Jan 04

Management of Lakes in India

M.S.Reddy1 & N.V.V.Char2

Introduction

There is no specific definition for Lakes in India. The word “Lake” is used loosely to describe many types of water bodies – natural, manmade and ephemeral including wetlands. Many of them are euphemistically called Lakes more by convention and a desire to be grandiose rather than by application of an accepted definition. Vice versa, many lakes are categorized as wetlands while reporting under Ramsar Convention. India abounds in water bodies, a preponderance of them manmade, typical of the tropics. The manmade (artificial) water bodies are generally called Reservoirs, Ponds and Tanks though it is not unusual for some of them to be referred to as lakes. Ponds and tanks are small in size compared to lakes and reservoirs. The surface area, shape and depth of the latter vary considerably.

While it is difficult to date the natural lakes, most of the manmade water bodies like Ponds and Tanks are historical. The large reservoirs are all of recent origin. All of them, without exception, have suffered environmental degradation. Only the degree of degradation differs depending on their location. The degradation itself is a result of lack of public awareness and governmental indifference. The situation has changed slowly but steadily. Environmental activism and legal interventions have put sustainability of lakes up front amongst other environmental issues.

This paper is an attempt in presenting a comprehensive view of the typical problems experienced in some of the better known lakes, their present environmental status and efforts being made to make them environmentally sustainable.

1.1 Data India is well known for the huge variance in its lakes, but the data is nebulous. There is no orderly or scientific census of lakes. Though there is a distinction between fresh water lakes and brackish water lakes, just as the lakes of southern peninsular India are distinct from those of the Himalayan region and natural lakes from manmade reservoirs, there is no scientific evaluation. Most of the large reservoirs (formed by placing a dam across a stream) have been constructed during the last 50 years. It is, therefore, possible to access their data, though not always easily. Reservoirs include tanks which are, however, not properly accounted though estimated at over half a million in number spread all over the country, predominantly in southern India.

The water spread areas of rivers; lakes, reservoirs, flood plains and brackish water have not been comprehensively surveyed. However, the Table at Annex 1 gives an overview of the same. The Table is more indicative than authenticated.

1 Formerly Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India 2 Formerly Commissioner (Eastern Rivers), Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India

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1.2 Classification of Indian Lakes There is no unique or rigid classification. It depends on the context and the classifier. Generally, the commonly perceived classifications are the following. - Geographical classification like Himalayan, Peninusular, Coastal etc. - Liminological Classification like Fresh Water, Brackish Water etc - Functional classification like Irrigation, Water Supply, Hydropower etc. - Water quality classification - Management classification.

For the present review, the last classification under the following broad categories is relevant - Urban Lakes - Non-Urban Lakes: Inland Fresh water Inland Brackish water Sacred Lakes/Tanks - Coastal Estuarine lakes - Ephemeral Lakes

Further, Urban Lakes are only a subset of all fresh water bodies, for example, Reservoirs, Lakes, Ponds, Tanks, etc. as can be seen from Figure 1. (Annex 2 gives all the classifications in more detail).

2. Environmental Status of Lakes The lakes and reservoirs, all over the country without exception, are in varying degrees of environmental degradation. The degradation is due to encroachments and eutrophication loads (from domestic and industrial effluents) and silt. There has been a quantum jump in population during the last century without corresponding expansion of civic facilities resulting in lakes and reservoirs, especially the urban ones, becoming sinks for incoming contaminants and leading to their impairment. The main causes for the impaired conditions of the lakes could be summarized as under.

Pollutants entering from fixed point sources - Discharge of nutrients from wastewater from municipal and domestic effluents - Discharge of organic, inorganic and toxic pollution loading due to disposal of industrial effluents - biodegradable wastes - Discharge of storm water runoff.

Pollutants entering from non- point sources - Nutrients through fertilizers, toxic pesticides and other chemicals mainly coming from agriculture runoff - Deforestation and denudation in the catchment areas causing soil erosion and consequent siltation - Organic pollution loading from human settlements spread over an area in the immediate surrounding of the lakes and reservoirs - Conflict arising out of multiple uses -waste water disposal conflicting with use of lake, such as for recreation use and/or use of water for drinking purposes or irrigation, hydropower

The other basin-related problems are:

2 1. Silting of lakes on account of increased erosion as a result of expansion of urban and agricultural areas, deforestation, road construction and such other land disturbances taking place in the drainage basin. 2. Diversion of rivers feeding the lakes reducing their sizes. 3. Untreated or inadequately treated domestic and industrial effluents are sources of point pollution located all over the basin just as the complicated non-point pollution from agriculture.

The degree of the problems varies from region to region, but is more pronounced in urban lakes, as brought out in analysis of data of specific lakes in the following sections.

2.1 Status Review The status of important lakes and reservoirs spread all over the country and the management measures undertaken to prevent their further degradation and to restore them are briefly explained in the following sections. Annex 3 gives more details of their key elements, category-wise (Para 1.2.5). These water bodies have received the attention of National and International organizations, NGOs and Courts for restoration, conservation and preservation.

3. Identified Problems The human settlements and public effluent sources are the chief factors for the degradation of lakes, particularly the urban lakes. A lake front property has societal prestige, which causes intense shoreline development in urban centres and thus adversely impacts on the lake water quality. The anthropogenic pressures in the catchment itself has resulted in degradation of the catchment area due to deforestation, extensive agricultural use and consequent erosion and increased silt flows, which have vitiated the storage in the lakes immensely. Most urban lakes and rural lakes have vanished under this pressure. In the lakes, which have survived in the urban areas, the drinking water supply has been substantially reduced or become totally non potable, their flood absorption capacity has been impaired, species of fish and fauna have been threatened, and fisher folks livelihood has been eroded or drastically affected.

In all the urban lakes, infrastructure development, housing pressure and encroachments have resulted in converting lakes into eutrophic and hyper eutrophic state. As a result, the lakes have shrunk in size, lost their capacity to provide the required quality water. The water quality has deteriorated so much as to cause serious disturbance to the bio-diversity of the lake environment. Bio-remedial measures alone have failed to achieve lake equilibrium.

Growth of water hyacinth has been prolific in many lakes resulting in breeding of vectors and consequently causing endemic diseases; Loktak lake, Bhopal lakes, Ropar Lake, Sukna lake, Kanjli, Pong dam lake, etc are classic examples.

Cultural siltation in the form of immersion of Idols during specific festivals, an annual feature in India, has been a source of serious metallic pollution of lakes. Examples of such actions are the Bhoj Wetlands, the City lakes of Bombay, Hyderabad, Bangalore etc.

In many lakes, the uncontrolled tourist pressure has resulted in disturbance to the bio- diversity of flora and fauna, which thrive on the lake. Examples are the high altitude lakes of Tsomori, Pongsho, Dal, etc.

3 The coastal lakes have been seriously affected due to an imbalance in salinity levels. This is attributed to lack of balance between fresh water from the inland catchment of the lake and entry of the seawater into the lake at the mouth of the estuary. Location of satellite ports, chemical industries, thermal power plants have also contributed to siltation and pollution. Examples are the Chilika in Orissa, the Pulicat in Tamil Nadu, the Kuttanad Lake in Kerala, and Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh.

Water shortages in the lakes, with sources of replenishment seriously impaired, have resulted in bird sanctuaries and fisheries getting affected seriously. Examples are the Koledeo National Park (Bharatpur lake), the Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary Lake, Dal Lake etc.

In spite of taking several engineering measures, the ephemeral lakes in the flood plains of the Ganga and Brahmaputra river basins are not providing the desired economic benefits to the large population dependent on them for livelihood.

3.1 Montraux Record The problems in Chilika, Loktak, and Keolodeao lakes were so severe that they were put on the "Montraux Record of lakes" based on their high degree of pollution and environmental /ecological deterioration. The purpose of putting these lakes under Montraux record was to carry out conservation and effective use of the three lakes through urgent remedial measures supplemented with adequate monitoring. Chilika has been recently taken out of the Montraux Record, in the light of improved conditions in the lake.

4. Restoration Plans/Actions The lake restoration actions undertaken in the country could be categorized under five broad heads of a) source control or watershed/catchment treatment, b) in-lake treatment, c) shore line treatment, d) public participation supported by court interventions, and v) education and training, as elaborated in the following management actions. a. Source control – Treatment of watershed or catchment of lakes has been given priority for action since they bring in substantial improvements not only in the lake environment (reduction of silt, control of chemicals, and nutrients) but also result in the overall development of the community living in the catchment. Soil conservation measures, bank/slope erosion control measures, afforestation, drainage improvements, diversion of silt carrying channels away from the lake, control of sewage wastes, sewage interceptions and diversions and participation of people in watershed management measures have been widely adopted as effective management tools in all the lake restoration projects. b. In lake treatment - This has involved several palliative measures to remove eutrophication and improve quality of lake water; the components of which are:

Dredging and de-silting - widely adopted and considered essential in all lakes and tanks De-weeding/hyacinth control or removal (biological, chemical, mechanical and manual measures, bio-composting) Bio-remediation (Clean up with bio-products - natural bacteria breakdown, and aerators to churn the lakes) Introduction of composite fish culture/larvivorous fish species to control mosquitoes

4 Engineering measures (hydraulic) to improve flow of seawater into the lake to maintain salinity levels in coastal lakes - opening of lake's outer channel into the sea ensured better exchange of salinity level in Chilika lake; revival of traditional drainage system to replenish lake storage and deliberate drain out of flood waters to improve rabi cultivation of Tals, Chaurs, and Oxbow lakes. Lake water supplementation through irrigation canal systems in the area as in the case of Nalsarovar bird sanctuary and the Kaledeao National Park Some portions of Chilika, Loktak, Wular and Harike lakes have been designated as protected areas. Some of the lakes have also been declared as sanctuaries or national parks, like the Kaledeao National Park for exotic and migratory birds, Nalsoravar bird sanctuary, and Kolleru lake. The Pulicat lagoon and the Pong dam lake are protected as wild life sanctuary. Part of the Deeper beel has been declared a sanctuary. Harvesting of aquatic weeds as in Dal lake of Kashmir for growing vegetables which also provided benefits to the local communities. Management of 'phumdis' in Loktak lake through community efforts during monsoon by pushing them out of the lake into Manipur river has been found useful. c. Shoreline management Shoreline management has been achieved in many urban lakes by banning construction activity to specific heights above the periphery of the lake. In many cases, the lake periphery has been declared as protected areas or wild life sanctuaries. To prevent pollution from human wastes, community toilet facilities are provided around periphery of the lake. Solid waste management measures have been introduced. Demarcation of lake boundaries has been done with fencing around the lake periphery, in many lakes. Peripheral roads and green belts have been created. Eco tourism facilities have been undertaken which has converted many lakes into great tourist centres. In some cases, tourism has been controlled to prevent adverse effect on the bio diversity of the lake areas. Restrictions and guidelines have been imposed on Idol immersions. d. Peoples' participation This is a very effective management method that is increasingly becoming popular in Lake Environments in Urban areas. Non-Governmental organizations have acted as great catalysts in this work. In major urban centres, people dependent on urban lakes for livelihood or with keenness to maintain a general green lung environment for the city surrounded by urban lakes, have organized themselves into 'Peoples Group', 'Jheel Sanrakshan Samithi (JSS)', 'Society of Appeal for Vanishing Environments’ (SAVE)', Howrah Ganatantrik Samiti( HGNS), Ecological Task Force for long-term management, 'User's Committee', and similar other groups. They have also moved the Judiciary (the Supreme Court and the High Courts) through Public Interest Litigations (PILs) seeking directives of the court to restore lakes. Information Centre - cum - watch tower for Mass awareness and promoting public participation in the lake conservation programme have been established in many lakes. In the high altitude lakes of Leh in J&K, the local community of Korzok village has established a conservation trust with help from WWF- India to undertake conservation measures of the lake. The MO&EF have recognized that the elaborate process of assessment of social, economic and ecological aspects of wetland (includes all Lakes) resources through community participation can help to formulate a comprehensive management plan, which is ecologically viable and socially acceptable. A project has been in operation for last more than four years through the involvement of

5 Loktak Development Authority, Wetlands International and Ministry of Environment and Forest.

Several Private organizations are interacting with WWF-India to carry out conservation activities relating to lakes (wetlands). Similarly, many other private organizations are taking interest for conservation and management of lakes in regard to eco-tourism development, sustainable fisheries development, and wildlife development. The Jalmahal lake restoration project in Jaipur, when implemented fully, could be a forerunner in this effort. e. Environmental education and awareness Resource material for generating awareness on the importance of biodiversity and dependence of the local community on these resources have been developed by the Chilika Development Authority in collaboration with Wetlands International South Asia, Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad and Ramsar Centre. In the case of Chilika lake awareness generation is focused on highlighting its highly threatened population of Dolphins and as a unique habitat for rich avifauna. Environmental education and awareness kits have also been developed for school children and uneducated youth living in and around the Chilika lake. Centres of Excellence have been set up to develop resource material and generate awareness about environment including lakes/wetlands. WWF-India and Centre for Environmental Education, Ahmedabad have set up interpretation centres at Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. Chilika Development Authority has established two awareness centres at Satpuda and Balogaon.

Education and Awareness division of the MO&EF is involved in developing specific projects for Environment Education and Awareness including Wetlands. Environmental education awareness in general, which includes wetlands (Lakes also) as well, is included in curricula at different levels of education. Special modules relating to wetlands have been developed at Wildlife Institute of India to generate awareness about the values and functions of wetlands (lakes included) and the need for their conservation to wider group of participants representing government, non-government and private entrepreneurs. Such modules have also been developed specifically for participants from South Asian Countries.

5. Role of Judiciary and Legal Interventions to stop Degradation of Lakes A major development in stopping the continuing degradation of lakes has been the involvement of the Judiciary (some times at the highest level, the Supreme Court). The Indian law courts have been extremely proactive on the issue of environmental protection. Groups of affected people and public spirited citizens have been filing Public Interest Litigations (PIL) in courts across the country seeking ‘mandamus’ for remedial actions, specifically in respect of highly polluted urban lakes and water bodies. The ‘mandamus’ is sought, interestingly, under the current constitutional provisions and legislations.

The Supreme Court, in a PIL in the case of Badal Khol and Surajkund lakes in Haryana state, near Delhi, held that " Precautionary Principle" has been accepted as part of the law of the land. The court observed that the "Precautionary Principle", makes it mandatory for the state government to anticipate, prevent and attack the causes of environment degradation. In order to protect the two lakes from environmental degradation and pollution it limited the construction activity in close vicinity of the lakes. The Court further directed that no

6 construction of any type shall be permitted within four km radius of Badal Khol and Surajkund lakes and that all open area shall be converted into green belts.

However, when the Municipalities, the local governing bodies, themselves pollute the river systems, the lakes and reservoirs, the situation becomes alarming.

Though PILs have generally helped in restoration of lakes, there are also instances of the opposite, as in the case of Rabindra Sarovar lake in West Bengal, where the PIL was for the legalization of the encroachments

6 Institutional Mechanism Several organizations, both Government, Non-Government and at Community levels, have been participants in lake restoration. However, the coordination between these agencies is only marginal. At present, the National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP), an off shoot of the National River Conservation Project of the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MO&EF), is the nodal agency at the central government level which is playing a very crucial role in all aspects of restoration of lakes.

6.1 National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) NLCP focuses on urban lakes. It envisages a comprehensive and holistic approach for the conservation of lakes with focus on abatement of pollution, check on soil erosion, regeneration and development of catchment area and front line development. The socio- economic development of the people dependent on the lake ecology shall also be fully integrated. Under the NLCP, the Central and State governments share the costs in the ratio of 70:30. The main objectives under the programme include the following:

Prevention of pollution from point and non-point sources. Catchment area treatment. Desilting and weed control. Research & Development studies on floral and faunal activities and related ecological aspects. Other activities depending on the lake specific conditions such as integrated development approach, including interface with human populations.

Under the NLCP, 21 urban lakes have been identified for conservation programmes (see Annex 3). Apart from the NLCP, India has been a contracted party to the Ramsar Convention since 1st February 1982. India has identified 19 sites (see Annex 4) covering some 650,864 hectares of important wetlands, which include 16 lakes and reservoirs (534,864 ha). The objective is development of national level policies and actions. The scope of NLCP has been enlarged during the X Plan by including the rural lakes in the programme, with corresponding increase in plan outlay.

7. Role of International Institutions International institutions such as the WWF, UNDP, UNEP, ADB, World Bank and many other funding agencies are all involved in providing technical and financial assistance to the Ministry of Environment & Forests (MO&EF) and the State organizations responsible for the upkeep of the lakes and reservoirs. In this effort, the wetland restoration policy is also a key factor as it encompasses lakes and reservoirs as well.

7 The international conventions which cover all aspects of lakes, in the name of wetlands, and on which India has been a signatory, are detailed below.

7.1 Ramsar Convention India has been a contracted party to the Ramsar Convention since 1st February 1982. India has now 19 sites (see Annex 4) identified as “Ramsar sites”. These wetlands broadly represent Himalayan freshwater wetlands, Himalayan High altitude wetlands, coastal lagoons, floodplain systems and semi arid & arid zone wetlands. Protection of these sites is envisaged through notification of the above (Lakes) under the provisions of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, as ecologically fragile areas. Ramsar Convention also provides funds under Small Grants Fund (SGF) as emergency assistance to Ramsar sites, which have suffered damage or are in imminent danger of damage.

7.2 Convention on Biological Diversity India signed the Convention on Biological Diversity on 5th June 1992, ratified it on 18th February 1994 and brought it into force on 19th May 1994. This convention provides a framework for the sustainable management and conservation of India's natural resources.

7.3 World Heritage Convention India ratified the World Heritage Convention in 1977 and since then five natural sites (see Annex 4) have been inscribed as areas of 'outstanding universal value'.

7.4 Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wildlife Animal (CMS) A Memorandum of Understanding concerning conservation measures for Siberian Cranes was signed in 1993 by five range states including India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Pakistan and Russian Federation under the Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species of Wildlife Animal (CMS). The agreement aims at coordinating efforts to save the central and western Asian population of this highly endangered species.

7.5 UNDP Under UNDP’s global programme for conservation and sustainable use of threatened wetlands, several Indian wetlands have been identified for survey and mapping using remote sensing. Under the Small Grants Programme, UNDP is also supporting “Dialogue on Effective Water Governance” together with the Global Water Partnership (GWP), and on “National Water Governance” with the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) in close partnership with GWP.

7.6 World Wide Fund (WWF) for Nature-India WWF International supports WWF-India's wetlands conservation programme (1991), through financial support and encouragement. It also supports the Government of India's national programme by providing technical, policy, advocacy (at national and international levels), and field action-oriented support. The WWF-India Programme, has the following objectives. • Improve the information base on Indian wetlands • Promote education and awareness about wetland values • Facilitate better wetland management • Contribute to the Government of India's National Programme on Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs • Support the Ramsar Convention and other relevant environmental treaties

8 • Act to halt wetlands destruction and degradation • Demonstrate the wise use of wetland resources

8. Funding Funding and other assistance for scientific study, preparation of management plans and restoration of lakes provided by the Govt. of India (MO&EF under NLCP, WWF & Ramsar convention) and inter national funding agencies (UNDP, ADB, Indo-Norwegian, India- Canada Environment Facility, etc) covers only a very small number of the problem lakes in the country. While World Bank, OECF Japan and Government of Netherlands did not evince interest in a proposal for conservation of Dal Lake, World Bank, showed its interest in taking up the conservation of Harike, Kanjli and Ropar wetlands of Punjab and Udaipur lake and Sambhar wetland in Rajasthan but wanted the projects to be routed through the State’s Water Sector projects, as part of water resources management at the state level. The Bank wanted to look at the problem of Lakes from an integrated development approach rather than an environmental issue alone.

MO&EF has increased the allocation of funds for the restoration of lakes under its NLCP to Rs. 22,000 million during the current 10th Plan period (Year 2002-2007), the assistance is limited to a few lakes while the requirement is for restoration of a very large number. But, what is lacking even now is the identification and estimation of the problem lakes both in the urban and rural areas to reasonably assess the requirements of funds for restoration of lakes in the country. A listing done by the MO&EF identifies 2167 natural lake (wetlands) and 65,253 man-made lakes (wetlands) but the detailed listing is limited to 340 wetland or lakes. However, this information needs to be updated further and attempts are being made to publish directory giving latest information on wetland inventorisation in the country both on the basis of ground verification and remote sensing technology.

9. Management of Reservoirs India has a large number of large and medium size reservoirs built behind medium and high dams in all ago-climatic zones of the country, which store monsoon flows (in case of Himalayan rivers snow melt also) for use during the lean season and are a dependable source for drinking water, irrigation, hydropower, ecological use, industrial use, navigation, etc. They also provide flood moderation. These reservoirs are generally located far from population centres and do not receive domestic effluents directly. They are, however, recipients of industrial effluents and non-point pollutants from irrigated agriculture.

An unique feature of reservoirs that makes them distinctly different from natural lakes is the water renewal pattern marked by swift changes in levels, inflow and outflow, deep draw down and wind-created turbulence. Besides, the varying purpose and design of the dams make the reservoirs different in their hydrographic and morphoedaphic characteristics.

The water quality in the reservoirs is generally not much affected since the reservoirs are operated year round to utilize the entire live storage created behind the dams. The operation of the spillway gates also ensures routing of silt-laden flood downstream thus reducing the silt deposition in the reservoir.

Sedimentation of these reservoirs is the important environmental phenomenon. The dams built unto 1965 were designed on the basis of siltation rate of 3.57 to 4.76 ha m per 100 sq km/year and the dead storage was usually designed to provide useful life of 100 years for the

9 reservoir. The capacity surveys undertaken during 1958-65, however, revealed that the siltation rate was higher during the first phase of operation and thereafter, it had fallen significantly. Based on sedimentation data of 144 reservoirs, the weighted average annual loss in gross storage due to siltation is computed as 0.44 %. Similarly, the annual loss in live storage is 0.31% based on the data of 42 reservoirs.

The size of catchment area drained, the stress of urban and rural population concentrations that they are subjected to, and the operation pattern of the reservoir largely dictates the physical, chemical and biological status of reservoirs.

The reservoirs also create new ecosystems, support life growth all around even in dry period when the environment tends to be hard and inhospitable. It is also noted that a forest far superior to the original one submerged comes up along the rim of the reservoir.

The environmental conditions of the reservoirs are monitored regularly by the Central and State govt. Water Resources/Irrigation organizations. The catchment areas of the reservoirs are, however, the responsibility of the Forest and the Agricultural Departments of the State and the Central Govts.

Sediment management techniques, which have been considered, are: a) Source area control to reduce sediment delivery to the reservoir. b) Hydraulically manage the reservoir to reduce sediment accumulation.

Source area control India has several programmes of water shed management in reservoir and lake catchments. The efficacy of these programmes has been well established in reducing the silt load into the reservoirs. The watershed of the reservoirs is subjected to catchment area and soil conservation (forest areas, degraded land and non forest areas) treatment to reduce the rate of silt flow into the reservoir. This is being carried out through integrated planning of watersheds by measures such as vegetative hedges, contour/graded bunding, agro-forestry, horticulture plantation, silvi pastoral development, pasture development, afforestation, drainage line treatments, water harvesting structures, percolation tanks/ponds, sediment detention dams etc in agricultural land, forest lands and waste lands as per need determined on scientific basis. The effect of these measures is monitored as a part of sedimentation studies of reservoirs. Studies show that in catchments where such measures have been undertaken, sediment production rate has been reduced in the range of 25-50%. Such measures have also shown varied benefits in terms of increase in crop yield and land values, and employment generation.

The management of reservoirs is the responsibility of the well established Irrigation or Water Resources departments of the States. By and large, the reservoirs are functioning well from the environmental point of view except for the siltation problem. This is being monitored as mentioned above and actions taken to control the same, both in and outside the reservoir periphery with time tested methods.

10. Management of Tanks Tanks, which are also subsets of water bodies, though not called Lakes, symbolize an ancient and rich tradition of harnessing local rainfall and stream flow for irrigated agriculture. With the major and medium reservoirs providing large scale storages for irrigation and increased

10 extraction of ground water under minor irrigation programmes, the emphasis on tanks diminished during the 20th century. These water bodies, mostly ephemeral in nature, as per survey of selected tanks, indicate widespread decay and decline, mainly due to heavy siltation and inadequate maintenance. The varying status of disrepair are attributed to i) change in the institution mechanism and their weakening over the years, ii) intense demographic pressures, iii) social composition of land ownership, and iv) spread of well irrigation. In spite of all the problems many tanks are still functional and continue to be maintained by informal community institutions. During the last decade both the Government and some international agencies have been trying to revive, expand and revitalize the tanks.

11. Legal Framework 11.1 Constitutional Provisions India has a plethora of Policies, Acts, Rules and Laws in the Water Resources, Environment, Forest, Agriculture, Fisheries and Social sectors, directly or indirectly related to lake management. The Indian Constitution provides, in clear and unambiguous terms, for the State's commitment to protect the environment. Article 48-A of the directive principles states, "The State shall endeavor to protect and improve environment and to safeguard the forests and wild life of the country". Under Article 51-A (g), it is the fundamental duty of every citizen of India "to protect and improve the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life, and to have compassion for living creatures”. The Constitution empowers Panchayats and Urban local bodies with functions and responsibilities, as relevant to Lakes Environment:

Bombay Land Revenue Code declares all lakes and tanks to be the properties of the Government, (which are not individually owned). The High Court has again made it clear that "The State as the trustee of all natural resources meant for public use, including lakes and ponds, is under a legal duty to protect them." The problem is in making the governments act accordingly.

11.2 Other legal instruments Apart from the above, the legal framework for protection of lakes and reservoirs (wetlands) is at present indirectly covered under the several acts and notifications issued by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MO&EF). These deal with environmental protection, pollution control, specific natural resources protection acts, hazardous waste management and handling rules, tribunal act for providing for strict liability for any damages arising out of any accident occurring due to handling of hazardous substances and the National Environment Tribunal (see Annex 4).

A notification has been issued declaring the coastal stretches of seas, bays, estuaries, creeks, rivers and backwaters which are influenced by tidal action in the landward side unto 500 meters from the high timeline and the land between the low timeline and the high timeline as the Coastal Zone Regulation Notification, 1991 under the provisions of Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. This imposes graded restriction on setting up and expansion of industries, operations and processes. This notification is of great importance for conservation and wise use of coastal lakes such as Chilika, Kolleru, Kuttanad, Pulicat, Sasthamkotta, Vembanad, etc. Under the Environment (Protection) Act, which specifies protection of ecologically fragile areas, a number of wetland ecosystems in the country are being notified. The Government of India has advised all the State Governments in the coastal areas to formulate integrated coastal zones management plans. Wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs

11 are designated as ecologically fragile areas and their conservation measures have to be planned and implemented by the concerned authorities. The Supreme Court of India has also made implementation of Coastal Zone Management Plans mandatory for the State Governments

12. National Policies The National Water Policy, 1987 has been revised in 2002 in which the Institutional mechanism for the much neglected maintenance of water resources schemes - one of the reasons for the poor state of many of our reservoirs - given importance by the directive that " With a view to give effect to the planning and management of the water resources on a hydrological unit basis, along with a multi-sectoral, multidisciplinary and participatory approach as well as integrating quality, quantity and the environmental aspects, the existing institutions at the various levels under the water resources sector will have to be appropriately reoriented/reorganized and even created, wherever necessary…"

13. Management of Lakes: Lessons Learnt Public Interest Litigation has shown up the following problems as common to all lakes (CES, 2002)

• Apathy of the executive in preventing discharge of domestic and industrial effluents into the lakes, • Lack of proper sewage system • Encroachments due to the nexus between the executive and the builders lobby • Lack of access to scientific data and scientific norms for restricting building activity around the lakes • Ineffective cleaning up technology of pollutants • Unclear laws, too many corrupt and confused authorities (numerous govt. departments), plethora of land owning govt. agencies, political vested interests, and absence of a clear lake environment policy.

Restoration actions taken/initiated in lakes such as the Chilka , Loktak , Dal and Nagin , the Bhoj Wetland (Bhopal lakes), Harike etc., were often delayed due to involvement of several sectoral ministries/agencies at the Central and State level which lacked basic understanding in adopting a joint approach since lakes or wetlands are not delineated under any specific administrative jurisdiction. The delays were also due to:

• Improper appreciation of the hydrological regimes at the river basin level and allocation of water, particularly for ecological purposes • Inadequate understanding of the interactions amongst various sectors about sound ecological basis within and outside the basin • Conflict of interests among various sectors (land & water use) and their resolution to evolve common strategy • Lack of involvement of Stakeholders in planning and implementation processes • Paucity of overall understanding of the nature and benefits of lakes in economic and ecological terms

The above reveal an urgent need for a pragmatic regulatory regime for an integrated development and management of a drainage basin and involving joint decisions of several sectoral agencies. Some lakes/wetlands have been protected under the Wildlife Protection Act

12 which is generally ineffective. Effective coordination between the different ministries (energy, industry, fisheries revenue, agriculture, transport and water resources) is essential for the protection of these ecosystems.

The first step is to prepare a realistic list of all water bodies in the country and categorize them, utility and problem wise, to enable evolving suitable restoration works for problem lakes. The next step is to initiate action on Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) with specific emphasis on lakes and reservoirs at the basin or sub-basin levels. There are three components to be addressed: a) the enabling environment, b) the institutional frame work, and c) the management.

13.1 Enabling Environment To deal with problems of Lakes and Reservoirs and their restoration, the existing Acts, Legislations, and Laws need to be integrated suitably into a single specific legislation. There is need for sectoral assessment of water demand, existing uses, water quality, spatial and temporal distribution, land use in catchments of lakes and reservoirs etc. The national and state policies in respect of water, environment, housing & habitat, agriculture, industries coupled with the pricing, economic incentives, and financial policies need to be integrated. New legislation and standards suitable to lake and reservoir management have to be framed.

Economic Valuation of some wetlands (Lakes) undertaken including two Ramsar sites viz. Harike lake and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur Lake) have indicated that economic valuation is an effective tool for wise-use of wetlands (lakes). It has been, therefore, proposed by MOE&F to carry out economic valuation of wetlands with clear focus on use of such studies for resource development and management of wetlands and sustainable resource utilization by the local communities.

13.2 Institutional frame work (Governmental Approach) ILEC recognizes that World Lake Vision should complement World Water Vision (GWP) in promoting IWRM as the guiding principle for the sustainability of lakes. Lake management has, therefore, to be a subset of IWRM at the basin level. In India, MOE&F, the nodal ministry for restoration of lakes has even confirmed to Ramsar convention that River basin approach has been followed for conservation and wise use of wetlands in the country, that Government of India provides technical and financial support to promote sustainable development of wetlands at the river basin level and that projects have been undertaken in the States of Manipur, Orissa, Gujarat and Punjab to integrate conservation and wise use of wetlands into river basin management. However, this is more in theory than in practice. There is inadequate recognition that IWRM is very essential at the Basin level to ensure environmentally sustainable lakes and reservoirs, though it is established that these water bodies cannot be isolated from their drainage basin.

The management of lakes is still considered, predominantly, from environmental angle only. The initiative for their restoration rests with the MOE&F at the National level and with the state level organizations set up exclusively for the purpose. Permanent solution depends on Institutional restructuring for effective governance. This calls for the establishment of RBOs as the most important step towards sustainable lake management. An interactive governance system (Water Resources Council-Water Commission-RBO) is explained in Annex 5.

13.3 River Basin Organizations (RBOs)

13 The functions and responsibilities of RBOs have been widely discussed. They shall include management plans for lakes as part of IRBMP. RBOs are not executing agencies. But they monitor the actual management of resources and report to the appropriate authority for corrective interventions, if necessary (For functions see Figure 5).

14 References: 1. Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board (APPCB). (2000). Project Feasibility Report on Hussain Sagar Lake Conservation & Management Project, Hyderabad, India 2. AHEC. (2000). Detailed Project Report (DPR) - Conservation and Management Plan for Dal and Nagin Lakes, Roorkee, India. 3. Bhavanishankar. B.S. (2003). Restoration and Improvement of Urban lakes with specific reference to the lakes in Bangalore, International workshop on Urban Lakes: Conservation and Management (16 to 18 June 2003), Hyderabad, India 4. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). (2001). Surface Tension, The War over city lakes is hotting up, CSE webnet. http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/People/DOSSIERP/DossierP.pdf 5. Central Water Commission. (2001). Compendium of Silting of Reservoirs in India, CWC, New Delhi, India 6. Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES). (2000). Proceedings of Symposium of Lakes & Wetlands, 27-29 November 2000, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India 7. Centre for Science and Environment (CSE). (1991). Floods, Flood Plains and Environmental Myths. A Citizens Report, CSE, New Delhi, India 8. Char.N.V.V. (2000). Sustainable Management of River Basins, Developing and Strengthening River Basin organizations, Presented for SASTAC GWP at the International Conference on Sustainable Development of Water Resources, November 27-30,2000, New Delhi,India 9. C.P. Ramaswami Aiyar Foundation. (2002). Sacred Tanks of South India, C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Chennai, India 10. Department of Agriculture. (1997). Tal Area Development Project, Patna, Bihar, India 11. Dr Chauhan, D.P.S. (2003). Scope of Fisheries Development in Wetlands, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi, India 12. Dr.Ram Malu. (2002). Lonar Crater Saline Lake, An Ecological Wonder in India",.S.R.Rathi Post Graduate Science College, Washim, India 13. Dr Reddy. M. S. (2002). Lake Management Need For A Paradigm Shift in Approach. 14. Dr Reddy . M. S. (2003). Watershed Management and Integrated River Basin Planning and Management (IRBPM), 15. Global Water Partnership (GWP) & Indian Association of Aquatic Biologists. (2001). Proceeding of 2 day workshop on "Lake management in India" 12-13 December 2001, Kanchanwadi, India 16. Green Panel against Petrochem park. (2000). Business Standard, 03/03/2000,India 17. Government of India, 2002, National Water Policy. 18. Government of Tamil Nadu. (2001). Abatement of Pollution of Udagamandalam (Ooty) & Kodaikanal Lakes (G.O. Ms. No. 33 dated 28-2-2001), Chennai, India 19. Hyderabad Urban Development Authority (HUDA). (2003). Proceedings of Workshop on Urban Lakes Conservation and Management", Hyderabad, June 16-18, 2003. 20. Ilika Chakravarty. (2002). Conservation and Management Plan for the Lonar-Crater Lake, Indian Institute of Technology, Maharashtra, India 21. Indian Association of Aquatic Biologists. (2003). Proceedings of National Conference on "Urban Lakes -Environmental status, Economics, & management options", Souvenir/Abstracts, April 5-6, 2003, Hyderabad, India

22. International Lake Environment Committee (ILEC) & United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). (1988). Guidelines of Lake Management, Volume 1- Principles of Lake Management, Otsu, Shiga.

15 23. Jayaseelan. R & Dr. Pawan Kumar. (2003). Conservation of Wetlands in Man made lakes with special reference to Sardar Sarovar (narmada) Project in India, Narmada Control Authority, Indore, India. 24. Joël RUET, et all. (2002). The water & Sanitation Scenario in Indian Metropolitan Cities. Publication of the French Research Institute in India, New Delhi, India 25. Kannan. K. (1998). Civilization takes its toll of Naini Tal, The Hindu19-10-1998, India 26. Krishna Rao P. V. (2003). 'Pulicat lake gasping for breath', The New Indian Express, 16/06/03, India 27. Lilyn Kamath. (2002). "Lonar Lake Hiding many mysteries within", Western Region Office of WWF-India 28. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MO&EF). (2002). National Planning Tool for the Implementation of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, file 1- Institutional information, (And the approved format for National Reports to be submitted for the 8th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties, Spain, 2002), New Delhi, India. (http://www.ramsar.org/cop8_nrs_india1.pdf) 29. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MO&EF). (2002). National Planning Tool for the Implementation of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, file 2 - To reinforce the Capacity of Institutions in each contracting party to achieve conservation and wise use of wetlands, (And the approved format for National Reports to be submitted for the 8th Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties, Spain, 2002), New Delhi, India. (http://www.ramsar.org/cop8_nrs_india2.pdf) 30. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MO&EF). (1990). Wetlands of India -A Directory, Government of India, New Delhi, India 31. Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR) & Indian Water Resources Society (IWRS). (2003). Proceedings of Round Table Conference on Water Quality and Wetlands: Socio- economic and Ecological Importance, March 12-13,2003, New Delhi, India 32. Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR). (1999).Report of the National Committee for Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRDP), Volume 1, September, 2003, New Delhi, India 33. Prithwiraj Jha and Sudip Barat. (2002) "Hydrobiological study of lake Mirik in Darjeeling Himalayas" 34. Laurie Duker. (2002) "Newly certified Wetlands of International Importance" under the Ramsar Convention" Conservation Director Western Region Office of WWF-India, LakeNet. Website: http://www.worldlakes.org 35. Public Interest Litigation. (2001). Protection and Conservation of the hills and lands adjoining to the lakes of Bhimtal, Sat-tal, and Naukuchiatal in the district of Nainital, by Society of Appeal for Vanishing Environments (S.A.V.E), in the Honorable High Court of Uttaranchal at Nainital, India. 36. Sumita Sen Gupta. (2003). Protection of Urban water Bodies, Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi,India 37. Srenivasan. (2002). Limnology of Upland lakes and reservoirs in Tamil Nadu, Indian Hydrobiology, Volume 5, No2, India 38. Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI). (2001). Sustainable Development in Darjeeling Hill Area, Project Monitoring cell, TERI, New Delhi, India 39. Tiwari. D.P. (2002). Challenges in Urban Planning for local bodies in India Town & Country Planning, M.P. Bhopal, India 40. UNEP. (1994). The Pollution of Lakes and Reservoirs. 41. Videh Upadhyay. (2003). Urban Water: Judicial recipes falling short, Enviro Legal Defence Firm (ELDF), New Delhi. (http://indiatogether.org/2003/jan/vu-lakelaw.htm.)

16 42. World Wide Fund (WWF). (2002). "India's Ramsar sites". Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India 43. Harikumar A. (2003). Ecological disaster awaits Vembanad lake, Hindu Online edition of India's National Newspaper, Sep 09, 2003, Chennai, India 44. Kurup. B.M. and Harikrishnan. M. (2000). In Reviving the Macrobrachium rosenbergii (deMan) Fishery in Vembanad Lake, India, (http://www.worldfishcenter.org/Naga/23- 2/feature.pdf.) 45. Dr Kumaran. P. (2000). Kerala: Backwaters near Kumarakom, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute Regional Centre, Kochi. The Peoples Commission on Environment and Development (http://www.pcedindia.com/peoplescomm/coastal- ecosystem_5a.htm) 46. Tilapia. (2002). A study for Eco-management, specially reference to Jaisamand Lake, Rajasthan" Abstracted in the National Seminar, Khargone, India 47. UNDP, (2001). Demonstrating a process for the revival of Jaisamand Lake., UNDP Small Grants Programme (http://www.undp.org/sgp/cty/ASIA_PACIFIC/INDIA/ov.htm) 48. Yadvinder Singh. (2002). Siltation Problems in Sukhna Lake in Chandigarh, India and Comments on Geo-hydrological Changes in the Yamuna-Satluj Region, Department of Geography, Punjabi University, Patiala, India 49. Hindu. (2003). HC prohibits works within 10 km of Himayatsagar, Hyderabad, Online News The Hindu, (http://www.andhranews.net/state/2003/mar/28.asp) 50. National Productivity Council (NPC). (2002). Pollution Control Laws. Waste Minimization Circle, National Productivity Council, Govt of India. (wmc.nic.in/chapter1-legal-aspects.asp) 51. The Indian Express. (2002). Renuka Lake - The fairy-tale beauty spot. The Indian Express, New Delhi, 4-3-2002 52. FAO. (2002). Reservoir Fisheries Resources Of India, (http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/V5930E/V5930E07.htm.) 53. Govt of India. (2003). Chapter Ii - A & B Review of Overall Performance, Govt of India. http://envfor.nic.in/pbudget/2003/chap-2ab.pdf. 54. Hindu. (2001). Kolleru lake, a sanctuary: court, The Hindu India’s National News Paper, July 31,2001 ( http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2001/07/31/stories/0431201h.htm.)

17 Figure 1 - Sub sets of lakes and reservoirs – Manmade and Natural

Figure 2 - Oxbow Lakes in Flood Plains

18 Figure 3

19 Figure 4

20

Figure -5

RIVER BASIN ORGANIZATION

ASSESSMENT PLANNING MONITORING A. RESOURCES A. NEEDS & A. MANAGEMENT WATER AVAILABILITY: PLANS LAND MATCH & OPTIMISE B. CIVIL SOCIETY B. POPULATION FEED BACK PEOPLE B. CIVIL SOCIETY LIVESTOCK INTERACTION C. WATER NEEDS D.WATER QUALITY & ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS

E. CIVIL SOCIETY & STAKEHOLDERS DEMANDS

21

Annex 1 Details of Inland Water Resources of various types (100,000 ha)

Sl Name of the State/UT Rivers & Reservoir Tanks and Beels, Brackish No. Canals Ponds Oxbow water (Km) Lakes & derelict water 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Andhra Pradesh 11514 2.34 5.17 - 0.64 Assam 4820 0.02 0.14 1.00 - Bihar 3200 0.60 0.95 0.05 - Goa 250 0.03 Neg - 0.04 Gujarat 1192 2.04 0.09 - 0.95 Haryana 5000 Neg 0.10 0.10 - Himachal Pradesh 3000 0.40 0.06 - - Jammu & Kashmir 27781 0.07 0.11 0.04 - Karnataka 9000 2.22 2.37 2.37 0.08 Kerala 3100 0.30 0.03 2.43 2.43 Madhya Pradesh 12000 2.91 0.69 - - Maharashtra 3200 1.65 0.53 - 0.14 Manipur 3360 Neg 0.03 0.29 - Meghalaya 1000 0.01 0.02 Neg - Nagaland 1600 2.27 0.50 Neg - Orissa N.A 2.56 0.59 1.80 5.74 Punjab 15270 Neg 0.07 - - Rajasthan N.A 1.20 1.80 - - Sikkim NR NR NR NR NR Tamil Nadu 4493 0.53 2.24 5.24 0.56 Tripura 1200 0.06 0.07 0.06 - Uttar Pradesh 31200 1.50 1.62 1.33 - West Bengal 2526 0.17 2.76 0.42 2.10 Arunachal Pradesh 2000 - 0.01 0.03 Neg Andaman & Nicobar 48 Neg Meg - 1.15 Chandigarh 2 - Neg Neg Delhi 150 0,04 - - - Lakshadweep - - - - - Pondicherry 247 - Neg Neg Neg- Total 164153 18.92 19.96 15.16 13.83 Sources: Hand Book of Fisheries 1988, M/O Agriculture (Fisheries Division). N.A - Not available; N.R - Not received; Neg - Negligible

Annex 2 Classification of Indian Lakes

22 Geographical Classification Based on the agro-climatic zonation, the Indian lakes and reservoirs (wetlands) could be broadly classified under four zones viz., Himalayan lakes & wetlands, Indo-Gangetic Plains, Coastal Lakes & wetlands, and Deccan Lakes & wetlands. Within these zones further general differentiation by region into eight categories is given below.

1. The lakes & reservoirs in the wet and humid zone of southern India, together with the lagoons and the other wetlands, of the southern west coast; 2. The vast saline lakes of warm arid zone of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh; 3. Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh in monsoonal Central India; 4. The delta lakes (wetlands) and lagoons of India's East Coast; 5. The monsoonal freshwater marshes of the Indo-Gangetic Plain and the floodplains of the Brahmaputra and the Barak - these are also classified as ox-bow lakes (mauns) formed due to the meandering nature of the river systems (formation of Oxbow lake may be seen in Figure 2), and tectonic (chaurs); 6. The lakes, marshes and swamps in the Himalayan foothills and the hills of north-east India; 7. The lakes and rivers of the mountain region of Kashmir, cold arid zone of Ladakh and Zanskar; 8. The mangroves and other lakes (wetlands) of the island arcs of the Andamans and Nicobars.

Liminological Classification The natural lakes in India can be further categorized, based on their liminological features, as • Inland lakes of fresh water • Inland lakes of brackish water • Ephemeral lakes • High altitude lakes • Crater lakes.

Functional Classification Lakes can be classified as under with reference to their functions: - Urban - Irrigation - Flood control - Hydropower - Recreation - Tourism, etc.

Water quality classification The Central Pollution Control Board has suggested classification of water bodies as per the chemical and biological properties of the waters of lakes, reservoirs and rivers, under five (5) broad categories:

Zoning & Classification of water bodies (Lakes & Rivers) (As per Chemical & biological properties)

23 Designated Best Use Class of Criteria water Drinking water source without A 1. Total coliform shall be 50 or less conventional treatment but after 2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5 disinfection Drinking water source 3. Dissolved Oxygen 6 mg/l or more without conventional treatment but 4. BOD5 less than 2 mg/l after disinfection Outdoor bathing B 1. Total coliform shall be 500 or less 2. pH between 6.5 and 8.5 3. Dissolved Oxygen 5 mg/l or more 4. BOD5 less than 3 mg/l Drinking water source conventional C 1. Total coliform shall be 5000 or less treatment followed by disinfection 2. pH between 6 and 9 3. Dissolved Oxygen 4 mg/l or more 4. BOD5 less than 3 mg/l Propagation of Wild Life Fisheries D 1. pH between 6.5 and 8.5 2. Dissolved Oxygen 4 mg/l or more 3. Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less Irrigation, Industrial Cooling, E 1. pH between 6.0 and 8.5 Controlled Waste Disposal 2. Electrical Conductivity at micro mhos/cm Max 2250. 3. Sodium absorption Ratio Max 26 4. Boron, Max 2 mg/l

Management Classification In the present review, the lakes have been classified under the following 4 broad categories: • Urban Lakes • Non-urban Lakes: a) Inland Fresh Water b) Inland Brackish Water c) Sacred Lakes/Tanks • Coastal Estuarine Lakes • Ephemeral Lakes

24

EXPERIENCES AND LESSONS LEARNT (ELL) FROM LAKES IN INDIA

Lake, location, Benefits Nature of Associated Restoration area problems Institutions actions A. Urban lakes 1. Bangalore city Green belt, Uncontrolled Forest Desilting & Lakes - 20 odd recreation sewage and debris Department and restoration works lakes out of 257, Aquifer recharge, - eutrophication Bangalore Maha under considered worth & water supply and extensive Nagara Palike. implementation. restoration. Four weed growth. MO&EF- Construction of lakes under Encroachment National Lake diversion restoration - Conservation channels for Vengaihnakere, Project (NLCP) , sewage, providing Kamakshipalya, & Bangalore lighting, Jarganhalli & Development afforestation and Nagavara, Authority. Lake boating facilities. Karnataka. Development Providing Sewage Authority (LDA). Treatment Plants. Indo-Norwegian Creating habitat Environment for aquatic life Project. and fencing. Impounding runoff water for recharging ground water aquifers. Involvement of local committees. 2.Bhopal's Upper Water supply & Eutrophication- Environmental Restoration, and Lower Lakes Recreation. Rich organic and Planning and conservation & - also named Bhoj in bio-diversity domestic Coordination development Wetland - including insects, sewerage, Organization. measures - Madhya Pradesh - reptiles and metallic (Idol Bhoj Wetland dredging & 3201 ha. amphibians, and &Tazia Authority, desilting, very rare bird immersion) MO&EF, Ramsar catchment species. pollution, site & OECF. treatment, control hyacinth, siltation, & management of & encroachment land use, water quality, prevention of pollution, etc. Effective implementation with OECF funds. 3. Bombay Irrigation of Siltation, sullage, Bombay Bio-remediation (Mumbai) city's farms, water weed growth, Municipal technology. lakes - Powai, supply to allotment of 'no Corporation, NGOs role very Tulsi, Vihar industries, & rich development MO&EF (NLCP), effective. lakes - in flora and fauna. zone' of Forest Dept. Restriction on use Maharashtra - Tulsi and Vihar catchment given Maharashtra State of lake peripheral 2200 ha lakes provide to powerful Angling area. Part of water supply. builder's lobby. Association, & Sanjay Gandhi NGOs Groups National Park. Fencing.

25 4. Dal & Nagin Recreation, Siltation, State of Jammu DPR for Lakes, Jammu tourism, water accumulation of and Kashmir, restoration of lake and Kashmir – supply, & plant debris, J&K Lakes and prepared. 1720 ha. livelihood to reclamation, Waterways Pollution people. converted into Development unchecked. Multifaceted eco- floating gardens, Authority, Urban Peripheral drain, system. eutrophication - Environmental Shoreline Harvesting of reservoir of Engineering Dredging and Nagin - Jewel in aquatic weeds for 'sewage, wastes Department, & Integrated Ring the Ring growing and effluents.' MO&EF. Sewerage scheme vegetables helps Important "Green Kashmir", yet to be in control of biological species NGO implemented. aquatic weeds and have either Harvesting of simultaneously declined or aquatic weeds for providing benefits completely growing to the local disappeared. vegetables. NGOs communities. pursue in Supreme Court, through PIL, for revival & fund utilization issues. Court appoints Commissioner to monitor and report on status of lake. To initiate action on National Institute of Aquatic Ecology & Community Participation and Public Awareness Lake, location, Benefits Nature of Institutions Restoration area problems involved actions 5. Howrah's Water supply, Encroachment by Civic Authorities Litigation results Urban water Recreation and land mafia and of Howrah. in court ordering bodies, West Fishing pollution from NGO-Howrah ban on filling up Bengal. sewage Ganatantrik urban water Samiti ( HGNS) bodies and listing of tanks under jurisdiction of police stations and police officers to act as guardians of lakes.

26 6. Hyderabad city Fishery, Eutriophication Govt. of Andhra Restoration of lakes - Hussain recreation, & due to organic Pradesh. HUDA, lake and its Sagar (3,300 ha) flood cushion pollution, MO&EF (NLCP), watershed - & Saroornagar domestic sewage AP Pollution physical, (400 ha), pollution, Control Board chemical, Osmansagar siltation, and (APPCB). Royal biological features (4,016 ha) and Water supply encroachments of Netherlands including Himayatsagar tank bed and Embassy (RNE). technical & other (3,584ha) and peripheral areas Save the Lakes sub-projects. other lakes, Campaign of Sewerage Andhra Pradesh Peoples Group- treatment plants NGO. (STP). 'Peoples Group' 'effective in awareness campaign. Court's order disallows polluting activities including locating airport within 10 km of Lakes. 7. Jalmahal Lake Irrigation, Eutrophication, Irrigation Catchement also called drinking water water hyacinth, Department, treatment of Mansagar lake, supply, recreation, siltation and Forest surrounding hills. Jaipur city, bio-diversity - encroachment. Department, Desilting. Rajasthan -110 ha Migratory birds Jaipur Municipal Creation of (after restoration) like large Corporation, and artificial Flamingo & the Jaipur wetlands. Great Crested Development Diversion of solid Grebe Authority. Asian waste from the Development city to aeration Bank (ADB). plant. Specially MO&EF. Unique constructed experiment of `nesting island’ involving private for breeding birds. sector in ADB funding restoration work - through RUIDP. BOOT process - Private sector Project participation with Development fiscal incentives Company Limited to develop (PDCOR), & tourism related Jaipur Tourism infrastructure industry. mooted -when implemented will be unique for replication. PDCOR prepared feasibility report - Modalities being worked out.

27 8. Jaisamand lake Water supply. Pollution, Irrigation Desiltation, shore or Dhebar lake, Fisheries. encroachment, Department. line management, Rajasthan, -7224 Resident and siltation & Water Tourism sewage treatment ha. migratory birds. shortage department. and diversion. Second largest Reserve Wild life UNDP. MO&EF. Fishery artificial lake in sanctuary. NGO- Apna regulation, Asia Sansthan Catchment area treatment. Eco- management 9. Kodaikanal Irrigation, Pollution from TWAD Board, Clean up with Lake & the Ooty drinking water, sewage, siltation, Public Works bio-products - lake, Tamil Nadu recreation, and & weeds Department and natural bacteria tourism. Bio the local bodies, breakdown, diversity. MO&EF - NLCP aerators to churn the lakes once in 12 days to prevent stagnation, dredging, de- weeding & bio- composting, sewage interceptions and diversion for abatement of pollution, community toilets, solid waste disposal, & shoreline development Lake, location, Benefits Nature of Associated Restoration area problems Institutions actions 10. Lakes of Drinking water, Water shortage, Irrigation Dept., Desiltation, Forest Kumaon hills - irrigation, & rich encroachment & Forest Dept., preservation, Nainital, bio-diversity - change of land MO&EF (NLCP), prevention and Bhimtal, Sat-Tal, over 11 000 use pattern, Land annulment of & Naukuchiatal, species of moths, erosion, Development illegal occupancy Uttaranchal - beetles, bugs and deforestation, Authority, Society of lake's other insects. 525 siltation, & of Appeal for periphery, silt & ‘Lake District’ of species of urbanization. Vanishing pollution control. India butterflies. Birds Uncontrolled Environments Master plan for species. tourist pressure (S.A.V.E) & Eco- development of Ethics region 1995-2011. International Success of PILs. Union (EEIU) 11 Mirik Lake Water supply, Solid waste & Darjeeling Solid waste and called 'Sumendu recreation, sewage pollution, Municipality, sewage Lake', Darjeeling tourism, Angling, siltation, lake MO&EF - NLCP, management. De- District, West & Aquarium water acidic & & Institute of siltation & silt Bengal - 47 ha high Wetland arrestors. Detailed concentration of Management and Master Plan to be nutrients Ecological Design evolved for NLCP funding.

28 12. Mysore city's Water supply, Siltation, Minor Irrigation SENCLE model five lakes- Irrigation, eutrophication, & Dept. Karnataka with socio- Kukkarahalli, Recreation & weed growth. Urban economical and Lingambudhi, Tourism Real estate Infrastructure cultural aspects Karanji, pressure. Development evolved. Devanoor, and Finance Desilting, Dalavai, Corporation, & recreation, drain Karnataka - 363.5 Asian clearance to ha Development prevent flooding, Bank (ADB). de-weeding, & NGO- Peoples sewage treatment. Science Forum Zoning of land (PSF) uses, fencing, bird aviary, etc. 13. Nangal Lake Multipurpose use Siltation. Bhakra Beas Proposed for and Hussainiwala & Biodiversity Pollution from Management listing under lakes, Punjab – industrial Board (BBMB), NLCP for funding 1088 ha effluents Irrigation to plan restoration Department, & works. Punjab Pollution Control Board 14. Rabindra Tile lung of south Encroachment Kolkata Conservation Plan Sarovar (lake) or Kolkata. pressure on the Municipal being evolved. Dhakuria Lake, Recreation & facilities, Development NGOs both for West Bengal - Organized public pollution Authority and against 31 ha open space (KMDA), eviction of MO&EF - NLCP encroachers seeking court intervention. Sanitary facilities for encroachers. 15.Sastamkotta Spring-fed, Large part Forest Action plan for Lake , Kerala - drinking water, reclaimed for Department, conservation 373 ha 27 freshwater agriculture. Municipal initiated. fish and prawns. Pollution due to Authorities, MO Checking soil Larva agricultural & EF, Ramsar erosion. "cavaborus" wastes and site. Indo- Providing toilet eliminates domestic sewage Norwegian facilities around bacteria consortium periphery of the lake contributes to purity of lake. Pilgrim centre. 16. Sukhna lake, Water supply, Erosion of Irrigation Watershed Chandigarh UT - recreation, catchment and Department, management 188 ha tourism, water heavy siltation. Central Soil measures of soil sports and rare Hyacinth Water conservation and birds preserve. Conservation catchment area Migratory birds- Research and treatment, Siberian duck, Training Institute, dredging and Storks & Cranes. MO&EF (NLCP) desilting. 'Sukhomajari' project - a successful watershed management project in lake catchment. Pissiculture.

29 Lake, location, Benefits Nature of Associated Restoration area problems Institutions actions 17. Udaipur city's Water supply, Encroachment- 12 organizations Construction five Lakes - recreation, & peripheral areas. including activity banned in Fatehsagar tourism. Inter- Defecation in Municipal peripheral land of (400Ha), linked system - lake periphery. Council of lakes. Sewage Rangsagar, overflow from Eutrophication Udaipur. Jheel treatment system. Pichola, one lake to the due to sewage. Vikas Samiti Action Plan by Swaroopsagar and other. Fisheries. Catchment (JVS) - JVS with Dudh Talai (1480 deforestation & autonomous govt. participation of ha), Rajasthan body set up as per petitioners of PIL. siltation. Water Court directive, Court intervention hyacinth. Water Jheel Sanrakshan effective. Lake shortage in Samithi (JSS) - Authority to be lakes. NGO, MO&EF - set up. Project to NLCP augment supplies to lakes. 18. Wular Lake, Drinking water, Siltation, vast J&K Lakes and Comprehensive Jammu and irrigation, encroachment Waterways management plan, Kashmir, 17,300 fisheries, into agricultural Development coordinated ha navigation among land –shrinkage Authority, approach important towns in lake area, MO&EF, Ramsar involving the of North Kashmir, hunting site, & satellite water willow plantation pressure on University of bodies of Hygam, & extraction of water fowl, Kashmir. Hokera, Singhara (Trapa Manasbal, Dal pollution from Called flood-lung natans) and Lake and Anchar, untreated of the Jhelum Nadroo which drain into sewage and River (Nelumbo), Wular,.afforestati absorption basin human waste, on of Erin for floodwater, & effluent from Watersheds for important large number of silt control, & waterfowl habitat Army camps, & Engineering (dabbling and weed infestation measures for diving ducks), & navigation. Plans endangered not effective due species of flora to political and fauna. problems and non-settlement of dispute on building of regulating barrage with Pakistan under Indus Treaty.

B. Non-Urban Lakes - a) Inland Fresh Water

30 1. Harike Lake, Maintains Agricultural Irrigation Dept. Comprehensive Punjab - 2850 ha hydrological runoff, untreated Irrigation Power management balance in the waste & sewage Research action plan for catchment from catchment Institute, Punjab conservation. between Sutlej towns into the State Council for Afforestation of and Beas rivers, rivers and lake. Science and catchment & drinking water, Deforestation of Technology. biological control and irrigation, lower Shivaliks Forest and Wild using weevils. home to catchment of lake Life Department, Operation endangered and causing soil Soil Conservation 'Sahyog' of Indian vulnerable faunal erosion and Department, Army cleansed species. siltation. Hyacinth Punjab Pollution hyacinth & Vital source of and wetland Control Board, restored the lake - water and fish to encroachment for Indian Army a possible people. agriculture. (Vajra Corps), alternative MO&EF & approach. Ramsar site. Ecological task force for long- term management. Promotion of eco- tourism

2. Kanjli Lake, Water supply, Water hyacinth, Department of Conservation and Punjab, -490 ha. irrigation, bio- pollution, Town & Country management diversity, resident eutrophication, Planning, Forest measures. Manual 'Religious and migratory deforestation, Department, and biological significance- birds, 17 species conversion of MO&EF, & methods of Associated with of fishes, & catchment for Ramsar site. removal of water the First Guru of religious centre. agriculture, hyacinth, tree Sikhs.' grazing and soil plantation, erosion. catchment treatment, fencing around the lake to prevent encroachment and cattle grazing. Centre for environmental education Lake, location, Benefits Nature of Associated Restoration area problems Institutions actions

31 3.Keoladeo Wintering ground Shortage of water, Rajasthan Forest Water National Park or for highly extensive water (Wild life) management to Bharatpur lake, endangered birds- hyacinth, and Department, supplement water Rajasthan -2873 366 avian species. agricultural run MO&EF, Ramsar needs from the ha. Invasive growth off. Still in the site, & Chambal river, of the grass 'Montreux' International control of water Paspalum Record due to Crane hyacinth, re- Also called distichum "water shortage Foundation. establishment of 'Ghana National reducing and an Keoladeo Siberian Cranes, park' suitability for unbalanced National Park management of certain water grazing regime. Development aquatic birds -Siberian Tension between Society vegetation, eco- crane and water Park officials and tourism and eco- fowls, recreation the village people development. and tourism. surrounding the Sequence of A lush green oasis park to balance flooding in the in a parched the competing park area Most famous brown environmental, followed to waterfowl reserve environment recreational and ensure water level on the globe economic for different pressures. species of waterfowl. Participation of local communities in management. Biomass economic use. Specific resource material developed to highlight importance of maintaining hydrological regimes and their relationship with biodiversity. Wetland centres established to generate awareness on the values and functions of the wetlands and the need for the conservation management.

32 4 Loktak Lake, Hydropower, Degradation of Loktak Integrating social Manipur - 31,200 irrigation, catchment, Development and ecological ha, drinking water, siltation, Authority, dimensions. rich bio-diversity, pollution, changes MO&EF, Ramsar Afforestation, fisheries, flood in hydrological site, India-Canada control of silt by control, floating regime due to Environment engineering wild life preserve, construction of Facility, Wetlands measures, & 'World’s only & livelihood to Itthai barrage International - catchment area floating National people in and affecting South Asia, treatment. During Park' around the lake. ecological NGOs. National monsoon to push processes, HydroElectric phumdis out of floating Project the lake into 'phumdis', Corporation Manipur river flooding of (NHPC). through agricultural lands, Horticulture community efforts & loss of fish. Institute, effective. Bangalore Introducing Still in the weevils for 'Montreux' record biological control of water hyacinth, sustainable fisheries development and generating awareness about the values and functions of the lake. Bio-mass conversion to economic use 5. Mirik Lake or Recreation & Generally acidic, Govt of West Action plan 'Sumendu Lake' tourism. pollution, Bengal. MO&EF initiated for West Bengal – 47 Angling, concentration of -NLCP catchment ha aquarium nutrients, & treatment, siltation pollution abatement, angling platforms, & tourist infrastructure. 6. Nalsarovar Lake attracts 120- Water shortage, Sardar Sarovar Lake water Lake, Guajarat - 150 species of quality of water in Narmada Nigam supplementation 12, 000 ha migratory water and draining to Limited, Forest from Narmada birds, recreation, the lake. Department, canal system, and tourism MO&EF, & monitored Narmada Control intensely and Authority effectively for bio-diversity & water quality preservation. 100 ha exclusive protected area. Lake, location, Benefits Nature of Associated Restoration area problems Institutions actions

33 7. Pong Dam lake, Bird diversity - Cultivation along Irrigation Dept. Reservoir - Himachal Pradesh annual migratory the shoreline. Himachal Pradesh Wildlife - 15,662 ha waterfowl, 220 Agriculture and Govt., Forest Sanctuary. bird species forestry Department, Management identified. malpractice in the MO&EF, Ramsar plans for Fishing -27 fish catchment area site protection, habitat species (mahaseer improvement, angling), tourism and irrigation and regulation, roads, drinking water, & etc. Plantation in recreation peripheral area of lake to check silting and provide nesting and roosting places for birds. Nature conservation education centre. 8. Ropar lake, Drinking water Siltation, water Irrigation Dept., Efforts to take up Punjab, -1365 ha and irrigation, quality Punjab State conservation habitat for some degradation due Council for programmes threatened species to effluent from Science & involving various of reptiles, staging fertilizer plants, Technology, State Departments ground for agricultural run MO&EF, Ramsar initiated; action migratory off, industrial site. plan prepared for waterfowl, effluents and financial recharging sewage from assistance of aquifers, towns in upper MO&EF. providing flood reaches. Growth Established protection and of weeds. Illegal Information strengthens water fishing and Centre - cum - quality poaching of wild watchtower for life. Mass awareness and promoting public participation in lake conservation. 9.Renuka lake, Wild Life Siltation - one Forest Catchment area Himachal Pradesh Sanctuary tourist fourth of lake Department Govt treatment, - 75 ha. attraction and silted up. Weeds of Himachal dredging and Shape of Lady - religious Pradesh. desilting, de- Embodiment of pilgrimage. Very Department of weeding, & eco- goddess Renuka. rich in Science and preservation. Biodiversity. Technology, Built 2,750-m- MO&EF toe-wall around the lake to halt the movement of silt into the lake. Nature conservation education centre.

B. Non-Urban Lakes – b) Inland Brackish/salt water

34 1. LunarLake, Bowl-shaped Leasing use of the Maharashtra Integrated Maharashtra - 1.8 depression due to lake's peripheral Govt. Forest conservation and km in diameter, meteoritic impact lands for Department, management plan largest and oldest in basaltic rock, in agriculture and Agriculture Dept. essential. Plea meteoric crater in land lake seasonal consequent runoff Tourist Dept. made to list under the world. drainage mainly from the fields the National confined to its laden with Conservation Plan periphery and also chemicals and and also as a Crater lake by number of fertilizers entering Ramsarr site. ecosystem - a fresh water into the lake Attention to be natural and springs, highly causing pollution. Focused on cultural heritage alkaline, many Flora and fauna of sustainable eco- of extraordinary sub-ecosystems the ecosystem tourism. significance floral and faunal affected. species - resident Unplanned and migratory development birds. Tourism

Lake, location, Benefits Nature of Associated Restoration area problems Institutions actions 2. Pangong Tso Lake shared by Fragile eco MO&EF, WWF Conservation lake - Leh, J & K India and China. system. Growing & action initiated – 4,200 ha Open to tourism impact of tourism Local Community with WWF and (approx) under army on pressure on Local community surveillance. grass lands, leads support. Greatest lake in Herds of to pollution, wild Initiated creation the Himalayas- Pashmina sheep life disturbance & of High Altitude Bi-nation lake and long tailed change in local Wetlands (India & China) yaks. Only life styles Conservation breeding ground - Management black necked Authority to plan Siberian crane. and implement developments in an eco-compatible manner.

3.Sambhar Lake, Delicious Shortage of water Rajasthan Govt., Hunting banned Rajasthan India's spirulina algae and MO&EF, Ramsar in the area. largest salt lake - attracts flamingos desertification, site. Sambhar Comprehensive 24,300 ha in thousands. illegal hunting, Salts Ltd. ecosystem study Concourse of and grazing urgently required Ornithologists’ other rear birds. pressure around for evolving delight Salt extraction. the lake. Low management potassium action plan for concentration. conservation of lake. 4.Tsokar lake at Tourism, breeding Fragile eco MO&EF, WWF Conservation 4,485 m - Leh, ground - black- system. Impact of & action initiated J&K necked tourism - pressure Local Community with WWF and Siberian crane. on grass lands, Local community 'Lake of salt' Home to many pollution, wild support. interesting life disturbance & families of change in local marmots life styles.

35 5.Tsomoriri lake Rich wildlife Tourism, MOE&F, WWF, Designated as a or including the buildings on bank Ramsar site wetland reserve. "Mountain Lake" "Kyang" (wild of lake, garbage & Local Shooting wildlife at 4,595m , J & K ass), red fox and not cleared since Community. strictly prohibited. - 12,000 ha the rare, highly few decades, Local community endangered, snow agriculture runoff of Korzok village Highest cultivated leopard, and most into lake, over- has established a land in the world. endangered grazing (restricts conservation trust species-the black- the herbivore with help from necked crane. birds like Bar- WWF-India to Barley fields. headed geese, etc) undertake Tourism. and menace of conservatism predators' measures of the lake. Pledged as a 'Sacred Gift for a Living Planet' B. Non-Urban Lakes – c) Sacred lakes & Tanks 1.Pushkar lake, Sanctity and holy Degradation due Govt. of Natural Resource Rajasthan - water famous to wind-blown Rajasthan, India Management - religious place. sands & loss of Canada Local community Pilgrims visit to agricultural lands. Environment capacity -"User's wash off their sins Sedimentation. Facility. Local committee". and/or immerse Problem community Catchment area the ashes of their compounded by capacity support treatment to dead. Holy dip visitors feeding prevent soil taken in lake on puffed rise to the erosion by wind Full moon in the dying fish and and to restore months of Oct- dumping plastic agricultural lands. Nov to bestow bags into lake, Groundwater salvation violating a ban. recharge and de- siltation of the lake. Area under cultivation and vegetative cover increased, wind erosion abated, sand dunes stabilized. Drainage lines treated. A Development of S orchards. Lake, location, Benefits Nature of Associated Restoration area problems Institutions actions 2. Shambhu Lake, Sanctity and holy Degradation due Temple Restoration and Maharashtra – 16 water famous domestic sewage authorities conservation ha religious place. infested by many measures yet to be "Shambhu macrophytes evolved. Mahadeo".

36 3 Sacred Tanks Tanks as ancient Anthropogenic Temple trusts, Management of (Lakes), South as the Indus pressure, few Local sacred tanks in India - Andhra civilization. In temple tanks and Village/Town particular, in the Pradesh, Southern rural tanks have Community, temple premises, Karnataka, Kerala peninsular of survived, but NGOs, State should involve Pondicherry, and India building of urban tanks Govts. periodical Tamil Nadu tanks was basic extensively pumping of water states. survival need. polluted or taken and refilling with Successful efforts over for urban fresh surface in local and use. Most tanks water, removal of Also called community totally dry (even silt and wastes 'Ponds', always management. during rainy from the tank-bed, dug below the Different types: season), as and prevention of ground level. percolation ponds, waterways that misuse of tank natural lakes, feed tanks not waters by the artificial maintained, area local population. reservoirs and around tank in To be done by the "A temple and a temple tanks. unhygienic Temple tank co-exist." Drinking water, condition - Management washing one's pollution without Committee and by hands and feet realizing sanctity. Tank before going into Tank encroached Communities in the temple and, for building each village who sometimes, for activity, should form a irrigating temple desiltation not "Tank Users lands taken up for want Association", of funds, and water rarely replenished. C. Coastal Estuarine Lakes of brackish water (Salt and Fresh Water Mix) 1. Ashtamudi Fishing, inland Reclamation, Irrigation Dept., Management Plan Lake, Kerala - navigation, Pollution from oil MO&EF, Ramsar evolved. 61400 ha coconut retting, spills, industrial site, IWAI, Mechanical de- fishing & harbor. effluents from Cochin University fibering process Endangered paper mills, of Science and needs to be plants, mangrove aluminum Technology. & popularized for species, 97 industries, & Centre for Water retting. species of fishes, untreated sewage Resources Catchment area & waterfowl from Kollam city. Development and treatment. Bio- (20000) Coconut husk Management diversity to be retting (CWRDM) preserved

37 2. Chilika Lake, Fisheries, largest Siltation, Chilika Eco restoration Orissa - 1,16,500 concentration of shrinkage of area, Development measures. ha migratory choking of inlet Authority (CDA). Opening of lake's waterfowl- and outlet channel Forest outer channel into wintering ground connecting the Department the sea ensured of migratory lake, decrease in (Wildlife better exchange of Largest brackish species of Arctic salinity, weed Division), salinity level. De- water lagoon in and Central Asian infestation, Zoological Survey weeding the lake Asia. Water Fowl. decrease in fish of India, & State and better Assemblage of production, Soil Conservation management Hot spot of marine, brackish increase in Department. practices. Habitat biodiversity water and fresh aquaculture, & Central Water and improvement of water biota. Socio-economic Power Research Nalabana Bird problem. Overall Station (CWPRS). Sanctuary. loss of bio- MO&EF, & Regulation of diversity & Ramasr site fishing & extensive prevention of poaching of birds encroachments. and fish farming Significant improvement resulted in removal of the lake from Montrex Record. Ramsar Award for 2002. Lake, location, Benefits Nature of Associated Restoration area problems Institutions actions 3.Kuttanad Ecological buffer Land reclamation Irrigation Dept. Appropriate lagoon, Kerala, zone between for agriculture & Govt. of Kerala, conservation and Five major rivers river system and urbanization. Fisheries management drain. Most area sea. Agriculture, Salinity barrier at Department, plans. Effluent consists of clever system of Thaneermukhom Kerala Electricity control by freshwater. ' dykes and bunds lead to ecological Board, Centre for treatment and for cultivation of problem, effluents Water Resources diversion. 'kayal' or paddy, coir from extensive Development and Suitable operation backwaters production - use of chemical Management schedule for coconut retting. fertilizers and (CWRDM), saline barrier 'One of the few Aquaculture. Two pesticides- IWAI, Cochin (particularly re- places below sea crop pattern with periodic outbreak University of opening and level with Thaneermukhom of epidemics. Science and closure period farming' saline barrier to Industries and Technology. every year) to prevent intrusion urban centres. People’s improve fish "Rice bowl of of salinity into Destruction of the Campaign for landings. Kerala" Kuttanad during mangroves. Planning-NGO Dredging. the post-monsoon Mechanical de- period fibering process to be popularized for retting. Catchment areas treatment to reduce silt inflow into the lakes. Carrying capacity to be considered.

38 4. Pulicat Lake, Brackish water Fresh water Tamil Nadu Lagoon protected Andhra Pradesh makes the lake a shortage due to Pollution Control as a wild life & Tamil Nadu, - good nursery upstream Board (TNPCB), sanctuary. 77,000ha ground for reservoirs. MO&EF, NLCP, Dredging work at planktons, fish Hyacinth, coastal Environmental the lake's mouth. and prawns. erosion and Education Centre. Water and soil Second largest Positive estuary. accretion -sand NGO- Coastal conservation brackish water Aquatic and bars at mouth of Action Network. programmes in its lagoon in India. terrestrial fauna Lake & siltation. Solid Waste catchment area. Unique for its and flora Bio- Fishing choked- Management Strong NGOs multi-ecosystem diversity - 30 verge of an Authority. movement to stop varieties of ecological disaster industrial terrestrial and due to chemical pollution. Entire aquatic birds, 65 industries, Pulicat water species of fish, thermal station & system, including nature lovers and Ennore Satellite the lagoon, the bird watchers Port Ennore Creek and haunt. Breeding the Buckingham ground for sea Canal designated turtles. Tourism CRZ I. Environmental Education Centre in the sanctuary.

5. Vembanad-Kol Absorbs Huge Land Irrigation Dept. Water Lake system, floodwaters, saves reclamation for Govt. of Kerala, development Kerala - 151,250 3500 sq km of 3 agriculture & Fisheries projects for low ha. coastal districts, urbanization. Department, flow rice bowl, coconut Pollution from Kerala Electricity augmentation for retting, industrial, Board, CWRDM, irrigation and Fed by 10 rivers. aquaculture- agriculture and IWAI, Irrigation flood control. shrimp, prawn, sewage effluents. Dept., MO&EF, Catchment Two distinct finfish, etc. Clam Bunding at river Ramsar site. treatment. segments of fresh and fossil mouth arresting Cochin University Effluent treatment water & salt deposits. 50 salinity causing of Science and measures. water. species of damage to rice Technology. Operation migratory birds. cultivation and People’s schedule of Water sports. fisheries. Campaign for Thaneermukhom Tourism. Industrial Planning- NGO saline barrier to dredging of the be scientifically sub-fossil lime done. Dredging shell. & Develop inland navigation and tourism. Popularized Mechanical de- fibering for retting. Catchment area treatment.

Lake, location, Benefits Nature of Associated Restoration area problems Institutions actions D. Ephemeral Lakes (Beels, Jheels & Tals) of the Ganga - Brahmaputra Basins

39 1. Chaurs, beels, Act as sponges - Reclamation of Govts of the To evolve Action Tals (Lakes) - Nature's own depressions & States of Assam, plans to facilitate 80,000-100,000 initiative at flood human Bihar, Uttar strategies for ha control. Irrigation intervention. Pradesh and West future and water supply. Water logging Bengal, Ministry management and Ganga - Biodiversity- due to of Water sustainable uses. Brahmaputra Plants and Construction of Resources, GOI, Retain economic Basins states Fisheries embankments, & MO&EF, benefits with due roads and regard to railways - biodiversity Inaccessibility to preservation law-enforcing agencies

2. Deepor beel or Water supply, Encroachment Forest 414 ha of beel lake, Guwahati fisheries, absorbs and siltation. Department, Govt area declared as a city, Assam - storm water from Illegal soil cutting of Assam, sanctuary. 4,000 ha city and adjoining within the beel for MO&EF, & Shooting and bird hills, staging site bricks. Poaching Ramsar site trapping on migratory of wild birds and prohibited by law. flyways, largest animals. Fisheries concentration of Unregulated department aquatic birds, fishing practices. patrols the beel. fodder for Industrial Entire beel to be domestic cattle development declared as a and natural food around the protected area. such as periphery of the Comprehensive vegetables, beel. management flowers, aquatic Proposed Railway action plan for the seeds, and also as line & Highways protection and water transport. restoration being Host’s ornamental evolved. De- fish, medicinal notification of this plants, and protected area orchids of presently stalled commercial value. due to participation and involvement of the people. To be developed as a biosphere reserve.

40 3. Kawar (Kabar) Fresh water Inflow of silt - Ministry of Water Action plan to Lake, Bihar- 6737 oxbow lake. decreasing the Resources- Bihar facilitate ha Aquatic biological depth of lake & & GOI, Forest strategies for diversity - main Eutrophication. Department, future fishing support Water WWF & management and system of the management MO&EF. sustainable uses "Sahany Measures of of the lake. Flood Community". connecting all absorption. Bird Sanctuary & small lakes to Studies on total fresh water Kawar and assessment of aquatic plant drainage channel fresh water diversity. into river silted up aquatic plant Exposed affecting fishers diversity, seasonal mudflats, after and leading to variation of plant floods recede, disputes over diversity in converted into ownership. comparison with rice (paddy) major ecological fields. Recharges characteristics, ground aquifer in and various uses entire area. and utilization of the freshwater wetland resources. Lake, location, Benefits Nature of Associated Restoration area problems Institutions actions 4. Kolleru Lake, Natural flood Reclamation and Govt of Andhra Part of lake Andhra Pradesh - balancing, fishery, embankments- Pradesh, declared wild life 90,100 ha. agriculture, Lake becoming Irrigation sanctuary to coastal fresh landmass due to Department, & protect flora and Hemmed between water lagoons to agricultural MO&EF. Ramsar fauna, need to Godavari and the seasonal activity. Culture site introduce Krishna river freshwater ponds, fishing & lack of management basins & habitat for a regulation of systems to number of seaward flow of conserve resident and lake waters ecosystem and migratory birds increasing flood sustain including the submergence. biodiversity. vulnerable gray Siltation. Human Outlet channel pelican. Culture interference - into sea needs and capture hunting & improvement. fisheries & vehicular traffic. Technical and agriculture. institutional measures planned to make the lake a perennial source of fish culture and limnological asset.

41 5. Mokama Tal Flood absorption, Continued Ministry of Water Engineering (Lake), Bihar - irrigation, submergence Resources - GOI measures- 106,2 00 ha fisheries & during monsoon & Bihar, MO&EF additional outlets Bio diversity. season - loss of to Ganga, parallel khariff crop. drain in upper Water to be reaches & anti drained out by flood sluice not 15th October. fully successful. Water from the Alternative south side to be approach - use prevented from very low area for entering the Tal ponding and for Rabi crop. fishing, shallow Inadequate area for drainage outlets. agricultural Inaccessibility to purpose using law-enforcing compatible agencies. cropping pattern & high-level areas for infrastructure activities. Other measures - new crop production technology, high yielding variety of seeds, plant protection, irrigation during dry season privately or through govt. or both, & deliberate flooding with prior warning system to moderate the peak flood of the Ganga.

42 Annex 4

Lists of Lakes Identified under International Conventions & National Laws on Environment

A. Ramsar sites of Wetland and Lakes in India [Site Name, (date of declaration), State, Area]

1. Ashtamudi Wetland, (19/08/02), Kerala, 61,400 ha 2. Bhitarkanika Mangroves, (19/08/02), Orissa, 65,000 ha 3. Bhoj Wetland, (19/08/02), Madhya Pradesh, 3,201 ha 4. Chilika Lake, (01/10/81), Orissa, 116,500 ha 5. Deepor Beel, (19/08/02), Assam, 4,000 ha 6. East Calcutta Wetlands, (19/08/02), West Bengal, 12,500 ha 7. Harike Lake, (23/03/90), Punjab, 2850 ha 8. Kanjli, (22/01/02), Punjab, 490 ha 9. Keoladeo National Park, (01/10/81), Rajasthan, 2,873 ha 10. Kolleru Lake, (19/08/02), Andhra Pradesh, 90,100 ha 11. Loktak Lake, (23/03/90), Manipur, 31,200 ha 12. Point Calimere Wildlife & Bird Sanctuary, (19/08/02) Tamil Nadu, 38,500 ha 13. Pong Dam Lake, (19/08/02), Himachal Pradesh, 15,662 ha 14. Ropar, (20/01/02), Punjab, 1,365 ha 15. Sambhar Lake, (23/03/90), Rajasthan 24,300 ha 16. Sasthamkotta Lake, (19/08/02), Kerala 373 ha 17. Tsomoriri, (19/08/02), Jammu & Kashmir,12,000 ha 18. Vembanad-Kol Wetland, (19/08/02), Kerala 151,250 ha 19. Wular Lake, (23/03/90), Jammu & Kashmir, 17,300 ha

B. World Heritage Convention sites of outstanding universal value

1. Kaziranga National Park 2. Manas Wildlife Sancturay 3. Keoladeo National Park 4. Sundarbans National Park 5. Nandadevi National Park

C. Indian Environmental Legislations related to Lakes & Reservoirs In India, Central and State Governments (with due note of an increasing body of judicial decision’s affecting industrial activities that generate pollution) have enacted laws. More than 200 statutes have a bearing on environmental matters. However, the major legal provisions, which have bearing on lakes and environment, are.

1. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, as amended up to 1988 2. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) (Procedure for Transaction of Business) Rules, 1975 3. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977, as amended by Amendment Act, 1991 4. The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Rules, 1978 5. The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 6. Constitution of Appellate Authorities 7. Environmental laboratories and Analysts 8. Officers Authorized for taking Cognizance of Offences 9. Authorized Officers/Agencies to enter the Premises for Inspection 10. Officers/Agencies Authorized to take Samples 11. Emission Standards of Pollutants from various Industries 12. Guidelines for Location of Industries, Mining Operations etc. for various Areas 13. Environmental Impact Assessment of Development Projects 14. The National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 15. The National Environmental Appellate Authority Act, 1997 16. The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, amended in 1983, 1986 & 1991.

43 17. National Forest Policy, 1988 18. The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, amended in 1988. 19. Forest (Conservation) Rules, 1981 20. The Indian Fisheries Act – 1857 21. The Eco Sensitive Zone - Pachmarhi, Notification, 1998 22. Territorial Water, Continental Shelf, Exclusive Economic Zone and other Marine Zones Act –1976 23. Maritime Zone Act, 1974 24. Maritime Zone of India (regulation and Fishing by foreign vessels) Act -1980 25. Coastal Regulation Zone - Notifications –1991 26. Merchant Shipping Act, 1954 27. National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development -1992 28. Municipal Solid Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 2000 29. New Bio-diversity Bill - 2000 30. The Prevention and Control of Pollution (Uniform Consent Procedure) Rules, 1999 (Draft) 31. Amending EIA Notification of 27th January 1994 - Draft Notification 32. Protect & improve the environment in the Himalayas, October 2000 - Draft Notification 33. Protect & improve the environment in the Himalayas (Assam and Himachal Pradesh), November 2000 - Draft Notification.

44 Annex 5 Interactive Governance System

An indicative structure for the IRBMP could comprise the Water Resources Department governed by the Water Resources Council, supported by River Basin organization and Water Resources Commission. A further elaboration of these proposals is briefly given below.

Water Resources Department The Department shall be responsible for the administrative back up including budgetary management, setting up RBOs, Human Resources Management, etc. Figure 3 presents the proposed overall mechanism and interacting ro1es of the various organs in a generic form.

Water Resources Council This shall be the highest policy making body with the Chief Minister as Chairperson, Ministers and Secretaries of all water-related Ministries as Members and secretary, Department of Water Resources as Member - Secretary. Members shall also be co-opted from civil society, academia and NGOs in the water sector (Figure 4). The council shall, • Be responsible for the State Water Resources Development and Management policy, and its implementation. • Approve the IRBMPs prepared by RBOs in the first instance after they are cleared by the Commission before forwarding them to the line departments of various water-use sectors. • Intervene if corrective actions are required during the implementation of the basin management plans by any water-use sector. RBOs assist the council in this regard.

It is relevant to mention here that the above proposals are in consonance with a Court decision, which suggests similar governance action to solve the problems of lakes. In passing judgment on a group of Public Interest Litigation demanding revival of Lakes in Ahmedabad city, the Gujarat High Court requires "the State Government to constitute Water Resources Council headed by the Chief Minister "to oversee the programme for protection, preservation and improvement of water bodies." The State Government is also ordered to constitute a Water Resource Committee headed by the Chief Secretary to monitor the implementation of the Programme in a time bound manner.

River Basin Organizations (RBOs) River Basin Organisation (RBO) is the first and most important step towards sustainable lake management. The functions and responsibilities of RBOs have been widely discussed. They have only to be expanded to include preparation of management plans for lakes as part of IRBMP. In brief, RBOs assess the resources, estimate the needs based on projections and prepare a basin water and land management plan matching the needs with the resource to achieve sustainable benefits without compromising on the environmental status. RBOs are not executing agencies. But they monitor the actual management of resources and report to the appropriate authority for corrective interventions, if necessary. Figure 4 is indicative of the functions of RBOs.

Water Resources Commission An inter-disciplinary organization, the Commission shall provide technical Box 1 backup to the RBOs. The Commission WATER RESOURCES COMMISSION (see Box 1) shall be responsible to prepare uniform guidelines for river Planning Guidelines to RBOs basin management plans for use by all Technical Exam of RBO prepared Management Plans RBOs in a state. The Commission shall also scrutinize the plans for their Multidisciplinary Functions: consistency with the guidelines and Economy/Finance policies of the Government and place Agriculture them before the Water Resources Irrigation Council. Figure 3 demonstrates the inter- Industry disciplinary character of the Municipal Commission. Power Watershed Management Environment (Lakes are an important element) Social Science

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