosphorus in the concentrationhydrographic (below basin 31ppmdeclared of implementationlion USD were invested of treatment in industrial systems effluent for domestic treat Bray phosphorus). sources, which are still under development. Slow- other practices involving the permanent enclo- sureZONE of (A), cattle the in installation open-air corrals. of new Thefeed suspen lots or- from dairy establishments and watershed manage- sion will remain in force until the new guide- menter progress practices was (maintenance made in the treatment of the buffer of effluents zone of lines regulating the activity are issued and will watercourses and placing a perimeter fence around also include the expansion of existing ventures. reservoirs to prevent livestock from entering them). • Demand the treatment and mandatory man- Finally, progress in the control of diffuse sources - cated in the basin with different deadlines ac- - cordingagement to of their effluents size. in all the dairy farms lo through modifications in agricultural practices has • - implementationbeen minimal or of nonexistent. the Plan, although Despite its these success diffi is agement and disposal from the drinking water culties, significant progress has been made in the- treatmentImplement plant a definitive of Aguas solution Corrientes. to sludge man - • difficult to evaluate on the basis of existing information due to the lack of a sufficiently extensive base Restrict the direct access of cattle to watering- line, as well as previously defined water quality in in the courses of the basin declared ZONE (A). dicators (Amorín and Larghero, 2017). SanBuilt Francisco a restricted reservoirs. perimeter in the area sur • rounding the Severino, Canelón Grande and 5. Water quality in the 2030 Agenda in Uruguay use,Establish for the a conservation buffer zone inand the restoration basin declared of the riparianZONE (A) forest without as a land way tillage to re-establish or agrochemical the hydromorphological condition of the river, with Agenda for Sustainable Development for the elim- variable bands according to their importance. inationWater quality of poverty is a condition and hunger, included the inprotection the UN 2030 of • Institute permit requests for the extraction of the planet, prosperity and economic and technical existing water (surface and underground) for progress, and the maintenance of peace and global WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 586

Box 7. Dairy Effluent Management

Within the aforementioned Action Plan, measure No. 5 deals with dairy farms: “Demand the treatment and mandatory management of effluents in all dairy farms located throughout the Santa Lucia River Hydrographic Basin". During its first stage of application, this measure was concentrated in establishments with over 500 milking cows. According to data from the National Environmental Observatory (2017), DINAMA has identified and registered 24 dairy farms within the Santa Lucía River Basin. This shows that a great deal of work remains to be done in this regard, since the number of dairy farms in the basin is much greater. At the farm level, wastewater in dairy farms is produced as a result of cleaning the milking parlor and the waiting pen after each milking operation. Additionally, if there are feeding areas with impermeable floors, they also become wastewater generation areas, either because they are cleaned using water (usually by flooding) or because of the rainwater runoff on them. Generally speaking, the wastewater generated is rich in organic matter and nutrients (especially nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium). Consequently, they may affect the quality of surface or groundwater bodies. There are several alternatives for wastewater management, and The Manual for the Environmental Manage- ment of Dairy Farms (MVOTMA, 2016) proposes the following at a basic level: • Effluent management for landfill: This system comprises a roughing unit, a grit removal unit, a storage pond and an on-site effluent application system. • Effluent management for discharge into water course: this system consists of a roughing unit, a de-sanding unit, an organic solid separation unit, a system of treatment ponds (which may include an artificial wetland as the last stage) and a device for discharges into watercourses.

At national and international levels, there has been a trend toward the adoption of effluent management systems for landfill. This type of systems has the advantage of the agronomic use of effluents. However, this use must be properly planned in such a way that it does not provide pastures with a nutrient overdose and complies with the necessary waiting times prior to grazing the irrigated crop, as well as allowing the inactivation of the pathogenic microorganisms applied to the land together with effluent. Another aspect that must be taken into account when designing this type of system is the size of the storage pond. This will work with a variable level and must have sufficient capacity to store wastewater during periods of rain or saturated soil, when it cannot be discharged into the land. Finally, all effluent management units are required to be waterproof, including the storage pond. In this regard, there are various materials that can be used for waterproofing it (HDPE, PVC, GCL, compacted clay). In short, the implementation of the aforementioned Action Plan has begun to take effect in the establishments of the Santa Lucía River Basin with more than 500 milking cows, driving a trend towards the use of effluent management systems for on-site discharge to the detriment of management systems designed with a water course (treatment ponds) traditionally used.

responsibility for following up on the Sustainable “Guar- alliances, as determined by its General Assembly in anteeing the availability and sustainable manage- September 2015 with the desire to “transform our mentDevelopment of water andGoal sanitation (SDG) 6 which for all”, proposes, considering, on world”. Uruguay has joined the 2030 Agenda andformed an alliance between the Office of Planning- the human right to water and the right to sanitation and Budget (OPP), the National Institute of Statis- respectivelythe one hand, and, the onUN the 2010 other, and 2015the need declarations to protect of tortics national (INE) and indicators the Uruguayan in order Agency to comply for withInterna the the entire water cycle from the perspective of inte- tional Cooperation (AUCI) to coordinate and moni grated water resource management. various goals. The DINAGUA-MVOTMA will assume 587 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

5.1 Access to water and sanitation - The main challenges in our country revolve around the small scattered rural populations accessing havefields submitted or water courses. authorization As for forindustrial industrial wastewa drain- ageter, thereto the areenvironmental approximately authority, 600 companies the majority which be- challenge for sanitation is for households to be able todrinking connect water to the supplied sewerage by network the OSE. (mainly The greatest due to over industrial discharges is greater than over ur- affordability problems) and the extent of uncon- baning located and domestic in the Río discharges. de la Plata basin. State control ventional sanitation models in urban areas without dynamic sanitation. In rural and peri-urban popu- - - Regarding the second indicator (the proportion- lenge is to sustain the maintenance of autonomous formationof good quality available. water However, masses) on it isthe extremely basis of studdiffi- wastewaterlations living treatment in MEVIR systemshousing complexes,in public-communi the chal- cult to quantify it in Uruguay with the scientific in ty co-management. Water Plan states that, “... most of the water bodies areies conductedabove the limitin 2013, at whichthe diagnosis they are of considered the National eu- 5.2. Water quality improvement trophic, indicating a deterioration of their quality. [...] There has been a continuous increase in eutrophication in most aquatic ecosystems which had al- Target 6.3 focuses on the issue of water quality. The- ready deteriorated, while very few cases have under- indicators proposed are 6.3.1 and 6.3.2. Regarding gone improvements” the first indicator (Proportion of wastewater treat ofed domesticsafely), the wastewater National Water in the Plan eastern (MVOTMA, part of 2017) the in various water bodies (MVOTMA, throughout 2017). the In thecountry past cityreports is discharged that in Montevideo, into an underwater after de-sanding, pipe measur 67%- has30 years, increased. the occurrence Kruk et al of cyanobacterial blooms- mation on surface water quality in the country on happen with the western wastewater that is dis- . (2013) systematize infor ing over 2 km in Río de la Plata. The same does not- ter in the capital is expected to be treated safely by the basis of scientific articles and technical reports charged directly, although 100% of the wastewa between 2007 and 2011. Of the 151 cases studied by- - massesvarious organismsor harmful and phytoplankton research centers, blooms 70% at were the 2020. In the interior of the country, figures are less- timeclassified of their as study. eutrophic while 40% had high bio entencouraging: treatment 41% plant; of "However,homes have almost a sewer all the connec cities locatedtion and on 80% the of Uruguay their wastewater River, the Negro is sent River to an or efflu Río groundwater quality points, on the one hand, to de la Plata still discharge with pre-treatment (with the Theinterpretation discussion of inexisting Uruguay data on- more surface optimis and- the exception of Paso de los Toros). For these cities, tic on the part of the central public bodies and less projects exist to improve the quality of the landfill” optimistic on the part of natural science research- - ers - and, on the other, to the existing regulatory

(MVOTMA, 2017). Most of the MEVIR housing nu streams and rivers according to their priority use clei have effluent collection and treatment, handled- (humanframework consumption, such as Decree recreation, 253/79, navigation,which classifies etc.) byproof) the OSE.or septic At the systems. same time, Most 57% of ofthe households wastewater in when the new paradigms seek to go beyond the thein these interior systems have fixedis not deposits treated (filteringsafely, because or water on the one hand barometric truck services are insuf- sectoral perspectives this classification reproduces high costs, which means that households do not use (Deci5.3 Integrated Agua, 2017). water resource ficient to meet demand and, on the other, they have management and cross-border soil, thereby contaminating soil and groundwater. cooperation Onthem the as other often hand, as necessary in general or theredirectly is a infiltrate lack of suit the- Nowadays, there are a number of incipient anteced- able plants for these discharges, as a result of which the only function of trucks is often to remove waste- - water from urban areas, directly disposing of it in takesents offor Integratedpotabilization Water are located Resource in the Management most pop- (IWRM) at the watershed level, where water in WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 588

ulated regions of the country and raw water quality Agreement will come into force, which would put constitutes the main motivation to advance water the four countries sharing this natural asset at the global forefront in the area of transboundary water management and mean that, “They will be able to management in new ways: the Santa Lucía river achieve target 6.5 of Sustainable Development Goal otherbasin hand, (since within 2013), the Laguna framework del Sauce of the basin Cuenca (since del 6.5” (Hirata et al Plata2010), Program,and the Laguna as a result del Cisne of a processbasin (2016). with Ondiffer the- - ent characteristics, marked by its cross-border na- operation over the., 2017). waters and transboundary terture, progress was made in the pilot plan for the in- Near the border with Brazil, there has been co - ritories of Laguna Merín, with the creation in the tegrated management of the Cuareim-Quaraí River of1960s strengthening of the Merín the Lagoonwaterway. Mixed-Technical Com isBasin committed shared by to Uruguayseveral agreementsand Brazil. regarding its mission, which was relaunched in 2010 with the aim transboundaryIn terms of cross-borderwaters that address cooperation, water Uruguay quality. 5.4 Protect and restore aquatic ecosystems The main agreements with Argentina include: the All watercourses –both surface and under- Administrative Commission of the Uruguay River ground-enjoy a certain degree of protection in the (CARU), the Mixed Technical Commission of Salto country’s environmental legislation. The main fo- CommissionGrande (CTMSG), of the the Maritime Administrative Front (CTMFM). Commission All cus in on the waters that form part of protected theseof Río havede la some Plata function(CARP) andlinked the to Mixed the protection Technical of the waters of their respective areas of activity. Areas, as is also the case in the departmental pro- tectedareas definedareas. in the National System of Protected installation of a cellulose production plant in the Few cases exist of restoration of aquatic ecosys- In the wake of the international conflict over the tems, perhaps because the national environmental - legislation prioritizes the prevention of environ- vicinity of the city of Fray Bentos, located on the - Uruguay River and linked to its Gualeguaychú coun ofterpart the factory by a bridge, have beenthe waters jointly of monitored, the Uruguay follow river- mental damage. The aforementioned plans in La ingand the some verdict of its by tributaries the International in the area Court of influenceof Justice guna del Sauce, Laguna del Cisne and Santa Lucia- River are now also oriented towards restoration. In the latter case, an Ecosystem Restoration Plan be of The Hague in 2010. - hasgan beento be reforestation implemented with in the native Santa species. Lucía Basin in cordiaThe area. Binational The forerunner Salto/Concordia of this ad-hoc Commission commis of- JuneIn 2016, Montevideo whose first and task other based cities on voluntaryin the interior work sionthe Guaraní can be foundAquifer in operatesthe Salto/Concordia in the Salto Pilotand ConPlan there are a number of examples of the restoration of the Project for the preservation and sustainable of the quality of streams and their banks. This is the case of the Miguelete Stream Special Plan and other small tributaries (Montevideo); the Ciudad de development of the Guaraní Aquifer System (SAG la Costa Sanitation Plan, in Canelones, which pro- Project between 2003 and 2009), financed by the- motes the improvement of the quality of beaches four countries with territories on the SAG: Brazil, byArgentina, the OAS. Paraguay The importance and Uruguay, of this andtype the of inter Glob- - nationalal Environment cooperation Facility for (GEF),groundwater and implemented is particu- on the coastal strip; the Cuñapirú Creek Recovery larly important in the present, because, according Plan, in the city of Rivera, with the creation of a lin- to international analysts, the recent approval by lanco,ear park in thethat Department mitigates floods of Tacuarembó and the consolidation (MVOTMA, of a coastal protection park in San Gregorio de Po- for international preventive management of the tives to improve the banks of streams such as the the Brazilian Senate of the Guaraní Agreement Colorado,2016). There in thehave vicinity also been of the specific town of citizen Sauce. initia

Guaraní Aquifer, creates a real possibility that this 589 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

5.5 Cooperation for water NAMA-MVOTMA on the basis of the installation of a and sanitation development system for receiving environmental complaints on- - - isInternational now listed as cooperation a high income in Uruguay country in has statistics dimin line. Among the 14 reasons the system presents to andished global its financial forums. importance According insofarto the latest as the available country itemsfile a complaintthat could beare indirectly “contamination linked toof water water quali bod- - tyies” (such and “dischargeas waste and of effluents”,pesticide containers). in addition to other - - reportnational from cooperation, AUCI (2015) amounting with data to on approximately 2014, the wa - ter sector received nearly 6% of all traditional inter The Santa Lucia River Water Assembly Collec- from a Spanish fund for water and sanitation -run inationtive, a member of a glen of inthe the Santa town Lucía from River what Basin they Com call 9 million dollars, the vast majority of which comes mission, presented scientific evidence of contam supply of drinking water to small rural communities industrial discharges activities by the DINAMA and by the IDB- which focused on the Program for the- the“popular Municipality laboratory”, of Canelones. and opened The modality a control of file water on quality analysis for reporting purposes, technically (2010-2016), where the OSE, the National Public Ed- independent of state agencies, is novel in the coun- ucation Administration (ANEP) and the MGAP acted try and according to its promoters, is a response to mustas counterparts. partner with In thisother SDG countries 6 target, andthere organiza is enor- the slowness and inaction on the part of the labora- mous potential for development, whereby Uruguay- tories responsible for these inspection tasks. In short, at the time of writing this chapter and tions to contribute and receive financial and techni 5.6cal support Citizen in participation the water and sanitation sector (6.a). Citizen participation has been a principle of na- requiringin view of most the commitments attention are assumedthe right ofby accessUruguay to tional water policy since the constitutional reform decentto comply sanitation with the in SDGs urban by contexts, 2030, the the SDG improve 6 goals- ment of water quality by promoting sewage treat- - ment in the residential and industrial sector, as well alin 2004authority and thein publiccreation policy of DINASA planning (subsequently and devel- as the prevention of the contamination of surface opment.DINAGUA) To immediatelythis end, there afterwards is a program as the led nation by DI- waters by agricultural activities, bioremediation in streams and urban ravines, and advancing the im- - - NAGUA-MVOTMA for the creation and operation of ginning with those that provide water for human andthree nine regional basin commissions basin councils to (Ríodate. Uruguay, In these areas, Lagu consumption.plementation of IWRM plans at the basin level, be whichna Merín have and government Río de la representatives,Plata and maritime users front) and organized civil society, the goal is to move towards integrated watershed management plans. To date, 6. Conclusions and challenges for they have operated more as spaces for reporting water quality in Uruguay and requesting information on water quality. In “Water is not a problem in Uruguay”. This traditional perception, widespread beenaccordance formed with to coordinate the Water the Law, basin a National plans that Water, both inPeople the largelyoften used urban to say: population, about the abun- theTerritory councils and and Environment commissions Committee should draw should up. have dance of water as regards quantity and quality may at least partly be due to the fact that the country initiatives implemented for the improvement of wa- achieved early high levels of urban coverage of both On the other hand, specific, usually fragmented drinking water supply and sanitation. Thus, consideration of the quality of water resources is an issue ter quality and the treatment of domestic effluents that has been relatively overlooked by both public by NGOs and citizen groups at the local level, are opinion and government institutions. This has re- foundCollective throughout and theindividual country, participation of which the for UNDP en- sulted in a few, very recent actions designed to pro- vironmentalSmall Grants observationProgram is a isgood encouraged example. by the DI- tect water resources to accompany, for example, WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 590

the rapid growth of productive activities that have not exclusively limited to eutrophication, and infor- posed a threat to water sustainability. mation is increasingly available on other problems This perception, which does not regard water as that may be linked to agroindustrial and urban de- a problem, began to change rapidly in the past decade, particularly with regard to water quality. Al- presence of heavy metals, particularly in areas of though the situation is not spatially homogeneous industrialvelopment. activity, There haveor viruses been in specific water casesbodies of near the (problems are usually more pressing in the south- urban conglomerations. Other topics, on which con- ern half of the country and the coastal zone due to clusive data do not yet exist, also warrant attention the intensity of land use and the greater population such as the presence of agrotoxins in biota and the density), most surface water bodies fail to meet physical matrix of ecosystems. current standards in several key parameters. The The state of aquatic ecosystems depends pri- particular case of phosphorus content in rivers and marily on the land uses that characterize their reservoirs is perhaps the most paradigmatic, and drainage basins. In this respect, according to the in some ways it was the one that triggered public trends in productive agro-industrial development, awareness of the loss of quality of water resourc- in the short term, the progressive deterioration of es. It has been gradually understood that the excess water resources is unlikely to be able to be reversed. presence of phosphorus in water bodies used for human consumption is the key factor in the occur- policies and economic development requires hav- rence of cyanobacterial blooms (toxic in many cas- ingBeing a full able description to estimate of the the medium-term current status impact of envi ofes), which in turn has led to increasing investment in potabilization. - The greater understanding on the part of many ronments. In Uruguay, monitoring surface water- social sectors arose from the sudden emergence of tiativesquality isto stillimprove limited systematic and insufficient, monitoring, beyond such efas events related to the turbidity and palatability of forts by the government and academia. Recent ini the inclusion of non-traditional parameters in sam- drinking water did not emerge suddenly, but are plingsthe Río (biological Negro and indicators, the Santa pesticidesLucía River, in asbiological well as thedrinking result water of gradual in 2013 multicausal and 2015. development, These effects ac on- matrices, etc.), still constitute reactions to emerging problems, rather than strategic planning. The for- years. Although not enough evidence has been accumulated,celerated by there the agriculturalis a growing boombody of of information the past 15 proposed installation of cellulose pulp production linking the presence of toxins to effects on human mer occurred in the Negro River in response to the health. In this respect, it remains a major challenge lagoons on the Atlantic coast constitutes strategic to modify the social understanding of the links and planning.plants from It is 2009, worth whereas noting thatthe incase the of management monitoring interdependence between human and ecosystem through legal instruments and sectoral programs - Thus, eutrophication has gone from being a top- of the Santa Lucía river, tools are being created- ichealth reduced (Carr exclusively and Neary, to 2006). technical or academic dis- nical advice, hydraulic works and actions to protect cussions, to being a problem of which the public is economic support from MGAP for farmers for tech at least slightly aware. This change of perception re- the contributions of nutrients. Although this initia- - tivebodies is an of unprecedented water – specifically case designedof watershed to reduce man- toms of eutrophication can be seen today in a large sectorflects the of thereality country's in Uruguay, aquatic given ecosystems, that the sympalbeit some cases, empirical knowledge to support them. with varying degrees of evolution. The construc- agement in Uruguay, it still lacks strong tools and, in tion of reservoirs and embankments poses anoth- status of the environments, as a baseline, the Tech- er challenge as a result of the possible proliferation Given the need for a description of the current of cyanobacteria inocula from these water bodies. the participation of technicians from various state It is clear that eutrophication is a major problem nical Board of Water was created by DINAMA, with can largely be explained by the basically agricultural nature of the country. However, problems are and knowledge, public institutions to discuss (ministries and reach , Udelar, agreements INIA, LATU), with the aim of sharing their information 591 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

- family production, job loss and effects on health. - on various scientific-technical issues related to wa- portter resources, water quality to advise monitoring decision and makers. decision The mak first- Given that the economy dominates decision-mak- reports,ing, it is publishedessential toin 2017,focus state on the that joint in order monitoring to sup esing, and it seems the cost essential of environmental to advance the damage. quantification For ex- of quantity and quality, and the use of technologies ample,of the benefits a system of ofactivities environmental that use accountsnatural resourc should for the acquisition and automatic transmission of be implemented to internalize the costs of the de- information, as well as remote sensors. These tech- preciation of the environment in national economic nologies make more sense when margins of error in the appreciation of information are reduced, which often happens when water quality is affected or in accounts. In this regard, the Office of Programming response to the greater likelihood of suffering ex- and Agricultural Policy (OPYPA) of MGAP and the- treme climatic events related to climate variability ronmentNational Environment(MVOTMA) have Directorate made efforts (DINAMA) to promote of the and change. theMinistry implementation of Housing, ofTerritorial a system Planning of this nature,and Envi so that it can be incorporated into the system of na- 6.1 Development model and aquatic ecosystems Due to the importance of agricultural production tional accounts drawn up by the Central Bank, a goal for the country’s economy, both the government which is in turn reflected in the early drafts of the and other political and social actors seek to in- thereforeNational Environmental twofold. On the Plan one beinghand, therestudied is aby need the crease the level of this activity. At the same time, the toNational improve Environmental accounting systems Cabinet. and, The on challengethe other, isit - cies designed to conserve natural resources, among costs of a transition to productive systems in keep- othergoal is aspects. to achieve The SDGs, tension which between requires production public poli and ingis essential with the to notion determine of sustainable who will development.pay the financial conservation is recognized in the country’s envi- For all the above reasons it is clear that a broad, ronmental legal framework. Accordingly, the chal- democratic discussion should be started with reli- lenge for adequate protection of the environment able sources of information from the environmen- lies in the implementation of norms to address the tal, economic, health and social sciences, in which rapid advance of productive activities based on the - intensive use of natural resources. gies of the country’s future development. One of the greatest environmental challenges society as a whole can define the path and strate - 6.2 Legal framework and ricultural production and productivity with the participatory institutionality conservationfacing Uruguay of isecosystems. to reconcile The the government's increase in agre- The incorporation into the national legal framework - of environmental protection in general, through the crease in productivity in an environmentally sus- tainablesponse is manner”. expressed However, in the desire today, to beyond achieve rhetoric, an “in and of water resources in particular, as of the con- law of Environmental Impact Assessment in 1994, to achieve an increase in productivity without af- - fectingexperience water has courses, shown thatgiven it thatis extremely the agricultural difficult lishesstitutional the guiding reform principles of 2004, andof the Law National 18610, Water took system -even when best practices are implement- place relatively recently, in 2009. The latter estab ed- is based on the increased use of fertilizers and a unit of action for water resource planning, control agrochemicals, part of which ends up leaching into andPolicy management”. through “the recognition of the watershed as watercourses. Control over point sources discharges -mainly Nowadays there is a bias that prioritizes the of industrial origin- regardless of whether it may economic dimension of sustainable development, require modernization, has a clear, long-standing which damages the environment (unaccounted regulatory framework (the national law on this is- - pressed through the deterritorialization of rural norms). Conversely the control of pollutants from externalities), and creates conflicts in society ex sue was passed in 1979, in addition to departmental WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY 592

- already mentioned, the technical aspects of water stock - is more incipient and still lacks an adequate management were socialized and politicized. This regulatorydiffuse sources framework. - specifically The obligation agriculture to and present live gave rise to the proposal to create institutionalized - spaces for information, consultation, discussion and advice to government authorities, such as the Ad- landan important use and step management forward in plans the control as of 2015 of water (De visory Commission on Water and Sanitation (COA- pollutioncree No. 405/2008) from diffuse to prevent sources. water This erosionstandard is conalso- - knowledge and the mathematical modeling of the promotedSAS), in close by connectionthe National with Water the DINAGUA-MVOTPolicy. However, relationshipstitutes the firstbetween quantification land use andbased effects on scientific on nat- theseMA, and new the spaces Basin overlap Councils with and other Commissions entities with , ural resources, which has been incorporated into more or less autonomous participation, not meth- odologically delimited by river basins. This new in-

Uruguayan regulations and implemented as a state conventional institutionalization of political-party policy. This framework led to the first Uruguayan- representationstitutional construction at the national, of water departmental conflicts with andthe experience in a Plan of Action of the Santa Lucia municipal levels. There are also spaces for partic- scopeRiver (MVOTMA,has yet to reduce2015) in the 2013. contribution However, theof pollutdevel- ipation based on sectoral public policies, such as antsopment from of diffusesimilar sources, specific particularly,instruments ofof nitrogennational and phosphorus into watercourses. howthe rural to counteract development the atomization panels organized of participation by MGAP to continue with the development of the legal and and thelack MIDES of coordination department between panels. Thelevels challenge of gover is- normativeThis raises framework two challenges: that will make on the it possible one hand, to establish better criteria for controlling productive combination of direct and representative democra- activities, essential for the preservation of water ciesnance, that and will how result to achieve in actions levels to protect of efficiency water in qual thequality; and on the other hand, the need for scien- ity in coherent times and spaces. - The aforementioned realities and challenges re- tial both to identify and quantify the effects of these - activitiestific development and to implement and technical the necessary innovation, measures essen ual yet profound transformations in the collective for their minimization and mitigation. The greatest imaginarygarding water of the quality close inlinks Uruguay between have the led urban to grad and challenge would appear to be to achieve joint, bal- rural environment. In the present and the near fu- anced development between both aspects, since ture, the culture of hegemonic water in the coun- regulation adjusted to local conditions -which only - good science can investigate- and effective controls, perience, which domesticated the water problem are crucial to a scheme of increased productivity, a andtry in made the 20thit invisible, century, will anchored shift to ina morethe urban compre ex- scenario which seems inevitable in the economic hensive view of the socio-hydrological water cycle, which transcends the borders of populated areas In terms of citizen participation, in the regional and agricultural lands and even national and inter- and social reality of Uruguay. national administrative limits. In the not so distant by the possibility of public debate on environmen- - taland and even water global issues. context, In Uruguayparticular, is followingcharacterized the ductive to write about water quality within national contextsfuture, it alone.may be insufficient and even counter-pro

2004 referendum that led to a constitutional reform 593 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | URUGUAY

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Venezuela

Although significant progress has been made in Venezuela in potable water supply coverage (approximately 90%) and wastewater collection (over 80%), less than 30% of wastewater is treated… The availability of water resources in adequate conditions and sufficient quantities to meet the growing demand for water are key factors in the progress towards sustainable development.

Water Quality in Venezuela

Ernesto José González Rivas, Eduardo Buroz Castillo, Rafael Lairet Centeno, María Virginia Najul, Henry Blanco, Rebeca Sánchez, Jorge Paolini, Ramón Montero, Haymara Álvarez, Simón Astiz, Carlos Espinosa Jiménez, Vecellio Focà, Miguel Ángel Cabeza Díaz, Silvana Vielma Angarita, Lucas Riestra, Antonio Machado-Allison and Pedro R. García Montero

1. Introduction

The deterioration of water quality not only affects the population that consumes it, but also the entire associated ecological web (Ochoa Iturbe et al that it is responsible for a high death rate due to water-borne diseases and the contamina- ., 2015), and it has been estimated - tion of many waterbodies (Gabaldón, 2015). In Venezuela, although significant progress haset been al made in drinking water supply co- nationverage of(approximately waterbodies, 90%as well of theas changes population) in physicochemical and wastewater parameters, collection (more negatively than 80%),affec- tingless thanquality. 30% It ofis thereforewastewater necessary is treated to (González increase efforts ., 2015b), to conduct which research leads to on the the contami quality of waterbodies, especially those used to supply populations and communities (Ochoa Iturbe et al This chapter will describe the relevant aspects related to water quality in Venezuela, such., as2015). the systematic knowledge of water quality, studies undertaken at research institutions, master plans for important watersheds in the country, institutionality in water quality management, public health and sanitary engineering, and the legal framework. The aim is to summarize data from various bibliographical sources as a starting point for more in-depth studies on the subject.

Ernesto José González Rivas [email protected] Chapter coordinator and editor. Universidad Central de Venezuela (UCV), Science Faculty, Instituto de Biología Experimental. National Focal Point of IANAS Water Program. Eduardo Buroz Castillo Chap- ter editor Universidad Católica Andrés Bello (UCAB), Graduate Environmental Engineering Program. Member of the National Academy of Engineering and Habitat, Chair XVII. Individual of Number of the Academy of Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Chair V. Rafael Lairet Centeno Chapter editor. Universidad Simón Bolívar (USB), Department of Environmental Estudies. María Virginia Na- jul, Henry Blanco and Rebeca Sánchez UCV, Engineering Faculty, Experimental Water Treatment Plant (PETA). Jorge Paolini Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Ecology Center. Ramón Montero UCV, Science Faculty, Instituto de Ciencias de la Tie- rra (ICT). Haymara Álvarez y Simón Astiz Universidad Simón Bolívar (USB), Instituto de Recursos Naturales. Carlos Espinosa Jiménez y Vecellio Focà Universidad de Los Andes (ULA), Centro Interamericano de Desarrollo e Investigación Ambiental y Territorial (CIDIAT). Miguel Ángel Cabeza Díaz Centro Interamericano de Desarrollo e Investigación Ambiental y Territorial (CIDIAT). Silvana Vielma Angarita ULA, Medicine Faculty. Lucas Riestra Universidad Católica Andrés Bello (UCAB), Graduate Environmental Engineering Program. Academia Nacional de Ingeniería y Hábitat. Antonio Machado-Allison UCV, Science Faculty, Instituto de Zoología y Ecología Tropical (IZET). Member of the Academy of Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Chair III. Pedro R. García Montero Environmental Consultant. Member of Grupo Orinoco. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA 600

2. Systematic knowledge of water of plankton, and the rest is for the operation of wa- quality in Venezuela ter treatment plants (turbidity, color, pH, alkalinity, among other aspects). No systematic information Advancing the achievement of the goals established related to pollutants was found –such as organic matter, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, biocides and - pathogenic microorganisms-, which represents a li- in the sixth Sustainable Development Goal (SDG-6), mitation for the analysis of water quality associated of “ensuring the availability and sustainable man with anthropogenic activities. managementagement of water systems, and sanitationbased on fortimely, all" (CEPAL,reliable In general terms, the nitrogen and phosphorus information.2016) involves developing integral water resource values reported for the supply source far exceed the - maximum concentrations considered for non-po- cial institutions, non-governmental organizations - In Venezuela , efforts have been made by offi- ted for other waterbodies in each region, indicators lated to the subject, to determine a range of physi- lluted waters. In the case of the specific data repor- cochemical,(NGOs), universities bacteriological and other and research hydraulic centers parame re- thropic intervention. It is important to point out ters in basins whose waters are intended for human thatfor organic these studies matter begin are high, to be which undertaken reflects precisely the an - when obvious signs of contamination were detec- phic sources show that, although quality studies ted, and were not the result of monitoring, as part haveconsumption. been carried Reviews out onof publicationsvarious waterbodies, in bibliogra esof the comprehensive water resource management. pecially in those affected by human activities, lo- Table 1 was drawn up to estimate water quali- cated mainly in the central-northern region of the ty in the case of supply sources in the main cities, - Maracaibo and the Orinoco and Caroní rivers, very lation. It shows the situation in the central, eastern fewcountry meet and the otherconditions emblematic that allow ones them such to asbe Lakeclas- andwhich western are home regions, to approximately using plankton 25% concentration of the popu as a measured parameter (Iglesias et al - lity is rated as good if the concentration of plankton bodiessified as in systematic. charge of water At the management same time, ina reviewthe coun of- ., 2012). Qua try,the disseminationhas shown that sites at present, (web portals) there is of no the available official (or at least no access to) truthful, up-to-date infor- is between 0 and 1,500 org./mL, normal to bad if it mation, which would make it possible to undertake etis betweenal 1,501 and 9,000 org./mL and very bad if accurate diagnoses, detect variations in time and valuesIn the exceed central 9.000 region, org./mL water of quality plankton varies (Iglesias from space, and make projections and adjustments, for bad .,to 2012). very bad, probably as a consequence of the the achievement of objectives in the short, medium fact that its high densities do not make it possible and long terms. to differentiate between production basins and re- Owing to the lack of detailed information at the ceiving basins, as a result of which domestic and basin level, it was decided to present the informa- industrial wastewater -with no or very little treatment- is incorporated into waterbodies that even- western, eastern, southern and Andean, and there- tually reach the supply sources. foretion toat undertakethe level of a fiveregional geographic analysis regions: based on central, infor- In the eastern region, data is only available on mation that has either been published or is in press. one of the supply sources, the Turimiquire reser- To meet the objective, key characteristics that - could serve as indicators of water quality for each gion with low population density and, according to region were summarized. The waterbodies for hu- voir, which supplies approximately 25% of the re man consumption on which information is availa- In the western region, whose population den- ble, are mainly supply sources that serve between sitythe figures,is similar has to very that poor of the water eastern quality. region (in the well as other waterbodies. The information that can main supply sources in Zulia state, which supply be20 used and 42%to characterize of the inhabitants the supply in eachsources region, is res as- order of 40 inhabitants/km²), information on the tricted to nutrient concentrations and the presence quality as good, tending towards fair. approximately 20% of the region, rates the water 601 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA

Table 1. Water quality in the main supply sources for human consumption based on plankton concentration East Central Region West Region Year Region Pao Cachinche La Mariposa Lagartijo Qda. Seca Taguaza La Pereza Camatagua Turimiquire Manuelote Tule

1998 2000 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004

2005 2007 2006 Invaded with

2008 2010 2009 Bora 2011

Organisms / thousand 1501 a 0 a 1500 Average >9001 9000 Very Poor to poor Quality Good et al., 2012).

Source: Compiled by M.V. Najul, H. Blanco y R. Sánchez (PETA, UCV) on the basis of data from Iglesias

Table 2. Physical-chemical characteristics of the Orinoco River in its main channel and some of its tributaries Orinoco in Caroní Caura Mapire Apure Parameter Units Musinacio Ciudad Bolívar Barrancas Caruachi Boca Morichal Boca pH 7,7

6,6 6,5 6,8 6,3 6,1 5,8 TSS 110 34 10 EC µS/cm 38,2 26,5 25,8 8,9 15,6 9,8 190,0 0,11 82 9 15 353 0,27 3,00 Ca⁺⁺ 3,67 2,79 2,59 0,57 0,64 16,20 1,23 1,47 4,10 Mg⁺⁺ 0,91 0,52 0,66 0,16 0,08 0,74 0,70 0,44 2,20 Na⁺ 0,90 0,51 0,88 0,79 HCO 11,00 3,40 2,40 K⁺ 0,66 0,46 0,62 SO 4,20 --- 2,31 --- 1,00 1,10 10,70 3- mg/L 14,80 9,99 6,40 61,80 Cl 0,74 1,70 4⁼ DOC 3,14 4,40 2,33 - 0,60 0,85 0,86 0,50 0,90 OCP --- 1,40 --- 4,10 2,87 5,87 4,16 6,20 Si-SiO 3,01 2,30 2,30 1,68 0,60 1,09 2 2,60 3,09 5,30 5,30 EC= electrical conductivity; TSS= total suspended solids; DOC = dissolved organic carbon; OCP = organic carbon in particles. Source: Compiled by J. Paolini (IVIC) based on data from (Lewis & Saunders, 1984, Saunders & Lewis, 1988, Paolini et al., 1987, Depetris & Paolini, 1991). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA 602

- In Venezuela, studies have been carried out on dge of water quality, as an indicator of contamina- aquatic ecosystems, their use and conservation in This analysis confirms that systematic knowle - basin conditions, such as occupation of the terri- gies, by universities and research institutes, priva- tory,tion, anthropogenicmust be associated activities with and the soilidentification vocation, for of tethe foundations Orinoco Basin and andinternational their management research centers strate the information to be representative. (Machado-Allison et al

3.1.2 Water quality ., 2010).

3. National research on water quality MinistryThe first of physicochemical Public Works (MOP) studies and of subsequently the Orinoco This section summarizes the research undertaken River and its tributaries were carried out by the on surface and groundwater quality. continued by the Ministry of the Environment and 3.1 Rivers Renewable Natural1 oriented Resources mainly (MARNR, towards currently the de- Venezuela has a large number of rivers, making it a the Ministry of People’s Power of Ecosocialism and - Water or MINEA), Table 2termination summarizes of some flows of and the sediment most important transport physico (MOP,- waterAtlantic, producing formed countryby the basins in terms of ofthe flow Orinoco and qual and chemical1972), which characteristics have continued of the until lower the present.Orinoco in the ity. The country contains three major slopes: the main channel and some of its tributaries. theCuyuní rivers rivers, that thedrain Amazon the coastal with themountain Negro Riverrange. and the Caribbean, which includes Lake Maracaibo and In 1982, The Institute of Natural Resources of- 3.1.1 The River Orinoco Basin-Generalities the Universidad Simón Bolívar created the Orinoco- The Orinoco basin is located in the north of South Ecosystem Project (PECOR), conceived as a collabo rative study by researchers from the Universidad Si món Bolívar (USB) and the Universidad Central de America, between 59°30' and 74°50' west and 1°00'- Venezuela (UCV) (focused on the upper and middle and 10°10' north. It covers an area of approximately- basicbasin) research and the Universityproject with of Colorado-USAthe greatest continuity (focused eastern1.100.000 tip km² of theshared Venezuelan by Venezuela state of (74%) Amazonas, and Co in inon the lowernational basin). limnological PECOR is regardedsphere, and as the its leadingfunda- lombia (26%). The River Orinoco rises in the south mental mission was the integral study of the struc- - ture and functioning of the terrestrial and aquatic Delgado Chalbaud Hill, at approximately 2°19' north - and 63°21' west longitude, with a length of approx imately 2.150 km. It has the third largest flow in the someecosystems of the oftributaries the Orinoco in its Basin. middle The basin results in ofterms PE world with 36.000 m³/s and the fifth largest amount ofCOR the show concentration the spatio-temporal of total suspended variations solids, between total unimodalof transported hydrograph, sediment, with amounting minimum levels to about during 150 phosphorus, conductivity, pH, nitrates and dischar- themillion months t/year of (Vila,February-March 1960). The Riverand maximum Orinoco has lev a- ges, which are reported in Table 3, showing a gra- els in the middle of the second half of August and dient that goes from a lower to higher concentration - - ural, mineral and renewable resources that include - the first half of September. This basin is rich in nat- from rivers classified as black waters to those clas- mous biodiversity, agricultural and grazing lands. sified as white waters: black (Atabapo-Sipapo-Auta forests and savannahs, freshwater fisheries, enor Álvarezna)

At the same time, the Center for Ecology of the- fish used as food (3.71 μg) have been found in illegal Venezuelan Institute of Scientific Research (IVIC)- mining areas in the Upper Orinoco. Hg/g), the limit and the Carbon Unit of the Geological and Paleonto- amongallowed indigenous by the World communities Health Organization living in the being Caura 0,5 logical Institute of the University of Hamburg (Ger riverμg/g basin (Milano, (tributary 2014). of Recently, the lower a studyOrinoco) conducted conclu- themany) basins conducted of the Mapire,research Caura in the andlower Caroní Orinoco rivers, Ri withver Basin the objective (in Musinacio of determining and Ciudad the Bolívar) contribution and in well above the maximum established by the World of organic carbon and minerals from the Orinoco to ded that 92% of the women examined have levels

- 3.1.3Health The Organization wetlands of (Red the OrinocoARA, 2013). River basin the Atlantic Ocean (Depetris & Paolini, 1991). - In the Caroní Basin (a tributary of the lower Ori - coordinatingnoco basin), in the the hydroelectric 1980s and 1990s, development the electrification of the lands,Article or 1.1 surfaces of the Ramsarcovered Conventionwith water, whether defines wetnat- basin,company launched of Caroní campaigns (CVG-EDELCA), to measure responsible the quality for of lands as “the areas of marshes, marshes and peat its waters in stations included in the map in Figure 1. or running, fresh, brackish or salt water, including areasural or of artificial, seawater permanent whose depth or temporary,at low tide stagnantdoes not high concentrations of mercury in people living in exceed six meters”. Recent studies have revealed the presence of Several studies have been undertaken in Vene- zuela on the biology and ecology of the wetlands the mining areas present in the basin (Red ARA, - 2013). High levels of mercury in the sediments of waterbodies (between 1.37 and 37.74 mg/kg) and in such as those by Figueroa and Seijas (1986), Lenti

Table 3. Average, minimum and maximum values of physicochemical and hydrological variables analyzed in the rivers and hydrophases studied (n=3) Hydrophases Low waters (February) High waters (September)

Type of rivers * Clear Wastewater White Clear Wastewater White 30,1 Temperature (ºC) (27,0-34,0) 29,6 29,3 26,5 25,8 27,6 Suspended solids 4 11 2 317 (28,8-31,0) (28,6-30,6) (25,0-27,6) (24,0-28,4) (26,4-29,6) (1-2) 9 78 1,32 1,07 1,30 0,47 Transparency(mg/L) (m) (5-15) (2-6) (21-189) (6-21) (186-507) (1,20-1,40) (1,3-2,0) (0,1-1,1) 1,90 1,63 4,7 7,4 4,2 pH (1,10-1,50) (0,60-2,60) (0,8-1,4) 5,7 5,9 6,3 Conductivity 10,43 73,23 (5,0-6,8) (4,1-5,4) (7,2-7,8) (4,9-6,7) (4,0-4,5) (6,1-6,5) 9,00 8,57 9,57 33,9 Orthophosphates 3,40 (µS/cm) (8,70-9,40) (9,40-12,50) (41,8-132,9)--- (4,90-13,30)0,00 (5,80-13,10)0,00 (24,8-49,5)--- 3,25 73,73 104,23 (µg/L) (3,00-3,80) (3,00-3,50) 227,5 91,97 8,77 131,53 TotalNitrates phosphorus (µg/L) 7,70 3,17 112,77 (125,7-331,4) (10,5-127,7) (31,3-136,3) (25,20-173,0) (3,6-18,2) (78,4-203,0) (0,70-20,72) 8,38 26,6 8,81 Dissolved Organic 10,0 (μg/L) (5,70-11,45) (5,40-12,00) (19,5-34,5) (2,5-4,0) (71,5-206,5) (7,3-12,7) (11,4-11,7) 1,38 4,55 3,76 11,55 6,89 Discharge 1220,3 3044,33 Carbon (mg/L) (1,00-1,75) (4,5-4,6) (2,90-4,61) (6,67-7,1) 238,3 466,0 3189,3 28009,7 (m³/s) (44,0-591,0) (43,0-1255,0) (1845-4096) (160,9-2700) (350-7583) (15450-49762) * = Clear (Ventuari, Cuao, Cataniapo), Wastewater (Atabapo, Sipapo, Autana), White (Guaviare, Meta, Orinoco). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA 604

Figure 1. Map of the wetlands and water quality stations of the Orinoco River basin compiled by Lairet (2017). HyBAM: Observation Service of the geodynamic, hydrological and biogeochemical controls of erosion/alteration and the transfer of matter in the Amazon, Orinoco and Congo basins

70°0'0"W 65°0'0"W LEYENDA Estaciones de medición Hidrométricas/ muestreo

N E E

" E E E E!(E!( Hidrométricas

0 !( E E

' E E E E E !( 0 E !(E !( E!(E !(E EE EE ° E E !( E E E E E !(!(E !( EEE !( !( !( Muestreo MOP-MARNR 0 !(E !(E!(!(E E 1 E E E !(E E !( EE !( E E !(E !(E E EE !(EE !(E E !(E E E E E E E !(E E E !( Calidad de agua E EE EE !( !(E !(EE !(E E !(E E !(EE E !(E !( PECOR-USB (Alto Orinoco) E!(EE EE E !(E !(!( E E E !(E E E E EE E !( !(E E !( !( !( !( E E !( !( E PECOR U.Colorado (Medio-Bajo Orinoco) E E E !( E !( E !( !( !(EEE E E !( !(E!( !( !( !(!( !( !(!( !(E !(E !( HyBAM (Bajo Orinoco) EE!(E E E !( !(!( E E!( E !( !( E !( !( !( EE !( Cuenca del CARONÍ-EDELCA !(E E E E !(E !(EE E E !(!( !( !(E!(E E E !(EE !( !( !(EEE E !( E E!(!(E !(E E E !(!( E Faja Petrolífera Orinoco LNH-MINEA !(E !( E EE E !( !( E !(!(EE E !(E E E E E E !(E !(E E !( E E !( E EE E!( E !(E E E E!(E !(E!( E E E E !(E E EE!(E E E E E!( !(E E !( Tipos de Humedales !(E !(EE!(E !(E!( !(E EEE E!( !( !(E !(E E E !(E Bosques siempreverdes inundables E EE !(E E E !( !(E !(E E del Delta del Orinoco E E E E E E EEE!(E E!(E E E E !( E !( E EE E E E!(EE !( !(E E E !(E !(E !(E Herbazal de Turberas o Pantanos del E !(!(E !( Delta del Orinoco !( E E !(E E Sabanas arbustivas con Palmas del E EE !( EE E E Delta del Orinoco !(E!(E !(E E E Manglares costaneros y estuarinos E E E Bosques ribereño inundables vegas E !( E !( ríos principales y del Orinoco EE !( E !(E E E!(E Bosques de galeria con Morichales

N ("Mauritia flexuosa") " E E

0 !( E E ' E E E E 0 !( !(E E E Sabanas abiertas inundables con

° !( !( E E 5 !( !(E Copernicia ("Estero de Camaguán") E E Sabanas abiertas inundables MAPA DE HUMEDALES DE LA E E E Sabanas abiertas inundables cuencas !(E !(E E ORINOQUIA VENEZOLANA !(!( E E de los ríos Orinoco, Apure y Ventuari E Bosques siempreverdes parcialmente Base Cartográfica: Proyecto Manejo de Áreas inundables cuencas Orinoco y Ventuari Naturales y Ordenación de Tierras.MARNOT Sabanas abiertas de la Gran Sabana con E E E Copernicia o Mauritia Ministerio del Ambiente 2006. E Sistema Coordenadas Geográficas: GCS_WGS_1984 Turberas Tepuyanas Datum: D_WGS_1984 EE E E E Ríos y cuerpos de agua Fuente: Rodríguez -Altamiranda, R. (1999) y Lairet, R. (2017) E UBICACIÓN RELATIVA NACIONAL Compilación y elaboración: Rafael Lairet C. (2017) N " 0 ' 0 ° 0

Escala numérica 1: 6.500.000 1 Cuenca del Orinoco Escala gráfica 0 40 80 160 240 320 Kilómetros " 0 ' 0 ° 0

70°0'0"W 60°0'0"W

Figure 1 is a compilation of the data and infor- et al mation collected (for the Orinoco basin), and vali- no andet Bruni al (1994), Rodríguez-Altamiranda (1999), Lara (2007), Lasso . (2010), Marrero (2011) and distributionLasso . of (2014a, these b).ecosystems In Rodríguez-Altamiranda was conducted at waterdated byquality satellite stations images installed from the by LANDSAT the Ministry series of the(1999), country the first level. integral As a result cartographic of this work, survey nine of there- from 1973 to 2017. The hydrometric, sampling and

andPublic other Works institutions (MOP), thewere Ministry also included. of Environment gionsThe and most 24 categories important of wetlands wetlands in were Venezuela identified inof Natural Resources (MARNR, currently MINEA) for a total of 158 wetlands. 3.2 Lakes and reservoirs - clude the Orinoco Delta, with an area of 20,642 km², located in the center-north region of the country, is Thebetween delta Cañohas been Mánamo divided and into the several Río Grande, natural drai re- theOf allone the that Venezuelan has been waterbodies,most studied Lake(Cressa Valencia, et al., ned by more than 22 channels to the Atlantic Ocean.- - ofgions, the sediments.related to the greater or lesser fluvial or ma 1993). Recent work has shown high concentrations rine influence and the origin and form of deposition of total phosphorus (more than 900 μg/L) and phy toplankton biomass of (values of up to 235 μg/L), 605 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA

with a predominance of cyanobacteria (with an av- -

et al Cigarrón (Edo. Guárico); Eutrophic: La Pereza (Ca erageThere of 77% are veryrelative few dominance), studies related meaning to water that qua it- pital District) and Manuelote (Socuy-Edo. Zulia)- is classified as hypertrophic (González ., 2012).- and Hypertrophic: Pao-Cachinche (Edos. Carabobo and Cojedes), La Mariposa (Capital District), Que lity in the Venezuelan Andean region. The first stu bradaIn SecaVenezuela, (Edo. Miranda), two projects Suata for (Edo. restoring Aragua) the andwa- recordeddies on Laguna low electrolyte Mucubají andconcentrations, Laguna Negra slightly were Tulé (Edo. Zulia). published by Gessner and Hammer (1967), who meters. Subsequently, Weibezanh et al ofter Caracas, quality ofwhere reservoirs the development have been documented: of the aquatic 1) acidic pH values and transparency of more than 5- plantLa Mariposa, Eichhornia located crassipes eight kilometershas been controlled from the city by . (1970) and - Lewis and Weibezahn (1976) reported slightly alka line pH values for the Mucubají Lagoon, with low centermechanical of the removal, country, albeit close not to systematicallythe city of Valencia, (Gon oligotrophictotal nitrogen waterbody. (1,120 μg/L) and total phosphorus (6 zález and Matos, 2012); and 2) Pao-Cachinche, in the- μg/L)Throughout values, meaning the country, that it can although be classified there as are an tower,where which an artificial has managed aeration to process reverse hasthe beeneffects im of eutrophicationplemented since by 2001 deactivating in an area closenutrients to the through uptake more than 100 reservoirset al for different purposes, only et al beenabout conducted 20% of them on havewaterbodies information in the on central-nor their water- - thernquality region (López of Venezuela., 2001). andMost very of the few studies in the haveeas- oxidation (Estaba ., 2006). Unfortunately, the- tern, western and southern regions of the country. diversion of the Cabriales River towards the tribu taries of the reservoir in 2005 cancelled out the be description and ecology of the planktonic commu- nefitsAnother of the artificialimportant aeration ecosystem process for ofthe its country waters nities,Some ofwith them isolated are over data 20 onyears temperature, old and focus dissolved on the (González and Matos, 2012). et al oxygen, pH, conductivity and certain nutrients such which has been treated separately from the rest of as dissolved inorganic nitrogen and orthophospha- theis Lake country’s Maracaibo natural (Zulia lakes state) because Cressa of its commu., (1993),- - - voirs located in protected areas with limited or no nezuela, which has made it more of an estuary. Its tes. According to González and Quirós (2011), reser- watersnication have channel undergone with the a waterschange of in the their Gulf chemi of Ve- trophic or oligotrophic while reservoirs located in areashuman with activities few human have been populations classified or as with ultra-oligo limited - concentrationcal composition due since to the 1938, penetration the date of of the saline start wa of- - oil exploitation activities and since 1956, the saline agricultural activity have been classified as oligo-me of the lake unacceptable sources for human con- ofsotrophic. nutrients The and, artificial consequently, waterbodies have higher located biologi in hi- sumption,ter from the irrigation Gulf of Venezuela and industrial has made uses the (Herman waters ghly impacted basins reflect higher concentrations and hypertrophic. Some examples are shown below, cal productivity, and can be classified as eutrophicet de Bautista, 1997). - al et al et al Parra Pardi (1979) conducted a comprehensive- etaccording al to Lewis and Weibezahn (1976), Infante et surementsstudy on the and pollution laboratory of Lake analyses, Maracaibo determining and its tri al. (1992), Soto . (1994), Marín . (1999), Páez thebutaries, occurrence obtaining of a 49,000process values of eutrophication, of “in situ” mea due . (2001), González and Quirós (2011), González to the concentrations of phosphorus, chlorophyll-a . (2014 and 2015a) and González (2017): from plankton and the dominance of cyanobacteria Ultra-oligotrophic: Guri (Edo. Bolívar), Agua- Fría and Taguaza (Edo. Miranda); Oligotrophic:- Parra Pardi made it possible to establish the scien- Clavellinos (Edo. Sucre), Lagartijo (Edo. Miran (Parra Pardi, 1979, Rodríguez, 2000). The studies by- da), Guanapito and El Pueblito (Edo. Guárico); Oli - go-mesotrophic: Tierra Blanca (Edo. Guárico) and tific basis for water quality standards and issue re El Cují (Edo. Anzoátegui); Mesotrophic: El Andino commendations to take preventive measures (Rin (Edo. Anzoátegui), Camatagua (Edo. Aragua) and El cón, 2013). WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA 606

- - The most recent data on water quality in Lake- chment(2012) studied systems the are groundwater located in zones on Margaritawith greater Is Maracaibo include those published by Esclapés and land, finding that water quality improves when cat Galindo (2000), who recorded total phosphorus va aslues a eutrophicof up to 120and μg/L even andhypertrophic total nitrogen system, of resulup to- intopographic order of importance, height. Likewise, of a group the concentrationof brackish sam of- 1.300 μg/L, meaning that the lake can be classified- ples,total dissolvedfollowed by solids fresh (TDS) and saltled towater. the identification, ses of the Lemna obscura aquatic plant, which occu- - ting in the development of enormous floating mas tence of pollution problems due to the use of bio- cidesAlvarado in regions and such Pérez as Cojedes, (1998) reported Carabobo, the Apure, exis pied 8.3% of the total lake surface in 2004 (Rincón - 3.3and GroundwaterMejía, 2013). rinas, and virtually all the agricultural states. Ne- In Venezuela, there is a general knowledge of the Miranda, Lara, Portuguesa, Mérida, Táchira and Ba main factors controlling the movement and direc- vado (1999) characterized the groundwater in the discharge areas, as well as the thicknesses and di- Andeannortheast Hydrogeological region of Bolívar Subprovince state, while in aZambrano sector of tionmensions of the of flowaquifers of groundwater, and the processes its recharge that control and (1999) geochemically studied these waters in thetheir variability, composition and chemical quality. - These studies have been undertaken by the Minis- the Chama River basin. Escalona-Pazo and Marre - ro-Clemente (2013) determined the chemical quali- llty percentageof these reservoirs of waters in studied the Guacuripia-El that do not Palmarexceed try of Public Works (MOP), the Ministry of Environ- areas, Bolívar State, concluding that only a sma- ment and Renewable Natural Resources (MARNR) et theand National the Ministry Institute of People’s of Meteorology Power for and the Hydrol Envi- al10% can be classified as excellent or Type 1, accor- ronment (MINAMB) and universities and now by- ding to Decree 883 (GORV, 1995). Likewise, Luna a .spatial (2007) variation evaluated in theits chemical groundwater quality in from the Güithe ogy (INAMEH), an institution attached to the Min rechargegüe sector areas of the towards Lake of the Valencia lake plain. Basin, Ayala observing et al. istry of People’s Power for Ecosocialism and Water - (MINEA), although not from a hydrogeochemical - perspective. Silva (2000) and Montero (2006) note- (2007) studied the chemical quality of the ground that the MOP promoted one of the first studies on sampleswater in are the of Santa good Anaquality region, and suitable Paraguaná for human Penin ofgroundwater which made quality it possible at a regionalto identify level a large in Lake number Ma sula, Falcón State, determining that only 6% of the ofracaibo aquifers Basin with and saline the Gulf waters, of Venezuela, as a consequence the results of -). the geological history of the region and the hydrau- consumption, while the remaininget 94 al % are of low- lic connection between the waters of the lake and qualitydied the (Na⁺ groundwater y Cl in the southern region of Montero (2006) and Montero . (2007b) stu - those of the Gulf. tamination.Lake Maracaibo The Valley Basin, of concluding Caracas was that evaluated anthropic by governmentSince the entities 1960s, thehas Institute undertaken of Earth research Sciences pro- Monteroinfluence etappears al to be responsible for nitrate con- jectsof the in Universidad hydrology, hydrogeologyCentral de Venezuela and hydrogeoche and other- geochemical zones with different water quality, na- mistry in other parts of the country in order to de- . (2007a), who detected four hydro termine the characteristics and potentialities of the - reservoirs. tionmely: zone, 1) an located area prone on a totectonic domestic depression, pollution, where 2) an area exposed to urban pollution, 3) an accumula of Monagas State, identifying the presence of waters - probablyMontero contaminated (1996) studied by oil the and groundwater agricultural north acti- bonaceousthere is nitrate minerals enrichment, and pyrite. and 4) an area prone to vities; while Vargas et al “karstification”, controlled by the dissolution of car-

. (1997), Rodríguez (2000), Biondo and Estévez (2010) point out that an Corsi (2006), D'Elia (2006), Michel (2006) and Toro thropic activities in the Lake Basin of Valencia and 607 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA

the sub-basins contained therein are the cause of 4. Master plans for water quality the contamination of most of the groundwater bo-

states that the integral management of the water thedies hydrogeochemical that have been identified study of in groundwater the area. This in was the qualityThe Venezuelan of a basin will Law be on undertaken Waters (GORBV, using the 2007)mas- corroborated by Kutos and Montero (2013) during ter plans for waterbody control and management, - which determine the cause-effect relationships be- ticsub-basin use, according of the to Taiguaiguay the limits established Lagoon, who by Decree found tween contaminating sources and water quality that 67% of these waters are unsuitable for domes problems, alternatives for the control of existing

883 (GORV, 1995), whereas in the Sucre Municipality, their discharges will be allowed, the limits of mass qualitylocated northfor all of domestic this sub-basin, and industrial Mateus (2015)use, despite points dischargesand future for effluents, each pollutant and the conditionssource and inthe which nec- out that 85% of the samples are optimal in terms of- essary complementary technical standards for the control and management of waterbodies. The mas- the fact that the remaining 15% can be used for agri- ter plans for the basins considered to require prior- cultural purposes, as established in Decree 883. - In Los Valles del Tuy, specifically in the San ta Lucía sector, Betancourt and Yessica (2012) de ity4.1 attention Lake Maracaibo will be summarized Basin below: termined that 69% of the water samples studied- can be classified as fresh and the remaining 31% as- - brackish, while Ojeda (2013) states that for the Ocu laLake (Cressa Maracaibo et al Basin encompasses an area of agriculturalmare del Tuy use, area, commerce the waters and are recreation. classified as exce Colombia.89.756 km², 85.4% of which is located in Venezue llent or Type 1 waters for domestic, industrial and The Master., Plan1993) for and the the Control remaining and 14.6%Conser instudy and a groundwater quality analysis in the Vegas (2016) conducted a hydrogeochemical- - vation of the Lake Maracaibo Basin of Parra Pardi- Palmar River Basin, Rosario de Perijá Municipali- cessary(1986) is measures a technical for document correcting that water identifies, quality prospe- ty, Zulia State, concluding that 73.7% of the water- blemscifies and in the rationally basin, in presents order to coordinatethe strategy and and serve ne samples are classified as freshwater, while the re as a guideline for all decisions regarding water qua- themaining largest 26,3% number are brackish. of samples Likewise, were indrawn accordan from lity at the basin level. As a result of the Master Plan, ce with Decree 883 (GORV, 1995), he indicates that activities must be established for the conservation of the lake basin and the orientation of other plans theType chemical 1 waters, quality occupying of groundwater most of the basinin the studied. Duaca, - Márquez (2016) and Torrealba (2016) evaluated cing or eliminating the discharges of nitrogenous sourceswith more in specificindustrial objectives, and industrial which focus wastewaters on redu El Eneal and Perarapa regions and the Licua aquifer. that enter the lake and/or the reuse of sewage for The TDS values (Márquez, 2016) indicate that 90.5%- selective purposes, such as industrial use or irriga- of the water samples can be classified as fresh and tion and pumping waters outside the region. the remaining 9.5% as brackish water. Neverthe less, 61.9% of the waters studied are unsuitable for 4.2 Lake Valencia Basin domestic use, according to Decree 883 (GORV, 1995).- - sumption,On the other whose hand, TDSTorrealba values (2016) enable points them out to that be only 55.5% of waters are suitable for human con endorheicLake Valencia basin, Basin, all of located which inhas the generated center-north a series re The results obtained in the aforementioned stu- ofgion pollution of Venezuela, and eutrophication has an area of 3,150problems km². Itin isthis an classified as fresh. - ecosystem. ter at the national level in terms of its quality, as a resultdies are of a the reflection impact ofof thenatural variability factors of and groundwa anthropogenic activities. plantsThe that Master should Plan be built (Water and Qualitythe control Technical of va- Group, 1998) provides guidance on the treatment WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA 608

rious sources of pollutants, such as sewage and the discharge of solids into tributaries and the lake which crosses the city of Caracas. itself. River and its tributaries, including the Guaire River, - based on a Single Area Authority and a Watershed - In the Tuy River basin, an institutional solution- ses Thethe construction “Integral Project of wastewater for Sanitation collectors and and Le vel Control of the Lake of Valencia Basin” propo- Agency was adopted. In 1998, the Agency was res- tructured and subsequently eliminated. In 2002,- treatment plants in the states of Carabobo (La Ma coveringthe Single both Area the Authority Comprehensive (Ramos, 2014)Sanitation was aboli Mas- riposa and Los Guayos) and Aragua (Taiguaiguay) shed. The study recommends: a) reviewing and re (MINAMB , 2009), and the project to transfer water- as well as the medium and long term measures in from the lake to the River Tucutunemo valley, which theter PlanMaster drawn Plan updeveloped by the Tuy by the River Japan Basin Internatio Agency,- helps control the level of Lake Valencia, and the reu - 4.3se of Yaracuy water for Riverirrigation Basin agriculture (MPPCI, 2009). nal Cooperation Agency (JICA) in 1997; and b) re- located in the central-western region of Venezuela. covering the definition of scenarios proposed by Yaracuy River Basin, with an area of 2.380 km², is MARNR in the Master Plan for the upper and midd waters are used for the irrigation of large planta- le basin of the Tuy River proposed by the Ministry Itstions importance of sugar cane, lies in corn the andfact plantain,that the Yaracuy as well asRiver for of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources supplying water to the populations of San Felipe, (currently4.5 Caroní MINEA) River in Basin 1995. This basin is located in the southern region of Ven-

San Pablo, Boraure, among others (INE, 2014). - forms part of the Orinoco basin. It consists of two chnicalAccording Standards to Decreefor the Conservation, No. 883 (GORV, Defense 1995), and on largeezuela. rivers, It encompasses with very similarover 95. hydrographic 000 km² and char also- September 28 1995, the National Commission of Te- - forImprovement the development of the Environmentof a methodology approved for drawing the se acteristics: The Caroní River (59.8% of the total ba lection of the Yaracuy River Basin as a pilot basin sin) and its tributary, the Paragua River. It provides the control and management of water quality and 72% of the electricity for the entire country as well up specific technical standards and master plans for as producing 100% of the drinking water of Ciudad - Guayana and the Pemón indigenous people (CVG- liquid effluents for each river basin. EDELCA, 2004). The first references to studies and legal provi- The Venezuelan Corporation of Guayana (CVG), sions for the classification and quality control of through the Electricification Company of Caroní- the Yaracuy River appear in a comprehensive heal (EDELCA), undertook a study in 2004 to prepare the- th study conducted by Parra Pardi and Blumenkratz phicalMaster characterization Plan for the Caroní of the River basin, basin the (CVG-EDEL evaluation 4.4(1977) Tuy and River Presidential Basin Decree N°. 2.181 (GORV, 1998). CA, 2004), which includes a diagnosis and geogra criteria and basic guidelines for its development region of Venezuela. The importance of this basin is andof planning conservation scenarios, and the as mechanisms well as the definitionfor its appli of- The Tuy River Basin is located in the center-north cation. The aim is to for economic and social activi- where the city of Caracas and its main satellite cities ties to be included in the environmental objectives arethat located, its waters together are collected with industrial in an area and of agricultur 9.180 km²,- of the basin, and coexist harmoniously with energy al areas, several national parks and tourist regions production. et al basin has experienced rapid population and industrial(Camargo, growth, 2001; and Ramos the construction ., 2014). of Sincea system 1956, of this aq- 5. Water quality and agriculture ueducts that supply drinking water to the city of Ca- racas and the surrounding areas, all of which has Agriculture is considered one of the main factors in the degradation of surface and groundwater re- significantly impacted the water quality of the Tuy 609 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA

sources as a result of erosion and chemical runoff as having problems derived from groundwater sa- et al - to water quality inherent in irrigation and drainage priate quality and soil limitations have led to the agriculture,(Ongley, 1997). another In addition serious to environmental the problems linkedeffect linity. (Fernández ., 2011). Waters of inappro is the degradation of the quality of water resources although good cultural practices have prevented se- downstream due to the effect of salts, agrochemi- condaryaccumulation salinization of salts (Villafañe in Quíbor et Valley al (Lara State), cals and toxic leachates. Other problems that have arisen include the ., 1999). 5.1 Water quality in water sources for irrigation acidification of soils due to inadequate drainage The physical, chemical and bacteriological quali- practices on Guara Island (Delta Amacuro State), in- ty of water is an important factor in the choice of varadothe 70s et(Buroz al and Guevara, 1980) and the increase in sulfur content in the Aquifer of Lake Valencia (Al affected by .,biological 1996). contents and chemical pollu- sources to be used in agricultural activity (Rojas,- tants,Both whether human they and are environmental transported by health irrigated can wa be- 2015). Article 3 of Decree N° 883 of the Norms for the ter, or by surplus water from the agricultural process Classification and Control of the Quality of Water- - bodies and Discharges or Liquid Effluents (GORV, lates into waterbodies. aquifers, as in the case indi- 1995) classifies waters according to their uses. Ac- catedthat spills by Traviezo into waterbodies Valles et oral infiltrates and perco spondcording to to the this irrigation article, Type of vegetables 2 Waters aredestined intended for the contamination of vegetables when eaten raw in for agricultural activities, Subtype 2A waters corre . (2004), who studied be used for the irrigation of any other type of crop Contamination caused by agricultural practices andhuman livestock consumption, These subtypes while Subtype of water 2B refer waters to limcan- wasmarkets studied of the by city Molina of Barquisimeto Morales et (Laraal State). its and ranges for microorganisms, chemical elements, biocides and radioactivity in water. water had been polluted by biochemical. (2012) agents, in the - area of Bailadores (Mérida State), who found that- nezuela to prevent salinization or high levels of eding the limits established by Venezuelan legis- sodiumThe inclassification the soil, has of been water the for subject irrigation of various in Ve lation.specifically The authors organophosphorus indicate that with it is values possible exce to research projects and proposals that deviate from control the situation if techniques already evalua- the traditional standard established in Handbook -

- theted existingin other information parts of the at country the national are adapted. level on waBe- shedNo. 60 a ofsystem the US for Department evaluating waterof Agriculture quality for(USDA, irri- ternítez-Díaz pollution and due Miranda-Contreras to pesticides and (2013) found reviewedthat it is 1954). In fact, Pla Sentis and Dappo (1974) publi - his proposal by considering the permanence in the dies and undergraduate theses. soilgation. solution Subsequently, of the salts Pla and Sentis ions (1983)available advanced in irri- disperse,The vulnerability unofficial and of drawnaquifers from to contaminationacademic stu gation waters. On the basis of this, he incorporated considerations regarding crop tolerance of salini- concentrations of pesticides and fertilizers in agri- ty, drainage conditions and hydrological properties by infiltration and percolation of waters with high of soils, climate and irrigation practices. The resul- through the study of the Maracay aquifer. ting system makes it possible to undertake diagno- culturalAs for areas the waterswas demonstrated resulting from by oil Durán production, (2006), ses and establish alternatives and possibilities of Villafañe et al recovery. using the salt waters that emerge together with oil. Studies on irrigation water and salinization re- It was found that. (2004) by reducing evaluated a third the possibility of the origi of- veal the geographical distribution of the occurrence nal salinity, water can be used to irrigate Brachia- of problems of this nature and their causes. The ba- ria dictyoneura pastures without adverse effects on the soil. et al Irrigation with treated wastewater is a possible sins of Lake Valencia (Romero de la Cuba, 1982), the practice and used in many countries. In Venezuela, Turbio River basin, Lara State (Zérega ., 1991) and the Paraguaná Peninsula have been singled out WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA 610

6. Public health and sanitary engineering

Valencia incorporated large-scale projects that en- supply of water for human consumption, and the the sewerage systems of Lake Maracaibo and Lake managementSanitary Engineering of wastewater has traditionally and municipal involved solid the waste. Public Health will deal with issues related to reusevision of the wastewater. use of this water source. Decree No. 883 water-borne diseases. (GORV, 1995) contains regulationsManual that consider for the Usethe and Safe Disposal of Wastewater, Gray Water and Ex- 6.1 Drinking water supply and cretaIn, an2016, important WHO published instrument the for complementing wastewater management the practices and procedures for irrigation with this In Venezuela, water is a public good of the Na- kind of water. tion. At present, the Ministry of People's Power for In Venezuela, the use of treated wastewater as a - source of supply for agriculture has already begun, ity over water and Hidrológica de Venezuela (HI- as a measure to reduce the demand for drinking Ecosocialism and Water (MINEA) exercises author water and, at the same time, to reduce or elimina- companies- is the agency responsible for capturing te the pollution produced when wastewater is dis- it,DROVEN) adapting -together its quality withand distributing its regional it to subsidiary the pop- charged into the waterbodies (Isea et al - ulation, as well as the collection, treatment and dis- veral national universities, through their Faculties posal of the wastewater produced. ., 2004). Se- The country’s sewerage infrastructure lack search aimed at improving treatments, design para- municipal, domestic and industrial wastewater metersof Engineering and practices and Agronomy, used for this have purpose. conducted In this re treatment systems in the urban and rural areas. It - should be acknowledged that the Venezuelan sta- - - regard, the Water Research Center of the Universi vestments in sewerage works to purify wastewater daysty of Zulia(Trujillo (CIA-LUZ), et al developedet aal system of stabili atte hasthe madenational and level. continues However, to make when significant these works in zation ponds with a combined residence time of 20 begin operating, they lack a management model to 5.2 Water management., 2000; Isea ., 2004). guarantee the adequate operation and maintenan- for irrigation. Planning ce of this infrastructure. The inventory of treatment technologies at the municipal level is neither accu- quality for agriculture, the National Plan of Agri- - cultureBuroz (2016) for Irrigation points out and that Land with Sanitation. regard to Phase water I tion of these plants, and even less about the quality (2015-2019) should be reviewed in order to: - rate nor complete. Little is known about the opera trol the water quality required and produced by the development of peri-urban agriculture (vegetables 1) Con informationof their effluents, published except by for the information Ministry of provided Popular - by the scant academic research. Estimates based on al inventory of dam sites, including runoff lakes or smalland fruits) reservoirs, in high making technology; sure that2) Draw their up watershed a nation ofPower municipal for the wastewaterEnvironment in (MINAMB) Venezuela in is 2010 treated and maintains high production and water quality values general et data al existing by states, suggest that 30% the sectoral management of irrigation water into (Blanco ., 2015). - theand basin minimum management, sediment considering production; the 3) water Integrate qual- The Universidad Central de Venezuela (UCV),- Universidad de Simón Bolívar (USB) and Universi the quality of their waters and establish general op- dad Católica Andrés Bello (UCAB) drew up the Li ity; 4) Increase the knowledge of aquifers, including ving Conditions Survey (ENCOVI) between 2014 and the reuse of wastewater for irrigation according to 2015. According to the results, the supply of drinking theerating types rules; of crops 5) Develop and levels specific of treatment rules that required. regulate accesswater throughto the service. aqueducts The surveydecreased also from indicates 83.6% that to 81.3%. Moreover, 38.4% of the population lack daily 611 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA

the indoor storage of water, generally in inappro- the environmental impacts associated with this ac- priate conditions, which users resort to as a result tivity. Studies on the subject in the country includ- of poor service, is the main cause of the waterborne diseases that constitute endemic diseases in the country. Another valuable data from the survey is ed one by Polo and Guevara (2001) conducted at- the La Guásima landfill, in the state of Carabobo. In- of wastewater collectors. The study concludes that cludedthe analysis that performedcontaminants on fivefrom samples the leachate in observa from althoughthat 89.7% a oflarge the part households of the population report the hasexistence these tion wells located in the area of influence, they con services, the main environmental and sanitary pro- groundwater of the sector, as borne out by the pres- the landfill were probably being transferred to the and organochlorine pesticides. Assemblyblem is the of final Venezuela, disposal designatedof wastewater to effluents.investigate enceAnother of fecal reference and total iscoliforms, an evaluation hydrogen of the sulfide inte- the Inwater 2016, problem a Special in Commissionthe country, ofprepared the National a re- - port in which they indicate that there are few for- - gral management of the La Bonanza landfill, in Mi contaminationranda State, undertaken of soils, surface by Blanco water (2015), and ground which- mal studies that confirm the potability of the wa- identifies, among other environmental impacts, the ter supplied. Later on, they state that several towns and metals, associated with leachate percolation days.in the Asstates for ofthe Sucre central and zone Nueva of Espartathe country, have theypro intowater ground by leachates and surface with water,high content from sectors of BOD, that COD do pointlonged out periods that untreated of rationing, wastewater sometimes is discharged lasting 21 not have leachate collection systems, coupled with into the Pao-Cachinche and Camatagua reservoirs operating problems of the leachate control system. -which supply the city of Caracas and the states of Carabobo and Aragua- and that they show signs of surface drainage and the network for leachate cap- eutrophication. tureBlanco and suggests treatment. completing and improving both

6.3. Public health mainIn agricultural the states of producers Zulia, Apure, in the Barinas, country, Táchira, the - availabilityCojedes, Guárico, of water Bolívar resources and Delta exceeds Amacuro, demand. the gether with poverty conditions, involve the emer- Conversely, the petrochemical, chemical, steel, food genceDrinking of waterborne water and effluent diseases, collection with diarrhea services, in chil to- and paper production sectors have created a ten- dren being one of the most important (Martínez, dency to increase demand in areas where there was an existing water shortage. In some cases, water - used for irrigation has been compromised to supply 2013). In Venezuela, accumulated results in the 52nd week of 2016 showed a total of 1,354,925 cases of di One can therefore conclude that the situation arrhea in children under 5 years, compared with an regardingthe population the supply or industry of drinking (FAO, 2015).water and the co- accumulated total for the same date of 1,160,625 in - all2015 infectious (MPPS, 2016). diseases. In recent years, the globali- la is complex. Although institutions have been wor- zationVector-borne of displacements diseases and account trade, unplanned for over 17% urba of- kingllection to improve and purification services, of to wastewater date they have in Venezue failed to nization and environmental problems, have consi- - ces. All the sectors of the Nation involved must the- reforeresolve work the severe in a coordinated deficiencies manner in these to basic be able servi to asderably malaria, influenced Chagas, theleishmaniasis, transmission dengue, of this Chikun type of- guarantee that the population will have access to gunyadiseases and (WHO, Zika 2017). are among In Venezuela, the diseases conditions with such cu- drinking water and sewerage in the near future. rrently high levels, especially in the interior of the country. 6.2 Municipal solid waste management One example is malaria which, by the end of The contamination of surface and groundwater, by

2016, registered a total of 240,613 cases, an increase- leachates (residual liquids, generally toxic, filtered of 76.4% over the previous year (n=136,402). The 24 from a landfill) from final disposal sites, is one of federal states reported cases, with 16 states repor WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA 612

ting epidemics. The current status of the disease is with competence in matters of defense, through the same time, restrictions on the availability of insec- nal Institute of Indigenous Lands. 8) The Ministry ticidesexacerbated and environmental by the lack of measuresspecific medicine. for the control At the - and elimination of Anopheles, the agent responsible corresponding component. 9) State Public Policy - Planning and Coordination Councils. 10) Local Pu res may increase exponentially in the coming years. blic7.2. PlanningInstitutions Boards. involved in water for the transmission of the disease, suggest that figu quality management third in the number of Zika cases in the Americas Zika figures are unknown. Venezuela ranks operates and supervises the drinking water and American Health Organization. sanitationThe hydrological sector, together company with HIDROVEN nine regional currently hy- (behind Brazil and Colombia), according to the Pan - - 7. The institutionality of water drological subsidiaries (HIDROCAPITAL, HIDRO CENTRO, HIDROLAGO, HIDROFALCON, HIDROSUR quality management OESTE, HIDROANDES, HIDROPAEZ, HIDROCARIBE 7.1 Institutionality in water management and HIDROLLANOS), all attached to the Ministry of - People'sThere Power are also for decentralized the Environment companies (now MINEA) for the provision(GORBV, 2001). of drinking water and sanitation servi- In accordance with the Water Law of 2007 (GOR- ces, with the participation of governorships and petenceBV, 2007), in thethe institutionalmatter, which organization will be the of Nation water- city halls, as well as the Corporación Venezolana management comprises: 1) The Ministry with com - vironmentalal Water Authority. Issues, 2)which The willNational chair Waterit; the MinistryCouncil, Amazonasde Guayana and (CVG), Delta which Amacuro administers states. The the mostSanitary im- ofcomposed Planning of: and the Development; Ministry with theCompetence Ministry ofin EnAg- and Hydraulic Works Management (GOSH), in the - and Social Development; the Ministry of the Peo- portant decentralized companies are HIDROLARA, riculture and Lands; the Ministry of Participation Aguas de Monagas, Aguas de Mérida, HIDROSPOR corresponding component; the Ministry of mines, TUGUESA, Aguas de Yaracuy, HIDROBOLIVAR, CVG-- ple’s Economy; the Ministry of Defense, through the GOSH and Aguas de Ejido. Technology, as well as a representative of each of variousThe states Ministry of Venezuela, of People’s which Power perform for Ecosocia water Basic Industries; and the Ministry of Science and lism and Water has Liquid Effluent Laboratories inof the National Assembly, a representative of us- ersthe Hydrographicor users of water Region institutions Councils, anda representative a represen- Decentralizedquality analysis Companies (MINEA, undated),also have while laboratories HIDRO toVEN, undertake the Regional the study Hydrological of the physicochemical Companies and andthe - biological characteristics of water bodies in each of sponsibletative of the for National coordination Institute between of Indigenous the National Lands. the geographic regions they serve. 3) The Hydrographic Region Boards, or entities re- Other autonomous government institutions ments, and at the same time entities to liaise with that undertake water quality management include communitiesGovernment andand theorganized state and neighborhood municipal governgroups. - - the ministry that will be the National Water Autho- the following: The Institute for the Control and Con rity,4) The governorships Hydrographic and Basins mayorships, Councils, organisms comprising that servation of the Lake Maracaibo Hydrographic Ba sin (ICLAM), the National Institute of Meteorology- which have a presence in the basin, users or water and Hydrology (INAMEH), the National Institute of users,are part Community of the Council Councils, of the Hydrographicand indigenous Region, peo- AgriculturalContributions Research have (INIA) also been and themade National by the Instilabo- ratories,tute of Parks centers (INPARQUES). and institutes of the Autonomous - ples and communities where they exist. 5) Users or- institutional users. 6) Communal Councils, Techni Universities of Venezuela, as well as those of other cal Boards and Irrigation Committees. 7) The Natio scientific research institutes, Civil Associations and 613 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA

8.1 Organic Law of the Environment research and activities have helped generate wa- (GORBV, 2006) terNon-Governmental quality management Organizations policies in the (NGOs), country. whose Wi- This law establishes the provisions and guiding thout intending to make an exhaustive list, some of principles for environmental management, including the conservation and sustainable use of natu- • ral resources and water as a resource in particular these institutions include the following: - National Autonomous and private universities:- regulates the integral management of the resource, Universidad Central de Venezuela (UCV), Uni- based(Articles on 2the and sustainability 4). With respect of the to water water cycle quality, (Arti it- versidad Simón Bolívar (USB), Universidad Zu lia (LUZ), Universidad Oriente (UDO), Universi points out the need to conserve soils, forested ar- dad de Los Andes (ULA), Universidad Carabobo- eas,cle 55). geological On the formationssustainability and of the water recharge resources, capaci it- (UC), Universidad Experimental de los Llanos- Ezequiel Zamora (UNELLEZ), Centro-Occiden tal Lisandro Alvarado (UCLA), Universidad Na ty8.2 of Organic aquifers (Article Law for 56). the Organization cional Experimental de Guayana, Pedagógica- of the Territory (1983) Experimental (UPEL), Nacional Experimental • Francisco de Miranda (UNEFM) and the Univer - sidad Católica Andrés Bello (UCAB). tablishesTerritorial that planning Territorial (GORV, Planning 1983) is includes, one of the among basic Research Institutes: The Venezuelan Scientific- aspects of the Constitution (Article 128). Article 3 es nedResearch to the Institute State Company (IVIC), Venezuelan Petróleos deInstitute Vene- and the conservation and rational use of water, zuelaof Technology (PDVSA), for the Petroleum National (INTEVEP)Institute of assigAgri- soils,other etc., aspects, as a function “the protection of territorial of the planning”. environment

• - cultural Research (INIA). comprisingThis Law Protective provides Areasfor the that declaration include ofthose Areas of AsociaciónNon-Profits Civil and Non-GovernmentalPhynatura, Asociación Organiza Vene- under Special Administration Regime (ABRAE), zolanations (Tierra para el Viva Agua Foundation, (AveAgua) 2010): also knownACOANA, as waterbodies, Reserve Areas for the Construction- of Dams and Reservoirs, Special Aquatic Habitats Global Water Partnership (GWP/Venezuela),- for Exploitation or Intensive Controlled Use, floo ciónFundación Tierra Viva, Aguaclara, Instituto Fundación para la Conservación La Salle de dplains, National Hydraulic Reserves and Critical Ciencias Naturales La Salle (FLSCN), Funda Areas8.3 Water with priority Law (2007) treatment (Articles 15 and 16). - del Lago de Valencia (INCOLAGO) now defunct, lish the provisions governing the Integrated Man- PROVITA, VITALIS A.C. agementThe water of law water, (GORBV, as an 2007) essential is designed element to for estab life, human welfare and the sustainable development 8. Legal water quality - ment is the central axis of the provisions of the law, regime in Venezuela of the country (Article 1). Integral water manage management. whereIn termsthe Hydrographic of conservation Basin and is sustainable the basic unit use of The Legal Regime represents the set of regulations of the regulatory framework for Water Quality in - fundamentalVenezuela. The obligation Chapter ofto Environmentalensure that elements Rights of water, the Law ratifies what is stated in the Organic the Constitutionenvironment, of including Venezuela water, (1999) are establishes specially pro the- LawThe on thelaw Environmentcreates special on units the Integral of reference Manage for ment of the Resource (Article 12). public domain, and the responsibility of the state itself.tected. Article 304 declares that all waters are in the referringinstitutional to surface organization waters- and and water Provinces management: and Hy- Hydrographic Regions and Hydrographic Basins – WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA 614

- dicating the obligation to establish conservation or natural bed of rivers, or causing sedimentation programs,drogeological projects Basins and -referring actions. groundwater-, in system or runoff from water, obstructing the flow

- are crimes (Article 56). The Law establishes Areas under the Special- publicLikewise, use; the it dumping sanctions of with degrading imprisonment materials and in Administration Regime for integral water manage- waterfines the bodies, contamination in contravention and poisoning of the technical of waters pro of- ment, in the terms of the Organic Law for the Orga nization of the Territory: 1) Protective areas of water bodies, and 2) Hydraulic reserves. - visions8.6 Decree issued No. by the 883. National Rules Executive. for the Clas- mestic,Regarding watering the livestock control ofand water navigation; use, the and Law tho in- sification and Control of the Quality of sedicates involving the uses exploitation, that are not subject subject to to concessions, control: do Spilled Water and Liquid Effluents (1995) assignments and licenses. With regard to discharges into water bodies, - Several of the norms of Decree No. 883 (GORV, 1995) asures to minimize the quantity and improve the regardswere modified the determination or translated of verbatim the activities into the subject Law effluent generators must adopt the necessary me on Water and Air Quality, but it remains valid as - the liquid discharges and the establishment of the mentalquality ofAuthority their discharges to take preventive,(Article 13). corrective or maximumto control, limitsthe classification of pollutant of discharges,the constituents and re in- mitigatingThe law measures grants powers regarding to the the National damage Environ to water quality. And it establishes a set of sanctions for acts that threaten the quality of the water, such as mainsIt should a technical be noted norm that of other the Penalregulations Law ofare the in actions that cause the degradation of the physical Environment. - king prohibited activities in protective zones (Ar- areforce, related such asto thosewater of quality. the Organic However, Law thefor Drinkingmain re- or biological environment (Article 119); underta gulatoryWater and provisions Sanitation are Services collected (GORBV, here, strictly 2001) which from the point of view of environmental quality. ticle 122) and non-compliance with water quality 8.4controls Law (Article on Water 125). and Air Quality (2015) water and air quality management; environmen- 9. Venezuela and Goal 6 of the United This law (GORBV, 2015) establishes the norms for tal disruptions, and the conditions under which the Nations Sustainable Development management of liquid and gaseous waste must be carried out. In terms of water quality, it establish- Program (SDG-6) es the physicochemical and bacteriological param- -

It also provides for the Adequacy Schedule con- availabilityGoal 6 of the of United water Nationsand its Sustainablesustainable Developmanage- tainedeters (Article in the technical2). standard, indicating that es- ment Program (SDG-6) involves: Guaranteeing the- tablishments and facilities that have not complied with the established limits must comply with it. casement of and water sanitation quality for in Venezuela,all (ONU, 2016). have This been objec eval- tive proposes a series of goals for 2030 which, in the 8.5 Penal Law of the Environment Achieve universal and equitable access to drin- (GORBV, 2012) kinguated water, as follows: at an affordable price for all, through a In matters of water quality (surface and ground- rigorous watershed management process that guarantees the treatment of discharges and erosion facts that cause the degradation, alteration, deteri- process controls. water,oration Article of waters 102), and it otherestablishes actions a capablechapter offor caus the- - ing damage, establishing that modifying the control giene services for all and putting an end to open- Equitable access to adequate sanitation and hy 615 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA

air fecalism, paying special attention to the needs and pathogenic microorganisms-, which repre- of women, girls and people in vulnerable situations. sents a limitation for the analysis of water qua- Improve water quality by reducing pollution, lity associated with the anthropogenic activi- eliminating dumping and minimizing the discharge ties prevailing in each region, associated with of hazardous materials and chemicals, halving the the respective hydrographic basin. percentage of untreated wastewater, and substan- • tially increasing safe recycling and reuse, reducing information, due to the lack of continuity of the sharp decline in water quality in basins that dataLimited generation continuity programs of records. in a Thesystematic shortage way, of have already been affected and the spread of these makes it impossible to rate the quality of many processes to several other basins. The integral wa- waterbodies in the country. • - the task of determining the actual status of deterio- rationter management of the water plan bodies until affected 2030 must at theprovide national for builtInsufficient for various information purposes on but lentic information water boon level, evaluating the trophic status of reservoirs and thedies. quality The country of their currently waters is has only over available 100 dams for providing solutions for their recovery. been conducted on water bodies in the central northapproximately region of 20% Venezuela, of them. with Most very studies few havestu- 10. Final considerations dies being undertaken in the eastern, western and southern regions of the country. The considerations and recommendations present- • Special, surface drainage and leachate treat- - ments. It is important to build or improve the surface drainage infrastructure, as well as the Physical,ed here are Mathematical the result of and the Natural Workshop Sciences, on the in “Wa the network for the collection and treatment of lea- ter Quality in Venezuela”, held at the Academy of - posal of waste, in order to minimize or elimi- thecity contentsof Caracas, of thison August chapter 2, and2017 the and contributions attended by natechate the from risks the of sites contamination destined for of the surface final anddis of30 thepeople. participants At this workshop, were received. the authors presented groundwater by these leachates. • 10.1 Considerations Despite the high variety of existing aquifers in • VenezuelaLack of knowledge and the importance on groundwater of the latter quality. as freshwater reservoirs, studies from a hydro- makeInsufficient accurate information diagnoses, on detect lotic watertemporal bodies. and geological and hydrogeochemical point of view spatialAt present, variations, there is makeinsufficient projections information and ad toare limited. In Venezuela, there is a general justments, for the achievement of objectives in knowledge of the main factors controlling the the short, medium and long terms, all with the - systemic vision required for the integral mana- water, its recharge and discharge areas, as well gement of water quality, despite the obligation asmovement the thicknesses and direction and dimensions of the flow ofof aquifersground established in the Venezuelan legislation to ge- and the processes that control their variability, nerate this type of information and guarantee composition and chemical quality. free access to it. • Need to develop master water quality plans. • Very few hydrographic basins have master wa- can be used to characterize the sources of su- ter quality plans, regarded as requiring prio- pplyRestricted is restricted monitoring. to nutrient The information concentrations that rity attention, due to their current degree of and the presence of plankton, and the challenge and potential for contamination. Currently, remains for the operation of water treatment the institutional weakness in terms of human plants (turbidity, color, pH, alkalinity, among - other aspects). No systematic information re- ter-institutional coordination programs under- lated to pollutants was found –such as organic mineand financial the implementation resources and of thewater asystematic quality mas in- matter, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, biocides ter plans. WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA 616

• Institutional development without successful wastewater treatment according to the crops results. Venezuela has implemented decentra- to be irrigated; (iii) post-harvest management lized models with very limited success. Various with untreated waters or due controls; (iv) institutional modalities have been tested to en- applications of biocides and fertilizers and con- sure water quality at the resource level. Faults sequences for the biodiversity and biological were attributed to the lack of a coordination activity of the receiving and riverside bodies culture, little control by the State, coupled with where agricultural drainage is discharged, and a lack of budgetary and programmatic coor- (v) consequences of biocides and fertilizers on dination. Part of this failure can be attributed aquifers. • Public health and water quality must include costs associated with the management of water post-harvest processing. The competent au- quality,to a condition aggravated of "institutional by the limited rebellion", economic high re- thorities must control and ensure that food sources earned for the use of water by different - users due to casualties and outdated rates set ted water that complies with the national and internationalprocessing is carriedstandards out regulatingwith sufficiently this issue. trea policies. It is necessary to implement a process of cer- • Concentrationofficially, in response of studies to populistand data government in particular areas. Most water quality studies have con- - centrated on courses that drain the Venezuelan chemicalstification is of proved. agricultural products whereby lowlands, with some focusing on the southern • “non-contamination” by pathogens and agro wastewater. Water quality management in agri- • Need to add the ecocentric to the anthropo- cultureRequirement must include, of standards in addition for irrigation to what is with re- centricstates of approach. Bolívar and The Amazonas. water quality approach levant to the water-soil relationship to avoid sa- has been generally oriented for human use (an- linization, consideration of the aspects related to the way food quality is affected, both through been placed on water quality for biodiversity irrigation by wastewater, and post-harvest ma- thropocentric approach). Little emphasis has nipulation of food using contaminated water. on alterations and impacts on aquatic ecosys- • Improvement of implementation of legal regi- temsand wildlifedue to water (ecocentric pollution approach). must be systemati Research- me. Venezuela has an environmental legal fra- zed and it will be necessary to establish a qua- mework that is clearly suitable for the manage- lity standard to guarantee the quality of natural ment of the quality of Venezuelan waters, both waters, the preservation of ecosystems and the preventive and corrective. However, the appli- suitability of the food from them. . Similar con- - ditions are required in marine-coastal environ- pends on the development of the latter. ments, where, in addition, quality controls are • Prioritycation or to fulfillment water quality of this inlegal the framework new Integra de- required due to tourism and recreation, an as- ted Water Management Plan. At present, all pect that has systematic records of campaigns the evidence shows a marked deterioration of carried out by the environmental authorities in the water quality in the basins already affected seasons of maximum use of these resources. and the spread of these processes to numerous • other basins. The integral water management in wetlands. In Venezuela, there have been few studiesLittle knowledge on water treatment of the water through quality the regime use of knowing the real status of deterioration of the wetlands. waterplan until bodies 2030 affected must at provide the national for the level. task It ofis • New approaches for the study of water quali- crucial to evaluate the trophic state of reser- ty in agriculture. Water quality in agriculture voirs and explore solutions for their recovery. should include, aspects such as (i) irrigation • The necessary integration in water quality with sewage, treatment requirements, safety management. It is clear that progress must be practices and occupational hygiene that should made in achieving the appropriate quality of water for supply, developing water treatment

be part of good practices; (ii) specific rules for 617 WATER QUALITY IN THE AMERICAS | VENEZUELA

systems, maximizing controls of wastewater in different basins, conserving and protecting basins and water-related ecosystems, specifying treated.determine the quality of their effluents, since the integrated management of watersheds, con- • 30% of municipal wastewater in Venezuela is- tinuing and strengthening training programs in th service indicators. Increase, through solid, water resources management, and continuing plannedSufficient, and transparent sustained public information policies, on the heal po- and reinforcing the incorporation of urban and pulation with a daily supply of drinking water, rural communities in water management. as an indicator of quality of life and, thereby reduce the risks of affecting the population due to 10.2 Recommendations water-borne diseases caused by improper wa- • Water quality is a human right. It is necessary ter storage. and a matter of principle to frame access to wa- • Criteria for the selection of indicators and re- ter as a human right; and citizens as subjects gistration quality. The information must be the with the right to water access in terms of quali- result of the processing of reliable, timely and ty, quantity and continuity. regular data that responds to an established • - method, to visualize the spatial and temporal nitation services. Implement, through agree- variations of physical, chemical and biological mentsQuality andassurance due interinstitutionalin the provision of coordinawater sa- quality in a body of water. It is therefore neces- tion, the conditions, measures and actions to sary to establish indexes or quality indicators implement an appropriate management mo- for regions and watersheds that not only allow del to ensure the operation, maintenance and the monitoring of water quality parameters, sustainability of the health infrastructure, with but also of the natural characteristics of the ba- emphasis on the supply of drinking water and sin and land use. wastewater treatment. • Consideration of hydrobiological quality. The • Comprehensive and systematic information on goal in water-producing basins is to maintain - water quality to preserve the biota and thereby tematize and complete the inventory of treat- guarantee any other use of the resource, and menttreatment technologies systems at in the Venezuela. municipal Update, level, in sys orin receiving basins to maintain a level of water der to increase and improve knowledge on the quality that will guarantee conditions of we- operation and operation of these plants and ll-being for the surrounding populations.

11. References

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