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1994 1994
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Institute Institute
consume consume
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acids. acids.
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oil oil
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who who
Cardiovascular Cardiovascular
and and
villagers villagers
approximately approximately
to to
Mediterranean Mediterranean disease. disease.
because because
Caucasian Caucasian
lar lar
species. species.
comparable comparable Introduction Introduction
omega-3 omega-3 found found
selecting selecting
Hawaii Hawaii
fish fish fatty fatty
Department Department
mackerel. mackerel.
dietary dietary Department Department
species species capsules. capsules. cancer. cancer.
(ProEPA (ProEPA
appeared appeared liver liver
omega-3 omega-3
EPA EPA
hamachi hamachi
and and difficulty difficulty
capsules capsules
mine mine
lar lar Omega-3 Omega-3
seafood, seafood, aquacultured aquacultured metabolic conversion of precursors to DHA is probably insuffi cient to meet infants' needs. Finally, it is becoming clear that Table 1.-0mega-3 Fatty Acid Levels in 23 24 DHA is required for stress resistance in fish. • DHA reduces Fish Oil Capsules (g per capsule) stress mortality in rats injected daily with isoproterenol25 sug gesting that DHA might be important for stress resistance in Omega-3 Daily Dose terrestrial species. Claimed Actual Recommended The purpose of this study was to determine omega-3 fatty acid levels in Hawaii seafood. Many of these seafood and fish oil EPA Plus 0.300 0.305 3-6 capsules were of unknown omega-3 fatty acid content. It will be Promega 0.307 0.196 6-9 shown that there are several excellent sources of omega-3 fatty Omega-3/ 0.300 0.333 3 acids in Hawaii. Super EPA ProEPA 0.300 0.143 3-6 Methods Omega3 0.300 0.097 3-6 Sampling .-Fish oil capsules were purchased from discount Cod liver 0.070 0.150 2 drugstores; 3 different brands of nori (Porphyra spp.) and single Norwegian 0.067-0.083 0.040 1-6 samples of the fish cakes and ogo (Gracillaria spp.) were cod liver purchased from supermarkets. It was expected there would be significant biological variation in some samples; hence, they were analyzed in replicate. Aku (Katsuwonus pelamis) and omega-3 fatty acids than claimed. Cod liver oil capsules con mahimahi eggs (Coryphaena hippurus) are actually egg-filled tained lower levels of omega-3 fatty acids than the enriched fish ovaries. Three samples of each were obtained from the local fish oil capsules. auction (United Fishing Agency, Inc.) and they can be pur Table 2 shows some results of replicated analyses of several chased at seafood specialty stores in season. Four samples of types of seafood. Visual inspection suggested that amounts of hamachi (yellowtail jack, Seriola quinqueradiata) and 3 samples omega-3 fatty acids among the fish ovaries might vary; within each ofturbot(Scophthalmus maximus L) and butterfish (Peprilus species, some ovaries contained loose eggs as if the female was triacanthus) were purchased from the seafood sections of local ready to spawn. Other ovaries contained small, attached eggs. supermarkets. Cultured mahimahi samples were obtained from The results, however, showed very little difference among a research project of the University of Hawaii and the W aikiki samples. Mahimahi ovary No. 1 was from an aquacultured Aquarium. Tissue samples from 3 wild caught mahimahi were female. Its omega-3 fatty acid content did not appear to differ obtained from the Anuenue Fisheries Research Center. substantially from ovaries from wild caught mahimahi. Al Chemical analysis:- Wet samples were freeze-dried and pul though hamachi and turbot samples were all purchased at the verized using a coffee grinder. These and the nori samples were same store and were packaged identically, there was a wide extracted according to a method developed in our laboratory.26 variation in omega-3 fatty acid levels in both groups of fish. The Extraction occurred in a Soxhlet' s apparatus with chloroform/ range of omega-3 fatty acids in the hamachi group was between methanol (2:1). BF/methanol reagent was used to methylate 0.96 and 6.15 g per 100 g sample and the range among turbot saponified fatty acids. Fatty acid methyl esters were quantified samples was between 0.19 and 2.22 g per 100 g sample. by gas chromatography on an HP-5840A gas chromatograph Table 3 summarizes omega-3 fatty acid and total fatty acids containing a Restek Stabilwax megabore column. among the samples analyzed in this work and from the litera In all cases, the C 17 fatty acid heptadecanoate was added to the ture. 27 Maximal daily recommended doses of fish oil capsules original sample as an internal standard and recovery of this fatty were used in the summaries. Samples were arranged in order of acid was measured. Results were corrected for incomplete decreasing omega-3 fatty acid level. recovery of heptadecanoate. Analyses with recoveries <67% were rejected and analyses were repeated. Discussion For fish samples, data are reported in terms of 100 g portions Our purpose in this study was to analyze omega-3 fatty acids that would be eaten (not on a dry-weight basis). in selected seafood and fish oil capsules available in Hawaii; the tables could be used as a consumer rating list. However, there Results appear to be some simplifications. Table 1 shows the claimed and actual values of omega-3 fatty The cold-water, fatty fishes known for their high omega-3 acids in 2 groups of fish oil capsules, the newer, enriched fish oil fatty acid content include sardines and salmon. Traditional capsules and the cod liver oil capsules. The omega-3 level was knowledge holds that cold-water fish are fatty because low calculated by adding together EPA and DHA values. Four out of water temperature requires highly unsaturated, omega-3 fatty 5 enriched fish oil capsules claimed 180 mg EPA and 120 mg acids to maintain membrane fluidity. Aquaculture provides an DHA per capsule for an omega-3 fatty acid level of 300 mg per alternate explanation. Highly efficient, cold-water carnivores capsule. As shown in Table 1, EPA Plus and Omega-3 Super are fatty possibly because they live in waters containing abun EPA contained slightly more omega-3 fatty acids than claimed, dant prey. Highly efficient tropical carnivores such as mahimahi while the other capsules contained substantially lower levels of or ahi live in relatively barren waters, expend vast amounts of
HAWAII MEDICAL JOURNAL, VOL. 53, MAY 1994 -143 Table 2.-Variations in Fatty Acid Levels energy while hunting, are not able to deposit much fat, and are among Replicated Seafood therefore low in omega-3 fatty acids. Hamachi are aquacultured (g/1 00 g portion) in Japan where approximately 160,000 tons of hamachi are Total 28 Fatty Acids Omega-6 Omega-3 cultivated annually. Hamachi is a member of the jack family and like ulua (Table 3) should contain moderate amounts of Aku ovary 1 2.88 0.26 1.40 Aku ovary 2 3.66 0.20 1.85 tissue omega-3 fatty acids. When omega-3 fatty acid values for Aku ovary 3 3.98 0.17 1.73 replicated hamachi samples were averaged, hamachi had the Average 3.51±0.46 0.21±0.04 1.66±0.19 highest omega-3level of all seafood. Mahimahi ovary 1 1.54 0.05 0.77 Turbot samplings provided a different look at the effect of Mahimahi ovary 2 1.35 0.03 0.58 Mahimahi ovary 3 1.34 0.06 0.56 aquaculture on omega-3 fatty acid levels. Turbot is a lean fish Average 1.41±0.09 0.05±0.01 0.64±0.09 and should belong to a low omega-3 group; samples 2 and 3 fell Hamachi 1 9.88 0.50 4.32 in the low omega-3 fatty acid group. However, turbot sample 1 Hamachi 2 13.50 0.65 6.15 had an omega-3 fatty acid value of2.22 g/100 g portion, placing Hamachi 3 8.69 0.58 2.33 Hamachi 4 3.54 0.26 0.96 it among the richest sources of omega-3 fatty acids. We specu Average 8.91±3.57 0.50±0.15 3.44+1.97 late that turbot samplings were a mixture of aquacultured and Turbot 1* 7.05 0.14 2.22 wild caught fish. Turbot 2 0.41 0.03 0.19 Such speculation is not necessary for mahimahi. A substantial Turbot 3 0.42 0.03 0.20 difference in mean omega-3 fatty acid levels was seen between *Average of duplicate extractions mahimahi caught at sea (0.21 g/100 g portion) and those aquacultured (1.34 g/100 g). The latter would be a good source of omega-3 fatty acids; the former exhibits the fatty acid profile of a very lean fish. It has been stated that aquacultured fish are Table 3.-0mega-3 Fatty Acids in Selected poorer in omega-3 fatty acids than wild caught fish. 29 Mahimahi Seafood aquaculture (in the first author's laboratory) suggests that this does not have to be the case. It demonstrates that food can be Omega-3 Total Fatty designed for specific nutritional purposes, in this case high DHA Acids content. Fish ovaries or eggs seem to be a good source of omega-3 fatty Hamachi 3.44±1.97 8.90±3.57 Turbot 1 2.22 7.05 acids. This may be an example of folklore having a scientific Sardines, canned, tomato sauce26 1.94 12.0 basis. Female fish with ripe ovaries are sold at a premium in the EPA Plus 1.83 4.27 Far and Middle East. Presentation of fish heads to the most Salmon, canned pink26 1.83 6.05 esteemed members of oriental families is also folklore having a Promega 1.76 3.15 scientific basis. Visual and neural tissues are high in DHA. Salmon, Chinook (king)26 1.71 10.4 The best of the newer enriched fish oil capsules also are high Aku ovary 1.66±0.19 3.51±0.46 in omega-3 fatty acids. All of the enriched fish oil capsules Mahimahi, aquacultured 1.34±0.11 5.76±0.71 contained more omega-3 fatty acids than cod liver oil capsules. Omega-3 Super EPA 1.00 2.20 The 2 cod liver oils tested low in omega-3 fatty acid level which ProEPA 0.86 2.22 Ulua26 0.77 9.47 could relate to the toxic effect of high concentrations of fat Tuna, white canned in water26 0.76 2.6 soluble vitamins in cod liver oils. Dose levels of cod liver oils Mahimahi ovary 0.64±0.09 1.41±0.09 should be limited to avoid vitamin A overdose. Probably be Omega3 0.58 1.62 cause of this factor, newer sources of fish oil for capsules, less Butterfish 0.57±0.03 4.75±0.12 destructive processing methods, and more efficacious storage Shrimps26 0.53 1.73 methods are responsible for higher omega-3 fatty acid levels in Snapper(eg,opakapaka)26 0.39 1.34 the newer fish oil capsules. Two samples (EPA Plus and Omega- Mahimahi, frozen 0.34±0.02 1.46±0.37 3 Super EPA) were sold in amber bottles to prevent light damage Cod liver oil 0.30 0.72 and came sealed to prevent oxidation of fatty acids. Norwegian cod liver 0.24 0.78 Tuna, yellowfin (ahi)26 0.24 0.95 Seaweed and fish cakes were low in omega-3 fatty acids which Mahimahi, wild, Hawaii 0.21±0.01 0.57±0.03 is not surprising because sea plants are low in fat and fish cakes Turbot 2 and 3 0.20 0.42 are prepared from lean fish such as awa (milk fish) or pollock. Chikuwa (broiled) 0.11 0.24 Are any of the seafood or fish oil capsules a panacea? The Nori 0.096±0.04 0.22±0.09 answer to this question is no. Most of the seafood is very low in Tempura (fried) 0.09 1.65 fatty acids. They could be used in weight loss programs and to Kamaboko 0.04 0.10 decrease dietary fat intake while providing high quality dietary 0.04 0.52 Ogo protein. However, other sources of energy must be minimized. Seafood is low in saturated fatty acids which are a risk factor> *g per 100 g portion or daily dose and could be used to lower dietary saturated fatty acids if other
HAWAII MEDICAL JOURNAL, VOL. 53, MAY 1994 -144 N
in
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oil
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and
fatty
Nutr.
early
acids fish.
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World
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J
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coronary
DC:Gov wild
omega-3
effects
aging.
products,
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Research.
prevention
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rats. with
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:41·60.
1989;27:89·
lipoproteins
rate
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1992;56:671·
1987. fatty
1991
fish.
184-187.
for in
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in supplements on
n-3
oil
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Res.
Nutr.
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Cancer shellfish
and
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1985;
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1993;24:186-193.
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larval
from
rheumatoid 1991
the
infant effects
Karger:
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Am consumption
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Rev Comparison
Reduction
of
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Annu
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shellfish
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Effects
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Effect
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9. 10.
11.
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13. 14.
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17. 18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
25.
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28.
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1986;124:903-915.
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National
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Bang
Bang Greenland. west 1989;18:374-381. lso urban
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According
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sources
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Acknowledgment
References 1.
2.
3. 5. 4.
6.
7.