EDDA

How H2a1 MtDNA Lineages in Lesser have recorded and transmitted the most ancient and longest lasting Human Testimony, describing the Transition between Neolithic and Eneolithic on the -Araxes Rivers, the Rise of R1a Y- Chromosome lineages who triggered a Military pendular Migration in and the founding Events of the

Marc-Olivier Rondu

To Gloria, my grandmother, the little shepherdess of Pandoses who drove the cattle in the mountain

Cover Picture: Noble Woman from Shushi, early 20th century

Legal deposit: July 2017

Copyright © 2017 Marc-Olivier Rondu all rights reserved

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The modern phylogeography of H2a1 MtDNA questioned us about the origin of the and why it has spread worldwide in a star like shape pattern whose symmetric centre is located in Lesser Caucasus. Our research led us back to the Lesser Caucasus during Holocene where the obsidian and riches mining resources attracted foreign populations who settled among Hunter Gatherers in a narrow band of highlands. While the use of obsidian continued locally, metallurgy and trade at long distance dominated the global stakes, transforming the highlands formerly dominated by Farmers and Hunter Gatherers into a cosmopolitan hub of exchange. Pressure and competition between representatives of foreign communities who managed the providing of precious resources increased the social impact of ‘genetic incidents’ which occurred in a single brotherhood born from a ruling couple represented today by the young male found in the -1 Bird’s Eye Cave (L1a/ H2a1 MtDNA).

Thanks to ancient sources and ancient DNA, we demonstrate in that paper that recurrent metal pollution (copper) is suspected to be responsible of a Oculocutaneous Albinism in a brotherhood born in ruling family from the southern Lesser Caucasus. This ‘Illness’ triggered a political crisis and provoked a major ‘incident’ whose story will be broadcasted in each foreign community. By marriages, men and women (H2a1 MtDNA) of this brotherhood will not only broadcast worldwide the Oculocutaneous Albinism characteristics but also their dramatic dynastic history along migrations roads controlled by each community. The broadcasting became rapidly worldwide and the depigmentation’s characteristics followed trade ‘Elites’ in each foreign population.

Our linguistic analysis of ancient sources revealed the narratives’ main characters didn’t get any noun or forename but was identified by their geographical place, health, main day to day activity or contextual action under the form of an adjective. This particularity also applied on larger human groups which most of times took the name of their main agricultural activities, industrial production or warfare activities or technics. This phenomenon of antonomasia could have been repeated several times for a single human being or a single human group, giving them several names according to the context, creating by mistake countless of tribes, peoples and heroes in the imagination of historians and artists since Antiquity while we have discovered a very limited number of individuals.

Generally, those anthroponyms find their counterparts in modern Dravidian or Azeri languages as if there was never had a rupture. This crucial discovery allowed us to map the different human groups or individuals thanks to their ‘names’ born from antonomasia. We discovered that when women (H2a1 MtDNA) seemed to adapt in all contexts, their narrative seemed to have been influenced by different males Y-Chromosome who imposed their vocabulary to local languages. Thus the vocabulary on which is composed a well-known story told us about who broadcasted it and from where. For instance in Mesopotamia R1a/ R1b Y-chromosome haplogroups imposed a proto-Azeri vocabulary (Gilgameš), in and with R1b/ R1a/ L1 and J1 imposed a mixt proto-Dravidian/ Azeri vocabulary (Genesis in Hebraic ), in (Edda) with R1a under the form of poems perfectly conserved in the Icelandic tradition almost composed of a proto-Azeri vocabulary, but tinted with some proto-Dravidian words. However, in , a probable L1 vector with the Transcaucasian J2 Y-chromosome haplogroup imposed a proto-Dravidian vocabulary, with some proto-Azeri inputs which adapted in Aegean context and became what is called today the .

All these narratives depict from different points of view the geography of a mythical homeland we have reconstructed with a great accuracy and details in Lesser Caucasus, along the Kura-Araxes and - Hakari Rivers. The events told in these stories give life to Prehistory and Eneolithic.

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Content

Human Structures ...... 6 Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Haplogroups as Identities ...... 7 Hydrological Lexical Field reveals Indian Expansions toward Lesser Caucasus during Neolithic thanks to the Dravidian Labio-dental /v/...... 12 Birth of Agricultural Technics, Birth of Agricultural Castes ...... 27 Yggdrasil: Ijdrahddr ...... 35 Mythology as Unexpected Accurate and comprehensive Historical Source ...... 36 History of Men ...... 37 Lesser Caucasus: Homeland of Greek Mythology ...... 41 A Unic Testimony of Holocene’s Changes and an accurate Description of Neolithic Societies in Lesser Caucasus ...... 43 The Importance of the Insightful Greek Myth of Danae ...... 50 Misgər / Misgər Dərə - Midgardr/ Miðgarðr/: Zangezur Mining Complex in Eneolithic Period ...... 54 Copper Pollution: Cases of Epidemic Albinism in a Single Brotherhood ...... 57 The Rise of the Horse Breeders’ Caste ...... 60 When the Maritime Plain rose from the Sea...... 61 Wealthy Merchants – Soldiers ...... 64 Əsgərabad, Domain of Odin ...... 66 Gigantomachia: Flood and New Leader ...... 73 War against the : Titanomachy and the History of ...... 74 Noah/ Niord from Noatun: Life after the Flood ...... 77 Danaïdes ...... 84 H2a1 MtDNA in Egypt: The Migration of Caucasian Farmers toward Egypt and the Myth of the Danaids ...... 85 R1a and H2a1 in northern : Early Amber Road ...... 87 Expansion of Faith ...... 92 King, Protector of the Warrior’s Soul ...... 93 Gilgameš Epic ...... 100 Gilgameš: First Retrospective ...... 101 and the Huluppu Tree ...... 103 Odin versus Gullveig: Inanna the Denunciator ...... 104 Gilgameš: Youth and Impiety Acts ...... 105 / əkiz Doğulmuş: Gilgameš meets his ‘Twin Brother’ ...... 110

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Tərtər ...... 114 Gəncə: Ganzer the Palace of Éreškigal, Hell for Inana ...... 118 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 120

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Human Structures

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Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Haplogroups as Identities

Holocene and Neolithic Expansion 12,000 years ago with the first Pre- Pottery Neolithic villages and the first During the last glacial maximum, circa 20 000 domestication of cereals and legumes7. This 1 YBP, a low Co2 level (circa 75p.p.m ) impacted revolution spread toward eastern mountain the vegetation’s development. Climate’s ranges of the Lesser Caucasus and Zagros whom conditions in high-latitude only allowed, in GD13a is the best example of population who not buried by ice, treeless landscape didn’t suffered bottleneck unlike the Hunter dominated by steppe. The central Asian plain Gatherers8. In this paper, we have identified these was certainly wetter than today and was latter as being a population confined in mid- separated from Caucasus and Urals by extended altitude who survived thanks to what is called 2 Aral and Caspian Seas in full transgression today the Foehn Winds or Foehn Effect which 3 whose level could have reach +74 meters . warmed up ice sheet from the top by descending 4 ‘Holocene’ (literally meaning ’entirely recent’ ) warm winds. Hunter Gatherers could also have is the name given to the most recent interval of been the obsidian’s providers from volcanic Earth’s history (interglacial period), which highlands of Lesser Caucasus who is depicted in extends to and includes the present day. This ancient source as being progressively under the period is commonly dated from circa 11700 pressure of foreign groups also interested in 5 YBP and is wealthy in diverse phenomena such copper and precious metals. as climate changes, geomorphological and geophysical processes, sea-level rising, vegetational developments, faunal migrations and human cultural developments. While the sea H2a MtDNA, Foreign Y-chromosome level is constantly rising a contrary trend affects Haplogroups entered Lesser Caucasus the great lakes of Central . Shrinking, the Haplogroup H (hg H) is the most common group great lakes formed by the Caspian and Aral seas in Europe and represents more than a third of and after four major Caspian transgressions the maternal lineages9. Its frequency, very high in southern maritime plain (northern and , declines towards the east and ) as we know it today6 emerged and drops dramatically beyond the Urals and toward was rapidly covered by the Hyrcanian Forest. the Altai. In populations of Anatolia, Caucasus Even if some transgressions have been recorded and , H is common in 20-30% of in a recent past, the Caspian and Aral Seas are maternal lineages. More than 10 sub-clades of hg still in a regression trend since that period, H have been described to date, and a marking the end of geographical bottlenecks. phylogenetic tree was published10. Some sub- Simultaneously the agricultural transition started clades show a characteristic regional distribution in a comprising the Ancient near East and for instance, H1 and H3 are common in Western Europe while the subgroup H2 is typical of and of central Asia11. H2a 1 Adams & . 1990. appears in the transition np 4769 and it is today 2 Harrison & al based on Prentice & al. 1993. See also J. Verheul & al. 2015 commonly recognized as being the more 3 Kvasov, D.D., 1975 4 from the words ὅλος (*holos, 7 Blockley & al. 2011 ; Goring-Morris & al. 2011 ; whole or entire) and καινός (*kainos, new) Aurenche & al. 1999 in Gallego-Llorente & al. 2016 5 Walker & al. 2009 8 Gallego-Llorente & al. 2016 6 Late Khazarian (114-75 ka), Early Khvalynian (32- 9 Roostalu & al. 2007 24 ka), Late Khvalynian (16-8 ka) and Neocaspian (8 10 Loogväli & al. 2004 ; 2011 ka to Recent)) in Kvasov 1975. 11 Roostalu & al. 2007 7

frequently found in the northern slopes of the migration17. R1b-M343 is separated by the and in Eurasian populations Rhine18 from R1a-M420 that stretches from around the and . Its Scandinavia to India. It is common to read that frequency in the Slavic population is strong and while R1b is perceived as migrating in the wake is its second largest sub-clade. of the Neolithic Farming Revolution, reflecting a rapid expansion in during a post- H2a1 glacial period. However, in Iran and Centrale Asia whose they are known to be originated, they The transition np 951, H2a1 MtDNA, shows a are not today specific to a restraint environmental singular pattern. H2a1 MtDNA is representative context19. of the Eurasian female population and its expansion in Eurasia seems to follow the spread L1 and a Proto-Dravidian Language input in of Eneolithic and Early Age cultures until Lesser Caucasus the expansion of that has supplanted all the others in a wide area between Today L-M20 Y-chromosome haplogroup is to (-2800 BC). However, today, highly frequent in Pakistan (Balochistan) and in a H2a1 MtDNA is equally highly frequent in the lesser extent in the southern Indian Sub- most northern regions like Scandinavia to the among Dravidian populations, , most southern one: Egypt and . Uzbekistan and . Its dispersion’s pattern is South-eastern Anatolia and Lesser Caucasus probably due to the expansion of farming groups plays the role of a symmetric centre forcing us to during Neolithic (circa 7000 YBP)20 probably question the haplogroup’s origin. Indeed, H2a1 spreading from southern India21, but we rather has closely related match with Mesolithic ancient think that an ecological event like the Thar rapid 12 populations and in our paper we demonstrate desertification and the drying of the mountain’s that in Lesser Caucasus they are linked to slopes overlooking the Indus probably pushed agricultural activities making them the local early farmers to migrate in a star like shape vector of farming’s expansion. directions. The high density in close Balochistan could be explained by the moisture pushed on R1 Y-Chromosome Haplogroups mountain ranges by winds, phenomenon that allowed more water flow during rain and allowed R1 or R1-M173 Y-Chromosome is a sub- to warm up ice in altitude (Foehn Effect) during haplogroup of P113 which migrated from south cold seasons. The high frequency of L1 Y- East Asia toward Indian sub-continental chromosome haplogroups in southern Iran22 mainland14. R1 is divided into two major groups sustains the hypothesis according to which the R1b-M343 and R1a-M420. The first one is Zagros mountain range has led a Dravidian predominant on the Atlantic coast and is highly groupe directly in Lesser Caucasus bringing an frequent in ( and Armenia) Afro-Austro-Indian polysemic noun from the and along the Caspian Sea coast15. In Iran, while hydrological lexical field the group pronounced its dispersion presents a pattern which points in [van] instead of [wan]. Indeed, we have the direction of the Strait of Ormuz to continue in demonstrated in that paper that while in the rest India, it suddenly drops from Māzandarān16 to of the world the noun is pronounced with the reappear in Eastern Caspian Plain and northern labio-velar [w] the group seems to India. It is also highly frequent around the Lake have radically replaced it by the labio-dental Chad, where a group of chromosomes within the fricative [v] which gave instead [van]. This paragroup R-P25* identification as a new clade (R1b1a or R-V88) implied a ‘Back to ’ 17 Cruciani, F. & al. 2010 12 Der Sarkissian 2011 (Figure 4) 18 Kayser M, Lao O, Anslinger K et al 2005 13 E. Heyer et al 2013 19 Tarkhnishvili & All, 2014 14 Karafet & al. 2014 20 McElreavey L. Quintana-Murci 2005 15 Nasidze & al. 2004 21 Sengupta & Al. 2006 16 Grugni & al. 2012 22 Regueiro & al. 2006 8

polysemic and ‘portmanteau word’ on which recorded and broadcasted by H2a1 MtDNA is several words will be added is commonly used to depicting places that we have located on the call intermittent streams, ponds or lakes but also Hakari River which separates Syunik from every element that provoke the flowing liquid Artsakh (), region known for its glens water, its disappearance or its conservation in where a haplogroup considered being precursor reservoirs. Thus, while L1 could have brought in of the Atlantic Modal Haplotype26 has been Zagros and Lesser Caucasus its own [v], a proto- found. Dravidian vocabulary and a [y] glide similar to the modern Tamil one, the replacement of [w] by H2a1 and R1a: Linguistic inputs in [v] failed in southern Indian sub-continent and and Scandinavia only integrated languages under certain phonetical rules ([v] in and Tamil). In the contrary to L1 Y-chromosome, R1a doesn’t seem to be sedentary and rather belonged H2a1 and L1a to a network of places which stretched from the Gulf of Bengal to Bolgarçay River (Azerbaijan) H2a1 MtDNA has been sequenced from a man via the Caspian Maritime Plain (Gilan, buried in the Armenian site of Areni-1 (Bird's Mazandaran). It seems to have brought its Eye Cave, date from 4330-3060 BCE) who military organization based on the horse 23 belonged to L1a Y-Chromosome haplogroup . breeding, the wheeled vehicles and a specific This cave is famous for its -making facility language that we call here a proto-Azeri language dating back from circa 6000 YBP, the oldest whose vocabulary has been preserved until today 24 known today . despite of recent modifications of the linguistic structure. We directly link R1a to a population H2a1 and R1b1 in Urals who linked its nomadized way of life to the trade at long distance and MtDNA H2a1 has been found in 20-30 years old Male (Khvalynsk Eneolithic in the Volga H2a1 in Central Europe steppes: Saratovo, Russia, grave 12) who was also Y-Chromosome R1b1 (grave dated by H2a1 has been found Beaker culture (Bell beaker radiocarbon to 5200-4000 BCE). His MtDNA culture)27, in in northern Black 25 haplotype H2a1 is unique in the Samara series Sea28, in Vatya (Hungary)29 and in Unetice such as the extraordinary deposit of 293 copper culture30 and still during the Scythian period31. artefacts, amounting to 80% of the copper objects in the combined cemeteries of Khvalynsk I and Viking Age Dispersion II. Parts of this deposit is linked to south eastern

European cultures that implies that this male 26 Weale, M.E., Yepiskoposyan, L., Jager, R.F. et al. have probably migrated from the shore Hum Genet (2001): “Wilson et al. (2001) have to Urals. This argument invites us to also imagine observed haplotype 3 (which they have called the a possible Lesser Caucasian origin. Indeed, we Atlantic Modal Haplotype) to be modal in the have demonstrated that the accurate testimony Welsh, Basques and Irish. They suggest that it is a signature haplotype of the Palaeolithic peopling of Europe. It is interesting to observe that the Atlantic 23 Lazaridis, I. & al. 2016 Modal Haplotype was found in the separate 24 Nelli Hovhannisyan & al. 2015 isolated regional samples of Syunik (7.9%) and 25 293 on 367 copper artefacts in the three graves, Karabakh (2.8%) but not in the other four mostly beads and rings, are considered as the Armenian regions.” oldest copper objects in the Volga-Ural steppes, 27 Eulau, Germany, Brandt 2013 and trace elements and manufacturing methods in 28 Lisičansk, , Wilde 2014 a few objects suggest trade with south-eastern 29 Érd, Hungary and Landau an der Isar, Germany, Europe in : Eight thousand years of natural Allentoft & al. 2015 selection in Europe, Iain Mathieson, Iosif Lazaradis 30 Brotherton & al. 2013 and Al. bioRxiv preprint first posted online Mar. 14, 31 Leventsovka, Rostov on Don, Russia, Der 2015; doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/016477 Sarkissian 2011 9

It is easily predictable that Scandinavian H2a1 mechanism of back and forth between Caucasus might have migrated in several directions from and Egypt. Jutland toward southern Sweden and western , Great Britain and Ireland during the Iron H2a1 in India Age and Viking ages32. Two important Eurasian genetic markers are H2a1: From Urals to Norrland? present in India: U5a and H2a1. Haplogroup U5 comprises two major phylogenetic clusters, U5a H2a1 MtDNA is highly frequent in Finland and and U5b38, only the eastern European-specific northern Sweden. While southern Sweden and U5a1-derived lineages39 such as U5a1a1, U5a1b, western Finland seem to be linked to H2a1 U5a1b1, and U5a1b1f were observed mostly in MtDNA Jutland’s lineages, lineages from eastern populations from Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Finland seem to follow a migration track toward Uttar Pradesh and Punjab40. H2b and H2a1 Norrland (Sweden) where it is highly frequent in lineages have been reported in south Indian Umeå region. There, a specific subclade populations (Tamil Nadu) and were probably diversified (G4659A+) and has been added to the involved in the implementation of the Caste phylotree: H2a1n. A probable link with the Ural organisation41. However, we rather say that H2a1 hotspot should be investigated. MtDNA has probably followed up the L1 migration flux in Eneolithic and arrived in Tamil H2a1 in Nadu.

The south east Anatolia/ northern region is one H2a1 MtDNA hotspot as we can see it in the Pandoses (Portugal) lineage in HVR1. Its Ancient DNA and Modern Human Beings presence in western Mediterranean Sea (Southern Italy, Sicily, Baleares and Andalusia) is a good All ancient H2a1 MtDNA sequenced from example that illustrates different migrations archaeological sites published in scientific waves which could be either linked to a primary reviews match with the track-like dispersion’s G2a’s expansion toward Europe33 or linked to pattern (HVR1) of the modern H2a1 MtDNA Phoenicians who shared the same origin and lineage from Pandoses (Viera do Minho, reoccupied same places. Portugal), sequenced from the author and registered in FamilyTreeDNA Company since H2a1 in Near East 2014. This dispersion’s map is crucial to better understand migrations’ roads during Eneolithic H2a1 is highly frequent in Egypt and in Arabian and latter during Bronze and . Peninsula becoming the major H subclade of the region. In Arabian Peninsula H4b, H18, H2a1 This paper is the last version of a long series that and H6 are forming together half of the started in 2014 and published in Academia.edu. haplogroup34, the two latter are the most They are all protected by legal deposits and represented35. In Egypt the Subgroups H2a1, H4 personal data is protected by law. and H13a1 account for 42% of H36. The high frequency of J1 Y-Chromosome haplogroup and H2a MtDNA in (H2a437) and Egypt/ Arabian Peninsula has not yet been totally 38 Malyarchuk B, Derenko M, Grzybowski T et al explained but we have integrated them into the (2010) the peopling of Europe from the mitochondrial haplogroup U5 perspective. PLoS One 5:e10285 32 Maja Krzewińska & al. 2014 39 Richards M, Macaulay V, Hickey E et al (2000) 33 Lazaridis & al. 2015 Tracing European founder lineages in the Near 34 Roostalu & al. 2006 Eastern mtDNA pool. Am J Hum Genet 67:1251– 35 Abu-Amero & al. 2008. 1276 36 Bekada & al. 2013 40 Malliya Gounder & al. 2015 37 Roostalu & al. 2006 41 Malliya Gounder Palanichamy & al. 2015. 10

Figure 1 H2a1 MtDNA dispersion’s map seen from the author’s sequence, Pandoses (Minho, Portugal), FamilyTreeDNA 2017, Google Maps 2017. Rondu 2017

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Hydrological Lexical Field reveals Indian Expansions toward Lesser Caucasus during Neolithic thanks to the Dravidian Labio-dental Fricative /v/

He lived with the of the Frost Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 3

During our research, a global constant in the Even if similar patterns have been observed in hydronymy appeared in all at each eastern Asia and the American continent, we great human period, included, under the only have mapped the most hydronyms as form of one noun accompanied by its possible in Africa, Europe, Lesser Caucasus, contemporary variants, followed by diachronic Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Indonesia, evolutions and contextual use. Initially, these Philippines and Australia. Due to the constants are a recurrent manner to call seasonal phenomenon of linguistic diachrony (a change or intermittent stream shared by far distant over time) we have established several populations, in remote regions. We discovered dissimilation forms based on a primary noun that those hydronyms also coincided to a *Wan-/ *Wand- or *Wad- resulting of a gradual worldwide commonly shared vocabulary that enhancement of the first consonant which marks depicts the liquid water’s intrinsic movement, its several periods and dispersion’s waves: sudden disappearance and the human action of hydronyms based on *Van-/ *Vad-, *Band-/ conserving it. We discovered later that this *Bad- and *Pand-/ *Pant-. While in some hydrological vocabulary evolved with the human regions several ‘hydronymic periods’ overlap capacity of travelling and became characteristic each other, hydronyms of the first period are of human societies who both sailed and transited surrounded by dissimilation forms that have been on trade roads with Iran and Caucasus as adopted later, revealing an uninterrupted geographical centre. In great majority, continuum paced by several back and forth like hydronyms built on *Wan- and *Wad- are used in Africa and India where *Van- and *Wan- are to call small streams, ponds and sometimes lakes neighbours. In other regions ‘hydronymic that are intermittent for a great part of them. In dissimilations’ are not all present simultaneously. each country, regardless their variants and their The presence of certain dissimilations forms diachronic deformations, all hydronyms are involved the capacity by local populations of located in isolated and remote regions, but their using or accepting new one. However, when presence is recurrent in all continents, from these dissimilations are accepted, they mostly Angola to Australia, from India to England. This respect the meaning used in other regions. global dispersion implies a long broadcasting by migrating populations and their remoteness Hydronyms based on *Wan- / *Wad- has been invites us to think that these hydronyms are more linked to a maximal glacial period which allowed ancient than thought. Indeed, we think they human to reach Australia, commonly marked by survived great political or cultural changes, the intermittent presence of liquid water. This becoming a fossil-like noun that has been frozen period is characterized by hydronymic constants in time. This logic implies that humans who went based on the voiced labio-velar approximant /w/ out of Africa to join Asia and later to Europe by on which are built three global hydronymic Caucasus had already understood the variants: *Wan, *Wand and *Wad (plus isolated mechanisms that structured the ‘water cycle’ Somalian hydronyms *Wa- /*Wank- /*Wang- during a dry or a cold period. The fact and Erythraean *Wehan). This hydronymic populations worldwide shared the same way to dispersion’s pattern is uniform, stretching from call the ephemeral nature of water implies a first Occidental Africa to Australia and reached globalized proto-vocabulary. Europe where it has survived in England. The second period is marked by the voiced labiodental fricative /v/ which creates the

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(noun, وادي) ,/diachronic dissimilation forms *Van- / *Vad-. Its While *wadi /wa.di dispersion’s pattern illustrates a migration from describes in one word a dry landscape and the Indian sub-continent to Lesser Caucasus and to phenomenon of sudden and ephemera water Europe by the northern shores of the Black Sea. flow, this is the missing resource itself that In a lesser extent hydronyms pronounced with dominates the English labio-velar approximant the labio-dental fricative /v/ are scarcer in Africa *water (noun). In Indonesian the preservation of implying a probable migration from Indus to the precious liquid is underlined with *Waduk Africa by the Arabian Peninsula or from Lesser (noun, Indonesian) that means reservoir such as Caucasus/ Iranian plateau to Africa by the Nile in Sri Lanka where *Wadu is a common River, the latter being the better candidate toponyms which points a reservoir. In Arabic because of the lack of hydronyms with /v/ in language, the fossilization of its meaning is a eastern Africa. good example of the perpetuation of the vocabulary in populations that still live according A third period is characterized by an accent’s to similar conditions, wandering from water reinforcement with the bilabial /b/ that has place to another one. transformed the variation *Vand into *Band. Navigation and terrestrial trade roads seemed to Arabic English Indonesian have amplified and diversified its use that is not *Wadi /wa.di/, ,noun وادي* *Waduk (noun, anymore only dedicated to water activities. Arabic) dry *Water (noun, Indonesia) means valley and English) Indeed, while *Band is part of the lexical field of Reservoir navigation and coastal geography in Iran and Intermittent Stream along the Arabian Peninsula towards Africa, it is used as toponym in India and central Europe. However, while noun based on *Bad- are used to call streams and coastal characteristics in Water rich Regions became Forests Scandinavia and Iberian Peninsula, on the right In sub Saharan Africa, the dispersion’s pattern of bank of the Rhine it is commonly used to call a hydronyms based on *Wad- like Wadi is fading human installation which has agriculture and the southwards, in direction of the Equator, to let the exploitation of natural resources as main place to hydronyms in *Wan- or to more activities. Another dissimilation form is based on complexes names based on *Wand-. Most of the bilabial /p/, *Pand- / *Pant- and draws a them are disseminated near or surrounding dispersion’s pattern that stretches from Europe to modern tropical rain forests. In Pakistan most of India, still linked to the hydrological lexical field. these hydronyms are located on dry and desert *Band- and *Pand- are both present in Equatorial mountains slopes which overlook the Indus Africa in high frequency and in a lesser extent in River. In central India they are mostly located in Australia. former well forested areas. In Hindi *वन (*Van, pronounced [wan]) that means Forest is a clue to understand this heterogeneity in the use of the A World without Liquid Water hydronym that was caused by changes of the landscape during Holocene. Indeed, while dry The dispersion’s pattern of the voiced labio-velar and icy hills slopes where intermittent streams or approximant /w/ used to realize hydronyms based gullies flowed became drier and desert, places on *Wan- / *Wand- or *Wad- draws a where water was more abundant became more homogenous area from Occidental Africa to humid and rainforest took the place. It implies Australia. It reveals by its common use the that humans could have had to leave these concept of missing or ephemeral water and its extreme places or adapt differently, making the crucial need during a dry period. forest and plains their new habitats. Thus, *Wan- that was used to call a ‘water place’ has been Waterless Landscape: Concept of Missing used to call a forest and the increasing water Element

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resource, demonstrating a modification in the Hebraic Tamil vādī/) Dry Valley *வா羿 (/Vāṭi/, adj.) that/) ידאו* .meaning due to contextual water’s interferences and Intermittent Stream means Faded Hydronyms in Africa, Hindi India, Australia *वन (Van, pronounced L1* and R1a Y-chromosomes dispersion’s Wann/ Wan [wan]), means Forest. Pattern symmetric to the /v/ Dispersions and

the /y/ Glide

While /v/ has not been adopted in unanimity in /v/ Diversification and Migration from Indus India, it seems to have replaced /w/ in Iran and Lesser Caucasus where it has left numerous towards Lesser Caucasus hydronyms before migrating through Greater The presence of hydronyms based on *Van- Caucasus in central Europe where it has isolated around the lower Indus plain questions us about the approximant /w/ in British Isles, separated the origin of the labio-dental fricative /v/ whose from the continent by the Channel. The use’s area stretches between Lesser Caucasus and dispersion of /v/ in north western Iran and Lesser Sri Lanka. We propose to see in the progressive Caucasus must be put in parallel with the Tamil desertification of the Thar Desert the triggering (Dravidian) glide /y/ that also appears in of a human migration which has broadcasted /v/. Armenia. Indeed, Tamil words beginning with In Indian sub-continent the dispersion’s pattern the mid-vowels e and its long counterpart ee have of the voiced labio-velar approximant /w/ is an automatic /y/ as in many Dravidian languages. disrupted by the voiced labiodental fricative /v/ This glide appears to have been adopted in that is executed in different contexts in Indian Armenian highland where the vestige of the glide languages like in Hindi in which /w/ (realised by could be seen *[y] Erevan (capital of Armenia). the rounded glide when it precedes a rounded Thus, the languages similarities probable 43 vowel, is realized close to the fricative /v/ when contemporaneity between the presence of L1* it is initial and is followed by an anterior non- Y-Chromosome in Lesser Caucasus and in 42 rounded vowel like with: *vidvan [vIdwan] southern India are illustrated by Dravidian (means scholar or researcher)). The differences vocabulary that we will provide a comprehensive between Hindi and Dravidian languages, in comparisons in next chapters. However, the which the rounded vowels o, oo, u and uu are broadcast of /v/ in Europe can only be compared always preceded with an automatic /w/-glide but to the movement of R1* Y-Chromosome and where /v/ is realized differently, indicate that the particularly to the R1a Y-Chromosome’s voiced labiodental fricative has not been adopted expansions in central Europe and Scandinavia. with unanimity in all human communities in the Hydronyms in /v/ have also been adopted in sub Indian sub-continent. The lack of hydronyms in Saharan Africa, from Chad to Guinea, and 44 /v/ in Indonesia and Australia (except in Vanuatu sustains the ‘Back to Africa’ theory proposed to area) sustains the hypothesis that /v/ was more explain the R1b1* lineage in Sub Saharan Africa. successful in Lesser Caucasus than in eastern Congo hydronymy and Angola toponymy Asia. Mature, the voiced labiodental fricative /v/ implies a far deeper penetration in African spread in Middle East and progressively continent and offers to geneticists the locations of ,probable new R1b1* hotspots. In Africa ידאו* neighboured *Wan- like with the Hebraic (vādī) synonym of *wadi, coinciding with the hydronyms and toponyms based on /v/ overlap Tamil *வா羿 (Vāṭi, adj.) synonym of the the R1b1* dispersion’s pattern that is not English *Fade (verb) that has conserved the necessarily the case in Europe with R1b. ephemeral concept of ‘water’s disappearance’ or ‘fading water’ but built on /f/.

43 Sanghamitra Sengupta & al. 2006 42 Annie Montaut, exchange of knowledge. 44 Cruciani & al 2002 14

Van: Union between Dravidian and People of nomadic cattle, in other words, the proto- Frost Dravidian population who migrated from Balochistan to Lesser Caucasus shared same In like in Elburz or Greater locations with Hunter Gatherers who accepted and Lesser Caucasus, numerous toponyms are and adopted this noun. built on the hydronym *Van. In great majority they are located on hill slopes and reveal certain The first Memory of Drought Migration knowledge about climatic phenomenon that is called: Foehn (Föhn, noun, German) commonly Drops of frost came out of the cow called used by populations from the Alps to describe a Audhumla and as four streams of milk flowed descending dry and warm wind. On maritime from her udder, she fed Ymir ... she licked the coasts, the clouds formation and precipitations frost stones, which were salty. The first day she (rain) are due to moisture brought by the winds licked them, the hair of a man emerged from a but in the Zagros Mountains, even if moisture stone in the evening; on the second day a man's can be brought by the Persian Gulf, during a head emerged, and on the third day a whole glacial period, the dry and heat leeward side man appeared. His name is Buri ....He had a son (opposite side of the windward side) would have named Bor who married Bestla, the daughter of warmed frozen water from hill top or from the the giant Bolthorn, with whom he had three underground that would have flowed in sons: the first named Odin, the second Vili and intermittent gullies, and would have been a better the third Vé... place to live in these extreme regions. We Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 5 proposed earlier that *Van- was an input from the Indus Valley, broadcasted by a population who In the Nordic Edda, one of the several narratives spoke a proto-Dravidian dialect in which the broadcasted by Lesser Caucasian women (H2a1 labio-dental fricative [v] has supplanted the MtDNA), the Vanir are one of the two peoples in labio-velar [wan]. Following up the Zagros competition, the second being the Aesir and a mountains from what is called today Balochistan, third party: the ‘Giants of the Frost’. The Edda they have reached Lesser Caucasus. Thus, it is has conserved in one stance the arrival of the probable to find *Van- toponyms in an extended population from Baluchistan, probably due to a mountainous region, from Black Sea () to drought, in the icy mountains dominated by Caspian shores (Elburz Mountains) to dry and Hunter Gatherers but also where farmer seemed desert Zagros Mountains. to be already present with cattle like it has been demonstrated in Gallego-Llorente 2016 with Vanir GD13a. The stance of Buri is explicitly depicting one thirsty man drinking milk in a glacial In Middle East, this dispersion’s pattern is context. This is the first apparition of the man or characteristic of a human population that human group from whom will descend the main perfectly dominate the water cycle during a dry characters of our story. All these arguments are and glacial period adapting their positions on sustained by the names told in the Nordic poems high hills slopes according to the moisture. In that we consider being from a mixt proto Lesser Caucasus, Talysh, Gilan, Mazandaran Dravidian/ Azeri language. Indeed, the hills and Alborz Mountains, toponyms in *Van antonomasia plays a great role by saying that the mark locations on ‘windward side’ where human ancestor, Ymir (in modern Azeri language with collected rain, but on the Zagros Mountains *Miras that means Family, Legacy or ) slopes, during the glacial period it is also who is also called Buri (in modern Kannada opportunistic to propose the hypothesis that installations could have been also in leeward side (Dravidian language) *ಬರ pronounced [bur] or to stay in warm weather and collect melting ice [bara] means Drought), is fed by a cow. He had a which formed gullies and streams from the top. son Bor whose name is close to Tamil *ꯁற We can link these locations to Hunter Gatherers’ [Puṟa] which means External who married Bestla halts which became water places for semi- that is very close to the verb

15

*ಬೇಟೆಯಾಡುವುದು [Bēṭeyāḍuvudu] which adjective *வான்வ펿 (Vāṉvaḻi, pronounced means Hunting or ಬೇಟೆಯನ್ನು [Bēṭeyannu] [vanvali]) that means aerial are linked to the which means the Prey in Kannada. This is from a modern Persian *Vali means Governorate (*Vali lineage originated from a drought migration who means Governor in Azeri), the most important adapted in Hunter Gatherers context (lived local administration places in that region, by the among the ‘Giants of the Frost’45) mixed with Edda that uses Vali several times to call major early farmers that the future heroes of the characters of hierarchical importance. This narrative are born. We can say that the Edda has hypothesis is sustained by the link between *हवा verified the hypothesis Gallego-Llorente (pronounced [hava]) that means Air in Hindi and according to which a population of farmers the Turkic *Hava (noun) and its adjective installed in a Hunter Gatherer context, in *Havadar that means airy used in the Edda as southern Zagros Mountains, survived of one of several names of the ruler Odin: Alfadr bottleneck. It reveals that a third population lived that we have interpreted to be ‘the one who gives with them and survived this bottleneck thanks to breath to men’ or to be ‘the aerial’, duality which the farming and cattle breeding, the L1 Y- has been adopted in with the concept of Chromosome haplogroup we find today in Iran *Anima. Thus, we propose to see in *Vali the and Lesser Caucasus. remaining concept that describes the valuable place where water flowed and *Van the flowing Proto Dravidian/ proto Edda water as a result of the entire cycle. The Azeri Languages *Miras that means Family, argument according to which several modern Ymir Legacy or languages are using a vocabulary that has Heritage(Modern Azeri) diverged from this point is sustained by the *ಬರ pronounced [bur] or Buri [bara] means Drought Tamil *சாய்ퟁ (cāyvu) that means a slope as (Kannada, Dravidian) for a hill side, which is phonetically close to the *ꯁற [Puṟa] means modern Azeri *çay (noun) that means stream, Borr External (Tamil, Dravidian) river. In modern European languages the ಬೇಟೆಯನ್ನು ambivalence and similarities between nouns that [Bēṭeyannu] which means call wind and water are the good example of the Prey (Kannada, what remained from this climatic knowledge. Bestla Dravidian) / *ಬೇಟೆಯಾಡುವುದು Indeed, while the Dutch *Water or Frisian [Bēṭeyāḍuvudu] which *Wetter for water are close to *Weather (a state means Hunting of the atmosphere) and to the Russian * ветер (Veter, that means wind).

Ethnogenesis: Places where Water Flows Tamil/ Hindi Azeri/Turkic Edda *வான் (Tamil, became Early Human Centres *Vanir

pronounced [van]) people The Tamil and Hindi vocabularies illustrate some means Air *வான்வ펿 ties with the modern Iranian/ Turkic lexical field *Vali (Tamil, Vāṉvaḻi, *Vali (noun) of political organization. This lexicon could be several pronounced means Governor more ancient than expected and be linked to the [vanvali]) means personages place where the liquid water process occurred, in Aerial *çay (noun) that *சாய்ퟁ (Tamil, other words where hot wind and moisture meet means Stream, cāyvu) means Slope soil and where water flowed. This hypothesis is River *Alfadr: possible by comparing several languages with a *Hava (noun) that *हवा (Hindi, one of the means Air first approach of the Edda. In Tamil *வான் several pronounced [hava]) *Havadar that names of ( that means Air means Airy pronounced [van]) that means Air and the the Leader

45 [Odin] He lived with the Giants of the Frost Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 3 16

Wine/ Vín The European languages have conserved the concept of retaining or conserving the water in its As we will see later, wine has a great place in the liquid form. Indeed, the German *Wanne, the Iranian Caucasian cultures. Squeezing to Polish *Wanna, the Swedish *Vanna and get juice and its conservation couldn’t have Russian *ванна which are all used to call a tub, another name that *Wine with the approximant tank or a small reservoir, indicate that the /w/ and *Vín in Icelandic for example with the Transcaucasian and northern Iranian populations fricative /v/. Indeed, it is the processes of have probably used mastered the collecting of producing a stream. water with containers or barrages to retain the precious liquid which flowed from hill’s slopes. Labio-velar Labio-dental Stream approximant /w/ fricative /v/ *Wan/ *Van *Wine *Vín Migrating for Liquid Water

The physical concept of movement can be seen Gullies: as if Hearth vomits Water in the Tamil *வந்鏁 (*Vantu, verb) that means come that finds its counterpart in the verb In Tamil *வாந்鎿 (Vānti, verb) that means *Wandelen (/ʋɑn.də.lə:/ Nederland) which also vomiting is crucial to understand the link between exists in the realized with the a fluid and its movement in a sudden flow that voiced labio-velar approximant /w/ *Wander. we can compare to the gully phenomenon (fast The latter adds the concept of uncertainty to the flowing-stream) which is common in glacial action of walking. mountainous regions during a warming period. This sudden alternance between dry and humid English Netherland Tamil events is sustained by the proximity of the Tamil *Wander (/ˈwɒn.dər/ *வண்டல் (Vantal, noun) that means Silt verb) which is, with clay, the most common material means *Wandelen moving (verb) *வந்鏁 (Vantu, verb) that composes river, lakes or gullies beds. The from place means to means Come ambivalence between instability of a river bed to place walk. and the liquid flow is also visible in western sub without organized Saharan Africa, in Guinea Bissau for instance, plan where *Vendu or *Vendou are used to call intermittent ponds, or in Guinea where *Venndou is used to call swamps. We also can find similar A World with Liquid Water forms in hydronyms that call streams in Sierra Leone with Vando and in Togo with Vandoule The transition between the glacial and a warmer drawing a path from central Africa to the period of Holocene is visible in vocabularies that occidental African coast. This observations describe changes due to more abundant water sustain that the two R1b-P25 (R1b1*) lineages under the liquid form bringing new challenges to from Fulbe and Bijagos46 can be placed in the humans. perspective of a migration from Nile River or Ford/ Vad from the African Horn.

Tamil Tamil Guinea Bissau While, the English *Ford and the Germanic *வாந்鎿 *வண்டல் *Vendu/ Vendou *Furt stay very close to the Tamil *ஃப ார்翁 (/Vānti/, verb) (/Vantal/) means call intermittent (Ḥpōrṭu), the Scandinavian *Vada reverses the means vomiting silt ponds contrast’s values we have seen with the Hebraic Conservation of Water *Vadi (synonym of *Wadi) by calling a passage in a stream and its unpredictable crossing with *Våda that means danger, misadventure. Tight DNA and geographical relationships between 46 Rosa & al. 2007 17

Balkans and Scandinavia47 could be a clue in a development implying early contacts with Indo- simultaneous vocabulary input in Balkan and Iranian populations and a long lasting sustained Scandinavian populations. Indeed, the Romanian transmission. Indeed, these remote regions *Vad or *Vadul is very close to the Scandinavian conserved *Vand (Danish, noun) and *Vann *Vada, the Spanish *Vado and the Portuguese (Norwegian, noun) to call water. The R1a Y- *Vadear (verb) that means to cross can be Chromosome migrations could have played the explained by a migrations along a Black Sea- role of sustained conservation due to its role in a Dniepr/ Dniester corridor and from to terrestrial amber road that link Scandinavia and central Iberia peninsula by the Po plain and the Transcaucasia. Pyrenees. Both roads that lead to Atlantic follow the Alps by the north or by the South. Danish Norwegian *vand (noun) means *vann (noun) means water water

English German Tamil *ஃப ார்翁 *Ford *Furt (Ḥpōrṭu) *Pand-/ *Band-: Global Iranization of Indo- European Human Installations Islandic Norwegian Swedish Spanish Romanian *vad/ *vað *vada *vado In Europe, toponyms built on the labial /p/ *vade *vadul (noun) (noun) (noun) *Pand- appeared in the historical sources earlier (noun) (noun) means means means means ford means than toponyms built on the bilabial /b/ mostly ford ford ford ford represented by toponyms based on *Band- / *Bad-.

Rhine: Frontier of Voiced Labio-dental Fricative Pandosia /v/ to call Water In the mid-4th century B.C. two homonymous The Rhine is commonly considered as the natural cities Pandosia (one in Epirus, Greece, the other frontier between the two great Y-chromosome in Lucania, Italy, were both founded on rivers haplogroups R1b and R1a in Europe, and in our called Acheron) are the theatres of conflicts ‘water cycle’ vocabulary, it marks the frontier during the Macedonian’s expansion. This is in between the voiced labio-dental fricative /v/ and the Lucanian city that Alexandre of Epirus, uncle other Latin or English languages. However, the of Alexandre the Great died48. These cities are Roman Empire frontiers could have played a not only homonymous of the Galician Pandoses major role in that separation that could have (Viera do Minho, Portugal) from where has been occurred later. sampled the H2a1 MtDNA that has been used for this research, they are also one H2a1 MtDNA Netherland Polish Swedish Russian Bulgarian hotspot (Italy) also being homonymous to the *воды *вода *water *woda *vatten (vody, (voda, stream Panduz (Nizjnij Novgorod, Russia) and to (noun) (noun) (noun) noun) noun) means means means the track made by *Pand-/ *Pant- toponyms that means means water water water overlap the H2a1 MtDNA (HVR1) relatives of water water the Pandoses lineage in Russia. While toponyms in *Pant- are majority in Russia and Ukraine, in Norway and Denmark: Remote regions that India they are among numerous *Pand- have conserved Genuine Forms toponyms. This reverse of contrasts is enhanced by numerous modern Indian spoken languages in Denmark and Norway have both conserved a which the water is called in similar manners like form that we consider as very close to our first

48 Justin, Universal History XII, II, & Titus-Livius, 47 Lazaradis & al. 2013 and Haak & al. 2015 Roman History, livre VIII, 24 18

in Panjabi *ਪਾਣੀ ਦੀ (Pāṇī dī) means Water, in crucial in navigation like points, rocks or shoals, Hindi *Paanee or in Marathi *Pāṇī means but they are mostly absent in local toponymy. Water. Thus, we consider that *Pan-/ *Pand- are ‘Bad’ is also used in Spanish Mediterranean late *Wan/ *Van- dissimilation’s form by islands to call a bay: *Badia. Like in Iran and reinforcement of the accent on the first syllable. India, ‘Bad’ is highly frequently used in It reveals an important migration from Caucasus continental Europe to build toponyms that are and Black Sea toward Russia, western linked to agricultural and foresting activities Mediterranean Sea, Balkans, and Atlantic during being the twin of the Persian *Abad (noun) that at least the middle of the 1st millennium B.C. describes a cultivated place. Once again, the Rhine River seems to be the natural frontier that *Band- separates it from the Western Europe, but we rather think that, once again, the Roman Empire Three great maritime hotspots where toponyms could have plaid a major role in its disappearance in *Band- toponyms are highly frequent: in western toponymy. However, some toponyms Dalmatia; Northwestern Iberian Peninsula and in appear forming a track until Spanish Galicia and modern Mecklenburg. Toponyms in ‘Pand’/ United Kingdom that we consider to be a ‘Pant’ are more diffused and draw a track from probable or early middle age’s Ukraine to Atlantic and from Ural to Baltic Sea. input that overlapped a former layer. Indeed, we This dispersion’s pattern invites us to draw think that the three coastal hotspots several roads that start in northern Black Sea, one Mecklenburg, Dalmatia and Spanish Galicia follows the Black Sea – Danube – Alps axis until could have been linked together by a tight north western Iberian Peninsula, and the others, network of human installations as it is the case in in east, are following the Dniepr, the Don and the Iran where the northern and southern coasts are Volga towards Baltic Sea. This hypothesis is tightly linked by a layer of toponyms in *Bad-. sustained by the perfect symmetry between Three other hotspots have been identified in ‘Pand’ and its contemporary dissimilation’s form north eastern , and Urals that are ‘Pant’ visible around the Dinaric Alps’ slopes, linked together by toponyms in *Pand-/ *Pant-, drawing a specific dispersion’s pattern that leads another hotspot has also been discovered around from the Atlantic to Kerala (India) by the Black the Baikal Lake. Sea (Pantikápaion), the Caucasus and the Gilan- Mazandaran maritime plains, the Ganges River and Eastern India towards Kerala.

*Band-: Navigation

The labial /b/ that formed hydronyms in ‘Band- / Bad-‘is associated to a recent historical period where it is frequently linked to cabotage and that ب ندر navigation with *Bandar (Persian means Harbour) also used all along the Arabian Peninsula to call Bays. ‘Band’ also formed toponyms in mainland that draw a road between India to Syria and Europe. This dissimilation’s form re-joins ‘Pan’ in the water vocabulary by the Javanese *Banyu \ba.nyu\ that means Water.

*Bad-: Abad/ Abode

Hydronyms and toponyms in ‘Bad-‘are highly frequent along the Scandinavian coasts (Sweden, Norway, Iceland) marking coastal elements

19

Figure 2 White Dots: Hydronyms based on *Wan-/ *Wad-; Blue Dots: Hydronyms based on *Van- Rondu 2017

20

Figure 3 Hydronyms based on *Band- Rondu 2017

21

Figure 4 Hydronyms based on *Pand- Rondu 2017

22

Figure 5 From Top to Bottom: Map of Toponyms in *Van- (green dots) and Hydronyms (blue dots), Marc-Olivier Rondu 2017; Map showing geographical location of Anatolian Neolithic samples, Caucasus Hunter Gatherers (CHG) and GD13a. Background colours indicate mean temperature (°C) of coldest quarter during the LGM (data from the worldclim database generated by the CCSM4 model), with LGM sea levels. Map of populations was generated with MATLAB R2015b (Mathworks, http://www. mathworks.com/) With the kind permission of M. Gallego-Llorente (Gallego-Llorente & al. 2016).

23

Figure 6 Toponyms based on *Pand- (Green dots) and *Pant- (Yellow dots) Rondu 2017

24

Figure 7 Toponyms based on *Band- Rondu 2017

25

Figure 8 Toponyms based on *Bad- Rondu 2017

26

Birth of Agricultural Technics, Birth of Agricultural Castes

We can find in Persian archives ethnonyms A maḥalla includes several mahallas, each (names that called populations or culturally identified by its own name, often referring to identified enemies), like Sakās, , topographic and nature. And in some cases, the Mannean… We propose to see in ethnonyms the Maḥalla differ mahallas following a precise first step of an ethnogenesis’ process that started order, the high quarters (Bala Mahalla; Sofla in with the birth of agricultural technics commonly eastern Gilan Mahalla-ye), the middle (Wasat used in the great Anatolia- Iranian Plateau Maḥalla) and the lower quarters (Pa'in Mahalla; ensemble. Each group started to reinforce their JiR Mahalla in western Gilan and tales; Mahalla- specificities according to the geographical ye 'Olyā in eastern Gilan). The difference context but also by their social ranking. Thus between "upper" and "lower" does not refer to several nouns from the agricultural lexical field the altitude but rather the relative position of the have been used to call several groups from the hamlet depending on the mountains and the sea: same great population’s ensemble, probably the lower quarters are the closest to the sea and dominated by a family that incarnate the entire the highest quarters close to the mountains even caste. Here are all the elements that demonstrate though the town itself can be located tens of that the genesis of the historical ethnonyms like kilometres away. Gallic, Germanic, Scythian and Sarmatian started in the early phase of agriculture technics. Sakā Tigraxaudā: Noble Architecture, Noble Costume

The costume of Sakās Tigraxaudā, an Iranian Maḥalla population recorded in Iron Age sources, consisted of a jacket and a specific pointed cap. The modern plain of Gilan has a very high rural Most of the costumes, jacket and hat, found in population density and has a very characteristic the ‘Golden Series’ in and pattern of settlement that is not based on the Kirghizstan (Taksay, Issyk) are augmented by model of the village but on the Mahalla, a loose golden appliques that represent goats or fantastic grouping of houses surrounded by gardens and . Princely costume, it is the symbol of orchards. These ‘domains’ themselves are made political and economic power of the Maḥalla by 49 up of several buildings with architectures and retaking all the elements of the Vali Maḥalla functions specific of the family domain like barn, architecture, the jacket as the main building and stable, silkworm breeding, tobacco drying room, the hat simulating the roof top. In modern Azeri etc. these traditional buildings consist of a *Vali (noun) means Governor and in modern wooden frame filled with a mixture of clay and Persian it is also used to call the regional straw, and are crowned with a steep hipped roof governorate commonly marked by a notable covered with thatch, reed or shingles. Small building. We propose the hypothesis according to farm’s enclosures are scattered around rice fields which this costume was probably already present and connected together in hamlets (Maḥalla) thus in a certain caste during the Eneolithic period, its forming social and territorial units. The Maḥalla presence in representations overlapping the is structurally defined in opposition to the broadcasting of R1 haplogroups towards Egypt, surrounding equivalent units (other Mahalla) by central Asia and Europe. its integration into the next higher unit, the "locality" Maḥalla. Sərmək: Goat Skins suspended under the House

The floor of the house is one or two meters above 49 Bromberger 1974 et 1986a the muddy ground, which offers an additional 27

room called Šikil used for various domestic is first stride in soapy water and then it is used to purposes such as laundry or the preparation of make clothing such as trousers (šalvār, šālšalvār), the goat’s wool. It is highly probable this is jackets (kut, šakā) and caps (kalā)50. The jacket is where the goats skins where suspended. The the expression of perfect control of difficulties of Azeri noun, *Sərmək means hang, spread out or weaving that solid wool. The conical cap, also lay that is clearly used to describe this activity. woven from goat wool, was probably boiled and The golden appliques in shape of goats skins then melded to ensure good shape. hooked on the jacket found in Taksay (Kazakhstan), from Altyn Hanshayym’s grave Šikil: Jacket as Basement sustain this hypothesis, symbolizing the Goats Šikil (or šigil) probably from the Turkic sıkılır as skins hanging in the Šikil. Thus, we propose that meaning tightened is the space under the house the historical name of ‘Sarmatia’ is an exonyme created to isolate the living room from the wet or the name of the caste who mastered the goats soil, typical in domestic architecture of the skins technics, rooted from *Sərmək. maritime plain of Gilan and swamps of Safidrud. Gold Panning: The Golden Fleece Çutku: a Hat as Roof Top It is one of the most king’s most important jobs to Çutku means in Azeri the cap. The caps’ shape of look after the sacred gold… the Sakā Tigraxaudā is commonly pointed and Herodotus, , Book IV, 4 soft for the major part of the reproductions. The abundance of small rivers in the Lesser Those founded in the Golden Series from Caucasus made the fortune of the mountain Kazakhstan should have been solid and straight shepherds who, not only organized the because they bear golden appliques. transhumance of the herd without running out of water, but also could have an almost systematic activity of gold panning. One technique was Agriculture: Eternal Source of Men especially assigned to them, gold panning with ram skin. This technology still alive in the Most of ancients Greek and Roman sources that traditions of the tribe of Georgian was are depicting European or Indo-Iranian reconstituted by Professor Ünsal Yalcin populations are in fact talking about the (Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum) agricultural technics they are using the most. Department Archaeometallurgie. In practice, a This argument gives us a different point of view wooden sieve covered with branches and grass about the context during which these sources retains silt grains and secondly the hairs of the have obverse their subjects. In other words, the fleece retain the gold glitter. These glitters are Latin authors like Tacitus have made a real heavier than silt and remain attached to the ram anthropological investigation that only a peace hairs. Sparkling on the skin, it is only necessary context could allow, inviting us to relativize the to pick them up. This technic is well depicted in importance of war periods. the golden pectoral from the Tolstaïa Mogila Galleh: The Herd (Dnipropetrovsk) discovered in 1971 by from Galleh ((ل ه گ) Mr Boris Molozevski. Today, Galesh (Gālešī meaning the Herd in Persian, calls semi nomadic Gilan’s Technics of weaving pastoral families that breed cattle or sheep in The Gilan region still keeps the secrets of northern Iran, particularly in Gilan and weaving goat’s wool which has become a Mazandaran. We propose that this name never specialty of the mountainous areas of Ṭāleš and changed and gave the name of a specific Gāleš. Wool as a raw material is a heavy material population who entered in Western Europe and with a simple weaving, the šāl. When the chain brought their breeding technics. (tār) and weft (pud) are both in wool, the material 50 Bromberger, Bazin 28

Khirmandali/ Xirman: Harvest repetitive bimanual motion to grind the grain53 letting pathologies on human skeletons that have were studied by many been identified as typical54. Thus, the historical linguists, archaeologists and historians. They are name of the Manneans is rooted to the activity of considered as a family of peoples essentially grinding, proper to a specific caste whom defined by a common linguistic root. In the first families probably dominated the southern eastern st half of the 1 century, ‘German’, as a noun finds Azerbaijan. its first mentions with the Greek Poséidonios51. Another reference was made in the context of the Aesir/ Atçı: Horse Breeders Slaves War led by Spartacus in 73 -71 BC by : "Crassus won a first victory over the slave In modern Azeri *Atçı (noun) means horse army, which was composed of Gallic and breeder and is commonly used to call a Jockey. Germans (quae Gallis Germanisque constabat) In the Edda, the ‘r’ in postfix is the contraction of ... "97 Periocha. But it was Julius who the plural in accordance with the harmonic rules. will deliberately distinguish Gallic peoples of the Thus, Aesir were the name of the most important Rhine’s opposite bank inhabitants that he called caste that bred horse, mastered horse riding and exclusively Germans (Gallic Wars). Yet the . We suggest that their migratory Cimbri and Teutonic invasions were considered activities were the probable principal vector of by Cicero and Sallust as Gallic and he agricultural and cultural diffusion in Eurasia that emphasized that they belong to the same nation sustained trade roads between remote regions. during the uprising of Spartacus 'gentis ejusdem

Gallis atque Germanis "Hist., III, 7752. Germans, is in fact rooted to an older name that survived in Diffusion of Agriculture: *Gom- and other which means Harvest toponymic Constants (خرمن) Persian *Xirman and has left several toponyms in the Kura’s mouth (Azerbaijan) like Khirmandali near All right men will live with him in this place Asgarabad. Thus, the Historical name of called Gimlé Germans or Xirman was given to Iranian groups Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 3 who practiced harvesting, mostly on riverbed. We do not wish to participate to the debate on the Loki/ Lək: the Kitchen Gardener geographical origin of the agriculture, because we take in consideration the possibility that In the Edda, the God Loki was also an Aesir. populations from Lesser Caucasus and western Following the Edda, he’s the one who helped Iran could have developed seeding and Hödr to kill Baldr with an arrow probably made harvesting on hills slopes simultaneously with of mistletoe. For us, Loki is in fact the the preservation of the liquid water during the incarnation of the people who harvest gardens maximum glacial. Thus, agriculture could have along the riverbed, indeed *Lək means bed and is been also lowered later, at the hill feet. However, in modern Azeri usually used to call planting-bed there is a constant in toponymy that interested us on river’s banks. It gave numerous villages along during our research that could bring some new the Kura’s steppe. inputs regarding the rapidity and the tracks that semi nomadic farmers could have followed Mannean/ Manna Yarması: Farina towards Europe and central Asia. *Manna yarması (noun, Azeri) means farina or This constant is based on toponyms formed on semolina. Wheat, barley and millet have been *Gom- we directly link to the same modern found in the Hasanlu site ( Lake, Armenian *գոմ pronounced [gom] and *գոմեր Occidental Azerbaijan, Iran). It is well-known (noun) pronounced [gomer] that means Barn/ today that these plants needs to be processed in a

51 Book 30, V. 53 Molleson 1994 in Turcotte 2012 52 M. Christian Goudineau, Antiquités Nationales. 54 Turcotte 2012 29

Barns. In great majority, toponyms are located in valleys, at hills or mountains feet, whose dispersion’s pattern with toponyms based on *Van- is complementary in Lesser Caucasus. The dispersion draws clearly several roads that link the source of the Indus in the Himalayan chain where it is commonly used to call small green glens at the mountains feet, Iran and Transcaucasia with a similar use, Anatolia where it draws a clear meander between mountains’ chains and seems to be linked to Greece from where it runs towards Dinaric Alps, the plain of Po and north Iberian Peninsula. This dispersion’s road is connected to another one that stretches from the Russian plain to northern England by several corridors opened on Danube River, in Romania, Hungary and in Alps by the Inn River valley.

In Europe like in northern Iran (Gilan) toponyms in *Gom- suffered a diachronic dissimilation with the reinforcement of the palatal /k/ like in Welsh with *Cwm- that means valley or in Iran, where this phenomenon is also visible in Gilan (Iran) where Gomol on a hill between mountains finds a counterpart few kilometres below, in the plain, with Kumeleh. Another Toponym based on *Çim- that we link to the culture of leguminous55 or to the pasture56, accompanies *Gom- in Anatolia and Europe. A first hypothesis proposes a movement from the hill slopes that could have lowered the altitude of cattle breeding sustained by the use of the modern Turkic *Vadi (noun) that means valley whose fricative /v/ has been rooted earlier to the Transcaucasian and Iranian Hydrological lexical linked to the Foehn wind effect.

55 K. F. Johansson J. A. Lundell, K. B. Wiklund K. V. Zetterstéen, Ôst-Europas ock Asiens historia ock sprâk ock litteraturer, religioner ock folkdiktning, Uppsala Akademiska Bokhandeln, 1906, University of Toronto Press. 56 *Çim means grass in modern Turkic. 30

Figure 9 Up: Toponyms in ‘Gom-‘; Down: Red Dots: Toponyms in ‘Van-‘, Yellow Dots: Toponyms in ‘Gom-‘ Rondu 2017

31

Figure 10 Toponyms in *Gom- and *Çim-

Figure 11 Non exhaustive list of toponyms based on ‘Galleh’ and ‘Xirman’ Rondu 2016

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1 Cime, , ppl 39.9543200 36.0862600 2 Cimeli, Adana, ppl Turkey 36.6985000 35.3439400 3 Cimeli, Kirsehir, ppl Turkey 39.2931300 34.2122900 4 Cimen, Duzce, ppl Turkey 40.7359500 31.3111400 5 Cimen, Konya, ppl Turkey 39.0080600 32.5452800 6 Cimen, , ppl Turkey 39.0378100 38.6158400 7 Cimen, , ppl Turkey 39.6333300 38.1666700 8 Cimen, Van, ppl Turkey 39.0150200 43.1216600 9 Cimenbag, Anralya, ppl Turkey 36.2272900 32.4764900 10 Cimencegiz, Ankara, ppl Turkey 39.6822200 32.1478400 11 Cimencik, Konya, ppl Turkey 37.4718800 34.0046700 12 Cimencik, Siirt, ppl Turkey 37.6773000 41.9608300 13 Cimendere, Konya, ppl Turkey 38.2333300 31.4377800 14 Cimendere, Tekirdag, ppl Turkey 40.7847700 27.0280400 15 Cimenduzu, Van, ppl Turkey 37.8536800 43.4177900 16 Cimenkaya, , ppl Turkey 41.1063900 42.4963900 17 Cimenkuyu, Karaman, ppl Turkey 37.0591900 33.5104900 18 Cimenli, Agri, ppl Turkey 39.2162500 43.0346700 19 Cimenli, , ppl Turkey 41.1840800 41.9841500 20 Cimenli, Batman, ppl Turkey 37.7814800 41.6317500 21 Cimenli, , ppl Turkey 40.1777300 41.9081300 22 Cimenli, , ppl Turkey 36.9158300 37.1836700 23 Cimenli, Gumushane, ppl Turkey 39.9720700 39.3399500 24 Cimenli, Hakkari, ppl Turkey 37.5370900 44.2467500 25 Cimenli, Rize, ppl Turkey 40.9184200 40.5470600 26 Cimenli, Samsun, ppl Turkey 41.1572400 36.3916200 27 Cimenli, Tunceli, ppl Turkey 38.9144500 39.5795900 28 Cimenlicoragi, Gumushane, ppl Turkey 39.9500000 39.3500000 29 Cimenlik, Malatya, ppl Turkey 38.9982300 37.9741600 30 Cimenlik, Mardin, ppl Turkey 37.3914900 41.0211600 31 Cimenliyenikoy, Aksaray, ppl Turkey 38.4876200 33.9067100 32 Cimenozu, Tokat, ppl Turkey 40.6169700 36.9108200 33 Cimenteppe, , ppl Turkey 40.1012900 39.7049700 34 Cimetepe, Manisa, ppl Turkey 38.2919800 28.7187000 35 Cimenyenice, Sivas, ppl Turkey 39.8500000 37.5333300 36 Cimikoy, Antalya, ppl Turkey 37.0305600 30.8508300 37 Cimiski, Bilecik, ppl Turkey 40.2670500 30.3589400 38 Cimittekke, Tokat, ppl Turkey 40.4945900 37.4240100 39 Cimlicayir, Ardahan, ppl Turkey 41.2903200 42.7737500 40 Cimrikas, Gumushane, ppl Turkey 40.5666700 39.2666700 41 Cimsarip, Batman, ppl Turkey 37.7927800 41.5827800 42 Cimsir, Giresun, ppl Turkey 40.7418500 38.3106500 43 Cimsit, Ankara, ppl Turkey 39.4314800 32.8915600

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Figure 12 Left: Traditional House from Gilan, Iran, courtesy Bromberger, 2015; Right: Altyn Hanshayym, the Golden Princess, credit Mr Krym Altynbekov, ARHCENTR.KZ

Castes Agricultural Technics Modern Persian/ Azeri Languages

Aesir Horse breeding *Atçı (noun) means horse breeder

گ ,Galleh (noun)/ *Galesh (*Gālešī* noun, Persian) that means ,گگ Gallic Cattle breeding/ semi nomadism respectively the Herd or the Herdsman

verb, Persian) that ,گگگگ) Xirman* Germans Harvesting means to Harvest

Loki Planting-bed/ Gardening *Lək (noun, Azeri) means Bed

*Manna yarması (noun) means Farina Manneans Grinding grains or Semolina

Goat Skin Suspension/ Goat skin as gold *Sərmək (noun) means to hang panning technic

Goat’s wool weaving/ Jacket, part of Sakās *Šakā (noun, Gilaki) means Jacket the costume

Goat’s wool weaving/ Cap, part of the Scythians *Çutku (noun, Azeri) that means Cap costume

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Yggdrasil: Ijdrahddr

Gangleri asked: « where is located the seat of the sanctuary of gods? » The Very-High answered: “where the ash tree Yggdrasil stands…it is supported by three roots, one is in the Aesir Kingdom, the second in the Giants of frost, the third in the gigantic Ginnungagap chasm… Snorri’s Edda, chap. 15. Gylfaginning, trad. F.-Xavier. Dillmann.

The population keeps even today in its folklore architecture or sculpture. It is also used to call the great respect and beliefs related to trees most foundations. We propose to see in Yggdrasil, an likely brought by the Indo-European populations. Azad Tree that farmers worshiped to obtained Especially through the cult of Azad trees whose profit in agriculture, which is the backbone of the superstitious fear it cut which is considered a Aesir Kingdom. sacrilegious act57. They are objects of worship, grow near the tombs of the saints, near Edda: Yggdrasil cemeteries or inside mosques. They are *Ösül (noun) meaning -sil substructure or devotional objects, each dedicated to a specific foundations kind of wishes *Nazr58. These sacred trees are sometimes called bozorgvār "prominent" or pir Ulashly/ Улашлы: Place of Yggdrasil? "spiritual master" or āqā dār "Lord Tree." Ulashly (Улашлы, 39°13'36"N 46°42'18"E) is a small village from the Qubadly district. Its name Yggdrasil: Back bone of the Kingdom is composed of *Ulas in prefix that means Hornbeam and ly or lı in postfix is a locative that Yggdrasil tree is depicted in the Edda being the also means with. Thus Ulashly is place of the structure of the Aesir Kingdom and their Hornbeam that we proposed to be the Yggdrasil neighbours. former place.

Yggdra-/ Ijdrahddr: the Profits of Farming Modern Azeri Toponymy Language In Old Persian Ijdrahddr means farmer with the *Ulas – lı (noun + Ulashly (39°13'36"N global signification of manager of resources and locative) means the 46°42'18"E) profits, Ijdrah meaning price or profit59. This is place with Hornbeam the homonym of the Yggdrasil’s prefix.

Edda: Yggdrasil Old Persian *Ijdrahddr (noun) Yggdra- meaning farmer as a manager *Ijdrah (noun) Yggdra- meaning price or profit

Özül: Structure and Worship

The Old Persian *Özül (noun) mainly means a soul with a global in a broader sense applied to

57 Bromberger, Iraniaonline, GILAN xvi. FOLKLORE, Mars 2011 58 Marcel Bazin, 1977; Bazin, M. 1978. 59 A Dictionary in English and Persian, with pronunciation of Persian Words in Roman Character. Ramdhun Sen. 1841. 35

Mythology as Unexpected Accurate and comprehensive Historical Source

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History of Men

Despite the Edda is a ‘classic’ from the Norse songs have probably been transmitted orally and Literature which relates the History of mythic definitively frozen in Codex during the 13th Vanir and Aesir and despite modern Azeri century in a context of the Nordic language is traditionally linked to the medieval Christianisation. Their transmission to modern Turkic migrations towards northern Iran and times is due to the successive reappearances of Anatolia, we tried the experience of using the manuscripts designed as collections: the 'Codex latter to decipher names, toponyms and concepts Upsaliensis' (1639), the oldest copy of the Prose present in the Nordic poems. The results were so Edda now kept in Uppsala (Sweden) and the impressive and accurate that we generalised the 'Codex Regius' (1643). They were revealed to the process and also used modern Armenian and Danish and Icelandic elite by Brynjólfur , topography and toponymy Sveinsson (1605-1675), Icelandic Lutheran from Transcaucasia, Lesser Caucasus and of Skálholt (1639-1675) who gave them northern Iran. The combination of all these respectively to Stephanus Johannis Stephanius elements revealed the glens and the villages and to Frederick III, King of Denmark. which became the main characters of these magical poems. At the end of our study, these Skálholt is a small town in the west of Iceland poems appeared to be in fact high accurate ocular about 70 km from Reykjavik. Despite its testimonies which relate events that occurred geographic position relative to the Icelandic since the Neolithic until the Achaemenid Empire capital, it was one of the determining foci of in the Lesser Caucasus, orally transmitted since Christianity in the island. Facing persistent pagan generations, compiled, organized and traditions, the new religion received a strong transcripted in prose by Snorri Sturluson. His boost from its first bishop Ísleifur Gissurarson Edda is the principal source we used to analyse (1006-1080). He was the first son of goði (Godi, the Nordic poems and allowed us to distinguish Islandic noun meaning Chieftain) Gizurr Hvíti several episodes that have marked the literature (White), member of the clan later known as the in Mesopotamia, Greece, Eurasia and India. Haukdælir. Gizurr was one of the first Icelanders However, while these episodes began and ended converted to Christianity and made his son to in different timelines, transmitted and deformed educate the monastic school in Herford by different contexts and languages, the Snorri (Westphalia), then headed by Abbess Godesti. Sturluson’s Edda didn’t suffer interruption since Thus, Ísleifur was the first Icelander to receive a the Neolithic until migrations in Scandinavia religious education and being ordained abroad. dated from Eneolithic to Early Middle Age, On his return to Iceland, he settled on the farm of making the population that has transmitted it, the his father, to Skálholt, as goði and was elected probable main protagonist. In return, the bishop in 1055. Even the name of the city of Mesopotamian, Hebraic, Greek and Indian Skálholt is a key to the riddle of creation and versions gave us details that have completed the reappearance of the manuscripts and the reason work of Snorri Sturluson. of the first bishopric in the island. Indeed ' Skál’ probably comes from the word ‘Skáld’ which means 'poet' in Icelandic and 'holt' that means 'wood'. The ambivalence between place of pagan Iceland, Skálholt traditions and high-venue of the new religion could be interpreted as a demonstration of The Nordic Mythology poems or Eddukvæði in legitimacy and a strong political ambition to Islandic literally meaning Edda Poems (Eddu enrol and unit in both traditions, of old and meaning Edda; Kvæði meaning Poem) have been modern times, the largest number of Icelanders compiled in two bodies one is called the Poetic under his influence. Edda and the second written in prose is called Younger Edda or Prose Edda. The Scandinavian

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Snorri Sturluson in ancestral poems. The main goal was probably to create a reliable historical source that Snorri is an Icelandic poet and politician. He’s encompassed several ages and major episodes born in 1179 in Hvammur, in the region of Dalir that could link the Icelandic people to the to the west of Iceland from two very influential Christian faith, however we have demonstrated families. Sturla Thordason, his father, was active that the reverse happened, some biblical episodes in the quarrels between the ruling families of the being extracted from the Eddaic main structure. island and his mother, Gudny Bodvarsdottir was proud of her mythic ancestors. In that tension’s Edda Modern Azeri Language *Adam Edən (noun) context, Snorri has been raised far from his Edda family by Jon Loftsson to avoid reprisals that means the Man could have been caused by conflicts where his father played an active role, symptomatic of the In other words, it would implied that a single growing influence of the Christian religion in population which would have witnessed all these Iceland and the tensions it has caused. events and conserved a historical and cultural unity during such a long period, until its Traditionally, Snorri inherited from his mother the heroic ancestry and his father's political migration in Scandinavia, is placed as an equal to strength. He was logically placed as heir of the the others who claim being elected or legitimate traditional culture as a Skáld could be. Of this from a religious side. This argument explains posture, one can draw the conclusion that Snorri why the Snorri's Edda has been written and how hoped to play an important political role in it could have been used in several purposes by Iceland. This is what he did, but he became a several parties. However, from our point of view, political issue for King Hakon and Skuli, Prince it is highly probable that Snorri Sturluson Regent, rivals for the court of Norway. As the couldn’t figure that the poems he compiled went first couldn’t fully submit Snorri to his tutelage, back in time until Neolithic, including in a larger the latter was put to death. Meanwhile, Snorri narrative those biblical events, bringing more had time to compiled Eddaic poems and let contextual details than other founding narratives. behind him a prose Edda certainly very This particularity makes the Snorri Sturluson’s innovative for its time. Indeed, when songs that work so interesting for the archaeological and were in the 12th and 13th century still transmitted historical research. orally, he used the prose form to freeze them definitively. He also wrote a History of the Kings of Norway (or Heimskringla), from mythical The Reconstituted World of Snorri Sturluson origins to the 13th century and the Saga of Egill, son of the Bald Grímr, great poet and magician. We considered that all the personages from the Eddaic poems were communities represented by Edda/ Adam Edən: a Philological Approach of one human being, male or female, who incarnates the History of Men a hero or a god. These communities were most of time what is now a village or a city, sometimes a Then the sons of Bor built for themselves, in the personage incarnates a geographic specificity like midst of the world, a fort which is called Asgard, with Surtr brandishing a burning sword and the but to which men give the name of Troy... Zangezur Mountain next to the mining Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 9 complex where most of the Lesser Caucasian In modern Azeri the Man is called *Adam Edən Copper is extracted today. Thanks to this that is for us, the root of Edda being its probable intellectual posture we discovered all the places contraction. By its name, we consider at first and landscapes that are depicted in the Eddaic sight that the Snorri Sturluson’s work was not poems, scene of the dramatic events depicted only pure poetry but the result of a long with high accuracy. philological research in which the author tried to explain the concepts and events which occurred

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Toponymy and Modern Azeri- Armenian Examples of Names extracted from Eddaic Poems Languages Asgard Asgarabad/ Əsgərabad (Azerbaijan) Baldr Baldirghanli (Azerbaijan) Fenrir Əfəndilər (Azerbaijan) Fiolnir Fioletovka (Azerbaijan) Freyja - Frigg Feredjan (Azerbaijan) Gandalf Gonbarf (Eastern Azerbaijan, Iran) Garm Garmab or Garmaab (Iran) Gimle Kumeleh/ Gomol (Gilan, Iran) Gunnar Kenar (Gilan, Iran) Har Ahar (Eastern Azerbaijan, Iran) Hati Hat (Azerbaijan) Hel Hal (Azerbaijan) Ialg / Ialk Yuxarı Cürəli / Yukhari Aghali (Azerbaijan) Iotunheimr Getn Tun (Land of Rivers in modern Armenian) Jörmungandr Iormughanlo (Georgia) Midgardr *Misgər *Dərə (Copper Valley in modern Azeri) Mimir Məmər (Azerbaijan) Muspell Məlikpəyə (Royal Stable in modern Azeri) Nar Nahār (Eastern Azerbaijan, Iran) Nyr Nir (Eastern Azerbaijan, Iran) Oski Ocaqli (Azerbaijan) Ori Ori (Eastern Azerbaijan, Iran) Sif Tifyie (Gilan, Iran) Sigurd Sigarud (Gilan, Iran) Skoll Gushchular (Azerbaijan) Snorri (Sturluson) Tsnori (Georgia) Svidar / Svidrir Bileh Savar / Biləsuvar (Azerbaijan) Զանգեզուրի լեռնաշխ/ Zəngəzur Mountain Surtr (Armenia) Thokk - Thekk Tokhmdel (Eastern Azerbaijan, Iran) Tyr Tiri (Azerbaijan) Vali Vali (Azerbaijan, Iran) Vanadis Vənədi (Azerbaijan) Var Vardin or Varzeqan (Eastern Azerbaijan) Volva Vov (Azerbaijan) Yggdrasil Tree Ijdrahddr (Farmer’s wish of profit in Persian)

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Figure 13 Non exhaustive map of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Eastern Azerbaijan (Iran), Gilan (Iran) and Georgia where locations homonyms to personages from Eddaic poem (in italic) have been found. 1: Fioletovka/ Fiolnir; 2: Biləsuvar/ Svidar or Svidrir; 3: Yuxarı Cürəli/ Ialg or Ialk; 4: Ocaqli/ Oski; 5: Yukhari Aghali/ Ialg or Ialk; 6: Bileh Savar/ Svidar or Svidrir Rondu 2017

Figure 14 Map of Lesser Caucasus and Transcaucasia with homonymic toponyms found in the Greek Mythology, Rondu 2017

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Lesser Caucasus: Homeland of Greek Mythology

We mapped all toponyms which are homonyms to the personages and places from the Greek Mythology. All of them recovered approximatively the places from the Nordic Edda.

Armenian/ Azeri/ Dravidian Greek/ Toponymy/ Hydronymy modern Languages

Acheron Hakari River

Achiroe, mother of Danaos Hakari River

蓁岿 (Huḍugi) – ಪತ್ನಿ (Patni), Aegyptus Kannada language, means the Girl- Wife

*냆쳆 (Beḷe, noun Kannada) means , Father of Danaos and Aegyptus Crop for cultivating

Akrísios Ağrı Dağı (Ararat Mountain) *Ağrı (noun) means Ache or Pain

*առողջություն (arroghjut’yun) Argos means Health

Danae/ Danaos/ Daneans *Dən (Noun) means Seed

Zeus *Döyüşçü (noun) means Warrior

*நில (Nila, Noun, Tamil) means Nil River (Egypt) Land

Armenian/ Azeri/ Dravidian Greek/ Roman Mythology Toponymy/ Hydronymy modern Languages

*மீனவ (Mīṉava, noun, Tamil) Minerva Means Fisher

* ாண்டித்தியம் (Pāṇṭittiyam, Pantheon noun, Tamil), means Wise or Scholarship

Parnes, former capital of Parnassos (Armenia)

Perseus *Pirs (noun) means Pier

,Eastern Azerbaijan, Iran ,قیاب ر Ori (also 39°0'42"N 46°56'26"E)

Helens Hal (39°16'32"N 46°40'28"E)

Ulashly (also Улашлы, , Ulysses 39°13'36"N 46°42'18"E)

Troy/ Tyre Tiri (39°2'4"N 46°45'19"E)

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*ஆட்羿டடயன் (Āṭṭiṭaiyaṉ, Titans Tamil) means Shepherd

Shikharg (also Syxarx or Shikharkh, Styx River Azerbaijan, 40°19'53"N 46°52'58"E)

Tərtər River / Tərtər (also, Mir Bashir, River Mirbäshir, and Terter, Azerbaijan, 40°20'36"N 46°56'13"E)

Acheron River Hakari River

Gomaran (Kapan, Armenia, 39°11'2"N 46°24'49"E) / Gömür ((also, Gëmyur, *գոմ (Gom, noun, Armenian) Kömür, Gyomyur, Nakchivan, Armenia, means Barn or Stable 39°27'43"N 45°45'3"E) …

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A Unic Testimony of Holocene’s Changes and an accurate Description of Neolithic Societies in Lesser Caucasus

Population who mastered hydrology in mountains slopes has left its mark on the Lesser Caucasian and Iranian toponymy, logically locating the area where we consider R1 haplogroups settled, bringing the fricative /v/ that transformed hydronyms and variants ‘Wand/ Wad’ into ‘Van/ Vad’. This input is clearly visible in a first zone that stretches from western Georgia to Māzandarān and a second zone that stretches from Lesser Caucasus to central Iran, Eastern Azerbaijan being the junction. This large region is not only marked by a complex hydrological network but also by volcanism. As introduction for his Edda, Snorri Sturluson staged in few chapters a Genesis of the Earth, using the Icelandic volcanism to rebuilt similar phenomenons told in the poems. Today, his sources are not known and we can’t quantify the original poems’ input in his narrative, so here are some clues that could sustain a volcanic event testimony in Lesser Caucasus during Holocene mixed with a naturalist’s observation in situ. In a second time, thanks to the poems and the Sturluson’s observations, we could link those he called the ‘Vanir’ or the ‘Giant of the Frost’ to the population of Lesser Caucasus, famous region for its obsidian’s industry during the Neolithic. The Sturluson’s description of the ‘Giants of the Frost’ coincides with the archaeological founding allocated to the Shulaveri-Shomu culture.

Icelandic Volcanism at the Service of the Description of a Lava Flow Narrative When the rivers that are called Elivagar have arrived so far that the poisonous stream that Gangleri asked: What changes intervened before they dragged began to harden - like the slag the races made their appearance and the human slipping out of the fire... race grew? Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, Chap. 5 The Most High says: When the rivers that are In the Edda the Elivagar rivers that harden when called Elivagar have arrived so far that the they are far from their sources are obviously lava poisonous stream they dragged began to harden flows. - like the slag slipping out of the fire - it formed ice. And when the ice stopped and did not melt, Volcanic Winter the steam that emanated from the poison froze ..it formed ice. And when the ice stopped over it, in the same direction (as the flow of ice), melting, the steam that emanated from the and turned into frost. Thus, layer by layer, the poison froze over it, in the same direction (as the frost increased in volume and reached the flow of ice), and turned into frost. immense abyss, Ginnungagap. Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, Chap. 5 Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, Chap. 3 The ice on warm lava that creates steam is a Iceland was the Snorri Sturluson’s geographical phenomenon that is visible today in Iceland. context and it sounds natural that he could have Glacier quickly shaped introduced local volcanism as monumental and …Thus, layer by layer, the frost increased in theatrical landscape to stage his story. Here are the accurate descriptions of a lava flow and the volume and reached the immense abyss, natural process of the obsidian seen by Snorri Ginnungagap. Sturluson that probably enriched the poems. Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, Chap. 5 The mechanism of a glacier filling a mountainous

circus is described in the Eddaic poem that

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depicts in few words the ice’s movement like in a slopes of Sahand volcano is one of the homeland fast time laps motion movie. of peoples depicted in the Edda.

Obsidian Process The Ghegam Ridge …the steam that emanated from the poison The Ghegam Ridge (40°23’21”58, 44°99’59”33), froze over it, in the same direction (as the flow of located in west-central Armenia west to the Lake ice), and turned into frost. Thus, layer by layer, Sevan, contains a broad concentration of lava the frost increased in volume and reached the domes and pyroclastic cones of Pleistocene-to- immense abyss, Ginnungagap. Holocene age. The volcanoes and associated lava Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, Chap. 3 flows cover a 65-km-long, 35-km-wide area west The slow natural process that transforms silicate of and south of the River. rich lava into obsidian is well depicted here: Lava flowed into Lake Sevan from the central acidic lava is called ‘poison’ and becomes frost and eastern clusters. Initial explosive eruptions in by the slow deposit of ice. Acidic lavas are very the volcanic field were followed by the extrusion viscous and less hot than basic lavas (700-900°C) of rhyolitic obsidian lava domes and flows. The and their chemistry induces a strong latest activity produced a series of andesitic and polymerization and therefore a high viscosity basaltic-andesite cinder cones and lava flows. which limits the diffusion of the elements and the The central and eastern portions of the Ghegam crystallization (germination + mineral growth). Ridge contain large areas of Holocene eruptions Acidic lava may not crystallize at all, obsidians with morphologically fresh lava flows devoid of are then obtained60. vegetation. The last irruption of the Ghegam Ridge has been recorded in 1900 BCE64.

Climate cooling Phases

During the Neolithic that covers two stages of Volcanism in Caucasus and Western Iran Holocene period, the end of the Boreal (11 ka (kilo-annum) and the first half of the Atlantic (9 Lesser Caucasus and Oriental Azerbaijan is one ka – 6ka), the Caucasus is characterized by of the most important volcanic hotspot on Earth, alternation of relatively cool climate, then being the place where the Arabic and Eurasian warmer climate with increased humidity, and plates have collided, burying the Neo-Tethys again a cool phase. The last phase is 61 Ocean . The encounter of the two plates have characterized by recurrent worsening of climatic developed one the most dynamic volcanic region conditions and cooling, impacting the flora and dominated by the Sahand volcano (Kuh-e- probably the human activity65. The recurrence of Sahand) in its south and the Gehgam Ridge in information related to seismic, maritime events in West central Armenia. the Edda, open a perspective that could sustain the idea that local human population has recorded Sahand a volcanic event that could have triggered The Sahand (37°43′51″N 46°30′00″E) is a volcanic winters during the expansion of the stratovolcano (3707m) doted by numerous lava Neolithic, significantly slowing it down in its domes on its lower flanks and its eruptions can spread in Caucasus. be dated from Pleistocene (Potassium-Argon dates from 1.2-0.8 million years ago62) and until 63 Holocene . We will demonstrate here that the

60 Hervé Bertrand, Olivier Dequincey, 2008. 61 About: Farhad & al. 2013. 64 Bibliography used: IAVCEI, 1973-80; Karakhanian 62 Innocenti & al. 1982 2002. Karakhanian A, 2003. Sviatlovsky A E, 1959. 63 A. Karakhaniana & al. 2002 65 Tamaz Kiguradze, 2001 44

Prehistoric Hydrology and Shulaveri-Shomu Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 5 Culture (8000 – 6500 BP) described in the The Snorri Sturluson’s Genesis depicts perfectly Edda the Foehn wind effect on glacier that permitted to human to survive during a cold and dry period. Thanks to modern studies and researches made in The poems describe the water’s runoff which Transcaucasia and Lesser Caucasus, our gave life to the ancestor called ‘Ymir’ or knowledge in local Neolithic cultures has ‘Aurgelmir’. increased and we can start our interpretation of the Edda regarding archaeological data. The Ymir/ Miras: Legacy Nordic poems offer a surprising accurate The Eddaic poem says that the races of giant of description of Caucasian artefacts allocated to the the frost have been created from the lineage of Shulaveri-Shomu culture, which is described as ‘Ymir’. To illustrate the legitimacy in the legacy persistent until Iron Age66, argument of of the land, the name of the first mythical anachronism sustained by the death of the ‘Giant ancestor could be rooted to the modern Azeri Hrungnir’ during a singular duel with Thor that language with *Miras that means Family, Legacy or Heritage. we have placed few times before the founding events of the Achaemenid Empire. The accurate Edda Modern Azeri Language depiction of the duel gave us all elements we *Miras (noun) meaning have compared with the most recent findings Ymir Family, Legacy or related to the Shulaveri-Shomu Culture (8000 – Heritage 6500 BP). The culture has been identified by I. Narimanov during excavations done in Western Azerbaijan on the sites of Shomu Tepe, Tojre- Obsidian: Hrungnir’s Regalia Tepe and Babadervish. The distribution of Hrungnir had a very famous heart: It was of hard Shulaveri sites are invariably positioned on the stone, had sharp edges and presented three foothills, along a series of tributaries of the Kura protruding horns like the magic sign that has River67. The culture extends from the middle since been made to its imitation and which is course of the Kura (Georgia) to southern Lesser called 'heart of Hrungnir'. He was of hard stone Caucasus and is linked to typical mud brick with sharp edges. His head was also of stone, circular buildings68 are linked to a wealth of and so was his shield, which was broad and artefacts like pottery, bones and antlers, obsidian thick. He had a sharpening stone for his weapon, and stone tools. which he waved at the height of his shoulder.... Foehn Wind depicted in the Edda Snorri Sturluson, Skáldskaparmál, chap. 3

When the burning air blows met frost, it began Due to the geological activity in lesser Caucasus, to melt and dripped. Then from these dripping the Armenian highland is wealthy of obsidian- drops springs life under the action of the heat bearing volcanic fields69 like the , source and a human form appeared. His name is Ymir, but the giants of the frost call him

Aurgelmir. This is from him that descent all the 69 Keller, J. Djerbashian, R., Pernicka, E. Karapetian, races of giants of the frost. S.G., Nasedkin, V. 1996: Armenian and Caucasian obsidian occurrences as sources for the Neolithic Trade: Volcanological setting and chemical 66 Persistence of obsidian from Neolithic (7th characteristics. In: S. Demirci, A. M. Özer and G.D. millennium BC or to the very beginning of the Summers (eds.); Archaeometry 94. Proc. of the 6th millennium cal.) until Iron Age; Badalyan & 29th Int. Symp. on Archaeometry, 9-14 May 1994, al. 2007 Ankara, pp 69-86. See also: BADALYAN R., 67 Lyonnet & al. 2016 CHATAIGNER C., KOHL Ph., 2004, "Trans-Caucasian 68 Tamaz Kiguradze, Shulaveri Shomu , Obsidian : The Exploitation of the Sources and Their Encyclopaedia of Prehistory, Volume 4, Peregrine, Distribution", in A. Sagona (ed.), A View from the Peter N., Ember, Melvin (Eds.)2001 Highlands : Trans-Caucasus, Eastern Anatolia and 45

Sjunik and Kapan zones (Armenia), south to the in our development. We prefer underline the lake Sevan. These zones interest us particularly poetic force of the Sturluson’s Edda that depicts because they are next to the Hakari valley, where how the Neolithic mace head broke on the Iron we placed the population who witnessed a great Hammer, shifting forever the place of the part of the events related in the Edda. This Icelandic testimony, from folkloric poetry to population was linked to the obsidian industry as historical source. indicated by the Hrungnir’s costume whose royal regalia made in obsidian is described as follow: his shield ‘Hrungnir’s shield’, his helmet Məlikpəyə/ Muspell: Royal Cattle in the Hills ‘Hrungnir’s Head’, and his pectoral ‘Hrungnir’s Heart’. Gangleri asked, where lived Ymir, and of what The poetic name of ‘Hrungnir’s Heart’ made of a was he living? sharpen stone core surrounded by three horns is, The very High replied: here is what happened in fact, the exact description of the perforated or next: drops of frost took out from the cow called carved bone elements (boar’s tusks) found in the Audhumla and, as four rivers of milk flowed from Mentesh Tepe burial70 among which obsidian her udder, she nourished Ymir. ... She licked the blades have been found. We propose to see in frost stones that were salty. The first day she them an assemblage that formerly constituted a licked them, the hair of a man emerged from a pectoral owned by a high rank personage. rock in the evening; on the second day, a whole man appeared. His name was Buri ... He had a He had a sharpening stone for his weapon, which son who was Bor, and he married the daughter he waved at the height of his shoulder.... of Bolthorn the giant, with whom he had three Snorri Sturluson, Skáldskaparmál, chap. 3 sons. Few well-polished stones mace heads have been Snorri’s Edda, Gylfaginning, chap. 4 found in the Shulaveri-Shomu settlements This chapter describes how the Edda described indicating that these weapons could have the context in the Lesser Caucasus during the belonged to the elite71. We see in the ‘sharpening Sioni period, intermediary phase between stone’ of Hrungnir the symbol of his military and Neolithic and Bronze Age. This period seems to social position. coincide with the testimony of the glacier melting Death of Hrungnir: How Obsidian returned in and the exploitation of the uplands. For numerous reasons that will be reinforced by Mountains arguments presented all along our development, The giant brandished the sharpening stone with we placed the location where the testimony both hands and threw it in the direction of the occurred between the Hakari River and the hammer (of Thor). It met him in flight and broke Mount Boyuk Kirs, in a place called today in two. A piece fell to the ground: this is the Məlikpəyə literally ‘Royal Stable’ in modern origin of all the mountains in which there are Azeri. This is where we have identified the sharpening stones. location of Muspell in the Edda. Snorri Sturluson, Skáldskaparmál, chap. 3 The reasons of the mythic duel that opposed the Mount Boyuk Kirs giant Hrungnir to Thor have been explained later The Mount Boyuk Kirs (2725m) are the highest relief of Azerbaijan shaped like a wall or a rocky North-western Iran, Studies in Honour of C.A. spur from the Jurassic period belt called Burney, Peteers Press, Leuwen, p. 437-465. 70 Lyonnet & al 2015 P. 176-178 Somkheto-Karabagh. From its northern and 71 Tamaz Kiguradze, Encyclopaedia of Prehistory, southern parts run two chains of peaks that form Volume 4, Shulaveri Shomu: Socio political a circus’ like shape we have identified to be organization, Peregrine, Peter N., Ember, Melvin ‘Ginnungagap’ from the Edda. Today the (Eds.)2001 46

luxuriant Gordahat forest takes place on what was a former glacier. Sioni Culture: Cattle in Uplands Ginnungagap The geographical context of the Sioni culture In its part facing north, Ginnungagap fills with a sites is more heterogeneous than the Shulaveri – heavy mass of ice and frost, and, from there, Shomu culture. They are found on the valley steam and cold air blast spread to the inside of floors, foothills and uplands73 which imply the abyss. Conversely oriented in its southern farming and stock breeding technics enough part, Ginnungagap lightened under the effect of elaborated and architectural solutions to support sparks flying out to meet him from the world of semi nomadic cattle in altitude. This hypothesis Muspell… could explain the decreasing presence of cattle in Just as the cruellest cold came from Niflheim, Mentesh Tepe between the Neolithic Phase I and what was near Muspell was warm and bright. Neolithic Phase II74 to the benefit of mountain But [inside] Ginnungagap was as sweet as the air farming. Detecting and evaluating human without wind. presence in stubble burnings traces in Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 5 stratigraphy could be a good chronological marker for the future researches in this area. The description of Ginnungagap in the Edda is exactly what we could say about a glacier Məlikpəyə/ Muspell: The Royal Cattle cooling and melting following seasons’ phases First of all, there was ... the world that is located and describes perfectly the air’s circulation inside in the southern part and is called Muspell. It is the circus that protects the centre from the heat bright and very hot, as this region is only fire and waves, retains temperate air and humidity that flames... It can’t be reached by the foreigners descend from the Kirs Mountains and hit the hills and to those who do not possess ancestral where the Gordahat Forest grows. domains. Snorri’s Edda, Gylfaginning, chap. 4 Mid-Late Holocene: Fire against Ice Conversely, oriented in its southern part, Məlikpəyə (39°33'54"N 46°36'25"E , Ginnungagap lightened under the effect of district of Kashatagh, Karabakh Republic) a small mountain village is not phonetically very sparks flying out to meet it from the world of close to the Eddaic Muspell, however we place Muspell… this village in the centre of our analysis. Indeed, Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 5 Məlikpəyə reveals the crucial link between Episodes of dry climate and fire are well kingship and breeding in Karabakh, Məlik recorded during the mid-late Holocene72 and the meaning King or Royal and Pəyə meaning the sparks that touch the ice in the Edda can be, of Stable or Cow-house in modern Azeri. course, seen as an Icelandic glacier close of a For us, Məlikpəyə, the Royal Stable, is what lava flow, but it also could be interpreted as a remain today of the development of a late summer fire close to a glacier, situation that ‘Neolithic way of life’75 in the Karabakh, could have occurred on the glens upon the Hakari sustained by the Eddaic poem that describe River, where fires and winds could have sent Muspell as an ancestral farming. Later in this clouds of ash in the Kirs circus. paper, several arguments will reinforce our theory.

72 JOANNIN, S., ALI, A. A., OLLIVIER, V., ROIRON, P., PEYRON, O., CHEVAUX, S., NAHAPETYAN, S., TOZALAKYAN, P., KARAKHANYAN, A. and CHATAIGNER, C. (2014), Vegetation, fire and climate history of the Lesser Caucasus: a new 73 Kiguradze Tamaz 1998 Holocene record from fen (Armenia). J. 74 Lyonnet & al. 2016 Quaternary Sci., 29: 70–82. doi: 10.1002/jqs.2679 75 Christine Chataigner & al. 2014. 47

Modern Azeri Modern Edda Edda: Pleonastic Germanic Language Armenian Jotunheimr Toponym Language language Məlik (noun) meaning Mus- Royal Getn (գետն, Pəyə (noun) meaning -Pell noun, Stable or Cow-House Jotun- pronounced Məlik-pəyə means the jeten) Muspell Royal Stable meaning Rivers

Get (noun) *Jot- means At Confluence of Rivers: Jotunheimr River

In the Edda, ‘Jotunheimr’ is a land that is Tun (noun) recurrently cited being the homeland of the means Giants. This is where the majority of events *-Tun Home, related in Edda occurred. House, Land Jotunheimr: Land of Rivers Heim The Vorotan encounters the Hakari River few (noun) Jotun- Heim means kilometres before entering the Araxes River, just heimr in front of the Kalibar River and create a T- House, shaped plain. From there, with the Terter River, Home they form an axis that surrounds the Karabakh by the west and joins the middle course of the Kura. In the Edda, it is common to read that Jotunheimr was the land of Giants and we propose to see in its name the exact representation of this land crossed by several major rivers. Indeed, in Armenian the word Get (գետ, pronounced ‘jet’) or it plural Getn (գետն, pronounced ‘jeten’) means River/ Rivers. The phonetic similarity between Getn and Jotun allows us to hypothesize that they are similar even if /j/ has been replaced by /y/. Heim that means home in Germanic could have been a late input forming a pleonastic toponymy if we consider that Jotun is the contraction of Get and Tun that means House or Home in modern Armenian.

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Figure 15 Climate exchanges between Kirs Mountain and Hakari Valley, Credit Google Earth 2016, Rondu 2016

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The Importance of the Insightful Greek Myth of Danae

While Perseus is mentioned in Homer as the son ஆபராக்垿யத்鎿ற்埁 (Ārōkkiyattiṟku, 76 of and Danae (Ancient Greek Δανάη), Tamil)/ առողջություն (arroghjut’yun): Argos daughter of Akrísios (Ancient Greek Ἀκρίσιος) the story seemed to have been enriched later and Danae is the daughter of Akrísios, king of Argos. in Greek literature. After the Oracle of Delphi It is commonly accepted that Argos was a Greek told that the King Akrísios will be killed by the city, but we rather say that it is a concept that son of Danae, he imprisoned her. However, Zeus will be later transported in Peloponnese. Indeed, transformed in a golden shower succeeded to for us Argos is the dissimilation form of reach her and from this union was born Dravidian noun present in Tamil with 77 Perseus . While the development of the *ஆபராக்垿யத்鎿ற்埁 (Ārōkkiyattiṟku) or geographical context and story line seems to be in Kannada language with *ಆರೋಗ್ಯ typically Aegean, the main structure seems to be (Ārōgya) that means Health. The influence is a reused of the Caucasian event that became the visible in Lesser Caucasus not only with [y] glide Titanomachy in the Greek mythology. Then, present before a vowel, like with Erevan details from the Greek narrative make it a transformed in for instance, but also in keystone testimony, completing the Edda, the the Armenian health vocabulary with a similar Gilgameš Epic and lighting the importance of the *առողջություն (arroghjut’yun) that shares the agricultural technics and vocabulary broadcasted between Scandinavia and Levant. Here we will same meaning. develop a similar analysis than Professor Armen Akrísios/ Ağrı: A Mountain in Pain Petrosyan from Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography (Yerevan, Armenia)78 but, from a In modern Turkic *Ağrı (noun) means the Pain different point of view the results reveal a or Ache. This noun is used to call the most different cultural reality. important mountain of the Armenian Republic, the Ararat Mountain: Ağrı Dağı (Mont Ararat). As we have hypothesize that proto and modern Dravidian Etymology of ‘Agriculture’ have perfectly conserved the vocabulary used by the Lesser Transcaucasian We saw previously that L1 Y-chromosome is population during Eneolithic, we have analysed highly frequent in the southern part of Indian the name of Akrísios, father of Danae, as being a sub-continent. This area is dominated by several phonetically similar to *Ağrı. Dravidian languages like the Tamil and the Kannada which is one of the most ancient one. Titans: *ஆட்羿டடயன் (Āṭṭiṭaiyaṉ, Tamil) The male from the Birds’ cave Areni-1 (L1a Y- chromosome/ H2a1 MtDNA), is revealing Titan is the recurrent name of the ancestors of the indirectly more clues about a Dravidian main heroes of the Pantheon. This noun takes its migration in Lesser Caucasus which brought a origin in the Tamil *ஆட்羿டடயன் linguistic input. That probably followed the (Āṭṭiṭaiyaṉ, Tamil) which means Shepherd and labio-dental fricative [v] we consider to be confirms that mythology is based on histories of symbolic of the R1 Y-chromosome haplogroup. famers and herders from a Dravidian languages tradition.

76 Homer, Iliad, XIV, 319-320 77 Pherecydes of Athens, FGrH 3 F 10 78 Armen Petrosyan, The Indo-European *H2ner (t)- s and the Dánu Tribe, The Journal of Indo-European Studies, Volume 35, Number 3 & 4, Fall/Winter

2007. 50

Agriculture and Trade: the Birth of Money pronounced [gom]) that means Barn in Armenian has been well preserved in modern Turkic noun We consider here that the Danae myth is an *Gümüş which means Silver. The latter allegory that explains how the trade of underlines the hypothesis of a possible origin of agriculture has developed the first monetization the palatial building explaining the iconographic and the use of gold as a value. choice of the Darius’s palatial columns.

Danae and the Divine golden Seed

*Dən (Noun, modern Azeri) means Grain and in Gamira/ Gomer: Traders a broader sense the Seed and completes the lexical field of agriculture that is dominated by The antique literature from the Assyrian archives the action of harvesting which is called *Xirman to the Greek ancient sources, Gamira or (verb, modern Persian). Cimmerian are considered as Iranian warriors, probable nomads whose homeland seems to be Daughter of Akrísios: Daughter of Farmers impossible to locate. We propose to see in these testimonies the only moments where our Akrísios (Ancient Greek Ἀκρίσιος) is merchants-warriors are in conflict with kingdoms surprisingly, phonetically, close to the Latin they crossed. are commonly *Ager (noun) that means the Field, and very considered as being a nomadic people, most close to the Germanic *Acker. We propose to see likely from Iranian origin, who flourished in the in Akrísios, an agricultural common noun that 8th-7th centuries BC. In Greek Kimmérioi and in shares the same root than Indo-European nouns Latin Cimmerii, they are called in Assyrian and and which has survived in modern Azeri *Xir Babylonian sources under various forms: Ga-mir, (noun) and modern Persian *Xirman (verb) that Gamir-(r)a, Gi-mir-a-a, Gi-mir-ra-a-a…79 In the means to harvest. Hebrew Bible they are probably called gmr80, Masoretic Gṓmär; in the the forms Golden Shower: the Kapan Valley Gámer (Genesis) and Gómer (Ezekiel) are used81, and in the Vulgate Gomer. For us, these The golden shower in which Zeus transformed is names are the dissimilated noun based on *գոմ an allegory of the proximity of the Kapan mining pronounced [gom] making them cattle breeders valley where gold is still abundant today. and traders.

Barns, first Places of Trade Hebraic Greek/ Assyrian Hebrew Masoretic Bible Latin ... A large residence which is required Valaskialf Ga-mir, Kimmérioi/ Gami-ra, Gámer, Cimmerii Gmr Gṓmär and belongs to Odin: it was built by the gods, Gi-mi- Gómer… who covered it with a solid silver roof. In this hall ra… stands the throne which is called Hlidskialf: when Those from Gomol/ Kumeleh Odin sits there, he sees the whole world. At the southern extremity of the sky is the hall which is Gomol and Kumeleh illustrate the different the most beautiful of all, and which is called pronunciations of the palatals /g/ and /k/. In Azeri Gimle: it is brighter than the sky ... a roof and Turkic, the plural is formed by adding (-*lar) covered with gold. to the singular of words ending with bold vowels Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 18 (or last vowel of the word) (a, ı, o, u) and (-*lər, in Azeri) to words ending with thin vowels (or In the Edda, the halls that belong to Odin are last vowel of the word) (e, ə, i, ö, ü). ‘-Lar’ also covered by silver (Valaskialf) and covered by gold (Gimlé). They are, for us, at the same time 79 Parpola, 1970a, pp. 122-33; cf. Pinches, p. 611 the place where cattle are sold and the probable 80 Genesis 10:2, Ezekiel 38:6 first market. Polysemy of *Gom- (*գոմ 81 Josephus, Antiquitates Iudaicae 1.123: Gómaros, and 1.126: Gomareís 51

marks the inhabitants of a city like for example *Ackermann that still belongs to the farming the *Istanbullular who are the inhabitants of lexical field. . Thus the Masoretic *Gṓmär or the Greek Kimmérioi are in fact the dissimilation of Trade by Boats: *ದೋಣಿ [Dōṇi] Gomollar or the Kumelehlar. In Kannada (Dravidian) *ದೋಣಿ [Dōṇi] (noun) Azeri/ means Boat. It will become one of the most Gilan’s Turkic Masoretic Greek Toponymy plural important markers of this population who has postfix migrated toward Atlantic by the northern shores Gomol *Lar Gomollar Gṓmär Kumeleh *Lar Kumelehlar Kimmérioi of the Black Sea, letting behind several hydronyms in *Don- like the River Don.

Kannada (Dravidian Hydronymy Language) *ದೋಣಿ [Dōṇi] means Rivers called Don/ Donets Trade at Long Distance on Rivers Boat or Dao

The fiery lord of populous Asia (Xerxes) is leading his wondrous warrior-flock against the whole Structure of Myths, Mirror of Human earth in two divisions, on foot and by the sea, Activities putting his trust in his stalwart and stern commanders; he himself, a god-like hero whose By integrating *Dən and *Xirman into a global race is sprung from gold. agricultural activity dominated by a group which Aeschylus, , 7382 is one layer of a global society, we can better understand how myths were structured and *Pirs (noun, Modern Azeri) means the Pier and transmitted during Eneolithic period. Indeed, if is particularly close, phonetically, to the name of we stay in the same logic, when mythical stories Perseus, the son of Danae. The *Pirs brings the of an agricultural group were told, the speaker concept of fluvial or maritime transit that is the said precisely during which season the event source of exchange that can be monetized. Then, occurred by calling the group in accordance with the warrior (Döyüşçü in modern Azeri) that we the seeding or harvesting season (Dan or Xirman) consider to share the same root as the Greek Zeus and not as if they were separated nations. opened the trade road to farmers making them However, as we propose that the Caucasian/ wealthier. The consequence is the influx of gold, Iranian population was probably divided in explaining why Zeus became a golden rain. This several agricultural castes ruled by powerful argument sustains the Herodotus’ relay of the families, distinct in their customs by Greek folklore which linked the Persians to geographical, agricultural and industrial Perseus83. We can verify it by homonymy with constraints like sedentariness for product’s Achaemenes (Old Persian form Haxāmanišiya transformation, harvesters on fields or gardeners also attested in Elamite Ha-(ak-)ka-man-nu-(iš- on planting-bed (*Lək, noun, modern Azeri) or )ši-ya84) or Haxāmaniš which calls the first semi nomadism like for the herders, *Galleh ,noun, Persian ,ل ه گ ,ancestor of Persian kings. This similitude is (noun)/ *Galesh (*Gālešī today enhanced with the phonetic resemblance that means respectively the Herd or the between *Haxāmaniš, the modern German Herdsman), or long-distance nomadism with *Pirs that implies cabotage on river or coasts. So it is logic to find several nouns from the agricultural lexical field adapted to different 82 Tr. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D. in two volumes. 1. landscapes that will be part of the local that we (הגלול :Persians. Herbert Weir Smyth, Ph. D. Cambridge, ethnogenesis like Galilee (Hebrew MA. Harvard University Press. 1926. 83 can interpret to be the ‘Land of shepherds’, or the Herodotus, Histories, VII 84 R. Schmitt, “Achaemenid Dynasty,” Tribe of Dan, calling with *Dən those who Encyclopædia Iranica, I/4, pp. 414-426 harvest between mountain and sea. This pattern 52

is also visible in Europe and the geographical Myth Mode Mode context has a same impact. Indeed, while Galicia of Modern rn Latin German rn Dana Turkic Persia is commonly used to describe mountainous Azeri region where herders nomadize in mid altitude, e n low and flat lands are most likely linked to those Ağrı *Xir who harvest, like the Danes, a Germanic tribe Dağı *Ag (noun *Xirm (noun we consider to be a dissimilation of (Ararat er *Acker/ ) an *Xirman), who dominated the Jutland which Mountai (nou Ackerm mean (verb) doesn’t offer any mountain. This place is today Akrísi n)/ *Ağrı n) ann s mean called Denmark which is the composition of os (noun) mea (noun) Kitch s to means ns means *Dən and *Mark that is could be interpreted with en Harve the the the Field the modern Swedish that means Land. Garde st Pain/ Field n Ache

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Misgər / Misgər Dərə - Midgardr/ Miðgarðr/: Zangezur Mining Complex in Eneolithic Period

...they made, the merciful gods, Midgard, for the sons of men. Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap.8

The few metal artefacts that have been retrieved place where native copper (mineral) was in Mentesh Tepe are mostly linked to a second transformed and finally used in weaponry. Thus phase of the Shulaveri- Shomu culture85. Here is Midgard or *Misgər Dərə was probably the how the Edda described one of the probable industrial place where copper smiths made the epicentres of the Copper Age in Lesser Caucasus, copper weapons and other products. between the Vorotan and Araxes Rivers, in the The development of copper metallurgy in modern Kapan Valley. Transcaucasia could have been linked to its naturally abundant geological context, Zangezur Mountains being a probable place of origin and Copper Mountains in Southern Lesser forges in its foot that have marked generations Caucasus under the name of *Misgər Dərə. The copper probably entered the Transcaucasian Neolithic As for the Jotunheimr, the Edda describes the during the last phase of Shulaveri - Shomu Kapan region by its most characteristic feature: Culture, situation that recalls the few copper mines riche in copper, silver and gold, that elements that have been found in Mentesh 88 poems have literally called the ‘Copper Valley’. Tepe .

Misgər / Misgər Dərə - Midgardr/ Miðgarðr Modern Azeri Edda: Midgard Language In modern Azeri, Misgər means copper- and is commonly attributed to a copper brazier, Misgər (noun) means Midgar- (Miðgar) Mis meaning copper. Dərə means glen, valley or copper smith rift that is matching with the geological mountainous context where native copper is Dərə (noun) means -dr (-ðr) easily available in a volcanic region86. This glen, valley, rift hypothesis is sustained by the recent results of the Moritz & al. research in the extreme south of Lesser Caucasus, Zangezur– region87, on Mığıdərə/ Misgər dərə/ Midgard near the right bank of the Vorotan River. We propose Məlikpəyə to see in Misgər and Dərə, the Eddaic Midgard (Miðgarðr in Islandic) that is interpreted in the Next to Məlikpəyə (Laçin Rayon), the name of folklore as being the fortress that protects the the Mığıdərə village, probable dissimilation of men. We rather interpret it like the geographical *Misgər *dərə, calls another copper valley, making cattle breeding and mining co-existing

85 together on high lands. It also reveals that mining Lyonnet & al. 2015. P 179-180. 86 The native copper (Cu) occurs as a natural could have been generalised in mid altitude mineral and is commonly found in cavities and everywhere it was possible. porous zones of effusive mafic rocks which are the product of the extrusion of basic lava. 87 ‘The composite –Ordubad and plutons of the Zangezur–Ordubad region in the southernmost Lesser Caucasus consist of successive Eocene to Pliocene magmatic pulses, and host two stages of porphyry Cu–Mo deposits’ in Moritza & al. 2016, Pages 465–503. 88 Phase 2, building 286/536 in Lyonnet & al. 2015 54

Zəngəzur/ Զանգեզուրի լեռնաշխ: the Zəngəzur Mountain’s chain was probably a Copper Mountain strategic position on the Araxes that has protected the Southern Lesser Caucasus. In the Native copper is easily available in a volcanic Edda, Surt (Surtr in Islandic) is a fantastic being region89 and Zangezur Mountains that is a natural who, violent and linked to the fire element, frontier between the autonomous Republic of protects Muspell from the south. His sword is in Nakhichevan and the Armenian province of fire and he seems to incarnate the invulnerable Siunik, is naturally rich in copper, zinc and warrior. For us, he is the symbol of the molybdenum90. Zəngəzur is the Azeri name for metallurgy and the new power that it conferred. the Armenian Զանգեզուրի լեռնաշխթա This poetic argument is sustain by his name Surt (pronounced Zangezuri lerrnashkht’a) that is that is the almost the homonym of the modern rooted to the simple Զանգեզուրի լեռնաշխ Azeri Sırtıq (adjective) that means Loutish, (Zangezuri lerrnashkh) that means Copper Shameless, Impudent. It is probably part of the Mountain. Zəngəzur’s name.

Kapan, (Syunik district, Armenia) is one of the most dynamic mining regions in Lesser Caucasus. The mountains mainly constituted by rocks from Jurassic and Cretaceous period host skarns deposits rich in gold and copper. The valley is paced by three major mines Kavart, Shahumyan and Gomoran. We propose to see in that valley, the mythic Misgər Dərə, Midgard of the Edda.

Unðir Miðgarði, the Protection of Midgard/ Misgər Dərə: Surt (Surtr), Sırtıq

This is where the one called Surt live: he stands on the frontier of this land to defend it and owns a burning sword. At the end of the world, he will to the battle; he will defeat all the gods and set fire to the whole world. Snorri’s Edda, Gylfaginning, chap. 4 In the Eddaic poems, Midgardr is commonly interpreted as being the fortification that surrounded the world of men to protect them91. We rather say that it was a general noun to call a copper mining and, in that case, the region of

89 The native copper (Cu) occurs as a natural mineral and is commonly found in cavities and porous zones of effusive mafic rocks which are the product of the extrusion of basic lava. 90 ‘The composite Meghri–Ordubad and Bargushat plutons of the Zangezur–Ordubad region in the southernmost Lesser Caucasus consist of successive Eocene to Pliocene magmatic pulses, and host two stages of porphyry Cu–Mo deposits’ in Moritza & al. 2016, Pages 465–503. 91 Dillmann, 1991, note on Midgard: p. 149. 8 55

Figure 16 From top to bottom: View of the southern Lesser Caucasus with a closer look to the Kapan Mining complex; View of Məlikpəyə and Mığıdərə Credit Google Earth, 2016 Rondu 2017

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Copper Pollution: Cases of Epidemic Albinism in a Single Brotherhood

And his body was white as snow and red as the blooming of a rose, and the hair of his head †and his long locks were white as wool, and his eyes beautiful Fragment of the Book of Noah (CVI-CVII.) Chapter CVI.

Here we will demonstrate that a brotherhood mutations eliminate the activity of tyrosinase, born from a local ruler was marked by preventing melanocytes from producing any Oculocutaneous Albinism. As we saw melanin throughout life. These mutations cause a previously, the Lesser Caucasus is one of the form of oculocutaneous albinism called type 1A major providers of copper since prehistory until (OCA1A). People with this form of albinism today and it is known today that metal pollution have white hair, light-colored eyes, and very pale could play a major role in epidemic albinism, skin that does not tan. Other mutations in the argument that links the mining exploitation and TYR gene reduce but do not eliminate tyrosinase the ‘genetic incident’ in the ruling family. the activity. These mutations, which allow some Genesis in Hebraic Bible and the Nordic Edda melanin to be produced, cause oculocutaneous are quiet highly accurate in their depiction of albinism type 1B (OCA1B). People with type 1B brotherhood’s albinism giving perspectives to are also born with white hair, light-colored eyes, many researches on the genetic mechanism and pale skin, but hair and eye color often darken which is at the source of the broadcasting of blue over time and skin may tan92. As Tyrosinase is a eyes and white skin in Asian and European copper-containing key enzyme we can figure93 populations. what could have done a high level of copper in water and food in Lesser Caucasus during Eneolithic.

Epidemic Albinism Noah/ *பநாய் (Nōy) In normal function, the TYR gene provides And his body was white as snow and red as the instructions for making an enzyme called blooming of a rose, and the hair of his head †and tyrosinase. This enzyme is located in his long locks were white as wool, and his eyes melanocytes, which are specialized cells that produce a pigment called melanin. Melanin is the beautiful†. And when he opened his eyes, he substance that gives skin, hair, and eyes their lighted up the whole house like the sun, and the color. Melanin is also found in the light-sensitive whole house was very bright…. And his father tissue at the back of the eye (the retina), where it Lamech was afraid of him and fled, and came to plays a role in normal vision. Tyrosinase is his father Methuselah. 5. And he said unto him: 'I responsible for the first step in melanin have begotten a strange son, diverse from and production. It converts a protein building block (amino acid) called tyrosine to another 92 Sources for this chapter : compound called dopaquinone. A series of Lewis RA. Oculocutaneous Albinism Type 1. 2000 ; additional chemical reactions convert Murisier F, Beermann F. Genetics of pigment cells: dopaquinone to melanin in the skin, hair follicles, lessons from the tyrosinase gene family. Histol Histopathol. 2006; the colored part of the eye (the iris), and the DNA Variations in Oculocutaneous Albinism: An retina. More than 100 mutations in the TYR gene Updated Mutation List and Current Outstanding have been identified in people with Issues in Molecular Diagnostics, 2013 oculocutaneous albinism type 1. These mutations 93 Marcelo Brito, Erica F. G. de Caramaschi "An disrupt the normal production of melanin, which albino armored Schizolecis guntheri reduces coloring of the hair, skin, and eyes and (Siluriformes: ) from an Atlantic Forest causes problems with vision. Most TYR coastal basin", 2005 Neotropical Ichthyology volume=3 57

unlike man, and resembling the sons of the God Hel/ Danae/ Inanna: The Girl from the Šikil of heaven; and his nature is different and he is not like us, and his eyes are as the rays of the The goddess wept like a woman in labour, and sun… Bêlitilî, with her beautiful , lamented: "Ah, if Fragment of Book of Noah (CVI-CVII.) Chapter that day had never existed, when among the CVI. assembly of the gods I took the wrong decision. In this assembly, could In the Book of Noah, his birth is marked by the I have thus decided carnage to annihilate the fear and the fled of his father, Lamech, patriarch people? I would have put my people into the from the Seth’s lineage who didn’t recognize in world only to fill the sea with them, like fish! " Noah’s white-rose skin, light eyes and light hairs Gilgameš Epic, Tablet XI, 116-123 his own heritage. The accurate description of the new born body is obviously depicting a case of Even if the myth suffered a diachronic and a albinism implying a birth in a population with a contemporary Greek story line from the Vth darker skin and brown eyes. The skin and eye century B.C., the main narrative gives us clues color of Noah probably had repercussion on the about the proximity between the girl who was group. The idea according to which he could imprisoned and later called Danae. The have sent them in the close Tartar River, can find probability that she was imprisoned in the Šikil, its origin in a Lamech’s decision to protect him the space between the house’s flor and the soil in the best place because the river draws a narrow common in traditional and folkloric Iranian and dark canyon until it reaches the Kura’s plain. houses, could explain her name (the place could So, if Noah has been hidden in Tartar River, it have store seeds) and tells how a great part of the would for not only a political reason but also to Edda and the Gilgameš Epic has been composed not expose him to the sun. As it is told in the from an hear witness. book of Noah, his son was ‘sons of god of heaven alike’, poetic premonition of the According to the Greek myth, Danae was from a brotherhood which have followed. royal lineage and was imprisoned to not giving birth to a child who would kill her father. The *பநாய் (Nōy) means Illness in Tamil which girl gave birth to the Zeus’s child and Akrísios has survived in the Noah’s name. His skin, hair placed them in a wooden box and let them drift. and eye’s depigmentation could have been one of We propose to see in that reconstructed episode the characteristics for which others called him the feminine counter part of the ‘Noah’s flood’. *பநாய் (Nōy), Noah. Nott and her Son Dag Hel: the Half Flesh-coloured There was a giant who lived in Jotunheimr and She is half blue-black and half flesh-color (by was called Norfi or Narfi. He had a daughter which she is easily recognized), and very called Nott who was black and dark, like the race lowering and fierce. from which she was born... She was given in Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, 34 marriage to Delling, who belonged to the Aesir race. They had a son who was called Dag, and In the Edda, Hel is the Goddess of the Dead who was brilliant and handsome, like his father. we have identified to be the incarnation of the Alfadr then took Nott and Dag, his son: he gave city of Hal, on the Vorotan (39°16'32"N them two horses and two chariots, and placed 46°40'28"E, district). The Nordic poems them up in the sky depict her as if she had partial depigmentation of Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap.10 the skin and her place is surrounded by grids. We propose to see in her, one of the brotherhood, hidden on the Vorotan.

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Nott is depicted in the Edda as being black skinned ‘like the race from which she was born’ however she gave birth to a brilliant son called Dag, reminding the same adjective that was used to depict Noah at his birth, in other words a depigmentation of albinism case. Dag is the homonym of *Tag (noun, German) that means the Day. We propose to see in her personage the non-genetic origin of Oculocutaneous Albinism and the evidence of metal pollution.

Məlikpəyə/ Muspell and the Metal Pollution of Mığıdərə/ Midgard

Another argument sustains our hypothesis which is the proximity of copper mining and probable forge (Mığıdərə/ *Mısğər *dərə literally Copper Valley) on the same glens that composed the

Məlikpəyə (Royal Stable/ Barn) we have identified being the Eddaic Muspell. The latter being always under the protection of Midgard in the poems is the demonstration of a too close promiscuity with metal waste.

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The Rise of the Horse Breeders’ Caste

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When the Maritime Plain rose from the Sea

The earth will rise from the sea, and it will be green and beautiful. The fields will yield fruit without being sown... Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, Chap. 53

After a dry, wind dominated climate on the the flow of the river (450 million m3 on average) southern Caspian shores (10 – 8 ka YBP) the with a high content of alluvial deposit, and Hircanian vegetation colonised the Caspian Fūmanāt plain in the west where blend old and southern coastal strip94. Since 3500 years, the rich marine alluvial sand beaches in alluvial cyclic fluctuations of the Caspian Sea have a deposits. The plain of Gilan has a lagoon in the 450-500 year-periodicity with a sea level rise of process of silting while the Caspian Sea nibbles circa 20 m in the Late Holocene95. These the coast of Talysh which is reduced to a small fluctuations have been recorded in the Edda as strip of land a few kilometres wide. dramatic in the same time as the arrival of the Gilan: Heart of Clay and Luxuriant Vegetation Aesir who settled in the southern Caspian maritime plain (Gilan, Mazandaran) and in the While the sons of Bor walked on the sea shore, Bolgarçay river’s delta, where they have installed they found two trunks of trees. They raised them one of their major political centres. We propose and fashioned two men: the first gave them to see in this installation the presence of R1a Y- breath and life, the second the intelligence and Chromosome haplogroup that have brought a the movement, the third the appearance, the proto-Azeri vocabulary that has enriched the speech, the hearing and the sight.... military lexical field. Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, Chap. 8

In the first chapters, Snorri Sturluson has created a Genesis almost similar to the Biblical one. Gilan However, instead of imitating the Hebraic Bible The modern Gilân is a northern province of Iran. that explains that the Man has been fashioned Its complex geography includes both a with clay, he rather used stranded tree trunks on mountainous area and a large coastal plain to the the beach. It is interesting to recall that the south-west of the Caspian Sea mainly consisting Hircanian forest’s expansion coincides with the in alluvial deposits. It integrates the northwest last major regression of the Caspian Sea, end of the chain of Alborz Mountains and to the becoming with the clay, the second emblematic northwest, the highlands of Talysh that stretch element of the maritime plain. The topographic until Azerbaijan. Gilan is connected to central position of the coastal plain has a very Persia by a complex geological structure and a characteristic Hircanian type of climate which, network of rivers and creeks that lead to the thanks to the prevailing atmospheric currents by the Urmia Lake96. The region is known north-south moistened by the Caspian, face the for its great rectangular coastal plain crossed by mighty barrier of the Alborz Mountains. The the river Safīdrūd. The river’s delta often result is abundant rainfalls throughout the year changed its course bringing new silty layers and that water in both plain and the north-western currently flows Ziba Kenar and Bandar Kia Sahr. slope of the mountains covered with luxurious 97 This large area of 35 km wide and 90 km long forests . According the altitude, three levels of can be divided into two main parts: the delta of forest can be distinguished: Hircanian mixed Safīdrūd east, which has been entirely created by forests, mountain beech forest and forest of high mountain oaks and charm. The forest once covered the plain but nothing remains today 94 Kazanci & al. 2004 95 Rychagov, 1997 96 Stöcklin, 1968 97 ADLE; Djavadi; Ganji 61

except few items, giving way to agriculture. It’s Óðr/ Otlar: Grasses still cover the greater part of the first slopes of the mountain to about 1000 m. From this altitude, In Islandic Óðr means Furious and following our the settlement of the forest follow a stratification future development the diachronic of its meaning like dissemination with a layer of very large trees can be easily linked to a context of fury, famous like the endemic oak, chestnut, Siberian elm, the in the Edda as being the ‘Aesir Fury’ from which iron tree, and most common, maple and charm. comes the Violence. However, we propose a At a certain altitude, a stratum of endemic previous origin for this noun by comparing it to Gleditchia caspica (līlakī) marks the landscape. the Turkic *Ot that means Grass that gives in plural *Otlar that means grasses.

Modern Turkic/ Azeri Edda Social Structure and Vegetal Languages *Otlar (noun) means Óðr Aesir are led by a king called Odin and in a lesser Grasses extent Óðr or Hodr. Those names are commonly interpreted as calling different characters in the Armenian Khot (խոտ)/ Turkic Ot: Steppic poems but we have analysed them differently, based on the modern Turkic languages (Turkic/ Social Rank Azeri) that we consider being the most preserved In Armenian the Grass is called *Khot (խոտ) and closest vocabularies to the one used in the making it very close to the modern Turkic *Ot. Edda, illustrating how the flora is used to However, if we consider that the palatal /k/ represent the Universalism of the leader. became silent in Turkic phonetic, it was probably Odin/ Odun: Wood not the case for the populations between Lesser Caucasus and India. *Odin (modern English form of Óðinn in Icelandic), is rooted to the Turkic *Odun (noun) Modern Armenian Modern Turkic/ Azeri Language Languages that designates the wood as a vegetal material for *Խոտ (Pronounced *Ot (noun) means Grass construction. The wood is a strong vegetal, rare Khot) means Grass in the steppe and symbol of the forest’s extension during the Holocene. It can be interpreted as Koth/ God: Götür-qoy etmə, Reflexion and being the higher rank in the vegetal world. Thus, Decisions Odin can be the most solid among human and became the leader’s title. Odin is also commonly In Islandic *Guð (noun) means God, the divine linked to the Old Norse Wōðanaz, Wōden in Old entity and *Goði means Priest. For us, the Saxon, and in Old High German Wuotan. We Icelandic *Guð or *Goði have preserved the propose to see in that name the exact history of their own. Indeed, in modern Turkic/ of the modern Azeri adjective *Odun: Wooden. Azeri, the verb *Götür that means to take and *götür-qoy etmə which means deliberation/ Modern Islandic/ Azeri/ Modern reflexion are the highly probable original Edda Proto Turkic English meaning, making the Aesir lord called *Khot/ Nordic Languages God by the lesser Caucasians, the one who is *Odun praised to take the decisions. This argument is (noun) sustained by the polysemic *Goð which both meaning means *Good or *God. the Wood Odin/ Óðinn / Odin (material) Wooden Wōðanaz Gods in Assembly *Odun (adjective) (adjective) Their first act was to build the temple in which meaning their headquarters are located, which are twelve Wooden

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in number, in addition to the throne that belongs to Alfadr.

Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 14 In the Edda, it is clearly described that the leader deliberated with the approval of twelve others rulers, twelve in number.

Alfadr/ Havadar: Wind, the Promoter So it is with good reason that Odin may be called Alfadr, because he is the father of all gods and all men, and of that which has been accomplished by him and by his power.

Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 8

In Turkic *Havadar (noun) is commonly linked to an airy or a breezy place. This definition is not far from the open steppe and has probably been linked to the leader position. Indeed, in modern Azeri, Havadar (noun) is linked to a patronage, a promoting, as a father could do. Thus, Alfadr or Havadar is for us, the breath that animates the men.

Modern Turkic Modern Azeri Edda Language Language

Havadar *Havadar (noun) (adjective) Alfadr means Patron, meaning Airy, Promoter, Father Breezy

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Wealthy Merchants – Soldiers

Mariya Ivanova has developed the idea that the hypothesis according to which trade could during the Namazga period (4th millennium BC), have begun simultaneously with the installation the relationship between the cultures of Central of agriculture in the valleys, inciting exchanges Asia, Iran and northern Caucasus were close as between high and low lands, and between attest the findings of ‘foreign objects’ all along valleys. This hypothesis is sustained by our what could be considered as early trade roads. earlier etymological analysis of *Gom- which is The Gilan’s plain and the actual Oriental in prefix. Logically, *Gümüş or *Gümü (noun, Azerbaijan could have formed the boundary Turkic) that means Silver marked the valuable region where the cultures of East Eurasia, Iran manner to exchange with precious metal. The and Caucasus got in touch. By the Kura steppe Persian *Raxš (verb, Persian) that we retrieve in and passes through Caucasus, both goods that postfix –Rok, means To Protect. Thus we came were traded over the "Khorasan Road" and to the conclusion that *Gomrok or *Gümrük complex innovations, reached the cultures of literally mean to protect the silver and in a broad Eastern Europe98. This argument could be sense the Valley and its activities that we can sustained by the fact that during the 4th conceptualize as protecting the trade. millennium BC, a cultural rupture is attested in Modern , disrupting the cultural horizon Modern Turkic Modern Persian th Armenian of the 5 millennium that stretched all around the *Gom- (*գոմ *Gümüş or *Gomrok pronounced Black Sea. Yet it was suddenly replaced by a *Gümü (noun) (noun)means [gom]) means “high culture” named after the great Maikop means Silver Customs Barn kurgan that showed innovations in all areas which have no former local archetypes and which cannot be assigned to the tradition of the Balkan- Precious Metals link urban centres and the Anatolian Copper Age. We sustain the Ivanova’s Country theory and it by suggesting that major …they installed the forges, where they trade roads that led to Europe had Mugan steppe manufactured a hammer, pincers and an anvil, (Azerbaijan) as crossroads. We open a and with these instruments, they forged the prospective to explain the transit of ‘foreign tools. They then worked the metal, stone and artefacts’ on early trade roads on which R1a-M17 wood, as well as gold, metal they possessed in Y-Chromosome transited like in a pendular such abundance that they are in service to movement. The haplogroup’s phylogeography tends to demonstrate it99. household objects and utensils. Also, this time is called golden age... Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap.14

Trade The chapter 14th from the Sturluson’s Edda gives us some clues about how was constituted new It is common to read that the modern Persian urban centres, giving some details about the *Gomrok (noun) that means Customs comes temples and forges that were installed and how, from the Latin *Commercium (kommerkium) or from them, were produced metallic and golden from the Greek *Kommerkion. We rather propose artefacts. It is also said that Aesir were wealthy to give a more specific etymology by proposing of gold, information that sustains the hypothesis of imposition of taxes or possession of mines in

98 Kapan mining complex, the modern Shahumyan Mariya Ivanova, Kaukasus und : Die Entstehung des „Maikop-Phänomens” im polymetallic mine being a famous example for its 4.Jahrtausend v.Chr. Änomens“ im 4. Jahrtausend gold. The argument that make the Aesir v. Chr. 1, De Gruyter. 2012 possessor of mines is sustained by the toponym 99 Underhill & al. 2009 64

Gomaran in the Kapan mining valley, on the other bank of the River, in front of Shahumyan.

Gomol/ Kumeleh: Gimlé

All the righteous men live with him (Odin) in this place which is Gimlé or Vingolf, but the wicked will go to Hel and from there to Niflhel, it is all the way down in the ninth world. Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 3

In that time the good abodes shall be many, and also the bad. The best will be in Gimlé, in heaven… Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, 52 Gomol and Kumeleh illustrate the different pronunciations of the palatals /g/ and /k/. In Azeri and Turkic, the plural is formed by adding (-*lar) to the singular of words ending with bold vowels (or last vowel of the word) (a, ı, o, u) and (-*lər, in Azeri) to words ending with thin vowels (or last vowel of the word) (e, ə, i, ö, ü). ‘-Lar’ also marks the inhabitants of a city like for example the *Istanbullular who are the inhabitants of Istanbul. Thus the Masoretic *Gṓmär or the Greek Kimmérioi are in fact the dissimilation of Gomollar or the Kumelehlar.

We propose to see in the Gimlé from the Nordic ,Langarud County , هلموه) Edda the city Kumeleh Gilan, Iran).

Azeri/ Gilan’s Turkic Masoretic Greek Toponymy plural postfix Gomol *Lar Gomollar Gṓmär Kumeleh *Lar Kumelehlar Kimmérioi

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Əsgərabad, Domain of Odin

Then the sons of Bor built for them, in the midst of the world, a fort which is called Asgard ... It was there that the gods and their races settled, and since then many memorable events have occurred... Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 9

According to Peter A. Underhill R1a-M420 Y- There are no better words to describe how chromosome diversified in the vicinity of Iran Araxes and Kura Rivers are linked together than and eastern Turkey circa 25kya and its major those written by Herodotus. The later describes subclade, R1a-M417, 5800 years ago100. Here, them as if they are symmetric from their sources we propose to link R1a haplogroup to the to their mouths, from region (Eastern growing importance of military and trade Turkey) which separates them upstream, to the activities incarnated by the horse breeders’ caste Azerbaijan steppe where the Araxes divides in which is called Aesir in the Edda. They have hundreds of channels and reaches the Caspian established a solid strongholds (Əsgərabad, Sea. These last words are crucial because they Asgarabad) network, demonstration of their reveal that Araxes, at the time of Herodotus, military domination that stretches from the didn’t flowed into the Kura, as it is the case Mugan Steppe (Azerbaijan) to Gulf of Bengal today, but into the Caspian Sea, making the (India/ Bengladesh) by the southern shores of the steppe much shorter than today. It means in other Caspian Sea. Settled in the former Caspian words that Caspian Sea penetrated the actual coastal plain, in the delta of the Bolgarçay River plain, making the coastline different than today, a (Azerbaijan), one R1a lineage have imposed his shorter band of maritime plain that probably lineage, being the only one to cross the Caucasus started from the Bolgarçay delta and continued to reach Eastern and Central Europe and until Mazandaran. This hypothesis is today Scandinavia. confirmed by several studies which reveal how much the level of the Caspian Sea impacted the landscape101

Geographical and Ethnographical Context The Bolgarçay delta is today surrounded by a wetland rich in terrestrial and maritime fauna Əsgərabad is built in the Bolgarçay River and (Gizil-Agach State Reserve) that could offer a shares with others built in Gilan and Mazandaran good impression of what could have been the a similar agricultural context. Here is why it had Araxes’ mouth described by Herodotus, whose a serious repercussion on the cultural elements population was living adapting the fauna. that Aesir have broadcasted in Europe. Kura and Araxes Rivers Crossroad of the Maritime and Fluvial Transit The Araxes flows from the country of the Matieni The Kura-Cambyses Rivers’ axis constitutes the (as does the Gyndes, which Cyrus divided into the major road between the Caspian and central three hundred and sixty channels) and empties Caucasus and leads to the Black Sea by the Rioni itself through forty mouths, of which all except River. Until the 20th century, these rivers were one issue into bogs and swamps, where men are navigable until the construction of barrages like said to live whose food is raw fish, and their (Mingəçevir) during the 50s. customary dress sealskins. The one remaining South, the Araxes rivers constitutes a second stream of the Araxes flows in a clear channel major fluvial axis that links Caspian Sea to Near into the Caspian Sea. East by longing the Southern Lesser Caucasus. Herodotus, Histories, Book I, 202 The Bolgarçay region is at the junction between

101 About this subject: see Hoogendoorn & al. 2005 100 Underhill & al. 2014 and Lyonnet & al. 2012 page 145. 66

the Coastal maritime plain, the Araxes and is Hnikud, le fifth Fiolnir, the sixth Oski, le seventh close to the Kura’s mouth. These two strategic Omi, the Eighth Biflidi or Biflindi, the ninth fluvial roads make the Mugan steppe (Moḡān, Svidar, the tenth Svidrir, the eleventh Vidrir, the Azerbaijan) the most strategical crossroad twelfth Ialg or Ialk. between the Caspian Maritime Plain and in a Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 3 greater extent central Asia and northern India, and Mediterranean Sea. We propose to see in some of Alfadr’s names told in the Eddaic poems several places that are Xirman/ Khirmandali: Haxāmaniš, present in the Bolgarçay delta, Asgarabad placed Achaemenes at their geographic centre.

The Bolgarçay region is characterized by its rich Fiolnir/ Fioletovka: We propose to see in the agriculture that has an impact on the local city of Fioletovka (39°29'33"N 48°31'22"E) from toponymy. Khirmandali also spelled Xırmandalı Bilesuvar rayon the homonym of Fiolnir, the (Biləsuvar; 39°27'35"N 48°36'17"E, Azerbaijan) fifth name of Valfadr. is a Kura’s village near the village of Aşğarabad. This name is rooted to the Persian *Xirman Oski/ Ocaqli: Ocaqli is a small locality from which means harvest. Xir, similar to Celilabad rayonu (subdivision) (39°15'36"N (خرمن) *acker, *ἄγω or *Haxā are all rooted to the same 48°29'30"E). We propose to see in this toponym Indo-European word that meant harvesting or the homonym of Oski, the sixth name of Alfadr. farming. *Xir also gave the old Germanic Aka and the ájati. Achaemenes (Greek Svidar, Svidrir/ Bilasuvar, Bileh Savar :We Αχαιμένης, Achaiménēs) commonly rooted to the propose to see in *Suvar or *Savar in postfix in Old Persian proper name *Haxāmaniš and is the two cities names Bilasuvar (39°27'30"N eponymous founder of the Persian royal house, 48°34'21"E) from the Bilesuvar rayon and Bileh the Achaemenids. According to the Behistun Savar (39°22'41"N 48°20'26"E) the dissimilation inscription of Darius I (I.6 and A.8) and of the ninth and tenth names Svidar, Svidrir. Herodotus (7.11; cf. also 3.75), Achaemenes was the father of Teispes, ancestor of Cyrus II and Ialg, Ialk/ Yukhari Aghali, Yukhari Dzhurali Darius I. We do not think that Haxāmaniš was a :We propose to see in the two last names of single human being but the major agricultural Valfadr, Ialg and Ialk, the homonym cities of activity of the population who harvested along Yukhari Aghali (39°24'25"N 48°25'15"E) from the Kura’s riverbed. and we propose that this the Bilesuvar rayon and Yukhari Dzhurali name survived in the current common (39°21'46"N 48°34'1"E). anthroponym Ackerman which prefix’s etymology is simply Acker or Aker from the word Ager. The Horse and the Cart: Aesir Attributes Achaemenes, German Persian Old Modern Persian anthroponym language Persian Azeri founder The caste of horse breeders naturally became the *Xirman *Xir vector of military developments and trade. The (خرمن) (noun) Persian mastery of equitation being a crucial military *Haxā *Haxāmaniš means Ackerman noun Kitchen- meaning advance, warlords started to nomadized between gardening Harvest central Asia, Caucasus and central Europe were they disseminate both migrants and technology.

Odin’s Secondary Names calls Vicinities Aesir/ Atçı: Horse Breeders Alfadr is the name it bears in our language, but In modern Azeri *Atçı (noun) means Horse in the old Asgard he had twelve names: the first Breeder and globally used to call a Jockey. ‘r’ in is Alfadr, the second is Herran or Herian, the postfix in Aesir is the contraction of the plural in third is Nikar or Hnikar, the fourth Nikurz or accordance with the harmonic rules.

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*Atçı-*Gər/ Əsgər: the Soldiers, Cavalrymen in The Edda underlines recurrently the importance Duty of the Aesir’s caste when a character is introduced in the narrative. As we have found the In modern Azeri *Əsgər means Soldier and is greatest part of our etymological definitions in one of the most important comparative elements the Azeri and Turkic languages, we came to the between modern linguistic and ancient historical conclusion that horse breeders from the steppe sources. It is composed by the same root as the kept in their Turkic languages the vocabulary in modern *Atçı that finds its counterpart in use during the composition of the Edda, making Sanskrit *Asva and Old Persian *Aspa that are them the last remain of the Aesir language they also used for horse breeder or cavalrymen (also shared with population of Lesser Caucasus. called Atli). -*gər in postfix indicates a duty or activity via the Azeri auxiliary verb *Gərək that Dəri/ Tahru/ Thor: The Leather Armoured means need or ought to, must... Thus, *Əsgər are Every day, after getting dressed, they put on soldiers, mostly horse breeder in duty. their armour and go to the enclosure. There, they fight each other… Edda: Valfadr’s names Azerbaijan Toponym Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 41 Əsgərabad (Aşğarabad, Asgard 39°25'54"N 48°33'42"E) Tahru, Hittite God of Thunder is similar to Ishkur, Mesopotamian God of thunder. It’s very Fioletovka (39°29'33"N Fiolnir 48°31'22"E) close to modern Azeri *Dəri (noun) that means Ocaqli (39°15'36"N leather or skin that was not only used as cloth but Oski 48°29'30"E) also as armour. Thus the people who praised / Bilasuvar (39°27'30"N Ishkur and worn seal’s skin clothes and armours, Svidar, Svidrir, Vidrir 48°34'21"E)/ Bileh Savar were probably called *Dəri. So, it is logical that (39°22'41"N 48°20'26"E) this people gave birth to the name of Thor Yukhari Aghali assimilated to the belief in the Thunder God. (39°24'25"N *Dəri has also given the Greek noun Thorykion Ialg, Ialk 48°25'15"E), Yukhari Dzhurali (39°21'46"N (Θωρυκίων) that means armour. 48°34'1"E)

Azeri Greek Edda Early Wheeled Vehicles Dispersion’s Pattern Language

Overlaps R1a modern Dispersion *Dəri Thorykion (noun) Tahru, (noun) Thor, King Victor Novozhenov mapped the early wheeled meaning God of 102 meaning of Thunder vehicles in Eurasia and the dispersion’s pattern Skin or Thunder armoured perfectly matches with the Underhill R1a-Z93 Leather map of dispersion103. We know that the apparition of the wheeled vehicle appeared around the 4th millennium104 and according to Əsgərabad: The place of Soldiers data early chariots could have been the technological marker of the wheeled populations In modern Azeri *Əsgər (noun) means Soldier in central Asia, in Transcaucasia, and and is sometimes spelled Asghar and in the Edda, Scandinavia. Asgard is a major military place where Aesir settled. Asgard is the dissimilated form of the Horse Breeders installed in the Steppe kept Azeri *əsgər and *abad (Indo-Iranian that means the Vocabulary in Use in the Edda abode) that we can retrieve in several Iranian regions under the form of Əsgərabad. But the 102 Victor A. Novozhenov 2012. (In Russian) locality that interests us the most is the one 103 Underhill & al. 2014 fig. 3 located in the Kura’s mouth, in Azerbaijan. 104 Antonio Sagona 2013 68

Əsgərabad (also, Əskərabad, Äskärabad, and could be explained by several groups who Askerabad, (39°25'54"N 48°33'42"E) is a village occupied portions of this global network. Indeed and municipality in the Bilasuvar Rayon of while a western group, probably originated from Azerbaijan. Today, this region is paced by the Asgarabad of Bolgarçay River migrated fortresses from several periods. However, one toward northern Black Sea and Centrale Europe, ruin interests us specially (39°25N’48°27’E). It’s another one, located in an eastern part of the located between Yukhari Aghali and Mugan, Asgarabad network, migrated Indus and Ganges which could be the famous Odin’s stronghold. River. This theory could illustrate the R1a-Z93 dispersion’s pattern.

In the Indian sub-continent, the modern Z93 Phylogeography in the light of Toponymy dispersion of R1a-Z93108 and all affiliated groups based on ‘Əsgər’ matches for its greatest part with the northern Pakistan, former Gandhara, and is present in R Y-chromosome likely emerged from south 105 northern India all along the Himalayan chain and Asia and migrated from central Asia to Middle particularly along the Ganges River. In the Indus East and Lesser Caucasus where R1a-M420 Y- valley, only one peak is present in the last course chromosome diversified in the vicinity of Iran 106 of the River where only one Asgarabad toponym and eastern Turkey 25kya . Its subclade R1a- has been found. These Y-chromosome hotspots M17, the more diversified in the populations of perfectly match with the location of toponyms the Indus Valley than in any other population in based ‘Əsgər’ (soldier in modern Azeri). the world, yielding coalescent times above 14kya 107 (thousands of years ago) indicates a probable backs and forth between Iranian vicinity and Indus. We have placed the diversification R1a- M420 in the Kura’s mouth from where we have deduced the starting block of R1a-Z282. R1a- Z93 that is characteristic from Asia could have diversified in any of the Asgarabads founded on the trade roads that unit Centrale Asian and Indian Territories from where it migrated eastward.

R1a Dispersion from Caspian Sea to India by Trade Roads

Here is in Asgard a place called Hlidskialf, in which there is a throne: when Odin took his place, he could observe all the worlds, as well as the activity of everyone, and he understood all

that was available to him his stare. Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 8

Numerous Əsgərabad have been founded on the roads that link the Lesser Caucasus and the Caspian Sea to the Ganges and Indus. The singularity of R1a sub haplogroups’ migrations

105 Karafet et al. 2014 106 Underhill & al. 2014 107 Underhill & al. 2009 108 Underhill & al. 2014, figure 3 69

Figure 18 Geo-localization of Early Wheeled vehicles according to Novozhenov 2012: Selection of archaeological sites 1 – Акджилга (Akdzhilga); 2 - Текке- Таш (Tekke- Tash); 3 – Охна (Ohn); 4 – Каракиясай (Karakiyasay); 5 – Тхор (Thor); 6 –Чиббарнала (Chibbarnala); 7 – Дхарампури (dharampur); 8 – Чатур Бху Нэш (Catur Bhu Nash); 9 – Эдда Калькаве (Ed Kalkav); 10 – Жалтырак-Таш (Zhaltyrak Tash); 11 – Тэрс (Ters); 12-18 – Койбагар (Koibagar) I, II, III; Арпаузен (Arpauzen) I, II,IV, V, VI, VIII; КошкарАта (Koshkarata) I, II; Габаена (Gaba); Кокбулак (Kokbulak); Ксан (Xan); РангОзен (RangOzen); 19 - Саймалы-Таш (Saimaly-Tash); 20 - Тамгалы (Tamgaly); 21 - Чумыш (Chumysh); 22 - Джамбул (Jambul); 23 - Кестелетау (Kestelatau); 24 – Байконур (Baikonur III); 25 – Саяк (Sayak); 26 – Ешкиольмес (Eshkiolmes); 27 – Акбаур (Akbaur); 28 – Курчум (Kurchum); 29 – Мойнак (Moinak); 30 – Тюлькуне (Tyulkune); 31 – Саур Тарбагатай (Saur Tarbagatai); 62– Каменная Могила (Stone Grave); 63 – Таш-Аир (Tash-Air); 64 – Губустан (Gubustan); 65 – Гемигая (Gamigaya); 66 – Сюник (Syunik); 67 – Кавала (Kavala); 68 – Микены (Mycenae); 69 – Камоника (Camonica); 71 – Фрэннарп (Frennarp); 72 – Боттна (Bottna); 73 – Свеннеби (Svennebi); 74 – Квилле (Quill); 75 – Остфольд (Ostfold); 76 – Бохуслэн (Bohuslen); 77 – Симрис (Simris); 78 - Остерготланд (Östergötland), Vonozhenov 2012. Rondu 2017.

Figure 17 ‘exotic objects’ according to Ivanova 2012: 1.Mehrgarh; 2.Quetta; 3.Mundigak; 4.Shahr-i Sokhta; 5.Fullol; 6.Sarazm; 7.Zhukov; 8.Geoksyur; 9.Altyn-depe; 10.Kara-depe; 11.Parkhai; 12.Tepe Hesar; 13.Tepe Sialk; 14.Arisman; 15.Tall-i Iblis; 16.Tepe Yahya; 17. Tall-i Bakun; 18.Susa; 19.Uruk-Warka; 20.Tepe Giyan; 21.Tepe Ghabristan; 22.Sé Girdan; 23.Tepe Gawra; 24.Tell Brak; 25.Telmankend; 26.Leilatepe; 27.Soyuq Bulaq; 28.Boyuk Kesik; 29.Berikldeebi; 30.Kavtiskhevi; 31.Kudakhurt; 32.Maikop. Rondu 2017

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Figure 19 Up & Down: Map of Toponyms based on Əsgər, yellow dots, ‘Exotic Objects’ locations in white dots. Rondu 2017

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Figure 20 View from the Mugan Steppe, near the Kura’s mouth. Credit Google Map, 2016

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Gigantomachia: Flood and New Leader

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War against the Titans: Titanomachy and the History of Noah

[Odin] He lived with the Giant of the Frost Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 3

When a new leader appeared in Transcaucasia, the leader of the three brothers, which is, the ostracized brotherhood allied with him to ultimately, equal to the Edda version. overthrown their king and father. After a long reconstruction thanks to the Gilgameš Epic and the Greek Mythology, we have reconstructed all Latin Greek Ancient Greek the events that had triggered a major shift in the Divine/ Leader Pantheon/ Azeri Language political and social organization in Lesser Title Mythology Caucasus and Transcaucasia. *Döyüş (noun) meaning the *Theos (Greek), Battle *Deus (Latin), Zeus Ζεύς *Döyüşçü *Dux (Latin) (noun) meaning Ostracized Children helped by The Aesir to the Warrior overthrow their Parents

...Bor… married Bestla, the daughter of Bolthorn River: Tərtər River the giant, with whom he had three sons: the first Zeus released the Hechatoncheires from the is called Odin, the second Vili, and the third Vé. Tartarus River, where Uranus has thrown them. Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 5 We propose to see in the Tartarus River the Tərtər River (Azerbaijan). The Greek and Norse mythologies shared a common history to explain the rise of the leader Tərtər - Həkəri Rivers: Rivers Continuum, same of their pantheons. They both began by what is Kingdom commonly called a Titanomachy for the first and a Gigantomachy for the second. Both events are The Tərtər River takes its source in the same triggered by three sons who wanted to overthrow mountain range than the Həkəri River, the their parents: in the Edda they are called Odin, Mıxtökən dağı (Mıxtökən dağı). This axis Vili and Vé, sons Bor he had from Bestla, the surrounds the Karabakh by the west and north, daughter of the Giant Bolthorn and in the Greek making with the Kura and the Araxes a square world they are called Briareos, Kottos and shape of land. Gyges. While Vili is close to *Vali (noun, Azeri/

Persian) that means governor and Vé is close to *Əvəz (noun, Azeri) that means alter ego or equivalent, Odin is the most famous seemed to have been the leader. In the Greek mythology, Breaking Dams to drowned Invaders the leader during the clash is incarnated by Zeus who wasn’t part of the three brothers, at least The sons of Bor killed the giant Ymir, and when formally. Indeed, as we know that in modern he fell, it sprinkled so much blood from his Azeri *Döyüş (noun) means Battle and *Döyüşçü wounds that they drowned in it the whole race of means Warrior the phonetic similarity with Zeus the giants of the frost… (Ζεύς) is enough to say that the leader of these Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 7 children was the most aggressive and powerful one. This noun gave the Latin *Dux, *Deus and The Greek mythology, the Edda and the the Greek *Theos. We propose to see in the name Gilgameš Epic sustain the hypothesis according of Zeus the warrior’s spirit which had animate

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Modern Azeri/ Persian to which the rulers of the Tərtər and Hakari Gilgameš Epic: decided to drown the brotherhood. Languages *Nər (adjective, Azeri) Ner- means Brave Adad, Sullat and Hanis: the Three Divine *Galleh (noun, Persian) -gal Heralds of the Gilgameš Epic means Herdsman ...Thundered Adad Preceded by Sullat and Hanis, The Blood that sprang from Ymir: Dam breaks divine Heralds who roamed the hills and the From the blood that sprang from his wounds land. [Ymir] and flowed freely, they [Sons of Bor] then Gilgameš Epic, Tablet XI, 99-100 made the sea which served them to gird the While the infernal gods brandished torches, earth in order to keep it firmly: to do this they burning the whole country with their arranged it in a circle around the earth, so most conflagration men estimate- They say that it is impossible to Gilgameš Epic, Tablet XI, 103-105 cross this sea. The three heralds from the Gilgameš Epic Adad, Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 8 Sullat and Hanis are complementary to the Greek The breaking dam is represented in the Edda by and Eddaic versions, giving more details about the blood that sprang from his wounds and the action of the three men running and burning formed a sea that surrounded the Earth. the country. The Rebels dodged the flood Climatic Context The gods were frightened by the deluge: fleeing, I examined the aspect of the weather: it was they climbed to the highest heaven frightening to see! I got into the boat and I Gilgameš Epic, Tablet XI, 101-102 plugged the hatch ... climbed from the horizon a black cloud in which thundered Adad… It seems that the rioters have rapidly avoided the Gilgameš Epic, Tablet XI, 92 flood by climbing the mountain slopes. In the Gilgameš Epic the hero who is commonly The drown of the Population called Utanapishtî explained to Gilgameš how he The sons of Bor killed the giant Ymir, and when foresaw dramatic events by seeing the climatic context. The dark sky and thunder coming, he fell he sprang so much blood from his wounds indicating a probable torrential rain, is a that they drowned the whole race of the giants resonance of the soldiers who roamed the hills. of frost. Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 7 Nergal and sabotaged Dams Nergal tore off the stays and Ninurta began to The fell of Ymir, noun we have linked to Azeri *Miras (noun) that means legacy and his blood overflow the dams that sprang from his wounds is a poetic Gilgameš Epic, Tablet XI, 101-102 representation of the fall of the ruler’s House by These lines seem to describe dam sabotage. the hand of his sons. Nergal sometimes spelled Nirgal according to his name is a local actor, Ner- in prefix that we can compare to modern Azeri *Nər (adjective) means Brave and from the common indo European -Gal in postfix that we can compare to the Persian The Survival of the Strong Family: Bergelmir- *Galleh (noun) meaning the Herdsman. Thus, Nergal the Brave Herdsman tore off the stays The survival of the family whose father wanted from the dam that probably already retained to drowned survived. water augmented by the rain in order to drown the invaders.

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Bergelmir: The Strong Family …they drowned the whole race of the giants of frost except one, the one whom the giants call Bergelmir, who escaped with those of his House. He went up into a boat-shaped tree trunk with his wife, which later became his coffin, in which they stayed safe and sound. Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 7

Bergelmir is composed of a similar noun as the modern Azeri language *bərklik (noun) which means solidity, robustness or endurance and *Miras that means Family or Heritage or when it is an adjective, means the family. So the name of Bergelmir from the Edda means the Enduring or Strong Family.

Modern Azeri Edda: Bergelmir Language *Bərklik (noun) Bergel- meaning Endurance Solidity or Endurance *Miras (noun or -mir adjective) meaning Heritage or Family

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Noah/ Niord from Noatun: Life after the Flood

The third Aesir were called Niord; he lives a place in heaven called Noatun. He has power over the course of the wind, and calm the sea and fire; it is him that we must invoke for navigation and for fishing. He is so rich and wealthy that he can give to those who call for it, abundance of land and personal properties. Niord does not belong to the race of the Aesir. He was raised in Vanaheim but the Vanir delivered him as hostage to the gods, and in return, they received one called Hoenir. He was at the origin of the agreement established between the gods and the Vanir. Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 23

The Edda, the Gilgameš Epic and the Genesis in will persist until Middle Age among populations Hebraic Bible are colliding together to build a we consider involved in the broadcasting of this comprehensive narrative that relates the history story, from Caucasus to Egypt, from Tarim of Noah and his family after the flood of the one Basin109 to Sweden (Uppsala) or (England). who had sleep disease.

Peace and Alliance The Gods spared the Life of Utanapishtî …he and his wife will be like us, the gods! But The events that have succeeded the flood are they remain far from us, at the Mouth of the almost similar in the Gilgameš Epic, the Hebraic Rivers… Bible and the Edda. Gilgameš Epic

Merciful God Sparing Life He was at the origin of the agreement established between the gods and the Vanir. …Then, went up on the boat, took me by the Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 23 hand and made me went up with him; He also brought up and kneel my wife beside me. Then [Nott] … She was given in marriage to Delling, he touched our forehead, and standing between who belonged to the Aesir race. They had a son us, he blessed us so... who was called Dag, and was brilliant and Gilgameš Epic, Passage of the Flood, tablet XI, handsome, like his father. Alfadr then took Nott 189 and Dag, his son: he gave them two horses and The god Enlil who decided with others the Flood two chariots, and placed them up in the sky and killed the people except Utanapishtî saw him Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap.10 when the water covered the land. The god Ea This passage in Edda reveals Niord was a explained she warned him before the flood and hostage in Aesir territory (Bolgarçay, Araxes and succeed to convince him to spare the survivors. Kura’s mouths) which could be placed on the Finally, the god blessed the couple. account of the father’s ostracism. This passage His Boat became his Coffin lights why a ruler from Transcaucasia interfered He went up into a boat-shaped tree trunk with in Lesser Caucasian political context and the his wife, which later became his coffin, in which intelligence with the Aesir could have been a they stayed safe and sound. solution for the survival of the Lesser Caucasian Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 7 kingdom and its expansion toward Mediterranean

The Edda brings an interesting input by saying that the boat will follow Bergelmir (the Strong Family) until his death indicating that this item became source of worship. The boat shape coffin 109 Chunxiang Li & al. 2010 77

Sea110. According to the Norse Mythology, Niord volcanic activity. We also saw previously that was at the origin of a peace agreement between *பநாய் (Nōy) means Illness in Tamil and has the Aesir and the Vanir. We propose that the survived in the Noah’s name to depict his marriage of Nott with an Aesir on the Hakari Oculocutaneous Albinism. However, another River was the conditions of that peace treaty. argument that doesn’t change our first arguments Thus, Aesir had a free Access to the Kapan can be added. Indeed, the population from mining complex by the Araxes. Zagros- Lesser Caucasus was probably ill of SAD (Seasonal Affective Disorder) for which Nott & Dag: The Birth of the Moon Religion in wine could have been a good remedy. Lesser Caucasus Noah and Vineyard The dark skin colour of Nott, probably inherited from a L1 father’s lineage sustains the analogy …Noah began to cultivate the land, and planted between the Armenian goddess of the Moon a Vineyard… identified to be Artemis in the Greek Genesis, 9.20 Pantheon111and the Norse goddess. Later in the Edda, the course of the sun and moon will be After the Flood, the first Noah’s act was to plant represented by the of the moon and the vineyard. The grape vine is endemic of chariot of the sun driven by a brother and sister. Transcaucasia and wine making has been Nott and her son who also suffered an estimated as one of the most ancient in the world oculocutaneous albinism, up in the sky, riding with Iran112, in particular in Areni cave where their chariots at the morning and at night wine making facilities have been found. Vitis triggered a belief that have last several millennia, vinifera ssp sylvestris (Gmelin) wild vine is the from Eneolithic to late Antiquite Great nearest relative of the cultivated vine. N.I. Migrations. This hypothesis is verified in next Vavilov (1887-1943), Russian botanist and chapters on the Eneolithic ‘Terrestrial Amber phytogeographer who based his theory on the Road’ that link Caucasus and Scandinavia, the Darwin one to locate the original centres of presence of amber in the Artemisia of Ephesus cultivated plants113, gave a description of the and finally the generalisation of Scandinavian wild-growing grapes of the Caucasus that he amber collars in the 5th century AD. All these considered as being one of the eight primary elements converged to identify Nott, the MtDNA centres114. Ampelographers (from H2a1 and the cult of the Moon to the same *ampelogeography, common discipline in lineage until late Iron Age. biology and oenology) based their researches on his work to separate the subspecies Vitis vinifera ssp. сaucasica (Vavilov). The natural habitat of Recurrent Depression and Remedy the wild grape extends from the Caucasus to . It lives in deciduous forests of Ağrı Dağı (Mont Ararat) which is also known as the lower zones on fresh, damp, but not boggy Noah’s Mountain ») soils up to 1000 m. The wild grapevine is » ,ن لح ک له) Kuh-e-Nuh literally means in modern Turkic language the widespread in the western part of the Southern “Pain Mountain” (Ağrı Dağı (Ararat Mountain)/ Caucasus, in Kakheti (Georgia), in Kuban *Ağrı (noun) means the Pain/ Ache) and could (Russia), in the lower zones of the Lesser have been given to illustrate the seismic and 112 Rudolph E. Michel, Patrick E. McGovern, Virginia R. Badler: The First Wine and Beer: Chemical 110 Niord of Noatun wanted to live near the Sea Detection of Ancient Fermented Beverages. while his wife wanted to stay in the land of her Analytical Chemistry 65: 408A-413A. 1993. Father. Snorri Edda, Gylfaginning, chap. 23 113 Vavilov Nikolai, Centres of Origin of Cultivated 111 Strabo (XI.14.16) in Armen Petrosyan, Moon Plants, 1926 god and Denomination in Armenia, Aramazd, 114 IV. Asia Minor (including Transcaucasia, Iran and Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol VII, ), in Vavilov, The Phytogeographical 2, 2012. Basis for Plant Breeding, 1935 78

Caucasus like the Karabakh (Azerbaijan), The Tablet X of the Gilgameš Epic is perfectly Lenkorani (Azerbaijan), in the foothills of the depicting the journey to the Areni-1 by river Araxes valley115. descending the river in boat. The owner of the cave could easily see the boat coming and look at Argos: Kingdom of Wellness the people inside before they come in. The word ‘Tavernier’ is clearly depicting a place where Then, winery became a botanical solution to treat wine proposed. This is for us the depiction of the this mental disease and the land became ‘the land Areni-1 cave when it was occupied by the one of wellness’ or Argos from a common proto noun who is called Utanapishti, survivor of the Flood. that we can find its counterpart in modern Armenian *առողջություն (arroghjut’yun) Utanapishtî/ Ut’ana’pishtî: Ot-anlamama- means Health itself derived from an ancient pislik, Disarray of Utu Dravidian noun *ಆರೋಗ್ಯಕರ (Ārōgyakara) in Kannada language, or in Tamil Utanapishtî is for us a composite name made of ஆபராக்垿யத்鎿ற்埁 (Ārōkkiyattiṟku). three Turkic/ Azeri nouns: ‘Ut’ that is for us the *Ot or Utu, ‘Ana’ that we could link to Mother or Queen (*Ana) that we rather consider as a contraction of *Anlamama because of its logical Sadness of Gilgameš, emotional Context to context with Pishtî that is for us similar to *Pislik stage the Story of the Flood that means generally unpleasantness or bad feeling revealing a sickness or a depression of I have long mourned, wandering like a fool in the Utu, the New King of E-Ana. Thus Utanapishtî is steppe. How to be silent? How to stay silent? My for us the contradictory feelings of Gilgameš, his friend Enkidu is back to clay. And me? Should I, incapacity to understand his sadness, and not a like him, lie down one day and never get up? character. Never? So I said, I'll go and I'll find Utanapishtî... Gilgameš Epic: Turkic-Azeri language Gilgameš Epic Utanapishtî *Utu/ Ot (noun) means The sadness of Gilgameš is not only a context to Ut- Grasses and name of the stage the impressive story of the flood told by its main Epic’s Character survivor but also to locate and present the King contraction of *Anlamama -Ana- (noun) means of this part of the Lesser Caucasus which is an incomprehension *Pilslik (noun) means occasion to depict his. So in Gilgameš Epic, a -pishtî visitation is staged. The Flood told during the unpleasantness meeting is placed in the Tərtər River and is an Climatic Context echo to the death of Enkidu. I examined the aspect of the weather: it was The Arrival to the Areni-1 Bird’s Eye Cave: the frightening to see! I got into the boat and I Tavern plugged the hatch ... climbed from the horizon a black cloud in which thundered Adad… Utanapishti (however) looked away, Gilgameš Epic, Tablet XI, 92 After carefully thought out, And deliberate in his heart, In the Gilgameš Epic the hero who is commonly … a stranger in the boat embarked, called Utanapishtî explained to Gilgameš how he He who comes to find me is not a man of mine… foresaw dramatic events by seeing the climatic Before even reaching the Tavernier, my clothes context. The dark sky and thunder coming, were exhausted… indicating a probable torrential rain, is a Gilgameš Epic, Tablet X, lines 12 – 33 resonance of the soldiers who roamed the hills.

115 Vavilov 1931, in Troshin, L. P. 2012 79

Niord of Noatun: Noah and his Sleep Disease confirming the link between the Aesir and Niord of Noatun. The Eddaic personage of Niord of Noatun is revealing the exact discomfort of sleeping for someone who suffers depigmentation of the iris. Indeed, a not-pigmented iris increases the Wine making on Vorotan: the Myth of Mimir/ sensation of light and can impeach the person to the City of Məmər fall asleep. In the Gilgameš Epic, Utanapishti is displaced by Niord of Noatum: Sleep Disease Enlil who decided to install him far from the gods, in the mouths of the Rivers we propose to While *பநாயாளி (Nōyāḷi, Tamil) means the be the mouths of the Vorotan, Hakari, Araxes Patient, *பநாய் (Nōy, Tamil) means the and Kalibar rivers. Here is the starting point of Illness. From its side the Tamil *鏂ங் (Tūṅ) the Mimir Myth from the Edda that illustrates a means Sleeping or Asleep and seems to have long wine tradition. given the Armenian main place of rest, the The City of Məmər and the Myth of Mimir House: *տուն (Tun, noun). After its migration in Under the root facing the giants of frost is Europe, curiously *Tun/ *Tunnu (Noun) means Mimisbrunn (the source of Mimir), that holds the Barrel in Icelandic, probably reusing the shape and the building technics of the wisdom and intelligence. One who possesses this houses. Thus, Niord of Noatun is the exact source is called Mimir: he is very clever, because homonym of Nōyāḷi Nōy Tūṅ, the man with a is drinking it with the horn called Giallarhorn ... sleep disease, confirming its common identity via Alfadr came to the source and asked to drink a the Malediction of Canaan. sip, but he did not obtain satisfaction before having pledged one of his eyes... The young Male L1a/ H2a1 from Areni-1 Snorri’s Edda, chap.15 traduction F.-Xavier. Dillmann, 1991. A young male from Late Chalcolithic has been found in the cave, dated from 6161 ± 89 YBP he The village of Məmər (39°15'13"N 46°41'40"E) was likely redhead, had probably blue eyes and a is located on the right bank of the Vorotan River fair skin. We consider that he is the closest at the mouth of a small creek that takes its source relative of the personage we are following in this in altitude and carries a large amount of silt. By phonetic similarity, we propose to see in the paper, the one who suffered an oculocutaneous village of Məmər the mythical character of albinism and sleep disease, Noah/ Niord of Mimir. Noatun. In the Edda, Mimir is an Aesir, famous for his The Areni-1 Bird’s Eye Cave offers one of the wisdom. He is mentioned in chapters 4 and 7 of most ancient winery facility and artefacts from the Ynglingar Saga. During the alliance between Areni-1 Cave in the Vayots Dzor region of the Aesir and Vanir peoples, he was exchanged Armenia demonstrates that the origin of the against his Vanir alter ego, Kvasir, and Kura-Araxes Culture lies in the Late Chalcolithic accompanied another Aesir, Hœnir, seen by the 116 of the late 5th to early 4th millennia B.C. Vanir as made to be leader, which was the case, but in the absence of Mimir, he was not able to

116 make decisions. The Vanir suspected a fraud and Wilkinson and al. Areni-1 Cave, Armenia: A Chalcolithic–Early Bronze Age settlement and ritual beheaded Mimir. Odin took his head, embalmed site in the southern Caucasus, 2012. and used it to predict the future and get wisdom. On this subject: Sagona A., Rethinking the Kura-Araxes Genesis, The Source of Mimir, Source of Wisdom: Wine 2014 drunk with Horn made in Industrial Quantities Diana Zardaryan, On the Origins of the Pottery Traditions of the Kura-Araxes Culture, 2014.

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The analogy between Mimir and Məmər is The domination of the Kura’s mouth Odin, is complex because Məmər is a name that is rooted sealed by a probable wedding that united to the word *Məmə in plural which means the definitely his lineage to the population of Lesser maternal breasts ad in a symbolic way the Caucasus. sources. In the Edda, Mimir owns a source that would give the knowledge or wisdom to the one Hal/ Helah/ Hel: Wife of Ashur who drinks it with a horn called Giallarhorn. Ashhur the father of Tekoa had two wives, Helah Today, in Georgia, the homemade wine making and Naarah. is still important and represents 30% of the Bible, Chronicles 4:5 production. It is interesting to see that the ,was the second son of Shem אַ (ּׁשּור) fermentation is made in ‘Kvevri’ jar type that is Ashur also commonly used to store wine, being semi or grandson of Noah, he is considered as the totally buried. People serve them directly from founder of the lineage of Assyrian builders118. 117 the top . Here is the root of the Kvasir name, Ashur's brothers were , Arphaxad, Lud, and the other hostage of the Aesir who was probably . In the Bilble (chronicles 4.5), the Line of a Winemaker. Thus, the numerous toponyms Hur, speaks about Helah, the wife of Ashhur that close to Kvevri/ Kvasir like Qiyasli, Qazyan or is often considered being the symbolic Qubadli lead us to think that wine making long representation of the Assyrian region. Helah is time after Noah was at an industrial level. for us the incarnation of the village Hal, Georgian 39°16'32"N 46°40'28"E, Qubadli district. While Edda Toponymy Wine Making *Hal means the Strength, Capacity in modern Azeri, a lot of heterogeneous etymologies can be Məmər found in Hebrew that link it to a health condition. Mimir (39°15'13"N 46°41'40"E) Also, this time is called Golden Age, until it was interrupted by the coming of the women from Kvevri, jars Jotunheimr for Qiyasli, Kvasir fermentation Qazyan or Snorri’s Edda, Gylfaginning, chap. 14 and Storage of Qubadli

Wine

Buried Kvevri Source of Jar containing Mimir wine

Divine Couples

His wife, who was Fiorgvin’s daughter, was called Frigg. It is from them that the 'races of the Aesir' originate: they resided in the ancient

Asgard as well as in the kingdoms which depended on them, and all these races are of divine origin. Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 8

117 N. Chkhartishvili, D. Maghradze, 2012, p. 173- 174 118 Genesis 10:8–12 AV, Genesis 10:8–12 ESV 81

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Dravidian (Tamil/ Nordic Edda/ Turkic Language Bible Kannada) Icelandic

*பநாய் (Nōy, Noah Tamil) means Illness *பநாயாளி (Nōyāḷi, Tamil) Niord Noah means the Patient

鏂ங் (Tūṅ, Tamil) *Tun/ *Tunnu means Sleeping, (Noun) means asleep Barrel

*ퟀ翁 (Vīṭu, noun, *տուն (Tun, noun)

Tamil) means House House 鏂ங் பநாய் (Tamil) (Tūṅ nōy) Noatun means Sleep Disease

*பநாயாளி (Nōyāḷi, Tamil) / Noah and the 鏂ங் பநாய் Malediction de (Tamil) (Tūṅ nōy) Niord of Noatun Canaan (Noah globally means the disturbed in his Patient with Sleep sleep) Disease

Myth of Kannada Language (Dravidian) Armenian Language Danae (Dravidian)

*ಆರೋಗ್ಯ *ஆபராக்垿யத்鎿ற்埁 (Ārōkkiyattiṟku) *առողջություն Argos (Ārōgya) means means Health (arroghjut’yun) means Health Health

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Danaïdes

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H2a1 MtDNA in Egypt: The Migration of Caucasian Farmers toward Egypt and the Myth of the Danaids

The Danaids also Danaids, Danaides or The tragic events which occurred during the Danaïdes were the fifty daughters of Danaos wedding between the Danaids and the son of (/dəˈneɪɪdiːz/; Greek: Δαναΐδες) twin brother of Aegyptus can be easily interpreted by using the Aegyptus (/ᵻˈdʒɪptəs/; Ancient Greek: Αἴγυπτος, modern Dravidian language. Aígyptos), both born from Belus and Achiroe. They were intended to marry the sons of the Egypt/ ಹುಡುಗಿ (Huḍugi) – ಪತ್ನಿ (Patni): latter but they killed their husbands on their The Girl-Wife wedding night and were condemned to spend eternity carrying water in a sieve or perforated In modern Kannada language *ಹುಡುಗಿ device. In this chapter, we will demonstrate that (Huḍugi) which means the Girl and *ಪತ್ನಿ the myth of Danaids is an allegory of the Lesser (Patni) which means the *Wife can be easily Caucasian women’s migration in Egypt where agglomerate to form the concept of Girl-Wife she took political domination by bringing (Huḍugi- Patni) that is phonologically close to agriculture and irrigation. This myth explains the *Egypt. dispersion of H2a1 MtDNA in Egypt, in Libya and Arabian Peninsula. Nil/ *நில (Nila): the Land

From a Dravidian point of view, the name of the Nil River is similar to நில (Nila, Noun, Tamil) The Hakari River: Achiroe * which means Land. Achiroe is the mother of Danaos and Aegyptus and we link her to the Hakari River by H2a1 MtDNA: Major Mitochondrial subgroup phonological similarity. in Egypt and Arabian Peninsula

Crop: Belus/ 냆쳆 (Beḷe) Subgroups H2a1, H4 and H13a1 account for 42% of H lineages in Egypt and reaches higher level Belus is the father of Danaos and Aegyptus. We in Arabian Peninsula. consider that he is the personification of the wine cultivation that is one of the attribute of the Biblical Noah. So, we consider that Belus is the Agriculture and Scorpion Men in Egypt dissimilation form of a common Dravidian name which calls the crop: *냆쳆 (Beḷe) in Kannada. …the Twin Mounts, which kept each day the course of the sun… The Scorpion Men defended Agriculture: *Dən the entrance… Gilgameš Epic, Tablet IX, II, 3 - 5 Previously, we have linked to the modern Azeri noun *Dən (Noun) which means Seed to the Today, Egypt and Arabian Peninsula are the most lexical field of agricultural technics. So we important hotspots119 in the Middle East where propose to see in the name of Danaos and his H2a1 is the most represented subclade in the fifty daughters, the Danaids, the specific Haplogroup H. We propose to see in that knowledge of agriculture.

119 Khaled K Abu-Amero, José M Larruga, Vicente M Cabrera, and Ana M González, Mitochondrial A Failed Marriage told in Dravidian: DNA structure in the Arabian Peninsula, BMC Etymology of *Egypt and *Nil Evolutionary Biology, février 2008.

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migration from Caucasus to Egypt the testimony scorpion above it. of an agricultural input. This representation must be compared to the Scorpions: from Caucasus to Egypt Scorpion King’s mace head conserved in Ashmolean Museum of Oxford dated from 3100- Scorpions are common in the southern part of 3000 B.C. made in limestone, which is Europe and Balkan (Carpathian region) until presenting the exact same characteristic Central Asia. Two are typical from those augmented by a traditional steppic element, the regions: the Scorpion of Taurus (Euscorpius pointed hat also called Hedjet that will later Tauricus) described by C. L. Koch in 1837120 is a become the tradition pharaoh’s crown of Upper rare species that has been only reported in Egypt. This artefact is crucial for our Ukraine121 and the Oliverius Caucasicus (former understanding of the spreading of the agriculture Mesobuthus caucasicus) living in a very wide allows us to ask how Caucasian and Steppic th area (from Ukraine to Mongolia, from Turkey to elements were present in Egypt from late 4 Afghanistan). These two species are interesting century B.C., simultaneously to the Namazga because of their spatial positions in the Greater period. Caucasus probable homeland of haplotype H2a1. Scorpion men from the Gilgameš Epic th Bedeni 12 Barrow Hoe: Agriculture …the Twin Mounts, which kept each day the One of the characteristic elements of the Maikop course of the sun… The Scorpion Men defended culture was the presence of several copper tools the entrance… (hoes) that are linked to well-developed irrigation Gilgameš Epic, Tablet IX, II, 3 - 5 technics. In the 12th Barrow of the Bedeni site During his journey to reach the home of (Bedeni Culture, Georgia) has been found what it Utanapishtî, Gilgameš encountered Scorpion could be interpreted as a ritual bronze hatchet, Men who defended the pass between two twin but we prefer interpret these artefact as a ritual mounts. They recognized the divinity of the hoe which indicates that the agriculture took a Hero. The Gilgameš Epic was contemporary of central place in the Caucasian political life. The the hoe from the Bedeni Culture (circa 2500 – well-developed agricultural technics such as 2000 B.C.)? This context sustains our hypothesis irrigation was probably the symbol of a wealthy according to which Caucasians migrated during human group. Much later, a from the Aesir Momentum. The notable presence of Apollonia Pontica is presenting on its revers a R1b in Egypt could reinforce this hypothesis. hoe surrounded by a scorpion that is in the exact same shape than the Bedeni’s ritual hoes and a

Figure 21 From Left to Right: Bedeni Barrow Ceremonial Hoe, Sagona, 2016. Ceremonial Hoe, Scorpion King Mace Head, 3100-3000 B.C., limestone, AN1896.1908.E.3632 Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, Apollonia Pontica Drachma, private collection.

120 Koch, C.L., 1837. Die Arachniden. Nürnberg, C. H. Zeh’sche Buchhandlung 3 (6), 105–115. 121 This species is quite isolated from other related Euscorpius populations by its location in the south shore of . 86

R1a and H2a1 in : Early Amber Road

After a short period of coexistence, the Kura- confusion, delirium, hallucinations and Araxes culture (mid 4rth millennium BC – Mid sometimes in the most severe cases, coma. 3rd millennium BC) let the place to the Bedeni culture (Mid 3rd millennium BC end of 3rd The description of these symptoms is very well millennium BC)122 which was the last stage of represented by an unbaked clay head, found in the Early Kurgan Period in Caucasus. However, and often attributed to , secondary 124 the rupture between the two cultures seems less Mesopotamian deity . This piece was found by obvious in our development that proposes to see Mr. Rassam Hormuzd then acquired and the a real continuation or ‘adoption’ of the first by British Museum under the number 116737 in the the second that continued to spread some of its Middle East Department of Antiquities. characteristic elements, in particular in Denmark. This head meticulously represents digestive Double spiral-head pins typical from the Kura- disorders through the modelling of the mouth that Araxes Culture seemed to have been adopted in takes the form of inflamed intestines, nose’s Denmark when amber beads in the shape of shape has changed, the wrinkled skin as a mushrooms were probably imported in northern contraction (we can also see scarification) and Caucasus. This early ‘terrestrial amber road’ the eyes as volutes representing altered could be the first vector of the R1a-M417 and the perception and vision. The volute eyes in triggering of the diversification of its subclade artefacts are the typical representation of the R1a-Z282. H2a1 MtDNA follows this expansion intoxication and we know today, the vision is not toward Scandinavia. only physiological (partly provided by healthy Kura-Araxes Culture Legacy: Shamanic Rituals eyes), but also neurological, partly ensured by brain’s eras located in V1-V4, in the occipital Shamanic rituals with use of psychotropic existed lobe. The Amanita’s toxins might disrupt in Transcaucasia during the expansion phase of neurological activity and the shaman’s allowed to the Kura-Araxe culture as shown by engravings see. of Karaz pottery123, but it is difficult to determine precisely their goal at this time. However the Amber beads from Baltic to Caucasus, mushroom shaped beads and double volutes hair Double-Spiral Heads Hair Pins from Caucasus pins that we will see in this chapter remind the to Denmark absorption of poisonous mushrooms from the Amanita family that provokes the pantherinian The Ananauri #3 ‘Big Kurgan’ (eastern Georgia syndrome. It is the resulting effect that has all on the territory of Lagodekhi Municipality) has the symptoms of intoxication. First signs appear been explored in 2012 by an archaeological within 30 minutes to 3 hours after ingestion of expedition leaded by Dr. Zurab Makharadze for the mushroom (Amanita muscaria, Amanita- the Georgian National Museum. The burial pantherina, Amanita-junquillea). mound that belonged to the Bedeni Culture (Mid 3rd to end of 3rd Millennium BC) located at the The symptoms are first digestive disorders left bank of the Alazani River has been plundered causing nausea and vomiting, and tachycardia in the past, but revealed among ornamented four- (rapid heartbeat rhythm) finally resulted in wheeled wooden wagons, wooden armchair and neurological disorders agitation, a drunk,

122 See Chronology proposed by Carminati 2014, p. 161 124 De Meyer, Leon (ed.), Tell ed-Dēr III, 4, Leuven, 123 Sagona 2011 Peeters, 1980 87

ceramics, a collar of amber beads that is one of and were dated from 2600BC127 corresponding to the most ancient in the whole near East125. the prevalence of Bedeni culture on the Kura Araxes culture. The Ananauri ‘Big’ Kurgan will Amber Beads from Ananauri #3 follow 200 years later opening an enough large window of time for a ‘comeback’ to Caucasus The shape of amber beads from Ananauri ‘Big with Amber. Kurgan’ prefigure the amber beads in shape of mushrooms from central Europe and Jutland that H2a1 MtDNA in Eulau have been diffused during the Great Migrations of late Antiquity in western Europe. The H2a1 MtDNA found in a male (L1a) in Areni-1 (Bird’s eye cave) dated from 4330-3060 Amber Beads from the wealthy Varpelev ‘A’, BC matches with the Kura-Araxes chronology Varpelev ‘Alpha’ Graves and Vrangstrup The Ananauri ‘Big kurgan’ dated from the middle of the 3rd Millennium B.C. (2400 B.C. The wealthy graves from the Varpelev (Zealand) 126 according to C14) is contemporaneous to the necropolis, from the C3 period (mid-3rd males R1a Y-chromosomes and the female H2a1 century AD) are contrasting with their found in Eulau (Eul27, dated from 2700-2400 neighbours. An amber collar attracts our attention BC)128 in central Europe in by the mushroom-like shape of some of its beads which, in Eulau (Germany), H2a1MtDNA has that clearly reminds us the Ananauri pectoral been retrieved. from the Kurgan 2. Heruli/ Eruli: Rul Golden Hair Pin in shape of Volutes Scytharum diversi populi…. Eruli Two golden double-spiral heads hair pins dated Scriptores Historiae Augustae, Divus Claudius, from the C3 period have been found in Varpelev 6.2 (grave ‘a’) and in Vrangstrup (Viborg Amt) The Heruli tribe is also written Eruli in the early grave 1 and are almost identic to those found in roman texts. Heruli is for us one of those Georgia (Transcaucasia) from the Kura-Araxes examples of denomination in accordance of a culture. These pins are in addition to the similar singularity that differentiates the military caste amber beads we saw earlier and lead us to ask from the rest of the population. In modern Azeri, about their datation, conservation and their Rul means a Vehicle or Wheel as a vehicle vector. signification in Denmark. Some further researches on the alloy could bring us new Germanic Tribe Azeri Language insight on their probable transmission until the Rul (noun) means Heruli/ Eruli end of a princely lineage that could be compared Wheel or Vehicle to Transcaucasian DNA database.

Tsnori: Snorri Sturluson

R1a and H2a1 in Scandinavia: Bell Beaker Tsnori (წნორი), Kakheti region, Georgia is and Bedeni Culture located in the Alazani Valley near the town Sighnaghi (სიღნაღი) famous for its Bodbe The European earliest R1a lineages have been Monastery built on hills, near the modern found during the in Eulau Tsnori’s castle that overlooks the entire region. For us, the great Icelandic medieval author Snorri

125 Sturluson bore the same name as Tsnori where Zurab Makharadze, the End of the Early Bronze the richest Kurgans of the Bedeni period have Age in Georgia, in Problems of early Metal Age Archaeology of Caucasus and Anatolia, 2014, , pp 226-232. 126 Thomas Grane 2011 et Mme Marzena J. 127 Haak, Brandt et al. 2008 Przybyła 2012 128 Brandt et al. 2013 88

been studyed. It was a probable halte on the expansion of R1a towards central Europe, and Amber Road, place of a powerful family. finally, the preservation of the Caucasian name Tsnori/ Snorri lead to propose the hypothesis Snorri Sturluson Georgian Toponymy according to which all the events that have and Snorri Tsnori (წნორი) will occurred in the Kura’s steppe and in the Karabakh have been transported from the Traditional Amber Road The exchanges Alazani River to Jutland via the Aragvi River. between Caucasian and Scandinavian elements This hypothesis explains how the Edda of Snorri from Ananauri and Varpelev, the lesser Sturluson is a reliable and precious historical Caucasian MtDNA H2a1 contemporaneous to the source and not a collection of poems.

Figure 22 Gold double spiral-head Hair Pins. Left: from Urbnisi, Dzagina and Ghaitmazi (SAGONA 2011), Right: Varpelev and Vrangstrup (GRANE 2011), Denmark.

Figure 23 Arslantepe (Turkey), spiral- headed pins from the Royal Tomb (Frangipane et al., 2001, Fig. 19 : 19-20

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Figure 24 Red and white dots represent studies cited in the text, red pins represent H2a1 MtDNA from the Pandoses lineage, credit FamilyTreeDNA 2017.

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Figure 25 On the Left from top to bottom: amanita muscaria, © Viazmensky, watercolor. Reliefs and etchings on terracotta, Karaz, Turkey, credit A. Sagona. Clay Sculpture, British Museum, 116737. Credit Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1926; On the Right, from top to bottom: Ananauri #3, Amber Collar, Zurab Makharadze, 2014. Amber Collar, Grave ‘Alpha’ Varpelev, credit Nationalmuseet, John Lee. Ananauri Pectoral, Kurgan 2, National Museum of Georgia.

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Expansion of Faith

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King, Protector of the Warrior’s Soul

[Alfadr] He lives in eternity, rules his entire kingdom and decides of everything… he fashioned the sky, the earth and the air and everything that living in… But the most important is he gave to the Man a soul that will never perish… Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 3

Here are the elements that explain the Hadisə/ : The Event that Transformed divinisation of the founding leader by his the Lesser Caucasus into the Kingdom of the successors. The later became the best vectors for Dead the spread of what we can call a ‘Faith’ on a primary family and the genesis of monotheism. In modern Azeri *Hadisə (noun) means Event, Incident or Phenomenon and we propose to see in the Greek god of the Kingdom of the Dead, Mechanic of the Pious Warrior Hades, the dramatic and lethal Event that has marked the local population forever. To understand the concept that structures the military and religious mixed semantics, here are Gomer/ Gomol-ler/ Gomaran some elements that describe the importance of the leader on the motivation and the engagement According to the Table of Nations in the Hebrew in Hebrew) was the eldest רֶמֹּ ג) of the warrior. Bible129, Gomer son of (and of the Japhetic line), and Alfadr/ Havadar: Japheth father of Ashkenaz, Riphath, and . Here we propose the hypothesis according to which So it is with good reason that Odin may be called Gomer is the incarnation of both traders and Alfadr, because he is the father of all gods and herders. all men, and of that which has been accomplished by him and by his power. Ashgirbabbar: Əsgər-baba, the Ancestor of the Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning chap. 8 Soldiers I, the Hero of my city I would go, before my In the Edda, Odin had other names such as father I would stand, Alfadr that we have compared to modern Azeri I, , to my city I would go, before my father I *Havadar (noun) and propose to interpret it as an would stand, honorific title. For us, Alfadr and Havadar are Before my father Enlil I would stand similar to the Biblical Japheth one of the three Journey of Nanna to Nippur sons of Noah, father of the Europeans. Nippur was a cultural centre whose tutelary god

was Enlil, the leading god of the Sumerian Modern Modern Pantheon which blessing was a prime essential Hebraic Edda Turkic Azeri for the establishment of prosperity and Bible Language Language abundance in the other Sumerian cities. To obtain *Havadar *Havadar this blessing, the tutelary deities were conceived (adjective) (noun) as traveling to Nippur such as it is related in the meaning means Alfadr Japheth Journey of Nana to Nippur. Nanna the Moon Airy, Patron, Breezy Promoter, god, also known as Sin or Ashgirbabar, was the Father tutelary of Ur. Beginning with the description of the glory of Nippur, the poem describes Nanna’s

129 Hebrew Bible, Genesis, X 93

decision to visit his father’s city, standing before Wish him130. Ashgirbabbar name is one of the most eloquent examples of a proto-Turkic’s military The concept that entered the Sumerian literary. Ashkenaz Pious Aškūza Indeed, for us *Ashgir- means *Əsgər, the Soldier soldier, and *Babba is the exact synonym of the modern Azeri *Baba that means Grandfather.

Thus Ashgirbabbar probably represents a paternal figure for his army. Belief in Afterlife

Modern Azeri In some graves from the Shulaveri Culture, belief Ashgirbabbar Language in an Afterlife is already attested in Chalagan *Əsgər (noun) means Tepe, Nakhichevan and Kul Tepe that surround *Ashgir- Soldier the southern Lesser Caucasus. Ochre that will be *Baba (noun) means a major element in the conceptualization of the -*babbar Grandfather Death, crucial element of our development about the Gilgameš Epic, has been found on these Ashkenazi/ Əsgər Nazr: Pious Soldier burials among several tools131.

The Assyrian Aškūza (Aškuzai, Iškuzai), used to Valhalle/ Vali Hol: The Governor’s Hal call a people who expelled the Cimmerians from the Armenian area of the Upper could Odin is probably rooted to a proto Turkic noun be a dissimilated form of Əsgər (Noun, Azeri) that referred to the natural vegetal material. that means soldier and Nazr (Noun modern Indeed, Utu recurrent in the Gilgameš Epic is Iranian) that means Pious Wish. Thus, the very close to the Turkic *Otu that means grasses, Hebraic Bible of Ashkenaz would be a and Odin is close to *Odun that designates the dissimilated form used to call those who praise wood as material. This approach is sustained by the Utu/ Ishkur, the God of Thunder. the polysemy of the modern Turc or Azeri *Vali (noun) that means Governor that is based on Biblical Azeri/ *Val (noun) that means Tree. This latest Genesis: Iranian Hebrew Assyrian argument is sustained by the fact that Odin is also Ashkenaz Gilaki called Valfadr in the Edda.

*Əsgər Azeri/ Gilgameš Edda Edda Turkic אַשְׁ כְׁ נַזִּים ,Noun) Epic Ashke- Azeri) (pronounced Languages means aʃkənazi) *Otu (noun) Soldier Utu meaning grasses *Nazr *Odun (Noun (noun) Odin meaning the -naz modern wood Iranian) (material) means *Vali (noun) Pious means V[Alfadr] Governorate / Val (noun) means Tree 130 S. Noah Kramer, Sumerian Mythology: a Sturdy of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C., the American Philosophical 131 Gogelia and Chelidze 1992; Narimanov 1987 in Society, 1944. Kiguradze Encyclopaedia of Prehistory, 94

In modern Azeri, *Hol (noun) means Halle. In our paper, the Kura’s steppe and the southern Thus, Valhalle is the name of the building to Lesser Caucasus seem to have been the epicentre where the warrior’s souls go after the death, the of the Hebraic Genesis. Here, we have Halle made of Wood and the reward for their demonstrated that the Kura – Araxe axis and the bravery, sitting in the Halle of the Governor. The Vorotan-Hakari-Terter axis are the cradles of the Azeri Hol is homonymous of the Islandic *Höll Hebraic genesis before migrating toward the (noun) that means Palace. Levant.

Uruk/ Ürək: the Heart Modern Turkic/ Edda: Gilgameš was king of Uruk and we have Azeri Islandic Valhalle demonstrated that the modern Azeri noun Ürək Languages was almost perfectly homonymous meaning the *Höll (noun) Heart that is used here to describe the Heart of *Hol (noun) Halle means the Kingdom. means Halle Palace Modern Azeri Gilgameš Epic *Val – Hol / Language Vali – Hol *Ürək (noun) means Uruk meaning the the Heart Valhalle Halle made of Wood or the Ur: Outgrowth Halle of the Governor In modern Azeri *Ur means the outgrowth with a global meaning of a bodily extension. This Riphath: Well- Being meaning is sustaining the idea of a spread, a migration out of a mainland. Following the Table of Nations, two other sons were born from Gomer: Riphath and Togarmah. Hebraic Bible Modern Azeri Language Rather than real human beings we link these *Ur (noun) means the names to real concepts. Indeed, Riphath is for us Ur Outgrowth, body the dissimilated form the Azeri *Rifah that means extension Well-being, the condition of the warrior after his Sem/ Səma: Heaven death. The adjective "Semitic" has been forged by the Modern Azeri 132 Hebraic Bible German orientalist AL Schlözel to designate language languages whose kinship was seen in the by doctors Jews: Hebrew, Aramaic and

Arabic. The name was chosen by reference to the Riphath *Rifah (noun) meaning "table of nations" of Genesis where Shem, son of well-being Noah, is given as the father of Abram and the ascendancy of Eber, eponym of the and of Joktan, ancestor of various populations of Arabia. Shem also read Sem is one of the Noah’s A unic Legacy from Kura to Egypt and Arabia: sons in the Hebraic Bible. His name is a perfect The Rise of Semitic Empires homonym of the polysemic Azeri noun *səma that means heaven, sky (blue) and also arch. ... Utanapishtî far was only a human being. Now he and his wife will be like us, the gods! But they remain far from us, the Mouth of the Rivers! Gilgameš Epic 132 Repertorium für biblische und morgenländische Literatur de J. G. Eichhorn, VIIII, 1781. 95

Modern Azeri Hebraic Bible Teraḥ/ Azar: Azer/ Aesir Language *səma (noun) meaning In the Coran Teraḥ is called Azar that we Sem heaven, sky (blue) and directly, without any doubt, link to the Edda also arch mythic people of Aesir, Teraḥ being the name derived from their leather armours. Teraḥ/ Dəri: the Leather Armored Edda Coran …Cyrus divided into the three hundred and sixty Aesir Azar channels, and it discharges itself by forty branches, of which all except one end in swamps Togarmah: Təkər Maḥalla and shallow pools; and among them they say that men dwell who feed on fish eaten raw, and We propose to sea in Togarmah, one of the three sons of Gomer, the contraction of Təkər Maḥalla who are wont to use as clothing the skins of that is composed with the Turkic/ Azeri Təkər seals: but the one remaining branch of the that means Wheel and the administrative human Araxes flows with unimpeded course into the installation and agricultural exploitation, the Caspian Sea. Maḥalla. It is also highly probable that Təkər has Herodotus, Histories, Book I, 202 been used to call population who used chariots or carts: . Modern Téraḥ / Táraḥ ,חַגֶּ ת / חֹּגֶּ ת :Teraḥ (Hebrew Tiberian Téraḥ / Tāraḥ) is the son of Nahār. In Modern Azeri Hebraic Bible the Edda, Enkidu has been fashioned from clay language and was probably born in the Mugan steppe (Moḡān) that lay near the Kura’s and Araxes *Təkər (noun) that Togar- mouths and called him son of turtle, means Wheel wetland fauna that describes obviously his origin. The Gilgameš 5th tablet can be augmented by -mah *Maḥalla Herodotus in his Book I.202 where he describes the Mugan steppe as it is still in our modern days Nahor/ Nahār and puts some major anthropological inputs by describing the use of the seal’s skin as clothes. The name of the Teraḥ’s father, Nahor, is for us This information is crucial because Herodotus homonymous of two toponyms from Oriental gives here the origin of the leather armour that Azerbaijan based on Nahār. It also calls a forest was probably already in use at the early Bronze in the oriental Caspian Golestān. Age periods. *Dəri (noun) that means leather or skin in modern Azeri has probably been used to Hebraic Bible Toponyms call those who worn skins. It has probably Genesis enriched the with Thorykion Nahār (Oriental (Θωρυκίων) that means armour. Thus Teraḥ Nahor, father of Azerbaijan, Gilan, could have been a leather armoured warrior who Teraḥ Golestān) has led his family outside Ur, bringing with him Ebrāhīm, Loth and Sarah. They have been installed in before going to Canaan. Arrān / Haran: From Mugan Steppe to Mil Steppe Modern Azeri Hebraic Bible Greek Language Genesis Arrān is the low land between Kura and Araxes *Dəri (noun) Thorykion that also integrates the Mil Steppe. We propose meaning Skin (noun) Teraḥ to see in Haran from the Biblical Genesis the or Leather armoured Lesser Caucasian Arran.

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Hebraic Bible Topography/ toponymy Eber/ Ibarə: Phrase/Expression Genesis Arrān, Karabakh Eber could also be compared to the modern Haran lowlands between Azeri in ibarə that means phrase/ expression that Araxes and Kura could be a cultural characteristic of the marines from the Kura-Araxes.

Out of Lesser Caucasus Hebraic Bible Azeri Language Genesis Abraham/ Eber Ham: Leader *Ibarə meaning Eber Phrase/Expression Abraham (Avraham, EBRĀHĪM or Abram in its original form) is the first Hebrew patriarch (Gen. Məsəl/ Mazel: Proverb 11:26; 17:5, Nehemiah 9: 7, and 1 Chron. 1: 26) that (טיב מזל :and son of Teraḥ. He has lived with him in Haran Mazel tov or Mazal tov (Hebrew before going in Canaan and this is in that Land of means literally Good luck, is a Jewish phrase Rivers that he became the leader of Eber/ . used to express congratulations for a happy and This hypothesis is sustained by the etymology of significant occasion or event. We propose here his name in the light of the modern Azeri Hami the hypothesis that it is one of the last legacies of (noun) means Chief or Protector or Benefactor. the Caucasian’s culture of Fate. Plus, we can find This noun is also used to call the son of Het. the same word with a close meaning in Azeri Language, Məsəl meaning Proverb/ Saying. Hebraic Bible Modern Azeri language *Hami (noun) meaning Hebrew Modern Azeri *Məsəl (noun) meaning Ham Chief, Protector, Mazel Benefactor Proverb/ Saying

Eber - Avar: Oar/ Paddle/ Scull Canaan/ Canan: the Beloved

Enlil then took me by the hand and made me ride Canaan is an almost perfect homonym of the with him on the boat. It also brought up and Azeri noun that means beloved: Canan. kneel my wife beside me. Then he touched his forehead and we standing between us and Hebraic Bible Modern Azeri language *Canan (noun) blessed us so... Canaan meaning beloved Passage of the Flood, Epic of Eber is for us is dissimilation form of a probable Hyksôs/ Hikmətli söz proto-Azeri noun similar to the modern Avar Hyksôs is the name given by the Egyptian (Azeri) that means Oar or Paddle or Scull. It is historian Manethon (3rd century BC) to obviously in the logic of the Gilgameš passage of designate strangers who ruled Egypt between the Flood, when Enlil took Utanapishtî and his 1730 and 1560 BC from their capital Avaris. He wife in his boat to save them. It implies a gave the signification of Royal Shepherd by an recurrent presence of boats and river. In other etymological analysis (hyk- means King in the words it becomes logic that Avar could represent sacred language name Heka and -sôs means marines or sailors who are transiting along the Shepherd) which is in fact a rapid montage to Kura-Araxes Rivers. reunite their name and their probable semi Modern Azeri nomadic way of life. It is common today to read Hebraic Bible Genesis Language *Avar (noun) meaning Eber Oar or Paddle or Scull

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that – sôs is more the abbreviation of Khasout Ishkur is the Sumerian god of the rain and the meaning Stranger133. thunderstorms of spring. Ishkur is commonly associated to the representation of Ninhar Here, we sustain that Manethon was right on his (Ningulba) and was the son of Nanna (Sin in perception of the Shepherd Kingship that we link Akkadian), the moon god who is also the father to the semi nomadic pastoral Galesh or Talysh of Utu (Shamash in Akkadian). We propose to but we do not agree with his etymology analysis see in Ishkur the deification of our Utu, the and prefer compare it to the modern Azeri warlord who has been depicted in the Gilgameš *hikmətli söz that means Maxim/Saying or Epic. The name of Ishkur itself could be analysed Aphorism. An aphorism (from Greek ἀφορισμός as the homonym of the modern Azeri Əsgər that aphorismos meaning delimitation) is a terse means soldier, fighter or warrior. saying, expressing a general truth, principle, or astute observation, and spoken or written in a Modern Azeri Sumerian laconic and memorable form such as Mazel Tov Language for instance. Əsgər (noun) means Ishkur Greek/ Egyptian Modern Azeri Soldier, Warrior *hikmətli söz meaning Hyksôs Maxim/Saying/ Aphorism Ishakkus: Əsgər, Lords of Lagash

Avaris: Egyptian Capital In 1877 began the archaeological researches in Telloh, the ancient Sumerian city of Lagash The Egyptian capital of the Hyksôs was Avaris. Kingdom by the French expedition led by De The name of this city is clearly rooted to the Sarzec. It was at this site that the first important people that brought a new language, the Avar Sumerian monuments were excavated, the people, still located today in what has been called objects and inscriptions of the Ishakkus or during millennia: Iberia. princes of Lagash. Here more than one hundred thousand tablets and fragments were dug up, Egypt Caucasus/ Dagestan dating from the pre-Sargonid and Ur III periods. Avaris Avar Tribe Modern Azeri Pious Warriors in Sumer Əsgər (noun) means Ishakkus Soldier, Warrior On that day, tree, a Huluppu tree, a tree, On the bank of the pure Euphrates it had been E-Anna-Tum/ Ev-Ana Toxumu or E[v]-Anna- planted, Tun? Seeds of E-Anna or House of the Queen? Gilgameš and the Huluppu Tree, S. Noah Kramer, 1938 Eannatum was a Sumerian king of Lagash; he established one of the first verifiable empires in The recurrent stanza of the ‘Huluppu planted in history. His name has been found on the most the Euphrates’ is symbolic of a significant move ancient historiographic document known, the from Transcaucasia to Sumer. Here are the Stele of Vultures, which relates his victory over elements that link the Gilgameš Epic to Sumer Umma. The Stele discovered by Edouard de and the Rise of the Semitic Empires. Sarzec in Tello and dated from 2450 BC is now conserved in the Louvre Museum (several fragments, AO 16109, AO 50, AO 2346, and AO Ishkur: Warrior, God of Thunder 2348).

133 Jean VERCOUTTER, « HYKSÔS », Encyclopædia However, we rather think that it is not a real Universalis. king’s but a poetic name that symbolize the http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/hyksos/ 98

expansion of those from the E-Ana, Kingdom of Lesser Caucasus. Indeed, EAnna in prefix is for us the Ev-Ana that we had explained as being the Residence of the Queen and in postfix *Tum could be the contraction of modern Azeri Toxumu that means Seeds. Thus, Eannatum could be the dissemination of those from the Ev-Ana. However, a pleonastic toponym could also be proposed, *Tun meaning House or Land in Armenian.

Modern Azeri/ Armenian Sumerian: Eannatum Languages *Ev (noun) meaning the *E Residence, Place *Ana (noun) meaning *Ana Mother or Queen *Toxumu(noun, Azeri) *Tum meaning Seeds *Tun (noun, Armenian) *Tun means House, Land Eannatum: The Seeds/ of the Residence of the Queen Ev-Ana Tun: The Land of the Residence of the Queen

Əsgər Ibarə/ Asgar Yubara: Warriors, Vector of the Epic

We propose the hypothesis according to which the Epic of Gilgameš was an epic that has been transported by the Aesir who travelled along the trade roads and most probably along the Rivers. Indeed, on the East of the Lagash Kingdom, the small city of Asgar Yubara concentrates in its name what composes our main theory. Asgar is rooted to Əsgər that means warriors and Yubara in postfix in which we see the dissimilated form of Ibarə meaning Phrase/Expression confirms our argument. Thus Asgar Yubara or Əsgər Ibarə is perfectly describing the broadcasting of the Epic by the warriors. Toponymy: Asgar Azeri Language Yubara *Əsgər (noun) Asgar meaning Warrior, Soldier *Ibarə (noun) meaning Yubara Phrase/Expression Asgar Yubara/ Əsgər Ibarə: Soldier’s Literature

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Gilgameš Epic

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Gilgameš: First Retrospective

From a very modern point of view, we will numerous archaeological excavations since the demonstrate that the Gilgameš Epic is the first 19th century throughout the Middle East. Their Aesir’s retrospective composed as a modern dispersion in space and time shows its road movie that stages the adventures of a importance and popularity that opens a long young warrior followed by two other young literary tradition. The Epic had about 3,000 peoples, Inanna and Enkidu, who have verses, of which about 2,000 have survived. accomplished successive acts of impiety, the There are several versions, the older version cutting of Huluppu Tree, the killing of called "Babylon" and the latest version called "" place of its finding, precisely in the Humbaba and the cutting of his forest. While "library of Assurbanipal". Following the Epic, his friends are doomed, death of Enkidu and Inanna in Hell, Gilgameš is condemned to Gilgamesh (Akkadian ℑ₆∦ ℑ₆∦ / disarray and loneliness. Here are all the Gilgameš) was king of Uruk and would have elements that transform an old and mysterious reigned around 2500 BC. He probably existed but we have no historical records except the Epic into a modern story where youth and Sumerian King List where he is cited as ‘the violence are mixed together, composed like a Divine Gilgameš- father was (a) Lillû-demon- a parabola of the Rise of the Aesir. high priest of Kullab134’.

Clay Tablets from the excavations at Ur

Gilkeçmişə: the Clay Retrospective Sir Leonard Woolley (17 April 1880 – 20 February 1960) was a famous British While every specialists of Sumerian and Assyrian literary are agree to say that the archaeologist known for his excavations at the Gilgameš Epic flourished in Mesopotamian Mesopotamian city of Ur (Tell al-Muqqayar, literature, we propose to investigate its genesis Irak) from where he had excavated thousands of clay cuneiform tablets. Some of them are by comparing names and concepts that are, for us, a phonetic transcription of what we can call a precious sources for our understanding of proto Azeri language whose major concepts and Sumerian literary compositions especially completing the Gilgameš Epic whose several lexicon have been included in local Akkadian 135 and Sumerian languages. Here is our etymology passages has been discovered . of the Gilgameš name. One of these passages interests us the most, the ‘Inanna and Huluppu Tree136’ that we consider Gilgameš: Epic crucial for the understanding of the cultural Gilgameš, from birth, was prestigious! Two third context that is shared by the main characters God, one third Man… from the Gilgameš Epic. We will interpret this Gilgameš, tablet I, 45 (Nineveh Version) passage as being the starting point of the Gilgameš Epic comparing it to the modern Azeri Born in Mesopotamia, the Gilgameš Epic has been reconstructed from clay tablets and many 134 The Sumerian King List, Thorkild Jacobsen, fragments written in cuneiform preserved in Assyriology studies N°11, The Oriental Institute of various museums (British Museum, the Iraqi the University of Chicago, 1939 Museum in Baghdad, the Berlin Museum) and 135 S. Noah Kramer "The Ur Excavations and Universities (Philadelphia and Yale). These Sumerian Literature" Expedition Magazine 20.1 tablets were engraved at different times over a (October 1977) in Expedition Magazine. Penn period of from about 2300 BC to about 1200 BC Museum, October 1977 Web. 03 Oct 2016. 136 S. Noah Kramer, Gilgameš and the Huluppu tree, and in several languages (Sumerian, Akkadian, a reconstructed Sumerian Text, Assyrian Studies 10, Hittite, and Hurrian). They were collected at The University of Chicago Press, 1938. 101

language and the modern Gilan’s culture that we explain in one contraction the general action of consider to be close to the Gilgameš Epic’s riding up a riverbed, a shore or a mountain pass. context and the most preserved. Thus, the mere passage becomes a way to finally representing both path of the hero and his fate. Gilgameš and Enkidu Fashioned Modern Azeri Elohim modelled ha-adam, dust from ha-adama Gilgameš Epic Language Gn 2, 7 Bible, Genesis 2:7 (Bible of Rabbinat) Gil (noun) meaning Gil- At his birth, Gilgameš was already an extraordinary Clay being: two-thirds divine and human for the rest. Keçməsi: ’The -gameš Passage/ The way The Great Aruru the great goddess who created made of Clay mankind had drawn his body, modelled his face. Gil- Keçməsi: ’The Gilgameš Epic, Tablet I, 45 (Nineveh Version) Gil-gameš Passage/ The way made of Clay (Aruru) washed his hands, took a lump of clay and placed it in the steppe. And it is here, in the Gil Keçmiş: History on Clay steppe, she gave a shape to Enkidu-the-Brave… *Keçmiş means Past or Antiquity, thus *Gil- Gilgameš Epic. *Keçmiş could be understood as the Past on Clay In the Hebraic Bible, Adam has been fashioned that matches with the transcription of the epic on by Elohim, such as Enkidu and Gilgameš by clay tablets. Aruru. The description of the Enkidu’s birth is Modern Azeri clearly colourful. Thus the Gilgameš Epic and Gilgameš Epic the Hebraic Bible are similar. Language *Gil (noun) meaning Gil- Ochre: Death of Man Clay While my friend I loved had become clay. And *Keçmiş (noun) me? - games meaning Past or History Gilgameš Epic, Enkidu and the Kur *Gil-Keçmiş: Past on Gilgameš Clay? Ochre and clay are interesting elements that link the Mesopotamian and Biblical poetic birth of Gil [li] keçmişə/ Gil [li] keçmişə baxış: the Man and a typical of burial’s ritual in Kurgan Retrospective cultures where ochre powdering on dead bodies was a common proceed. In the Gilgameš Epic, The Epic is cleverly told as a retrospective. The Enkidu died and Gilgameš complained that his main character is already king of Uruk and the friend ‘became clay’ and triggered his disarray. sacred tree planted on the Pure Euphrates. The Gil-Keçməsi’: the Clay Passage retrospective looks back as if it runs up the river in the narrow valleys. The modern Azeri Gilgameš, perfect, dazzling! keçmişə’ means Retrospective and is almost Opened the passes in the mountains… phonetically homonym of –gameš. Gilgameš, Tablet I, 35 (Nineveh version) Gilgameš Epic Modern Azeri Language …Weep him… narrow passes of the highlands we Gil- *Gil (noun) means clay *keçmişə baxış (noun) climbed together… -gameš meaning Retrospective Laments him, countryside, as if you were his *Gil keçmişə baxış: the Gilgameš mother, Clay Retrospective Weep him… Gilgameš Epic, Tablet VIII, (Nineveh version)

In modern Azeri *Keçməsi means Way, Path or Passage. Unified together, *Gil and *Keçməsi

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Inanna and the Huluppu Tree

68 On that day, tree, a Huluppu tree, a tree, 69 On the bank of the pure Euphrates it had been planted, 70 And Euphrates was its drinking water, 71 Mightily the south Wind plucked at its base; tore at its crown, 72 The Euphrates on its water carried it off, 73 A woman walking in fear at the words of , 74 Walking in fear at the words of Enlil, 75 Seized the tree in my hand and brought it to Uruk, 76 To pure Inanna’s holy garden shalt bring it 77 The lady tended the tree with her hand; she let it stand at her foot 78 Inanna tended the Tree with her hand; she let it stand at her foot. 79 When at last (shall I have) a holly throne that I may sit on it? Concerning it (she said) 80 When at last (shall I have) a holly bed that I may lie on it? Concerning it she said. 81 The tree grew large great but she could not cut off, its , 82 At its base the snake who knows no charm had set up for itself a nest, 83 In its crown the Zu-bird had placed its young, 84 In its midst Lilith had built for herself a house. 85 The ever shouting maid, the rejoicer of all hearts, 86 The pure Inanna, how she weeps! 78 In the matter concerning which his sister had spoken to him of 88 In that matter her brother, the hero Gilgameš, stood by her, 89 Armor weighing as much as fifty minas he fastened at his waist 90 That which weighed as much as fifty minas he treated like thirty shekels. 91 His bronze axe, his axe of the road, 92 His axe of seven talents and seven minas, he seized in his hand. 93 At its base he smote the snake who knows no charm; 94 In its crown the Zu-bird took its young, 95 And brought it to the mountain; 96 In its midst Lilith destroyed her house 97 And escaped to the desert places. 98 The tree, he plucked at its base, he tore at its crown; 99 The sons of his city who had accompanied him cut down its crown. 100 Unto the pure Inanna for her throne he gives it, 101 For her bed he gives it. 102 He, its base into his pukku he makes, 103 Its crown into his mikku he makes.

Gilgameš and the Huluppu Tree, S. Noah Kramer, 1938

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Odin versus Gullveig: Inanna the Denunciator

21. The war I remember, | the first in the world, When the gods with spears | had smitten Gollveig, And in the hall | of Hor had burned her, Three times burned, | and three times born, Oft and again, | yet ever she lives.

22. Heith they named her | who sought their home, The wide-seeing witch, | in magic wise; Minds she bewitched | that were moved by her magic, To evil women | a joy she was.

23. On the host his spear | did Othin hurl, Then in the world | did war first come; The wall that girdled | the gods was broken, And the field by the warlike | Wanes was trodden.

24. Then sought the gods | their assembly-seats, The holy ones, | and council held, Whether the gods | should tribute give, Or to all alike | should worship belong.

25. Then sought the gods | their assembly-seats, The holy ones, | and council held, To find who with venom | the air had filled, Or had given Oth's bride | to the giants' brood.

Völuspá Poetic Edda, the Völva, Codex Regius

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Gilgameš: Youth and Impiety Acts

The Gilgameš Epic stages all the Impiety Acts Youthful Utu/ Ot: Grass, not yet Wood that could shock the populations, from the cutting of a Sacred Tree and the murder attempt to the Holy Inana spoke to her brother the hero, ruling woman, the Killing of the Protector of the youthful Utu: "My brother, I want to tell you Forest, Humbaba, and Finally the cutting of his something -- pay attention to my speech...... Forest. We propose to see in all of them, the Utu, my twin, I want to tell you something -- pay turbulent making of the perfect leader. attention to my speech." Her brother the hero, youthful Utu, answered

holy Inana: "My sister, I swear an oath by the life Young Utu: Youth of a Warlord of heaven, I swear by the life of the rainbow (?) of heaven, my ...... , ...... , I swear by the life of my 79… She took a piece of clay, throne, by my majesty: I will follow what my And placed it in the steppe: sister says to me, I will follow what holy Inana 80 (and this is where) in the steppe, says to me."137 That she fashioned Enkidu the brave… And the Utu calls of the young girls, Gilgameš Epic, Tablet I, Nineveh version Gilgameš Epic, Enkidu and the Kur While the Eddaic poems have for main character ‘Youthful Utu’ appears in several stanzas in the a mature man, Odin, his family and his Gilgameš Epic. We propose to see in Utu the entourage, the Gilgameš Epic has for main vegetal vocabulary we previously used to give character Gilgameš that is often called ‘youthful the Odin’s etymology. Utu is rooted to *Ot that Utu’. Here are the elements that explain Utu, as a means Grass in Azeri or Turkic languages, parabola of the Genesis of the Aesir people. symbolic name that not only describes the Apprenticeship hierarchy rank in the society but also the young age of the hero who is not yet an *Odun, a Wood, The apprenticeship is common in the Eddaic a mature man. poems and can be the starting point of a Saga.

The Gilgameš Epic is built on this poetic style.

Saga: şagird

The Nordic songs relate Sagas (from Proto- 137 A mythic narrative about Inana: translation, CBS Germanic *sagǭ) that are learned and orally 1531; W 16743ac (AUWE 23 no. 101); YBC 4665… transmitted through generations. The Saga is not in The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, University of Oxford, 2000. Sources only the History but also its Learning and in a used: Van Dijk, J. J. A., "Inanna raubt den "grossen more general meaning, the learning phases in the Himmel". Ein mythos", in Maul, Stefan M. (ed.), hero’s life. Saga is for us similar to the modern Festschrift für Rykle Borger zu seinem 65. Azeri *Şagird that means Apprentice. Geburtstag am 24. Mai 1994: tikip santakki mala bashmu (Cuneiform Monographs, 10) Styx Proto- Modern Modern Azeri Publications: Groningen, 1998, 9-38: score Germanic Icelandic Language , translation, commentary, Saga handcopy, photograph; *Saga/ Sögu *Şagird (noun) Zólyomi, Gábor, "W 16743ac (= AUWE 23 101)", (noun) means *Sagǭ (2000) No. 38: commentary, score means Apprentice, transliteration (ms. D); Brown, David, and Zólyomi, History Disciple Gábor, ""Daylight converts to night-time". An astrological-astronomical reference in Sumerian literary context", 2000 (manuscript): score transliteration, commentary (ll. D41--45) 105

Uruk: Ürək, the Heart of the Kingdom - Šikil (or šigil) probably from the Turkic sıkılır meaning tightened is the space In the Epic, it is recurrent to read that Gilgameš under the house created to isolate the is the King of Uruk, which is today understood as living room from the wet soil, typical in the city of Uruk located in Irak. We rather domestic architecture of the maritime propose that Uruk is not a city as we can plain of Gilan and swamps of Safidrud. understand it today, but a probable location, The floor is one or two meters above the village or Maḥalla that is, in fact, the heart of the muddy ground, which offers an Utu’s kingdom. This hypothesis is sustains by the additional room used for various modern Azeri *Ürək (noun) that means the domestic purposes. Heart. Uruk can also be used to call the Aesir - Līlakī (Gleditsia Caspica) refers to both homeland. an endemic Caspian tree that can be used as building material and a stratum of Modern Azeri Gilgameš Epic mountain forests where līlakī (Gleditsia Language Caspica) species are abundant. *Ürək (noun) means Uruk Heart We propose the hypothesis according to which the Gilgameš Epic starts in the Gilan plain, 'KI- Lylakvh/ Leyla Koh: Upper Maḥalla ŠIKIL-LIL-LA-KE describing a Šikil of the Inanna’s house made of Līlakī. The episode of Gilgameš and Huluppu Tree is so accurate that we can propose a geographical location where the events could have occurred. Here is our hypothesis of a Gilan’s location, at Huluppu Tree: Azad Tree of the Wool the foot of the Leyla Mountain. Leyla Mountain Weavers is the most advanced Gilan’s relief towards the Caspian Sea. It is 670m high. Lylakvh village, We will propose in this chapter an etymology to (pronounced Leilakouh) is a small village from Huluppu Tree that we consider to be the most the Langarud district. Being is the most distant ancient testimony of the Gilan’s worship in habitations between the Sea and the Leyla Koh sacred trees related to the activity of weavers. Mountain, we can say that Lylakvh is the upper part of the Maḥalla. Gilan’s Cult of Trees: Azad Tree

A House in the Maḥalla 81 The tree grew large great but she could not cut off, its bark,… 84 šab-ba-bi-a ki-sikil-lil-la-ke, é im-ma-ni-ib-du Gilgameš and the Huluppu Tree, S. Noah Kramer, We saw previously the importance of the cult of 1938 Sacred Trees and we propose to see in the The plain of Gilan has a very high rural Gleditsia Caspica, līlakī in Gilaki, deciduous tree population density and has a very characteristic native to Transcaucasia and northern Iran, the pattern of settlement that is not based on the species whose Huluppu tree belongs to. It can model of the village but on the Mahalla, a loose reach 12 meters high and in adulthood its grouping of houses surrounded by gardens and branches and its trunk is covered by many long orchards. The line 83 from the Gilgameš and the branched spines of 10-20 cm that protect pod Huluppu Tree is crucial for the understanding of shaped fruits from predators. This particularity the Gilgameš Epic. However it was not possible could be a probable reason why Inanna could not to consider it like this before our hypothesis that cut it herself and why Gilgameš used his axe. proposes to see in this stanza the main Gilan’s Technics of weaving characteristics of Gilan’s house. This explanation is based on two Gilaki nouns *Šikil and *Līlakī: The Gilan region still keeps the secrets of weaving goat’s wool which has become a

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specialty of the mountainous areas of Ṭāleš and Growing up in Poverty: Living in the Līlakī Šikil Gāleš. Wool as a raw material is a heavy material and seeing the Sacred Tree Growing with a simple weaving, the šāl. When the chain (tār) and weft (pud) are both in wool, the material 84 In the Līlakī Šikil she had built for herself a is first stride in soapy water and then it is used to house. make clothing such as trousers (šalvār, šālšalvār), 85 The ever shouting maid, the rejoicer of all 138 jackets (kut, šakā) and caps (kalā) . hearts, Huluppu: Hulana – Pul, the Wool Weavers’ 86 The pure Inanna, how she weeps! Wealth Based on the elements we have seen earlier, the lines from 84 to 86 have a complete different An etymological hypothesis of Huluppu tree meaning. Lilith does not exist anymore because sustains the relation between the Sacred Tree and the fictive personage is replaced by the Šikil the activity of weaver. Huluppu is composed by made of līlakī itself, offering a new portrait of the the prefix *Hulu that can be rooted to the Hittite 139 youth of Inanna. Indeed, the new traduction /*Hulana-/ that means Wool and the postfix - shows a young Inanna, a maid living in the Šikil *ppu that can easily linked to the modern Azeri made of Līlakī, the lowest part of the House. noun Pul that means currency, money, treasury. Thus, both nouns reunited match with the kind of Inanna/ Inanmama: Impiety wish, Nazr in Persian, that is common in sacred tree worshiping, being a wish of prosperity and, Inanna saw the Sacred Tree growing in the same in that case, the prosperity of the wool weavers. time as her and probably served the richest Gilgameš Modern Azeri members of the Maḥalla. She developed her Hittite Epic: Huluppu mimetic jealousy from the lowest social rank and Language Tree triggers the violence by calling Gilgameš. *Hulana *Hulu- Cutting the Huluppu Tree was probably the most means Wool sacrilegious act that could be in the Gilan’s *Pul (noun) society and Inanna probably took the name of her means money, impiety, *Inanmama, the modern Azeri noun for -*ppu currency, impiety is phonetically so close that we sustain treasury this hypothesis. Gilgameš Epic Azeri Language *Inanmama (noun) The New Traduction of the 84 – 86 lines: Inanna meaning impiety. Mimetic Jealousy and Act of Impiety

Every time is [the Violence] arises at any point of the community it tends to expand and gain the Inanna, Queen of Heaven: Queen of the Upper whole social body. Maḥalla René Girard, La Violence et le Sacré Gilgameš and the Huluppu Tree is one of the Inanna went to the world from below... most eloquent descriptions of the result of what …I am the queen of heaven, the philosopher René Girard calls the mimetic From where the sun rises! jealousy and the violence. Inanna in the Nether World, Lorsque les dieux faisaient l’homme, Mythologie Mésopotamienne, Jean Bottéro and Samuel Noah Kramer140 138 Bromberger, Bazin 139 J. Cheung, of the Iranian Verb, Leiden Indo-European Etymological 140 Bibliothèque des Histoires, nrf, Éditions Dictionary Series, Brill, 2007. Gallimard. 107

In the episode of Inanna in the Nether world, which has influenced the modern philologists and Inanna came to act with compassion for the death brought them to a symbolic vision of her of the husband of Éreškigal and introduce herself character which would be fascinated by the as the ‘Queen of Heaven’. According to the precious metal142. We propose a different Gilan’s administrative tradition, she is right approach to explain the name of Gullveig that is a because Lylakvh is the most distant location simple construction of two nouns: *Göl that between the mountain and the Sea. means Lake in Azeri or *Gull noun that means Seagull in Azeri and Armenian, and *Vag that Lylakvh: In the Neighbourhood of Gomol/ means Heron (Azeri). Then we can raise the Kumeleh hypothesis that Gullveig could have been called in function of an endemic fauna that still All the righteous men live with him (Odin) in this occupies the wetlands of the Caspian Sea coast of place which is Gimlé or Vingolf, but the wicked Gilan. will go to Hel and from there to Niflhel, it is all the way down in the ninth world. Modern Azeri Edda: Gullveig Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, chap. 3 Language

*Göl (noun) means In that time the good abodes shall be many, and Gull- Lake also the bad. The best will be in Gimlé, in heaven… *Gull (noun) meaning Gull- Snorri Sturluson, Gylfaginning, 52 Seagull

Lylakvh Mountain and city are distant of few *Vag (noun) meaning -veig Heron , هلموه) and Kumeleh ( لمگ) kilometres from Gomol Langarud County, Gilan, Iran) we have recognized as the probable homeland of the Aesir called Gimlé. It is logic that if Inanna supplied Heith/ Ittiham: Denunciator Utu to help her if he was in the neighbourhood. Heith they named her The recurrence of ‘brother’ when she calls him is Völuspá 22 probably a clue of their common appartenance of a population or a social condition. Heith (Heiðr in Islandic poetry) has often been interpreted as being a second name of Gullveig because of the negative witch’s description. However, we rather interpret this name as being The same Event seen from another Point of the action of denunciation or accusation that has View put Gullveig in this dramatic situation. Indeed, for us Heith shares the same root than the modern Gullveig was a central figure in the Edda where Azeri noun *Ittiham that means Accusation, she is considered as the first victim of the war Denunciator. Thus Heith is the probable Eddaic between the Aesir and the Vanir, the two main counterpart of Inanna, the woman who called protagonist’s populations. Aesir have attempted Gilgameš to cut the Huluppu Tree that we have to murder her in their Valhalle, but she survived already linked to the modern Azeri *Inanmama after having been repeatedly beaten and 141 that means Impiety. As is it told in the Edda, this burned . She became a symbol of female woman became ‘a joy’ to Odin such as Inanna strength, endurance and survival. became the female alter ego of Gilgameš. Gullveig possible Etymologies

Modern etymologies link her name to the greed (gull meaning gold in Norwegian / Icelandic)

142 G. Dumézil, Mythes et Dieux de la Scandinavie 141 Völuspá, l’Edda Poetique 21, 22. ancienne, Gallimard, NRF, 2000 108

Gilgameš Epic Edda Azeri Language Əvəz: Alter Ego Inanna has *Ittiham (noun/ called In modern Azeri *Əvəz means Parallel with the adj) meaning Gilgameš for Heith denunciator, general sense of complementary, alter ego. We help to cut the accusatory propose to see in that noun both a parallel Huluppu Tree mimetic desire and the alter ego of Gilgameš. *Inanmama Inanna (noun) meaning Hebraic Bible: impiety. Modern Azeri Language Genesis *Əvəz (noun) means Eve Counterpart, Alter Ego

Figure 26 Gleditsia Caspica, līlakī Tree

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Enkidu/ əkiz Doğulmuş: Gilgameš meets his ‘Twin Brother’

(Him and Gilgameš) they will grab each other, And Uruk will regain peace Gilgameš Epic, Tablet I, 30. 75

In our philological research we have investigate Herodotus, Histories Book 1, 202143 the geographical origin of Enkidu by interpreting The great steppic plain of Azerbaijan is divided the context of his birth and his name in the light in three by the Araxes and Kura rivers. Between of the Transcaucasian topography and the the right banks of the Araxes, the Caspian Sea modern Azeri language. and the Kura’s mouth is the fertile Mugan Steppe Enkidu: Born in the Steppe (Moḡān). The recurrent steppic landscape, the wild animals and the wetland fauna (Caspian (Aruru) washed his hands, took a lump of clay Turtle: Mauremys Caspica) drive us to the and placed it in the steppe. And it is here, in the conclusion that Enkidu is probably from the steppe, she gave a shape to Enkidu-the-Brave… Caspian coast, where the Araxes and the Kura are Gilgameš Epic. divided in many water courses.

Enkidu has been fashioned by Aruru from clay Because we place the Forest of Humbaba in the and was born in the steppe where he lived in Karabakh and because the latter knows or among animals as a shepherd could be. recognizes Enkidu implies that he was probably from the Azerbaijani steppe. His description of Enkidu: Son of Fish his parenthood leads us to the conclusion that Humbaba, who opened its mouth, Enkidu has been abandoned or was an orphan Addresses to Gilgameš: who lived by his own means. Crazy and unconscious * - *du: əkiz Doğulmuş Would they have advise you, Gilgameš, That you came confront me? In modern Azeri the twin-born are called əkiz He! Enkidu, son of fish, doğulmuş, əkiz (noun) meaning twins and Who never knew his father, doğulmuş from doğulmaq means to born. For us, And, not more than turtle, Enkidu is the contraction of a proto-Azeri Has never been breastfed by his mother! adjective from an identic meaning that describes Gilgameš Epic, Tablet V, 22554s symbolically the relation that unites Gilgameš and him. The 5th tablet from the Epic that relates the speech of Humbaba who tries to discourage Gilgameš Epic: Modern Azeri Gilgameš of killing him describes Enkidu as son Enkidu Language *əkiz (noun) meaning of Fish and compares him like a turtle that is Enki- Twins unable to be feed breast. *Doğulmaq (verb) -*Du meaning to born Enkidu: Orphan from the Mugan Steppe əkiz doğulmuş : Twin- Enki – Du born The Araxes rises in Matiene (as does the Gyndes, the river Cyrus divided into three hundred of sixty channels), and it ends in fourty mouths, all except one of which issue into marshes and swamps… 143 , Robin Waterfield; 1998 110

The Killing of Humbaba and the Cutting of the Gordahat Forest A Shir-Namshub (hymn?) to Utu (Utu E) perfectly describes the new title of the Epic’s Watch out! Chase Humbaba, prevent him from main character. By killing Humbaba, Gilgameš winning his lair and hiding in underbrush. It has became king of the Mountain, just below the not yet put its seven magical cloaks charged with Great Mother and the Great Mountain malefic and terrifying strength! For now, he only Enlil. This Sumerian hymn can find its wears one. Quick, Chase him! counterpart in the Edda, in the Gylfaginning, Gilgameš Epic, The Fight against Humbaba, chapter 4. Both hymns referring to a peaceful and tablet 5 pleasant place dedicated for righteous men. However, the Eddaic one gives a location, Gimlé, The murder of Humbaba is an accomplishment which sustains the Gilan starting point from for Gilgameš who killed, as we will see, a Lylakvh (Leyla Koh). symbol of the legitimate power for the population of E-Ana. Indeed, fantastic being has been placed in the Forest by the God Enlil himself. Inanna sees the Canopy of the Gordahat Forest Humbaba, Etymology After the passages of the killing of Humbaba and In the Epic of Gilgameš, Humbaba was the the cutting his Forest, the Gilgameš Epic offers protector of the cedar forest. His name is the an external point of view from Inana who sees possible combination of two nouns that refer his the canopy of the forest inviting us to interpret social position, *Baba meaning Father or this scene as an input that has been considered as Grandfather in Azeri and his role in the group necessary to better stages the real landscape. with the prefix Hum- whose probable modern form *Ümid means anticipation, hope. Humbaba Hunanav was probably regarded as both a shaman and a father by his clan. B3-B6 She perceived the canopy, the canopy ...... , holy Inana perceived the canopy, Gilgameš Epic: Modern Azeri Language From the palace of the , she perceived the Humbaba canopy *Ümid (noun) means Hum- Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven anticipation, hope Hunanav 39°35'52"N 46°36'16"E (also called *Baba (noun) means -baba Father or Grandfather Unannovu) is a small mountain village from Laçın province, district of Kashatagh, Karabakh Republic. This village situated on a small on a Utu from Kumeleh became the Lord of the small terrace that offers a unic panorama of the Mountain Kirs Mountains and the Gordahat forest whose canopy is visible from there. Whoever has eaten good bread has also drunk good beer, in the house where the righteous man has filled the bowls with liquor – University of Oxford, 2000, Cuneiform sources: BM The lord of the storehouse, the Great Mountain 23631 (OrNS 54 pl. ii--iv) i 1--iii 23. Other sources Enlil; the lady of the storehouse, great mother Kramer, Samuel Noah, "BM 23631: Bread for Enlil, Ninlil; Sex for Inanna", Orientalia 54 (1985), 117-132, pls. Youthful Utu, lord of the mountain; … ii-iv: score transliteration, translation, photograph, A Shir-Namshub to Utu (Utu E)144 commentary; and Krecher, Joachim and Behrens, H., (LIT1.TXT, 1996: score transliteration); Krecher, Joachim and Jagersma, B., (LIT3.TXT, 1996: 144 A Shir-Namshub to Utu (Utu E): translation, The translation, score transliteration) Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature,

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Gilgameš, new Lord of the Mountain Kills the and Tarkhanli (39°34'18"N 46°37'35"E) contain Bull of Heaven the noun Khan that is typically Turkic to call the highest rank of aristocracy. These are for us the The lord of the storehouse, the Great Mountain first mark of the conquest and the installation of Enlil; the lady of the storehouse, great mother Proto-Azeri under the rule of Utu. Ninlil; youthful Utu, lord of the mountain Məlikpəyə / Muspell: The Royal Stable A Shir-Namshub to Utu (The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature) B7-B12 "My wild bull, my ...... man, I shall not let you go! After the killing Humbaba and the cutting the Lord Gilgameš, my wild bull, my ...... man, I shall forest, the Gilgameš Epic describes a period where Utu seems to enjoy his new status of ‘Lord not let you go! of the Mountain’. Ishtar who stared at him I shall not let you go to dispense in the E- grooming, declared her love but he repulsed her ana! 146 with disdain and gave her the list of her fast Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven loves. Humiliated, she turned to the god Anu We saw earlier that the village of Məlikpəyə who shipped a giant bull against the city. The locate what it can be consider as a Royal Stable causes great slaughter, but both heroes or Cow- House. succeed to kill it. Here are the geographic elements that we can get from the Sumerian The Bull of Heaven 145 tablets . I shall not let you go to dispense justice in the E- ana! Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven Royal Stable: Residence of the Queen With the probable help of a herdsman who is incarnated by the God Anu, Ishtar tried to kill My wish is to catch (?) mountain bulls, to fill the Gilgameš/ Utu who was installed on the next hill cow-pens. I wish to catch (?) mountain sheep, to by unleashing a Bull. It implies a particular fill the sheepfolds… attention about the woman’s condition in the Gilgameš and the Bull of Heaven Karabakh and a probable Queenship that could Three city names appear to belong to the same replace a Kingship. E-Ana recurrently appears in root. Indeed, Khanalilar (39°32'54"N the Sumerian clay tablets and leads us to this 46°37'50"E), Xanalar (39°33'16"N 46°38'34"E) hypothesis, indeed if we decompose E-Ana we can directly translate it in modern Azeri: The

Queen’s Residence, *Ana meaning Queen and *E 145 On Gilgameš and the Bull of Heaven see: Cavigneaux, A. , and F.N.H. Al-Rawi, "Gilgamesh et a probable contraction of *Ev meaning Taureau de Ciel (cul-mè-kam) (Texts from Tell Residence. Thus, the episode of Bull of Heaven Haddad IV)", Revue d'Assyriologie 87(1993), 97- could describe how Ishtar who couldn’t sustain 129 pls. I-III: composite text, score transliteration, her legitimacy, tried to kill the Aesir by translation, photograph, commentary; and George, Unleashing a cattle. , The . The Babylonian epic poem and other texts in Akkadian and Modern Azeri E-Ana Sumerian, Allen Lane The Penguin Press: Languages Harmondsworth, Middlesex 1999, 166-175: *Ev (noun) meaning the *E translation; and Wilcke, C., "Politische Opposition Residence, Place nach sumerischen Quellen: der Konflikt zwischen *Ana (noun) meaning *Ana Königtum und Ratsversammlung. Literaturwerke Mother or Queen als politische Tendenzschriften.", in Finet, A. (ed.), La voix de l'opposition en Mésopotamie. Colloque organisé par l'Institut des Hautes Études de 146 Fragment from uncertain provenance, Belgique, 19 et 20 mars 1973. Institut des Hautes translated from The Electronic Text Corpus of Études de Belgique: 1973, 37-65: commentary Sumerian Literature, University of Oxford, 2000 112

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Tərtər

... Inexhaustible waters of the Styx, which run through a harsh land. Here begins the dark earth, the black Tartarus, the sterile sea, the glittering sky; then touch the sources’ limits: awful and desolated region that hate gods. We see bright doors, a brazen threshold; solid, unwavering, attached by deep roots… In front, away from all the gods, beyond the black Chaos, live the Titans. Hesiod, Theogony, French traduction Patin (1892) from Académie Française.

In Odyssey, gone to Colchide to know his fate on Bərdə is located in the centre of the Kura Valley, the bank of the Styx, River of the Stay of the midway between the river and the hills at the foot Dead, Ulysses sacrificed a black ram and of the Lesser Caucasus. It’s also situated at the consulted the soul of Tiresias147, and then he saw mouth of the river Tərtər which is partially the souls of the Greek heroes. Here are the navigable. Its location is perfectly central and elements that have led us to propose Tərtər allows the control of both river and road traffic. region to be the Greek Kingdom of Dead and the Bərdə preserves into its name its original Underworld for Enkidu. function of fortress and in its geographical position it keeps the memory of the events described in the following chapters.

At the Heart of the Kura Steppe The Strongest

Tərtər River Bərdə (pronounced Barda) decomposed into Bər- də means the strongest in Azeri. Its etymology is The Tərtər River (pronounced tartar) is one of probably rooted in the Armenian which the most important tributaries of the Kura River. means fortress (բերդ) matching with the It rises in the Nagorno- near the function of controlling. village of Istisu. Torrent at its source, it descends into a very dark and narrow valley, and once out Cər-Bərə: Ferryman of Sea of the mountains of the Lesser Caucasus, becomes a lowland river flowing into the Kura. Extrapolating the latinised name of Cerberus in a Descending its course, in the canyon we first simple assemblage of Cər-Bərə, translated in encounter small villages and at its end appears modern Azeri the translation would give the the cities of Şıxarx, Tərtər and finally Bərdə Ferryman of Sea, Cər meaning Sea and Bərə located at its mouth. meaning ferryman.

Tərtər / Syxarx Necropolis Çay-bərə: Ferryman of River

On the left bank of the river Tərtər, opposite to If we push a little further extrapolation by using the eponymous town stretches a vast necropolis, the Azeri word çay that means river and Bərə, a field of tumuli (40.360312 coordinates then çay-bərə would mean ferryman of the river. 46.972950) oriented east-west, in the parallel to the river. In the Greek mythology tales, to access the Stay of Dead the dead should cross the Tərtər or Styx. The current configuration of cities and Kərkəs - bərə/ Kérberos: Ferryman of the Syxarx and Tərtər according to this necropolis Keres encourages us to consider these places as the In Greek mythology, the Keres are divinities of antic famous holy sites. Dying and Woe. According to Hesiod's Theogony, they were originally one: Ker, the Kerberos: the Bərdə Fortress black goddesses of Death, that Night (Nyx) begat

147 Homer, Odyssey, Song XI 114

in the same time that Fate (Moros), the Sleep of the Keres who led the souls to the Stay of the (Hypnos) and the Death (Thanatos). Dead by crossing the Tərtər. The Keres were more or less assimilated to the Lateral Necropolis Furies who were the executors of divine vengeance. Vigilantes and devourers, they The Bərdə's central position, in the middle of the defiled everything they touched. Seizing the plain, did not provide sufficient defensive. Two dying, they led their souls to Hell. The Keres are probable strongholds located at almost equal present in the Iliad where Homer shows them as distance could play a side defensive role. The Destinies that determine the fate and destiny of North tumuli field is located near the towns of the traveling hero, to whom they appeared by Dilancilar and Qaradağlı, the South tumuli field offering a choice which will determine the good located in the town of Evoğlu could be located or the evil of the journey ending. Thus, Achilles near these strongholds. Tumuli fields of has the choice between two Keres: one that Dilancilar and Evoğlu are aligned on a north- would give him a long life away from war and south axis, slight diagonal to perpendicular to the another shorter but more glorious. Tərtər River and parallel to the course of the Kura River. In Azeri, Kərkəs means Vulture and Bərə means the Ferryman. Kerberos, for us, is the Ferryman

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Figure 27 Up: the Tərtər River at the beginning of the Kura Plain; Down: The necropolis of , credit Google Earth, 2016

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Figure 28 Up: Northern Necropolis near Dilancilar; Down: Southern Necropolis, near Evoğlu, credit Google Earth, 2015

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Gəncə: Ganzer the Palace of Éreškigal, Hell for Inana

73-77. When Inana arrived at the Ganzer palace, she pushed aggressively on the door of the underworld. She shouted aggressively at the gate of the underworld: "Open up, doorman, open up. Open up, Neti, open up. I am all alone and I want to come in." Inanna's descent to the nether world (ETCSL translation: t.1.4.1)

Gəncə: Ganzer Gugalanna: Cattle’s Herdsman of the Queen

Gəncə 40°40'48"N 46°20'50"E (Gandja, 94-104 Neti, the chief doorman of the District, Azerbaijan) is the second largest city in underworld, entered the house of his mistress Azerbaijan. This city is for the exact homonym Éreškigal and said: "My mistress, there is a lone of the Inanna’s myths Ganzer, palace of girl outside…It is Inana, your sister, and she has Éreškigal. arrived at the palace Ganzer…She has abandoned E-ana and has descended to the Gilgameš Epic Azerbaijani Toponymy underworld." Ganzer Gəncə (Azerbaijan) Inanna came to the underworld to inform Ər-Əski-Gal: Wife of the Ancient Herdsman Éreškigal that her husband Gugalanna is dead. Gugalanna in the Gilgameš Epic is also the name And everything related to Kur had been offered of the bull that has been killed by Gilgameš and to them as a gift to Éreškigal… Enkidu. The names of Éreškigal and Gugalanna Gilgameš Epic, 95-100 are completing each other, *Gu in prefix being pronounced) ل او Éreškigal is a composite name which has a rooted to the same old Persian political signification. Indeed, Éreškigal name is gāv) and Armenian կով (pronounced kov) that composed of three nouns forming a sentence both mean Cow, *Gal (noun from Iranian *Ər-*Əski-*Gal: Husband (Ər in Azeri) Ancient Galleh) meaning the Herdsman and Anna or Ana (Əski in Azeri) and Herdsman (Gal in Indo- in postfix meaning Mother or Queen in Azeri. Iranian language). We conclude that Éreškigal Thus, Gugalanna was the Cattle’s Herdsman of was the Wife of an old Herdsman. the Queen.

Gilgameš Epic: Azeri and Indo-Iranian Modern Azeri/ Persian/ Gugalanna Éreškigal language Armenian ل او* Ər- (noun) meaning old Persian* Ér- Husband (pronounced gāv) and *Gu Armenian *կով *Əski- (adj.) meaning -eški- (pronounced kov) that Ancient/ Old both mean Cow *Galleh (noun, Iranian) *Gal (noun from *Gal -gal Galleh) meaning meaning the Herdsman Herdsman *Ana (noun, Azeri) *Anna meaning Mother or *Ər-*Əski-*Gal: Wife of the Ancient Herdsman Queen Gugalanna: Cattle’s Herdsman of the Queen

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Figure 29 Stele representing the storm god Adad brandishing the Thunderbolts, Teglat-phalasar III period 744 - 727 BC.; Arslan Tash (Hadatu) Basalt, H. : 1,36 m. ; L. : 0,54 m. ; Pr. : 0,42 m.; credit RMN, Franck Raux. © RMN

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