International e - Journal Vol.No.01 Jan/Feb. 2021 Registration No. 3341/2010
International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal YEARLY
Co-Editor Chief Editor Dr. S. A. Thakur Dr. R. B. Patil
KONKAN GEOGRAPHERS’ ASSOCIATION OF INDIA SINDHUDURG – MAHARASHTRA, 416602 INDIA
Editorial Note
Konkan Geographers’ Association of India is happy to bring out our 25th Volume of Research Journal, which include papers related to Population Geography, Agricultural Geography, Environment, Medical Geography, Irrigation and Industrial Geography. We have taken extreme care to avoid mistakes but it may have inadvertently crept it. Hence it is suggested that the reader should cross check the data, facts, and information given in the research papers with the authentic sources of data. Development of Science and Technology has drastically changed Human Life and modified Environment. Academic Development of any subject is related to the involvement of Students, Teachers and Research Scholars in active research. Lot of secondary data is available in various fields, which can be utilised for fruitful research. Earth can fulfil the need of everyone but not the greed of any one. Neither the Konkan Geographers’ Association of India, nor the Authors are responsible for any damage , or loss of and kind in any manner there from. We are thankful to Prof. Dr. Mohamed Alkhuzamy Aziz,Dr. Inibehe Ukpong Dr. Idoko Ojochenemi, Prof.Dr. Kanhaiya Sapkota, Prof. Rexon Tayong Nting, Prof. Prashant Sawant, Dr. Prabir Rath, Dr. R. B. Pant, Dr. Harvinder Singh,Dr.Yogeshwar Dudhapachare We also thank all the Research Scholars for their contribution in this volume. “Success comes to those who dare and act”
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Co-Editor Chief Editor Dr. S. A. Thakur Dr. R. B. Patil
THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER International e- Research Journal Registration No. 3341/2010 INTERNATIONAL EDITORIAL BOARD (2020-2025)
Chief Editor Dr. Rajaram Patil HOD Geography, Arts & Commerce College, Phondaghat, Dist : Sindhudurg, University of Mumbai, MS, India Associate Editor Dr. Shivaram Thakur HOD Geography, S. P. K. College, Sawantwadi Dist : Sindhudurg, University of Mumbai, MS India Advisors Dr. Hemant Pednekar Ex. Senate Member, University of Mumbai, Maharashtra , India Dr. Praveen Saptarshi Visiting Faculty, Salisbury University, Maryland, USA Dr. L. Manawadu Professor, Department of Geography, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka. Dr. Darikhan Kamble Assistant Advisor, NAAC Institute, Bangalore, Karnatak, India
Panel of Experts Dr. Sunil Kumar De Professor, Dept. of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong, Meghalaya, India Prof. Dr. Mohamed Geography Department, Faculty of Arts, Fayoum Alkhuzamy Aziz University Fayoum City, Egypt Dr. Inibehe Ukpong Dept. of Agriculture Extension & Management, Federal Polytechnic University. Ekowe Bayelsa State, Nigeria Dr. Nandkumar Sawant Principal, Parvatibai Chougule College, Madgaon, Goa University, Goa, India Prof. Deepak Kolhapure HOD Dept. of Geography, G. H. College, Haveri, Karnatak University Dharwad, Karnatak, India
The Statement and opinions expressed in various articles are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the Society or Editorial Board. Any part of the Article published in the journal can not be reproduced without prior permission of the Secretary of the Society. Copy Right : Konkan Geographers’ Association of India.
Address for Comunication Dr. S. A. Thakur President, Konkan Geographers’ Association of India At/Post. Bhatwadi, Tal: Sawantwadi, Dist : Sindhudurg. Maharashtra, INDIA E-mail: [email protected] M+919168561569
THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER (INTERNATIONAL INTERDISCIPLINARY e - JOURNAL) International Peer Review Committee (Year : 2020 to 2025)
Dr. Rajaram Patil (Chief Editor) Dr. Idoko Ojochenemi (Member) A & C College Phondaghat Tal: Kankavli, Dept. of Geography, Kogi State University Dist: Sindhudurg, MS University of Mumbai, India Anyigba, Nigeria Dr. Shivaram Thakur (Associate Editor) Prof.Dr. Kanhaiya Sapkota (Member)
S. P. K. Mahavidyalay Sawantwadi, Central Department of Geography,
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Dr. Meena Potdar (Member) Prof. Prashant Sawant (Member)
Department of Geography, Dept. of Economics, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, MS India Bahrain Training Institute,University Bahrain Dr. Sushil Dalal (Member) Dr. Prabir Rath (Member) Department of Geography, Central University of Dept. of Geography, P.G. Coordinator, Haryana Mahendergarh, India Govt. College, Khandola, Goa University, Goa, India
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Dept. of Geography BJS’ ASC College, Pune Dept. of Geography Govt. P.G. College, Savitribai Phule Pune University, MS, India Nainital, Uttarakhand, India Dr. Arjun Nanaware (Member) Dr. Moushumi Datta (Member) Dept. of Geography, Shivaji College, P.G. Research Dept. of Geography N. K. College, Malad,
Center, Barshi, Solapur University, MS, India University of Mumbai, India
Dr.Abhay Patil (Member) Dr. Harvinder Singh (Member) Dept. of Geography R.P.D. College, Dept. of Geography, GKSM Govt. College R.C. University, Belgavi, Karnatak, India Punjab University, Chandigarh, India
Dr.Sameer Butala (Member) Dr.Yogeshwar Dudhapachare (Member)
Dept. of Geography, Sundarrao More Mahavidyalay, Dept. of Geography, Janata Mahavidyalaya, Poladpur, Dist :Raigad, Uni. of Mumbai MS, India Chandrapur Gondwana Uni, Gadchiroli, MS, India Arunima Bhattacharya (Member) Dr.Mukesh Kumar (Member) Dept. of Geography, Vidyasagar College for Women, Department of Geography, Govt. College Bahu, Kolkata. West Bengal, India Jhajjar, Haryana, India
Various Programmes of Konkan Geographers’ Association of India
KONAKN GEOGRAPHERS’ ASSOCIATION OF INDIA (Registration No. 3341/2010 Sindhudurg, MS, INDIA)
DIRECTOR BODY 2020-2025
Dr. Shivaram Thakur PRESIDENT S. P. K. College, Sawantwadi, Sindhudurg Dr. Ramchandra Katkar VICE-PRESIDENT S. K. Patil College Malvan, Sindhudurg Dr. Rajaram Patil SECRETARY A & C College Phondaghat, Sindhudurg Dr. Sudhir Buva JOINT SECRETARY S. P. K. College, Sawantwadi, Sindhudurg Dr. Sambhaji Patil TREASURER Kankavli College Kankavli, , Sindhudurg Dr. Hemant Pednekar ADVISOR Ex. Vice Principal, Kirti College, Mumbai Prof. Hanmantrao Yadav DIRECTOR S. R.M. College, Kudal, Sindhudurg Dr. Sumedha Dhuri DIRECTOR J.B.Naik. College, Sawantwaadi, Sindhudurg Dr. Balu Rathod DIRECTOR Kankavli College, Kankavli, , Sindhudurg Dr. Pradnyakumar Gatade DIRECTOR Laximibai Halbe College, Dodamarg Dr. Balasaheb Rahane DIRECTOR Sonopant Dandekar College, Palghar Prof. Kamlesh Kamble DIRECTOR Br. Khardekar College, Vengurla Prof. Rajkumar Kamble DIRECTOR ASC College, Unde, Tal: Uran, Raigad Dr. Pooja Mohite DIRECTOR S.P. Hegshetye College, Ratnagiri Prof. Nisha Deodhar DIRECTOR Manjunatha College of Commerce, Thane
Our Association publishing from 2012 National level Interdisciplinary peer reviewed Journal with impact factor 5.25. It also publishes Geographical text and reference books in Marathi and English medium. The life membership is opened to all researcher and geographers from India and abroad. We have organized 11 National and 02 International level conferences in various states of India.
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Journal Volume No. 01/Jan-Feb, 2021 THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed e-Research Journal of the KONKAN GEOGRAPHERS’ ASSOCIATION OF INDIA
INDEX
PAGE S.N. NAME OF THE RESEARCH PAPER AUTHOR NO. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY WATER 1 CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN OJOCHENEMI IDOKO 01 TRANSNATIONAL HOTELS: AN EXPERIENCE FROM IKEJA-LAGOS.
IMPACT OF TRADE AGREEMENT AND FREDERICK ECONOMIC PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN THE EU 2 CHUKWUEKWU ODOGWU, 13 AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: THE CASE OF STANDARD GSP ON NIGERIA’S EXPORT INIBEHE GEORGE UKPONG DR. R. SATYA ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF 3 INDUSTRIES IN MAHARASHTRA WITH SPECIAL PAVAN KUMAR 20 REFERENCE TO MUMBAI MR. PRASHANT SAWANT
ANALYSIS OF GLOBAL GRAPHITE MARKET FOR PIYUSH URANE 4 ANODE AS A MATERIAL IN LITHIUM-ION 30 BATTERIES PRANAV DAKE
STUDY OF SPATIAL AND SOCIO ECONOMIC PRABIR KUMAR RATH 5 BACKGROUND OF ARTS GRADUATES OF GOVT. 40 COLLEGE, KHANDOLA–GOA SHREYA D. GAUNKAR, DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN THE INDIAN SUB 6 DR.HARVINDER SINGH, 53 CONTINENT EMERGING POPULATION TRENDS IN INDIA 7 DR. C. P. HIREMATH, 61 1971 – 2011 :A REGIONAL SCENARIO
ANALYSIS OF MEDICAL FACILITIES IN DR. SHIVRAM THAKUR 8 SAWANTWADI TALUKA OF SINDHUDURG 74 DISTRICT DR. RAJARAM PATIL ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF BILASPUR CITY- MRS. Z. T. KHAN 9 79 A HISTORICAL APPROACH DIPANKAR BERA, AN ANALYSIS OF GEOMORPHIC INFLUENCES 10 AND ANTHROPOGENIC INFLUENCES ON CLIFF ATHULYA 90 DESTRUCTION IN VARKALA COAST, KERALA HEALTH HAZARDS CAUSED BY ARSENIC ARUNIMA 11 CONTAMINATION A CASE STUDY OF NADIA 98 BHATTACHARYA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 01. Jan/Feb. 2021 International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal
Qualitative Analysis of the Environmentally Friendly Water Conservation Practices in Transnational Hotels: an Experience from
Ikeja-Lagos.
Ojochenemi Idoko (Ph.D) Department of Geography, Prince Abubakar Audu University Anyigba (PAAU), Kogi State.
Email: [email protected]
Research Paper Accepted on 26-12-2019 Edited on 05-01-2020 Abstract This paper explored the environmentally friendly conservation of water adopted by transnational hotels in Ikeja Lagos. Twelve (4-5 stars rating) transnational hotel were purposively selected for interview. The study used NVivo 10 computer software to run a qualitative (thematic) analysis of the transcribed responses from the informant. The results showed that only two of the managerial/senior staff demonstrated a good understanding of the study objective. The study show that ten (10) of the hotels declined to respond to the research question which was posed by the researcher; suggesting lack of commitment to curb excessivewater consumptionby their facility. The paper recommends that efficient water conservation policies be implemented to curb excessive consumption from hotels in Lagos.
Keywords: Thematic analysis, water conservation,hotels’ environmentally friendly practice, transnational hotel in Ikeja Lagos.
1.1 Introduction
Excessive consumption of water resources is one of the leading environmental issues the world is facing today. Tourism industry has been identified as one of the leadingsectors that has negativelyimpacted the water resources.Water is an indispensable resource in the accommodation sector because the important roles it plays.Usually, hotels used for cooking, laundry, bathing, washing, pool, kitchen; and heating, ventilation air-conditioning (HVAC). Studies have revealed that a substantial amount of water is used in guest rooms, particularly for showers and toilets. Other areas that also consume water include the laundry, kitchen, and the swimming pool. But watering of lawn, flowers, and public areas consume much lower than those mentioned above. Basically, hotels consume a large amount of water resources in a bid to provide physical comfort to guests. For instance,average water consumption per guest staying at diverse lodging facilities (hotels, campsites and boarding houses) is three times higher than that of water use at
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home(Barberán, Egea, Gracia-de-Rentería, & Salvador, 2013). The use of water in hotel accommodation facilities is thus increasingly becoming not just economic problem,but also an environmental concerns in many destinations.
Environmental experts as well as hotel customers have become aware of the environmental impacts of excessive consumption of water resources by hotels.Hotels can greatly reduce water wastage and save energy if guests and relevant stakeholders in the industry would engage in water conservation practices. To address the growing water demand conscious efforts has to be made towards improving water conservation/water efficiency in the hotel industry. Unfortunately, attempts by the relevant authorities to evaluate water usevis-à-vis water conservation in the hotel sub-sector is seriously lacking in Nigeria (Idoko, 2019).Hence, the need to undertake this study with a view to understanding the peculiarity of the Nigerian hotels’ context. This is particularly important because such attempt can suggest some far-reaching measures that can help to address environmental problem occasioned by rising number of tourists’ arrivals in Nigeria. Consistent with the above assertion,a study conducted byMuazu, Rashid and Zainol (2017)affirmed that Nigeria has recorded highinflux of tourists and a corresponding rise in expansion of the hotel businesses to cater for the growing number of tourists since 1999.From environmental perspective, the rapid expansion in tourists arrival, expansion of hotel accommodation to cater for their need (e.g. water), and the corresponding population explosion in Lagos is likely to mount more pressure on water resources in the study area.
Consequently, environmental experts have warned that if necessary sustainable measures are not taken to prevent the current water consumption rate it could deplete the environment; thus making less sustainable. Elsewhere, this development have increased pressure on hotels to embark on eco-friendly initiative in their facility(Bohdanowicz, 2005; Idoko & Kasim, 2018; Idoko & Kasim, 2019).However, there is limited data on water conservation/management strategies among hotels in Nigeria as no study has really focused on water conservation efforts being made by hotels in Nigeria. While the impacts of the hotels on the environment requires an urgent need to address the problem, the information on water conservation initiatives in these hotels are scanty and this paper is the first to focus these issues in the top ranking hotels operating in Lagos state.This research focus is important due to the strategic position Nigeria occupy regarding the provision of hotel accommodation for the increasing population of tourists who visits or uses Nigeria as transit point to visit other countries which are in sub-Saharan Africa region.
The study would help to cultivateeco-friendly strategies for hotels in Nigeria to contribute meaningfully to mitigating the negative effects that water consumption may have on the physical environment.Furthermore, previous studies argued that efforts aimed
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at promotingeco-friendly initiatives (in this case, water conservation)in the hotels can help them to stay competitive, save money, and protect the environment from being degraded(Kasim, 2007; Mattera & Melgarejo, 2012).
It is in the light of the above research gap, this current study set out to explore water conservation practices in transnational hotels in Lagos state of Nigeria. This study was conducted in Lagos because available figure suggests Lagos state has the highest density of 4-star and 5-star hotels in Nigeria. Thus, studying water conservation strategies in these leading hotels in Lagos is likely to provide lenses for a better understanding of the subject matter and provide a suitable answer to this exploratory research.Consequently,the hotel management staff were asked the following question: how are transnational hotels (4-star and 5-star) in Lagos involved in conservation of water in their facility?
1.2 The Study Area Lagos is located along the West African coast and was the capital city of the country before it was replaced with Abuja on 12th December 1991 (See figure 1.1 for the map of Lagos state). Lagos is the commercial nerve center of Nigeria. The state is made up of twenty local government council areas. Ikeja is both administrative capital of Lagos state and headquarters of Ikeja Local Government Council Area of Lagos State (see figure 2 for details).
Fig.1.1: Nigeria showing the location of Lagos state. Sources: Bohr (2006)
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Fig.1.2: Metropolitan Lagos Showing the Location of Ikeja. Sources: Bohr (2006).
1.3 Methodology A qualitative research was carried out to collect data from transnational hotel managers in Lagos, Nigeria. Data was collected using personal interviews involving a direct meeting of the interviewer and the interviewee. During the personal interviews, data was collected using voice recording application on the researchers’ mobile phone (Samsung Galaxy J-pro hand phone). The choice of recording the data on phone was meant to save cost because adigital voice recorder is expensive to purchase. Data was later transcribed and then analyzed using the thematic analysis method.
1.4 A review of global water resource and hotels’consumptionrate
Water is a universal solvent which is required for the survival of all living things. While it is generally believed that the earth’s surface is made up of about 70% of water, it is not every type of water that is available for human consumption. The quantity of fresh water which is consumable to human is just about 3% of the global water distribution. Hence, the stiff competitive demand between, industrial, agricultural production, and others uses (Kirk, 1996).
Globally, there is increasing pressure on the available water resources. For instance,Alexander (2002) reported that the growth in the tourism industry in India has aggravated the demand for more water resources by hotels in Goa. He further noted that the construction of numerous hotels in that region has seriously affected the pace of water exploitation and consumption in the area, explaining that 66,000 gallons (249,837 liters) of freshwater is extracted from wells and other sources on daily basis. The excessive exploitation and consumption of water from the rivers and wells in Goa is said to have caused them to dry as they can no longer sustain the rate of water exploitation by the hotels. In a similar study conducted by Kasim (2007)in Malaysia found that luxury hotels
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in Malaysia consumehuge quantity of water to meet up the guests’ demand for leisure activities like irrigation of golf course, spas, and swimming pools. Also, the Environmental Protection Agency (2006) noted that an average hotel room in the United States of America consume four times the quantity of water than a typical household owing to all water- related services that are being undertaken in the hotels. Though Bohdanowicz (2005) argued that hotels’ level of water consumption depends largely on the size and capacity of the facility, the level of technological development of the hotel, and the type of facilities and services offered by such hotel (Bohdanowicz, 2005).
But the situation in Lagos state is further compounded by high population density, proximity to the oceans and saltwater intrusion from the ocean. Essentially, studies conducted by Falayi (2016); Nahimah, Ajikanle, Nurudeen (2016); Reuters (2016); and Tunde (2012)suggest that the intensity of water scarcity in Lagos state is responsible for the heightened competition forfreshwater resources among numerous users.This is why hotels businesses have both a strong commercial and moral imperative for addressing water use. The Greenhotelier.org (2020)stated that water accounts for 10% of utility bills in many hotels, noting that most hotels pay for the water they consume twice – first by purchasing fresh water and then by disposing of it as wastewater.
1.5 The need for hotels to engage in environmental friendly practices As earlier stated, environmental friendly practice is aimed at achieving sustainability, or striking a balance between economic development, social-cultural wellbeing, and proper utilization of environmental resources (Elkington, 1998; Houdré, 2008). This remains one of the cardinal objectives for responsive behavior especially in the hospitality industry (Heish, 2012). This stemmed from the increasing concern on the negative environmental impact of hotels, and attendant pressures exerted by stakeholders to ensure that friendly environmental practice is encouraged (Mensah & Cecil, 2018). This concernwas highlighted in world congresses like the 1992 Earth Summit which was held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and the 2009 climate change summit in Copenhagen, Switzerland (Boer & Farooq, 2014; Brundtland, 1987; Erdogan, Baris, & Erdogan, & Baris, 2007; Heish, 2012).
Since hotelis one of the critical sectors of the tourism industry that offers accommodation and other services to travelers, guests and tourists, and therefore deserve to play a leading role in environmental issues impacting negatively on its operation and services. There are several environmental issues that hotel are expected to tackle if they must be responsible for their policies and practical initiatives. These have much to do with hotels practices on consumption of water resources and management of the waste discharge.
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1.6 Environmentally friendly initiatives aimed at achieving water conservation in the hotel. Water conservation is one of the steps taken by the hotel to stem wastage and cut cost in hotels. Essentially, water is undeniably a necessary natural resource used in every unit of hospitality and tourism businesses, particularly in hotels (Gabarda-Mallorguí, Garcia, Ribas, 2017).
There are many studies suggesting hotels consume huge volume of water in order to sustain guests’ comfort and equipment in the facility. According to a study conducted by Mungai and Urungu (2013), an estimated standard water consumption pattern of a hotel guest is between 170-360 liters per night in a luxury hotel accommodation facility. But similar research by Han, Hsu and Sheu (2010, p. 325), revealed that “the water consumption per guest per night is between 170 and 440 liters in an average five-star hotel”. Furthermore, in their study of two resort towns, Langkawi and Miri, Malaysia, Tang (2012) found a much higher average daily water consumption of 500liters per guest. Thus, making water conservation of a paramount importance especially when striving to be environmentally responsible is of great essence. Therefore, embarking on water conservation practices will improve on the sustainability of the environmental resource, make the facility to save cost, and improve on the hotels’ corporate image (Baker, Davis & Weaver, 2014; Mensah & Mensah, 2013).
In addition to awareness creation, consumption of water can be greatly reduced by implementation of the principle of ‘3Rs’ (reduce, reuse and recycle) is also very important. Still, a study has suggested that the implementation of conservation of water in the hotel industry should not compromise guest satisfaction due to its negative consequence on customer patronage (Middleton & Hawkins, 1998). So, it is recommended that having an understanding on guests' behaviors to water conservation is key to the success and sustainability of pro-environmental decisions regarding water savings during their stay in the hotel (Han & Hyun, 2018; Jiang & Kim, 2015; & Lee, Hsu, Han, & Kim, 2010).
Also corroborating, Han, Lee, Trang & Kim (2018) in a study conducted among 289 respondents from leading hotels in Vietnam indicated that implementation of water conservation practices significantly improved the values of the property and attracted pro- environmental intentions.Consequently, studies have revealed several strategies used by hotel accommodation and lodging to enhance water conservation and efficiency. This includes engineering approach, customer education, employees training among others. For instance, engineering practices have been implemented in hotels to install flow controllers like low-flow fixtures. This installation is usually recommended in the areas that require less water pressure especially kitchens, public toilets and urinals (Gabarda-Mallorquí, Garcia, & Ribas, 2017; Wuleka Kuuder et al., 2013). Also, an automated infrared sensor is
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fitted into the taps and showers to permit water usage only when there is an object or human being underneath them. Some of these devices were designed to dispense allotted volume or quantity of water per unit time. This is found to save water consumption by 70%. Furthermore, they suggested that hotel guests should be encouraged to spend minimum time in the shower by installing a timer in the shower to monitor and regulate the time spent.
Also important is early detection of water leaks in supply pipes to conserve water. Study has shown that a single dripping tab can consume about 12litres of water in an hour, so if leaks are not detected early enough it can lead to waste of water, structural problems in the building and increased cost (Baker, Davis, & Weaver, 2014; Mensah & Mensah, 2013; & Mensah & Blankson, 2013). Other means of water conservation has to do with skipping linen and towel change (Dimara, Manganari, & Skuras, 2017).
1.7 Findings/results.
The main contributions of this study are that, it provides insights on the current debate on environmental friendly practices in hotels as revealed through the water resources conservation initiatives being implemented in transnational hotels in Lagos state. For instance, informant 3 (Radisson Blu Hotel) acknowledged that water conservation remains one of the earliest and commonest strategies that their hotel introduced in the facility. He (the manager of Radisson Blu Hotel) puts it thus: This is because we are mindful of the costs and profit implications regarding how water is being used in this hotel. So, we try to use the fast and simplest means to reduce water consumption, we carry out early detection and repairs of leaking water facilities. By this I meant our hotels through the engineering department has put in place an active system to detect and fix leaking facilities in the kitchen, restrooms and the restaurant. We also use water efficient toilets, faucets, and showerheads. We carefully monitor the water usage in the laundry, swimming pool, lawn among others (Informant 3, Radisson Blu Hotel). Also, the Informant 5 (Protea Hotel) stated that in their hotel:
We also carry out regular maintenance on the water reticulation system to improve the water supply and minimize waste of water resource. Once we discovered any leakage, we replace the component without further delay. We repeat this routine maintenance at least once in four weeks (informant 5, Protea Hotel). From the accounts of the above informants, it is evidently clear that some levelsof environmentally friendly initiatives regarding water conservation exists in a few
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transnational hotels in Lagos state. Essentially, findings from these two informants (3 & 5) above is consistent with a previous study which reported that “Low flow fixtures can be used to conserve water in hotels. Detection and repair of drips and leaks in guest rooms as well as the use of water saving devices such as diverter valves are also crucial” (Heish, 2012:116).
Figure 3:Water Conservation Figure 3above show that informant 3 & 5 undertakeswater conservation strategies. Only two informants indicated that water conservation was part of environmentally responsible practices being carried out in transnational hotels Lagos, Nigeria.
1.8 Discussion of the findings
From above responses, it is understood that many environmentally friendly strategies have been implemented by the two transnational hotel in order to conserve water in their facility. Basically,this strategies involves engineering method. As part of the engineering practices, it was reported that the transnational hotels have installed flow controllers like low-flow fixtures, early detection, and repairs of leaking water facilities. Majorly, the staff from the engineering unit have been tasked with the responsibility of fixing the water conservation equipment in those hotels. It was also found that most of the water conservation installations were installed in the kitchen, restrooms, and restaurant. Consistent with the above findings, previous studies have shown that early detection of water leaks in supply pipes can save up to 20 % water, so if leaking water fixtures are not detected early enough it can lead to waste of water, structural problems in the building and increased cost (Baker, Davis, Weaver, 2014; Mensah, & Mensah, 2013; Mensah & Blankson, 2013). Likewise, it was discovered that water-efficient toilets, faucets and showerheads were common techniques employed by these hotels.
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Specifically, finding from informants 3 and 5 is consistent with a previous study which reported that “Low flow fixtures can be used to conserve water in hotel and that early detection, repair of drips and leaks in guests’ rooms and the use of water saving devices like diverter valves very crucial” (Heish, 2012:116).
Whereas water conservation initiative attracts the regulatory backing in many countries around the work, it appears such laws/regulation is conspicuously lacking in Nigeria. For instance, “in Catalonia, some hotels are legally obliged to implement water- saving measures. The CatalanGovernment’s Decree 21/2006 of 14 February, regulates the implementation of environmental andeco-efficiency criteria in buildings (including newly built hotels) states that “due to the increasing pressure on water consumption and waste, measures mustbe taken to rationalize water consumption and reuse water where possible. Thus, taps, bidets, sinks,and showers must be designed to save water or fitted with a water- saving device”(Torres-Bagur, Ribas, & Vila-Subirós, 2019, p.8).Through water efficiency, hotels can reduce the amount of water consumed per guest per night by up to 50% compared with establishments with poor performance in water consumption(Greenhotelier.org, 2020).
Conclusion-
From a practical point of view, this finding provides essential information for taking full advantage of the transnational hotels’overall eco-friendly (i.e. environmental practices) through water conservation strategies, which is fundamental for transnational hotel operators dealing with their guests' attitudes or their activities in the hotel facility. Obviously, this study no doubt had limitations because just a very few transnational hotels agreed to grant interview on water conservation measures being put in place by their organization. But, since qualitative study is interested in the ‘depth’ rather that spread of the data, the researcher made do with the transcribed information from the 2 informants willingly agreed to divulge information on the issue. Thus, only 2 out of the 12 transnational hotel examined inLagos tourism and hospitality industry were involved in water conservation strategies as part of eco-friendly practices in their organization. This showed that most of the hotels in Lagos state do not participate in responsible tourism possibly because there are no legal framework or industry regulations requiring them to. Though, the scope of the present research is limited to only one aspect of hotels’ eco‐friendly practices in the tourism industry (i.e., water conservation strategies). As an extension of this study, future research should investigate other types of pro‐environmental activities practiced by hotel guests to make the study more comprehensive.
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REFERENCE Alexander, S. (2002). Green hotels: Opportunities and resources for success. Zero Waste Alliance,. Baker, M.A., Davis, E.A., Weaver, P. . (2014). Eco-friendly attitudes, barriers to participation, and differences in behavior at green hotels. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 5(1), 89–99. Retrieved from citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.821.3937&rep=rep1...pdf Barberán, R., Egea, P., Gracia-de-Rentería, P., & Salvador, M. (2013). Evaluation of water saving measures in hotels: A Spanish case study. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 34(1), 181–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2013.02.005 Boer, H., & Farooq, S. (2014). Environmental and social pressure as drivers of corporate social responsibility in a globalizing world, pp. 1–10. Bohdanowicz, P. . (2005). European hoteliers’ environmental attitudes: Greening the business. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 46(188). Brundtland, G. H. (1987). Our Common Future: The World Commission on Environment and Development. (G. H. Brundtland, Ed.). Oxford, UK.: Oxford University Press. Dimara, E., Manganari, E., & Skuras, D. (2017). Don’t change my towels please: Factors influencing participation in towel reuse programs. Tourism Management Journal, 59, 425–437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2016.11.068 Elkington, J. (1998). Cannibals with Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business. Gabriola Island, BC ; Stony Creek, CT: New Society Publishers. Environmental Protection Agency. (2006). Green Lodging Basics, presentation to Northwood University. Washington, D.C., EPA. Erdogan, N., Baris, E., & Erdogan, N., & Baris, E. (2007). Environmental protection programs and conservation practices of hotels in Ankara, Turkey. Tourism Management,28(2), 604–614. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.07.003 Falayi, K. (2016, June 4). Thirst in abundance: Lagos water crisis stokes anger, desperation. Punch Nigeria Newspaper. Retrieved from http://punchng.com/thirst- abundance-lagos-water-crisis-stokes-anger-desperation/ Gabarda-Mallorguí, A., Garcia, X., Ribas, A. (2017). Mass tourism and water efficiency in the hotel industry: a case study. International Journal of Hospitality Management,61, 82–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2016.11.006 greenhotelier.org/know-how-guides/water-management-and-responsibility-in-hotels/ Han, H., Hsu, J. & Sheu, C. (2010). ‘Application of the theory of planned behavior to green hotel choice: Testing the effect of environmental friendly activities.’ Tourism Management, 31(3), 325–334. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman. 2009.03.013 Han, H., Lee, J.S., Trang, H.L.T., Kim, W. (2018). Water conservation and waste reduction
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management for increasing guest loyalty and green hotel practices. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 75, 58–66. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2018.03.012 Han, H., Hyun, S. S., & Han, H., & Hyun, S. . (2018). What influences water conservation and towel reuse practices of hotel guests? Tourism Management, 68, 87–97. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2017.08.005 Heish, Y. C. . (2012). Hotel companies’ environmental polices and practices: a content analysis of their web pages. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 24(1), 97–121. Henderson, J. C. (2007). Corporate social responsibility and tourism: Hotel companies in Phuket, Thailand, after the Indian Ocean tsunami. International Journal of Hospitality Management,26(1), 228–239. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/02784319 Houdré, H. (2008). Sustainable Development in the Hotel Industry. Cornell Hospitality Industry Perspectives, 1(2), 6–20. Idoko, O. & Kasim, A. (2018). Conceptual issues on environmental responsibility in transnational hotels: An example from Lagos, Nigeria . Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 6(12), 8–19. Idoko, O & Kasim, A. (2019). European Journal of Social Sciences Studies. European Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 4(1), 36–49. Idoko, O (2019 b). Regulatory and Non-regulatory Factors Affecting Transnational Hotels in Lagos, Nigeria. A Ph.D. Thesis submitted to the Postgraduate School, COLGIS, Universiti Utara Malaysia. Jiang, Y., Kim, Y. (2015). Developing multi-dimensional green value: extending social exchange theory to explore customers’ purchase intention in green hotels – evidence from Korea. International Journal Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(2), 308–334. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-08-2013-0383 Kasim, A. (2007). Towards a Wider Adoption of Environmental Responsibility in the Hotel Sector. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration,8(2.), 25–49. Kirk, D. (1996). Environmental Management for Hotels. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd. Lee, J., Hsu, L., Han, H., Kim, Y. (2010). Understanding how consumers view green hotels: How a hotel’s green image can influence behavioral intentions. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(7), 901–914. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1080/09669581003777747 Mattera, M., & Melgarejo, A. M. (2012). Strategic Implications of Corporate Social Responsibility in Hotel Industry: a Comparative Research between NH Hotels and Melia Hotels International. Higher Learning Research Communications, 2(4), 37–53. 11 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
Mensah, I., Cecil, B. (2018). Environmental Management Practices in US Hotels. School of Hospitality Administration, Georgia State University. Retrieved from https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents Mensah, I., Mensah, R. . (2013). International tourists’ environmental attitude towards hotels in Accra. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 3(5), 444–455. Retrieved from www.hrmars.com/admin/pics/1861.pdf Mensah, I., Blankson, E. J., & Mensah, I. & Emmanuel, J. B. (2013). Determinants of hotels’ environmental performance: Evidence from the hotel industry in Accra, Ghana. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(8), 1212–1231. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2013.776058 Middleton V., & Hawkins, R. (1998). Sustainable Tourism: A Marketing Perspective. Great Britain: Butterworth-Heinemann. Muazu, L., Rashid, B., & Zainol, N. A. (2017). Predictors of Likelihood of Adoption of Green Practices in Hotels: The Case of Abuja and Lagos, Nigeria. Environmental Management and Sustainable Development, 6(1), 72. https://doi.org/10.5296/emsd.v6i1.10931 Mungai, M. & Urungu, R. (2013). An assessment of management commitment to application of green practices in 4-5 star hotels in Mombasa, Kenya. Information and Knowledge Management, 3(6), 40–47. Nahimah Ajikanle Nurudeen A. (2016, April 20). Nigeria: Epidemic Looms As Water Scarcity Hits Lagos. Daily Trust Nigeria Newspapers, p. 1. Retrieved from http://allafrica.com/stories/201604200983.html Reuters. (2016, December 22). U.N. warns of water crisis in Nigeria’s megacity Lagos. Thomos Reuters Foundation News. Retrieved from http://news.trust.org/item/20161222182854-twqiq Tang, F. E. (2012). A study of water consumption in two Malaysian resorts. International Journal of Environmental, Ecological and Geophysical Engineering, 6(8), 88–93. Retrieved from https://espace.curtin.edu.au/handle/20.500.11937/32793 Torres-Bagur, M., Ribas, A., & Vila-Subirós, J. (2019). Incentives and barriers to water- saving measures in hotels in the Mediterranean: A case study of the Muga river basin (Girona, Spain). Sustainability (Switzerland), 11(13). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11133583 Tunde, A. M. (2012). Harnessing tourism potential for sustainabe development: a case of OWU water falls in Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 14(1), 119–133. Wuleka Kuuder, C.-J., Bagson, E., Prempeh, V. M., Mumuni, A., Adongo, R., & Amoako, E. E. (2013). Energy, Water and Waste Management in the Accommodation Sector of Tamale Metropolis, Ghana. American Journal of Tourism M Anagement, 2013(1A), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.5923/s.tourism.201304.01 12 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 01. Jan/Feb. 2021 International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal
Impact of Trade Agreement and Economic Partnership between the EU and Developing Countries: the case of Standard GSP on Nigeria’s
Export Frederick Chukwuekwu ODOGWU, Graduate Institute of International Development and
Applied Economics, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, United Kingdom. Inibehe George UKPONG, Department of Agricultural Extension & Management, School of Agricultural Technology,Federal Polytechnic Ekowe, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Corresponding author’s Email: [email protected]
Research Paper Accepted on 26-12-2019 Edited on 05-06-2020 ABSTRACT World trade has grown very rapidly in the past years; however several factors still remain an impediment to the effective flow of trade across borders. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of trade agreement and economic partnership between Nigeria and the European Union (EU). In a bid to examine the possible effect of such trading condition binding Nigeria’s export to the EU, the study employed the use of gravity model (GM) to analyse the bilateral data set of trade between the EU (Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and UK) and Nigeria. The empirical result obtained showed that the standard generalised system of preference (GSP) has a negative effect on Nigeria’s bilateral trade with the EU countries. Also, gross domestic product (GDP); an explanatory variable which was included in the model was found to have a significant statistical implication on the export flow. By inference, the study suggests that Nigeria faces difficult decision options with regards to the standard GSP scheme which is believed to have more stringent rules for trade. Thus, the study recommends provision of less stringent policy conditions to be attached to the terms of trade involving Nigeria and other developing countries, while also encouraging developing countries to improve on meeting global standards on product quality (or food quality) and safety.
KEYWORDS: Economic partnership, European union, gravity model, Nigeria’s export, trade agreement.
INTRODUCTION Nigeria has been one of the largest traders in West African region, accounting for almost 60 percent of the external trade and a major trading partner of the EU (EC, 2007). The EC report showed that the EU buys about 22 percent of all Nigeria’s exports, and
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provides about 25 percent of Nigeria’s import. It was noted that Nigeria’s main non-oil merchandise exports was cocoa, using data from 1999 and 2003 (WTO, 2007). It is worth asking, what trade agreement is binding the EU and Nigeria and how effective it has been? The EC (2007) pointed out that the trade relations between Nigeria and the EU has been bound by the Cotonou Trade Agreement (CTA) from 2000 under the generalised system of preference (GSP) scheme. The EU’s GSP was created to help developing countries by making it easier for them to export their products to the EU (EC, 2012). Obviously, this scheme was designed to be beneficial to the participating countries at least from the point of trade preference, but the question is; ‘how realistic is the anticipated benefit? Kee et al. (2005), opined that Nigeria was one country facing relatively low tariff and non-tariff barriers in their export. But an issue of concern which can be referred to in the report of WTO (2007), stated that though Nigeria utilised a relatively high preference in the EU market, Nigeria’s share in total preferential trade with the EU was still small referring to 2003. In this debate, it is however important to emphasise the fact that the EU had offered Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) to developing countries, as was originally documented in the CTA of 2000, which aimed to upgrade the status of the developing countries by tackling the problem of poverty, boosting the economy and creating a platform for a more assessable and beneficial global trade. As confirmed by Onguglo (2010), there are preferential trading policy arrangements between regions (high income and low income countries), which are targeted towards growth and economic development of beneficiary countries (low income countries). The outline for the EPA proposition clearly stated that countries which do not adopt this scheme of agreement by 2007, would by default operate under the provisions of the standard GSP. The impact of trade preference on recipient countries has been an issue of concern, according to United Nation Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD, 2001). This policy scheme was proposed to make positive contributions to the economy of the recipient countries, but could be argued that trade preference do not have a positive impact on the recipient country. However the recent implementation of the EPA by the EU seemed to render the GSP scheme less significant. Moreover, since Nigeria failed to conform with the EPA scheme but rather start a trade operation which is set by default under the standard GSP schemes, the need to evaluate and better understand the purported benefits of the EPA by the EU and the actual impact of the standard GSP on Nigeria’s Cocoa export and its economy at large, forms the basis of this research.
METHODOLOGY The study employed the use of secondary trade data obtained from IMF directory of trade statistics; income (GDPs) time series data of all the countries studied were extracted from World Bank data base (World Bank, 2006). The GDP could be a determining factor for the level of demand and supply. Data on the exact distance in Kilometres as a condition 14 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
for transport costs between Nigeria and the EU countries and the common language were from CEPII (Centre d’Etude Prospectives et d’Informations Internationales). The International cocoa organisation (ICO) also provided access to the volume of cocoa export from Nigeria. The gravity model (GM) was used to help to determine the effects of preferential trade agreements and it is dependent on some other bilateral trade relationships among considered regions. Export from one country to another is explained by certain variables which include a nation’s level of income (GDP), distance between interacting countries, population and cultural similarities among other considered characteristics which are included using a set of dummies targeted to reflect the effects of trade policies (Martinez- Zarzoso, 2003). The trade flow between country, i (Nigeria) and country, j which include six EU countries (Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and UK) were estimated over the period of 1990-2008 for general product exports and from 2002-2010 specific cocoa export to all the EU countries were considered. According to Agostino et al. (2007), there are several variables referred to as ‘gravitational variable’ which influences the form and flow of trade. These variables include; trade volume, income level (GDPs), distance, common language and population; which make up the traditional GM as applied in the traditional trade literatures (Baldwin, 1994; Nilsson, 2000). For this study, we used a modified model, as indicated in Equation (1) below,
Where is the bilateral trade flow from country, i (Nigeria) to the EU trading partners j; and is the economic mass of both exporting and the importing country respectively, indicated as GDP; is the geographical distance measured in kilometres between two trading regions while is included to denote a share of common language between trading partners. The dummy variable; denotes trade operation under the standard GSP. The possible hypotheses regarding these variables are; that the coefficient should be positive if Cotonou raises the exports of Nigeria, or the variables will be negative otherwise. The other variables included in the model, GDP variables ( and ), distance and common language, could as well lead to an increase or decrease of the bilateral trade.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The result in Table 1, shows that the GDP of Nigeria has a statistically significant effect on Nigeria’s export; according to the result, the coefficient of Nigeria’s GDP (ln_yit ) is negative which implies that one percent increase in Nigeria’s GDP, will lead to a 0.16% reduction in the export flow of products to the EU countries. The outcome of this variable 15 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
does not deviate from the initial expectation, since increase in GDP indicates increase in a nation’s economic mass or income, which means that the people become more financially empowered and thereby rich enough to buy up more of the countries’ produced goods leaving less for export.
Table 1: GM analyses result for Nigeria ln_Exp Coefficient Standard t P>t [95% Confidence Error interval] ln_yit -0.159 1.249 -0.420 0.067 -2.996 1.958 ln_yjt 2.238 0.184 12.190 0.000 1.874 2.602 ln_distij -10.963 1.081 -10.140 0.000 -13.105 -8.820 comlangij -0.601 0.358 -1.680 0.096 -1.311 0.108 cotonou -1.564 0.638 -2.450 0.016 -2.830 -0.299 _cons 40.432 49.327 0.820 0.414 -57.364 138.228
Number of observations: 112. R-Square: 0.7926 On the other hand, the GDP of the EU (ln_yjt) also has a statistically significant effect on bilateral trade flow between the EU and Nigeria. In contrast, the GDP of the EU has a positive coefficient as obtained from the GM analyses, implying that one percent increase in the GDP of the EU, leads to 2.24% increases in export flow. This can be further illustrated in the context that the higher the GDP of the EU countries, the more income, hence greater financial ability to increase their demand for Nigerian goods as needed. It is important to point out here that 2.24% increase is quite on the high side in relation to the types of products exported from Nigeria to the EU, which generally are mostly necessities; however this result as obtained from the GM model for this analysis, may be capturing the effect of some correlated missing variables in the regression. The next variable included in the model is the geographical distance or physical distance between trading countries. The result in Table 1, shows that the coefficient of the physical distance variable ( ) between Nigeria and the EU countries appears to be negative and highly significant. This outcome did not deviate from expectation either, since distance between the importing and exporting country can have a great effect on the cost of transportation and communication, and as such the coefficient of the distance variable is expected to be negative. This result also conforms to the study of some other previous authors, such as Martinez-Zarzoso (2003), but in this discussion, the variable for distance works less well since the focus is on export from Nigeria to the EU and not a case of
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comparison between exports to the EU and US with large different in distance but not time varying, which may have effect on the cost and communication for trade. This also follows a more recent study of the model by Anderson and Wincoop (2003) when they concluded that the cost of trade is a significant factor determining the amount of trade flow between countries. However, this variable has to be interpreted with caution since this research did not use the actual cost for distance but the alternative which may not be the most accurate. Also, a dummy variable for a common official language ( ) included in the model, indicates a negative and significant coefficient, which statistically suggests a negative impact on export flow. Nigeria has a shared common official language (English) with most of the EU countries, and from the result, it is inferred that this share of common language may stimulate a significant flow of trade between the countries. This may contrast, in the case of countries with different official languages, as this factor is likely to impede trade between them, this follows the study by Blind (2001), which noted that common language shared between two trading countries is an effective means of improving ‘cross-border trade’. Rauch and Trindade (2002), also pointed out that common language helps to reduce the communication cost associated with international trade. Something very important to review was the standard GSP scheme variable represented as (Cotonou) in the model, the result suggests that this policy has a significantly negative effect on trade flow between Nigeria and the EU. Though the limitation of data may have certain influence on the strength of this outcome which must be taken into consideration, however the result does not deviate from expectation in relation to the conditions of the standard GSP by default as explained earlier. This result is however in agreement with the study of Herz and Wagner (2007) in which they concluded that the GSP scheme ‘do not appear to promote trade as generally said’.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The objective of this study was to analyse the impacts of trade policy agreements between the EU and Nigeria, using the gravity model, with a focus on the Standard Generalised System of Preference-GSP on Nigeria’s Export. The result obtained from the analysis of this study, suggests that the standard GSP of the EU did not favour Nigeria’s export. However, this paper does not intend to project this findings as a final conclusion on this issue of an ongoing trade agreement between the trading partners, and it is also important to mention that data limits may have had some influence on the outcome of the results and other factors such as economic crisis which might coincidentally kicked off in the same period with the implementation of the new trading policies, may as well have certain impact, which can influence the conclusions made on the trend of trade arising from this policy period under study. On this ground, it will be worthwhile that future studies to be considerably directed towards this area of research, so as to keep a check on the wave of changes that may occur 17 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
in this regard. In particular, the study suggests further studies including a comparative analysis involving other developing countries, and with a more robust and updated data on the subject matter, and to possibly access a more concrete outcome from the prevailing trend of trade flow initiated by the Standard GSP on Nigeria’s export and the possible implications for the corresponding trading partners. On the other hand, it is obvious that like most other developing countries, Nigeria might be facing difficult decision options with regards to the standard GSP scheme which is believed to have more stringent rules for trade. Thus, the study also suggests provision of less stringent policy conditions to be attached to the terms of trade involving Nigeria and other developing countries, while also encouraging developing countries to improve on meeting global standards on product quality (food quality) and safety.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Authors acknowledge the supervisory assistance from Prof. Bruce Trail of the University of Reading, United Kingdom; who supervised the broader part of the study from which this section is extracted for publication.
REFERENCES Agostino M.R., Aiello F., and Cardamone P. (2007). Analysing the Impact of Trade Preferences in Gravity Models. Does Aggregation Matter?, TradeAG Working Paper 07/4.
Anderson, J. E., and Wincoop, E. (2003). Gravity with Gravitas: A Solution to the Border Puzzle. American Economic Review.93:1, 170-192.
Baldwin, R. E. (1994). Towards an Integrated Europe, London: CEPR.
Blind, K. (2001). The impact of innovations and standards on trade of measurement and testing products: Empirical results of Switzerland’s bilateral trade flows with Germany, France and the UK. Information Economics and Policy, 13(4) 439-460.
European Commission (EC) (2012). The EU’s New Generalised Scheme of Preferences (GSP). Available: http://ec.europa.eu/trade/wider-agenda/development/generalised-system- of-preferences.
European Commission. (2007). Nigeria and the European trade for development an introduction to economic partnership agreement. Luxembourg: European Communities. http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2007/july/tradoc_135286.pdf.
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Herz, B., and Wagner, M. (2007). Do the world trade organization and the generalized system of preferences foster bilateral trade? Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Diskus- sionspapiere, Universität Bayreuth Nr. 01-07.
Kee, H.L., Nicita, A. and Olareagga, M. (2005). Estimating trade restrictiveness indices. Working Paper. Washington D.C.: The World Bank.
Martinez-Zarzoso, I. (2003). An application to trade between regional blocs. 31(2): 176- 184 http://www.iaes.org/journal/aej/june_03/martinez.pdf.
World Bank (2006). Reforming agricultural trade for developing Countries (Vol 1): Key Issues for a Pro-Development Outcome for the Doha Round and (Vol 2): Quantifying the impact of Multilateral Trade Reform. Eds: McCalla, A.F. and J.D. Nash, Washington DC.
Nilsson, L. (2000). Trade integration and the EU economic membership criteria, European journal of political economy, (16): 807-827.
Onguglo, B. (2010). A presentation made at a conference on EU trade policy towards developing countries as held on March 16, 2010 in Brussels. Page, S. 1997. Prospects for developing countries: trade and finance for the least developed. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Rauch, J.E., and Victor, T. (2002). Ethnic Chinese networks in international trade. Review of economics and statistics, 84(1): 116-130.
UNCATCD. (2001). Generalised system of preference: list of beneficiary countries. UNCTAD/ITCD/TSBMISC, 62, http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/poitcdtsbm62.en.pdf.
WTO (2007). Nigeria competitiveness and growth: main report May 30, 2007 on poverty reduction and economic management. UK: DFID.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 01. Jan/Feb. 2021 International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal
Environmental Assessment of Industries in Maharashtra with special reference to Mumbai
Dr. R. Satya Pavan Kumar, Program Manager & Internal verifier, Commercial Studies Division Bahrain Training Institute, Ministry of Education, Kingdom of Bahrain. Email- [email protected], [email protected] Mr. Prashant Sawant, Lecturer, Commercial Studies Division Bahrain Training Institute, Ministry of Education, Kingdom of Bahrain. Email: [email protected] [email protected]
Research Paper Accepted on 20-04-2019 Edited on 05-06-2020 Abstract-
Assessment of industries with respect to their role in reducing their industrial waste and pollution has a lot of importance as environment protection is vital. This paper highlights the environmental assessment of Maharashtra with key parameters of Industries. It shows the quality of water and its impact on aquatic and other living beings, the role of environmental committees which acts a statuary body for allotting license and permits for industries. It also covers the functioning MIDC and its impact on regional developments.
This paper also aims to suggest different measures that are to be implemented at gross root level in order to improve the environment by controlling the pollution. It emphasizes the need of conducting the regular industrial audits to ensure that pollution on environment is within the allowed limits and provide a green and clean environment to the future generations.
Key words: Pollution, industrial wastage, environmental assessment, green environment etc.
Introduction Maharashtra is one of the most developed and urbanized states in India. The state has had an impressive annual growth rate of 7% over the last three years, compared to 3.4% in 2000-01. The target of 8% yearly growth rate was set out in the 10th Plan. All major cities of Maharashtra are experiencing extraordinary population growth. Approximately 42% of the state population lives in urban areas, although the level of urbanization is uneven across regions and districts within the state. Both intra-state and intra-state migrations are responsible for the tremendous growth of the urban population. The state accounts for about 12 per cent of India's total installed capacity in the country's electricity sector and about 80 per cent of its population has access to electricity. Maharashtra ranks second highest in the country in the production of renewable energy with around 639 MW installed capacity, which is about 4.5 per cent of the total installed 20 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
capacity in the state. The State occupies a significant position in the manufacture of refined petroleum products, basic chemicals and other chemical products. In order to achieve a sustainable and targeted growth rate, Maharashtra should maximize its entrepreneurial, financial and administrative capital. The integration of some of the infrastructure schemes, such as road construction with employment and income generation programs, will help to reduce poverty.
Water Resources and Sanitation 'focuses on the scenario of water resources and sanitation in both rural and urban areas of the State. The status of water bodies such as rivers, lakes, etc., marine pollution and its effects, as well as the various measures taken to reduce water pollution, are examined. The quality of per capita water in the state is lower than the national average. Furthermore, the over-use and misuse of resources is responsible for the scarcity of water. There are wide disparities in sanitation facilities in urban and rural areas. Responding to increased needs for water supply and sanitation facilities is therefore a challenge for the authorities.
In a policy decision that protects the environment and hopes to improve the quality of water, the state government has decided to take control of all effluent treatment plants in Maharashtra.
Early in 2019, the State Environmental Department directed the Maharashtra Industrial Development Corporation (MIDC)—one of the state's industrial infrastructure development agencies — One of the state's industrial infrastructure development agencies — to take over from private industries all effluent treatment plants within its domain. The MIDC now has the power to control these plants and to take decisions on the treatment of effluents.
This development comes two years after the National Green Tribunal (NGT) asked four civic bodies, the State Pollution Board and the MIDC to pay Rs96 Crore to restore the Ulhas River, which had been polluted by industrial waste.
Untreated chemical waste is pumped out by effluent treatment plants from chemical areas near Mumbai and around the state, through emission rates in past water bodies. Daily per capita solid waste produced in small , medium and large cities in India is approximately 0.1 kg, 0.3-0.4 kg and 0.6 kg, respectively, with a recyclable content varying from 13 to 20 percent. The improper disposal of such large quantities of SW caused significant land degradation.
A study by the Mahrashtra Pollution Control Board that identified the Water Quality Index (WQI)—a pollutant-measuring indicator for water bodies—of rivers across the state found that these locations near industrial areas have 'bad to very bad' toxic levels. 21 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
Source-HT-AN MIDC plant in Dombivli In water samples collected at Taloja, Maharashtra the lab found that the amount of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) — the concentration of oxygen required for aquatic life — the concentration of oxygen required for aquatic life — were 80mg per litre (mg/L). The test also found high levels of chloride, which is toxic to aquatic life and impacts vegetation and wildlife According to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) guidelines, a BOD level above 6 mg/L cannot sustain fish species and levels above 3 mg/L make the water unfit for human consumption Maharashtra State occupies a position of prominence in India. It has 10% of the country’s geographical area (0.3 Million Sq. Kms) and 10% of country’s coast line (720 Kms). 43% of its population lives in urban areas as against the country’s 28%. It contributes over 13 % of National GDP and its Per Capita Income is 39% higher than the country’s Per Capita Income. Its 96.88 million people (9.4 % of country’s population) produce over 19% of the country’s National Output. Maharashtra has been in the forefront of economic development and is often called the economic powerhouse of the country. With its proactive policies, the State continues to occupy the dominant position amongst the industrially advanced States in India. Economy of Maharashtra has been growing at the rate of 8%.
However this growth is exerting tremendous pressure on the natural resources and urban services. Loss of green cover, deteriorating air quality, polluted water resources, 22 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
problem of solid waste in urban areas. Maharashtra generates over 16,000 tonnes per day of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW), of which almost 50 per cent is generated by Mumbai: 7,000 tonnes per day. Pune generates 2,123 tonnes per day, while Thane generates 880 tonnes per day of MSW. According to the projections made by Nagpur-based National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, MSW in the State is estimated to increase to 8.05 million tonnes by 2011 and 11.77 million tonnes by 2021. Electronic waste generation is already at 20,270.6 tonnes per annum. The report also claims that Maharashtra produces almost 60 per cent (31.5 tonnes per day) of the total biomedical waste produced in thecountry.
Hazardous waste generation is pegged at 1.4 million tonnes annually (50 per cent of the total hazardous waste generated in the country) with Thane, Ratnagiri and Raigad generating the maximum amounts. Table-1 Showing the Physio-chemical status of ground water from Lote-MIDC Parameter Summer Monsoon Winter Mean pH 6.08 5.77 5.89 5.91 EC (dSm-1) 0.150 0.166 0.185 0.167 Bicarbonate (mg L-1) 84.74 68.69 80.84 78.09 Chloride (mg L-1) 199.99 198.43 207.32 201.91 Sodium (ppm) 18.79 9.34 11.81 13.31 Calcium (mg L-1) 37.77 30.70 26.15 31.54 Magnesium (mg L-1) 9.57 8.83 5.32 7.90 SAR 0.88 0.54 0.76 0.73 RSC 0.58 0.48 0.70 0.571
Source -ASSESSMENT OF GROUND WATER QUALITY FROM INDUSTRIAL AREA LOTE M.I.D.C., MAHARASHTRA, INDIA Maharashtra Pollution Control Board (MPCB) implements various environmental legislations in the State of Maharashtra. MPCB was established on 7th September, 1970 under the provisions of Maharashtra Prevention of Water Pollution Act, 1969. An effective ESR is one of the most valuable means of informing policy makers, the public, and other stakeholders on the status of natural resources and the 23 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
sustainability of resource-usepatterns.Today, ESRs have emerged from being solely environment oriented to being all encompassing, interfacing with economic and social elements. Hence, the ESR report has come to identify the key driving forces that influence environmental change andpolicies. Mumbai is the second largest metropolis, the financial capital of India and the capital of India.Maharashtra, man. The city is rising fastest and has experienced the rise of the phenomenon
Industrial & business center alike. Good infrastructure facilities provided by the State -Government & local authority has added to the prosperity of the city of Mumbai and its surroundings.
Table-2 showing Total Industries in Mumbai & Mumbai (Suburb)
District Category LSI MSI SSI TOTAL Mumbai & Mumbai RED 97 14 898 1009
(Suburb) ORANGE 21 26 2581 2628 GREEN 3 15 4195 4213
TOTAL 121 55 7674 7850 LSI : Large-Scale Industries-MSI : Medium Scale Industries.-SSI : Small Scale Industries Currently, 60 percent of the population is living in slums. Coastal forest, creeks, quality of the river deteriorated mainly due to lack of access to sanitation & proper drainage & the system of collection. The authority needs to provide drainage services to cover this.
The overall assessment on environmental issues in Mumbai and Suburban clearly shows the failure in implementation of Environmental policies.
Environmental risk assessment due to water Pollution, in particular industrial waste, is the particular Importance for agricultural and non-agricultural regions Since they are directly influenced by the quality of water, which further impact on soil health and human health.
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Table-3: Year-wise Data showing solid waste generated per capita
Data Availability forMumbai 2016-17 2017-18 2018-19 2019-20 2015-16 Population Growth Rate 1.13 1.14 1.14 1.13 1.12
% of slum population to total 55 60 60 70 72 population
Population Density 43583 53683 63583 73,000 83660
Crude Death Rate 6.89 7.1 6.8 6.8 6.89 Average tariff for water supply 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.7 3.8
Total Solid waste generated per 8 8.5 8.2 9.8 11.2 capita(000)
FIGURE-1 Chart showing year-wise population and solid waste per capita
From the above table and graph, it is known the population density has grown tremendously during the last 5 years. In 2015-2016 it is 43,583 and raised to 83,660 by 2019-2020. It means almost doubled in 5 years span which increases enormous amount pollution as every individual creates a lot of solid wastage due to the consumption various goods and services in the daily routine activities. The total sold waste per capita is 8,000 in 2015-2016 and raised to 11,200 by 2019-2020.
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It clearly shows that there is an urgent need to protect the environment by conducting the assessment of waste management and disposal strategies of industries. Uncontrolled land- use change for various purposes to facilitate urban development is also responsible for deterioration and degradation of land.
The following remedial measures should be followed in order to reduce the impact of pollution on our environment: Adequate environmental management measures will be incorporated during the entire planning, construction stages of the project to minimize any adverse environmental impact and assure sustainable development of the area. The EMP’s that will be put into place consist of those during construction stage of the project
All Industries must be assessed through assessment board and suggestions of closer if required must be followed.
Local authorities at District level should submit the quarterly period.
Audit methods for all industries must be carried.
Waste disposal methods required to reframe
Employment –Capital ratio is more in SSI rather than LSI and MSI
Cost Benefit in terms of Chemical and Construction industries is more.
It is revealed that in addition to natural disasters, several man-made disasters occur in the State. While Koyna reservoir and its surrounding areas are earthquake prone, the industrial belt of Pune,Mumbai and Nashik are prone to the risk of industrial accidents and hazards and disasters like fire and road accidents. Low rainfall areas of the state are under the constant risk of drought while low- lying villages are prone to floods during the monsoons. As a part of overall preparedness of the state, the Government of Maharashtra should strictly adhere to their State Disaster Management Plan in order to support and strengthen the efforts of district administration. Natural hazards cannot be prevented but their impact on society can be minimized. Applications
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of advance IT is necessary for use in pre-disaster activities such as early warning, preparedness andprevention. It is recommended that the authorities should find ways to prevent/minimize soil erosion, through measures such as preventing the felling of trees and adopting afforestation programmes in the state, particularly in the Western Ghats. Pollution control measures and reuse of abandoned quarries as landfill sites must be made mandatory for the quarrying sector. Stringent regulation and monitoring of no development/green zones must also be undertaken to prevent further deterioration of land resources. For a coastal state like Maharashtra, climate change may have severe implications. The coastal regions are agriculturally fertile and sea level rise will make them highly vulnerable to inundation andsalinisation. Coastal infrastructure, tourist activities, and oil exploration may also be at risk. Theperformance of the State in the environment infrastructure sector and the ameliorative measuresundertaken by the authorities are to be enhanced and applied rigorously. The efforts made by MPCB and other agencies in conducting awareness programmes and implementing environmentally benign technologies are also worth to reduce the impact of pollution by improving awareness among public. Accelerating the on-going projects and promoting new projects on CDM and ODS phase out programmes in the State are needed. Proactive role of industry and authorities on issues of trade andenvironment would benefit the industry and State to compete in the global market. Environmental education and awareness require significant capacity building in all sub-sectors of environment and at all levels such as schools, colleges, community, government. To reduce ambient air pollution, particularly in urban areas, improvement in transport infrastructure, specially roads, improved vehicle design, alternate clean fuels and better traffic management, is required. Source identification and source apportionment exercises to find out the qualitative and quantitative contribution of various sources are needed. Indoor air pollution could be reduced by facilitating access to clean fuels and electricity in rural areas, reducing the cost of energy supplied to low-income households, promotion of renewable energy systems such as biogas, solar water heaters and other systems. As Mumbai generates the highest proportion of Material and Solid waste followed by Pune and Thane, the existing Solid Waste Management (SWM) system in urban areas has several shortcomings such as low removal frequency, uncontrolled dumping and obsolete methods.
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Solid Waste Management plays a key role in reducing the pollution and protecting the environment. Management of MSW needs improvement at all stages i.e. collection, transportation, treatmentand disposal. Source separation of waste is of utmost importance for using the waste as secondaryresource for recycling process, composting, waste-to- energy generation etc. Models of SWM used in some developed countries may be replicated in the state. Socio-economic issues attached to the informal sector’s participation in SWM need an increased attention. Policies for SWM should be framed using the principle of the “4 R's” i.e. Reduce, Recover, Reuse and Recycle. Efficient enforcement of rules and regulations, promotion of Joint Forest Management (JFMs) and increased people’s participation would add to the efforts of concerned authorities. Various municipal corporations should undertake programmes for increasing green cover, beautify their towns, reduce the waste, better disposable strategies for waste management. Conclusion: As increased population needs more production of goods and services which will create huge industrial waste, it is necessary to have rigorous environment assessment audits for all industries in and around Mumbai. All industrial organizations should follow the measures as suggested by pollution control board and comply with the provision and deploy more efficient solid waste management and disposal strategies. Green Energy and renewable energy should be used and recycling, reuse should be encouraged at all the stages to protect our state, country and the environment to provide a clean, safe and less polluted environment for the coming generations.
References 1. Agale, M. C., N. G. Patel and A. G. Patil (2013). Impact of sugareffluents on quality of ground water from Dahiwad village,Dist- Dhule (M.S.). Scholars Research Library, 5(2) : 58-60. 2. Banjare, U. S. and S. Gupta (2010). Seasonal assessment of irrigation water suitability of River Damodar in West Bengal, India. Journal of Crop and Weed, 6(1) : 6-12. 3. Deshmukh, K. K. (2014). Environmental Impact of Sugar mill effluent on the Quality of Ground water from Sangamner,Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India. Research Journal of Recent Sciences, 3 : 385-392. 4. Jain, C. K., A. Bandyopadhyay and A. Badhra (2012). Assessment of ground water quality for irrigation purpose, Nainital, Uttarakhand. Journal of Indian water
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Resource Society, 32(3-4) : 8-14. 5. Kataria, H. C. and O. P. Jain (1994). Physico-chemical analysis of river Ajhar. Indian Journal of Environmental Protection, 5 : 569-571. 6. Ladwani, K. D., D. Ladwani Krishna, V. S. Manik and D. S. Ramteke (2012). Impact of industrial effluent discharge on physico-chemical characteristics of agricultural soil. International research Journal of Environment Sciences, 1(3) : 32- 36 7. Prasath, B. B., S. D. Kumar, S. Ananth, T. Jayalakshi, P. Raju and P. Santhanam (2013). Seasonal variation in physicochemical characteristics of pond and ground water of Tiruchirapalli, India. Journal of Environmental Biology, 34 : 529-537. 8. Ramesh, K. and L. Elango (2014). Impact of ground water quality from industrial East coastal town, Southern India. International Journal of Engineering Research and Application, 4(1) : 346-354. 9. Rao, G. T., V. V. S. Gurunadha Rao and K. Ranganathan (2013).Hydro- geochemistry and ground water quality assessment of Ranipet industrial area, Tamil Nadu, India. Journal of Earth syst. Science, 122(3) : 855-867. 10. Sunil, B., D. R. Thomas and C. Latha (2011). Physico-chemical analysis of well water at Eloor industrial area. Current World Environment, 6 : 259-264. 11. Tandon, H. L. S. (2010). Methods of analysis of soils, plants, water, Fertilisers and Organic Manures. Fertiliser Development and consultation Organization, New Delhi. 12. WHO (1984). Guidelines for drinking water quality, World Health Organization, Geneva.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 01. Jan/Feb. 2021 International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal
Analysis Of Global Graphite Market For Anode As A Material In Lithium-Ion Batteries
Piyush Urane, M.Sc., Department of International Technology Transfer Management, BBW Hochschule – University of Applied Sciences, Berlin, Germany. Pranav Dake,M.Eng., Department of Automotive Service Technology and Processes, Ostfalia University of Applied Sciences, Wolfsburg, Germany.
Research Paper Accepted on 06-3-2010 Edited on 05-07-2020
Abstract One of the most dominant trends in the auto manufacturing sector is the rise of electric vehicles, which are the core of what is known as e-Mobility. Even though oil prices are low at the moment, consumers, businesses and governments alike remember all too well when prices were sky high, and are taking steps to prepare for a future where oil prices may rise again.1 Additionally, growing concerns about the environment are also leading governments and companies all over the world to invest in clean technologies like EVs. EVs aren't just another vehicle, they represent a complete system change that will greatly impact vehicle safety and emission standards.In this paper, we evaluate the critical metal availability for electric vehicles, mainly highlighting the use of critical metals in EVs. And then we discover the general information about details on the use of flake graphite in LIB.
List of Abbreviations Abbreviation Full form to Tonn Kto 1000 tonn Moto Monthly tonn my Micron (1/1000 Milimeter) d50 value Median value RMB Renminbi CG Graphitic Carbon C Carbon LIB Lithium-ion battery CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate SPG Spherical Graphite SEI Solid electrolyte interface EV Electric Vehicle
1https://www.tuv-sud-america.com/us-en/news-and-events/newsroom/3-reasons-why-emobility- infrastructure-providers-need-thorough-product-testing 30 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
Introduction: E-Mobility The advantages of electric vehicles can be briefly summarized in three points: driving electric is pleasant, inexpensive and good for the environment!2
Many automobile drivers perceive driving an electric vehicle as pleasant and they have an incomparably quiet operation, virtually no vibration and strong acceleration values. Maximum torque is available to electric vehicles at any time. Thus, even smaller electric vehicles with low kilowatt ratings have immense acceleration.
Figure: OEM fleet target development (EU) in g CO2/km Source: SGL Carbon, Investor Relations Presentation (2018) Currently, the transport sector is almost completely dependent on fossil fuels. It contributes approximately one quarter of all energy related carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere, which is set to go to one-third, growing faster than any other sector. Leading by example, some countries have put in place policies to support the use of electric vehicles. For example, through a comprehensive set of fiscal and non-fiscal measures, one out of four cars sold in Norway today is electric, while in China a national 2&3 wheelers strategy that started ten years ago has now resulted in electric two and three wheelers having all but replaced petrol motorbikes in its major cities – with 230 million electric bikes in use to date. Such practices need to be scaled up and replicated around the world to achieve the desired impact. With EVs entering the market in such numbers, the infrastructure that supports them will also have to grow, and that has led to considerable market opportunities for battery, infrastructure and vehicle manufacturers.
2https://www.goodenergy.co.uk/blog/2017/09/28/driving-change-the-advantages-of-electric-vehicles/ 31 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
Figure: Major OEM’s investments in Electric and hybrid vehicles to 2025 Source: Leading Edge Materials Government policy changes regarding vehicle emissions have accelerated the adoption of Electric vehicles. Mandated fuel efficiency targets for OEM fleets are widespread; plus strategies to ban IC engines in major European cities. In October 2017, Volkswagen announced a 25% EV target by 2025, requiring over 200GWh of lithium ion battery cell production alone. In the above diagram, you can see the investments of various OEM’s. Also, with increasing market penetration, in the future the prices of electric vehicles will continue to drop and reach the price level of internal-combustion vehicles. In this regard the costs of servicing and maintaining electric cars will become significantly more favorable. Critical metal availability for electric vehicles Use of critical metals in EVs The production of electric vehicles, like a variety of other high-tech applications, necessitate the use of critical metals, including so-called rare earth elements (REE). EV batteries are predominantly Lithium-ion batteries, (e.g. NCA, NMC7), which use Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel, and Graphite. The figure below illustrates the composition of a typical Li- ion cell: Li-ion cells use a cathode (positive electrode), an anode (negative electrode) and electrolyte as conductor. The cathode is mainly composed of Nickel (73%), Cobalt (14%), Lithium (11%), and Aluminum (2%). The anode is usually completely made of graphite. The electrolyte consists of Lithium salts (the most common being lithium hexafluorophosphate, LiPF6) in an organic solvent. Electric motors include a number of rare earth elements (REE), a group of 17 chemical elements which are despite their name not especially scarce resources but are available in only small amounts dispersed on the Earth’s crust. Most electric vehicles (with the exception of Tesla) use Neodymium Iron Boron permanent magnets (NdFeB), which are essential to produce high-performance
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electric motors. Such magnets contain Neodymium (Nd), Praseodymium (Pr), and Dysprosium (Dy) Rare Earth Elements. Current demand for critical metals The expected increase in EV sales has sparked a vivid discussion regarding the availability of critical metals. However, available reserves indicate that resources of main critical metals (e.g. lithium, cobalt, graphite, and REE) are unlikely to limit increasing EV production although there could be short-term supply constraints if the market increases too quickly. Worldwide lithium production in 2016 amounted to 35,000 tons. Data from the US geological survey estimate lithium resources worldwide at approximately 40 million tons. According to Deutsche Bank and Bloomberg, these reserves could last for an estimated 185 years, even if the market triples.
Figure: forecasted European EV sales Source: AVERE forecasts For Cobalt, estimated reserves in the three leading countries (DRC, Australia, and Cuba) amount to nearly 5 million tons; whereas today, about a little less than 45,000 tons of cobalt refined worldwide goes into EV production. Graphite reserves are estimated at about 250 Mt, while Benchmark Intelligence estimates demand for graphite driven by anode manufacturing to reach 250 000 tons in 2020. Likewise, known reserves for Nickel (78,000,000 tons) compared to the 2016 production (2,500,000 tons), suggest that nickel supply will not jeopardize the transition to EVs.
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Figure: Demand forecast of critical raw materials Source: AVERE forecasts
REE are difficult to mine because they are rarely found in concentrations high enough to allow for profitable economic extraction. The European Commission estimates the global reserves of rare earth oxides at more than 80,000,000 tons; whereas average yearly production between 2010 and 2014 amounts to 135,650 tons. But availability varies depending on the type of rare earth: based on known geologic reserves and security of supply issues, the US Department of Energy identified a risk of supply constraints for Neodymium and Dysprosium, two main components of electric magnet rotors (see Figure 6). In 2015, half of the global demand for REE originated from magnets built into permanent electric motors, which are used in most electric vehicles.
Graphite Graphite has long been the dominant material used to make anode material for lithium- ion batteries (LIB). This is unlikely to change in the next ten years, even though research into alternative battery materials is being undertaken at great expense. Graphite is relatively cheap, safe, tried and tested for many years and thus well researched and described; all the conditions that are necessary for a wide use as anode material. In the promising new developments in the field of LIB (for example: Li-S, Li-Air or batteries with metallic lithium as the anode), a lot of time-consuming basic research is still necessary in order to reach market readiness for the mass market. Both natural graphite and synthetically produced graphite are used as the anode material. The latter have the advantage that there are many possibilities for adapting the material, since starting from the carbon precursor all process steps up to the anode material
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can be designed specifically and thus the properties of the material can be influenced more strongly. In natural graphite, nature has already taken significant steps: the material is already graphitized and this even higher quality than the synthetic graphite: The nature has left in graphitization many millions of years of time and thus produces graphite with very high degrees of graphitization, whereas the synthetic Graphite is produced in just a few days to weeks. The key advantage of natural graphite, however, is the lower price, which is especially crucial for batteries for a mass market. In the following, this study deals exclusively with natural graphite. To use natural graphite for LIB, some processing effort is necessary. In addition to the standard mining and flotation process steps, which are used to extract a salable graphite concentrate from the natural graphite ore of a deposit, there are a number of process steps that then specialize in converting the floated flake graphite into a "Hitech Anode material". Basically, it is about flake-shaped graphite with a mean particle size (d50) of about 60 my(Micron) and a purity of about 95% carbon (C) in spherical graphite with average particle sizes of 5-30 my and purities of over 99.95% C to convert. It is important, above all, that a product with the characteristic fluctuations typical of natural products is produced with a high-precision material that is processed by appropriate processes in such a way that the product becomes extremely uniform and therefore very strict specifications with tight tolerances are maintained. In this study, all process steps are described, starting with the mining of ore to the finished, anode-grade, high-purity spherical natural graphite. This end product is also referred to as "anode ready graphite". For use in the anode, it is mixed with binder and, if necessary, (conductivity) additives. The different process steps are shown in the following graphic:
Figure: Processing steps for the production of anode material Source: http://www.indmin.com/downloads/IM%20Data/SphericalGraphiteIMData.pdf; Zugriff 21.09.2016 35 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
China has long dominated the production of anode material based on natural graphite. Ultimately, this is due to the favorable production in China, which has various causes, ranging from large, suitable deposits in the country to diverse production factors that lead to low production costs. China has a monopoly position in the conversion of sieved flake graphite into anode material. Only the last step, the so-called coating, takes place both in and outside of China (Japan and Korea). The cost details in this report are based on values from China for all process steps. In 2016, the top ten natural graphite-producing countries were as follows. (Note: 1 MT equals 1,000 kilograms)
Figure: Top 10 Natural graphite producing companies Source: ProGraphite 2016 Spherical graphite (SPG) is manufactured in many different qualities. Each major battery manufacturer has its own specifications, also for similar fields of application. These are tuned to the manufacturer specific system of a LIB, i. on the interaction of anode, cathode, electrolyte and separator. In addition, use plays an important role in ease of use, as in low cost consumer devices (eg. low cost cameras), simple and inexpensive anode materials are used, while in demanding applications, such as in LIB for electric vehicles, very narrow specified and high quality anode materials are used become. These are then accordingly more expensive. In order to optimize battery performance, and in part also battery costs, various anode materials are often mixed at the LIB manufacturer, e.g. premium-coated material with a simple coated material, or coated natural graphite-based spherical graphite with special synthetic graphite etc. Availability of flake graphite / volume forecasts Flake graphite deposits are plentiful on a global scale. The reserves of the well-known deposits in China are far from exhausted, but in addition there are large deposits in China,
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but especially in eastern Africa and Canada, which, although exploded in the meantime, have not yet been mined. The currently installed production capacities, especially in China, are not fully utilized. It is even more likely that additional units will be installed, so that there will still be overcapacities in spite of market growth.
Figure: Graphite demand forecast per year (ktpa) Source: Roskill, UBS
However, China is not considered a fully reliable source of mineral resources. Changes in legislation, e.g. With regard to stricter environmental regulations, this could lead to a reduction in supply or to a considerable increase in prices, as well as export restrictions or increased tariffs. There is therefore a certain risk of delivery bottlenecks, even if there is no concrete indication at present.
Details on the use of flake graphite in LIB The prerequisite for using flake graphite as raw material for the anode material for LIB is, on the one hand, high crystallinity and, on the other hand, that the non-graphitic impurities can be easily removed by appropriate cleaning. Typically, flake graphites with approx. 95% carbon are used as the starting material for rounding and high-level cleaning, while at lower carbon levels the cost and therefore the costs for the dry-cleaning become too high.
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Figure: Graphite flake demand for anode material forecast to 2025 (tons) Source: Benchmark Mineral Intelligence The advantage of flake graphite compared to other carbon based anode materials (e.g., synthetic graphite) is the comparatively cheap price and good availability. As an ideal feed grain size, the fraction has proven to be -100 mesh (<150 microns). This variety is abundant in China and therefore reasonably priced. In addition, the crushing energy is reduced by the use of a relatively fine starting material in comparison to the task of large flakes, which are also still higher priced.
Conclusion The application markets of graphite have been undergoing fundamental changes in the current decade. This report attempts to provide an overview of the material properties of graphite, its effective use in Li-ion batteries and worldwide availability of graphite resources. In this era of e-mobility, most of the automotive OEM’s are investing a lot and if we see the sales projections, there is need to secure the sources of raw materials and to take care of the sustainability when it comes to labor work. Lithium-ion battery is the crucial part of the electric vehicle. And as we see the sales forecast of EV’s, the storage battery markets are seeing a significant boom, thanks to the development of electric vehicles in the past decade. This single application has fundamentally shaken up the graphite market, and one of the key objectives of this report is to understand these shifts. The shift is largely affecting the natural graphite market, and the report attempts to summarize these changes and how various market participants are stepping up to benefit, and, at the same time, pushing the changes in other application markets.
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References https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/transport/what-we-do/electric- mobility/why-does-electric-mobility-matter https://www.chargeupyourday.com/service/general-questions/what-are-the- advantages-of-electric-vehicles/ https://www.tuv-sud-america.com/us-en/news-and-events/newsroom/3-reasons- why-emobility-infrastructure-providers-need-thorough-product-testing https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/group/e-mobility.html https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2018/04/roadmap-e-full-of- energy.html https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2018/03/liftoff-for-mobility-of-the- future.html https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2017/11/mobility-tomorrow.html https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2018/10/powerful-and-scalable- the-new-id-battery-system.html https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2018/09/battery-power-of-the- future.html https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2018/09/a-battery-the-size-of-a- double-bed.html https://www.volkswagenag.com/en/news/stories/2018/11/that-s-how-volkswagen- democratizes-e-mobility.html https://www.volkswagen-newsroom.com/en/stories/all-about-the-meb-4206
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 01. Jan/Feb. 2021 International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal
Study of Spatial and Socio Economic Background of Arts Graduates of Govt. College, Khandola–Goa
Prabir Kumar Rath, Associate Professor of Geography Govt. College, Khandola-Marcela, Goa. Mob: 8668307829. . Email: [email protected] Shreya D. Gaunkar, P. G. Student Govt. College, Khandola-Marcela, Goa. Mob: 8975177054, [email protected]
Research Paper Accepted on 16-05-2020 Edited on 09-07-2020
Introduction The study of the students and their background as well as progress in future is an important criterion to understand the quality of education. An attempt has been made to know the progress of students in the later years. It is expected to give a review of geographical and socio economic background of the students, who have graduated from a general college in a rural setting, i.e. Government College of Arts, Science & Commerce, Khandola. It is hoped that it will help to know the progress made by the arts graduates after leaving a college. It may provide the clue for the achievement of arts degree with outstanding performance leading to white collar jobs. Objectives The prime objectives of this study are: . To find the progress of teaching and research in Arts stream of the College. . To study the area from where most of the students come to Govt. College, Khandola. . To know the geographical and Socio – Economic background of the students, intending to graduate from / in Govt. College Khandola. . To suggest improvement in arts faculty in general and geography departments of the college in particular. Sources of data The study is primarily based on secondary sources of data made available by the College through the extensive reference to the Admission Registers of the college for the last 25 and odd years. The study has also made use of secondary data available from various published and unpublished sources. The study has used the previous academic projects carried out by the under graduate students, where the data is made available by the institution, i.e. Govt. College, Khandola. Methodology The methodology is simple and data presentation is though maps and figures. The period of study is from 1989-2015, i. e. 1989-90 to 2014-15.
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The Study Area The study area is Khandola College near Marcela village. Once upon a time Marcela was considered as a clean place with poor but decent people. The literary meaning of Marcela is Mahashala, a great place for learning. With the passage of time and economic expansion of opportunities, the place has become a place for race among the people for a peaceful place of living and a place free for all. Marcela consists of the area such as Orgao and Tivrem revenue villages of Ponda Taluka in North Goa district of Goa. The village has become a great transport node providing access to Bicholim, Sanquelim, Cumbarjua, Jua, Savoi-Verem and Orgao. It has many temples and some Churches. The place has feasts and festivals throughout the year. Locational aspects of the Study area in reference to Goa, India Fig. 1: Political Map of India Fig. 2: Map of Goa
Fig. 3: Map of North Goa Fig. 4: Map of Ponda Taluka
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Fig. 5: Social map of Govt. College, Khandola
Goa is India's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Located in South West India in the region known as the Konkan, it is bounded by the state of Maharashtra to the north and by Karnataka to the east and south, while the Arabian Sea forms its western coast. It was ranked the best placed state by the Eleventh Finance Commission for its infrastructure and ranked on top for the best quality of life in India by the National Commission on Population based on the 12 Indicators. Renowned for its beaches, places of worship and world heritage architecture, Goa is visited by large numbers of international and domestic tourists each year. It also has rich flora and fauna of the Western Ghats range, which is classified as a biodiversity hotspot Progress of Arts stream in Govt. College, Khandola The departments of English, Economics, Geography, Political Science, Marathi and Konkani in Govt. College of Arts, Science and Commerce in Khandola-Marcela in Goa started in June 1989 with only one teacher each in the departments and handful of students for these elective subjects. The teachers had to teach some other related and partly related subjects to make up the minimum requirement of teaching work load. The departments saw a slow but steady growth in the College. The number of teachers rose to twelve in three years of its inception in 1991-92. The number of students gradually and slowly increased to reach around 70-75 for a class within 25 year from meagre 3 to 5 students to start with. The number of teachers varied from 10 to 15 during the second decade and finally settled at 15 to 20 teaching various core and allied subjects. Arts Students’ Background and Professional Growth Govt. College, Khandola has been drawing students from most parts of Goa irrespective of their caste, religion, economic grouping and from different age groups. As per the availability of data, the following information have been compiled mostly concentrating on their year of birth, their age of entry in the college, residences and previous institution data from where they have come from. Year: 1989-90 The total number of students in the college for the year 1989-90 were 26 in which majority of the students belonged to the age group of 21 (1968) and the total number of students in this age group is 6. In the age group of 20, there were 4 (1969) students and 4 other students belonged to the age group of 22 (1967). Remaining 4 students who have
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taken admission were mostly in the higher age group of 26 and 24. However, 6 students had taken admission in the early young age group of 18 and 19. This observed pattern of age distribution is primarily because the college had started in the academic year 1989-90, where all the students of the surrounding areas, who wanted to pursue college education, could get a chance to do so in the college irrespective of when they had passed their HSSC examination. The average that is modal age is 21 year (23.07 Percentage). The next higher age at entry with no. of students belonged to 20 and 21 years (15.38 Percentage). The median age group is 19, 18, 26 and 24 years at the entry level The majority of the students came from the Marcela village and it contributed up to 26.32% of the total no. of students. The second higher no. of students were seen from Ribandar, which contributed 11.54% of the total. Students also came from the places like Bambolim (3.85%), Tiswadi (7.68%), Old Goa (3.85%), Chorao (7.69%), Santacruz (7.68%), Betki, Bicholim, Nerul, Verem, Taligao, St. Estevam, Mercaim, and Kumbharjua with (3.85% each). Year: 2014- 15 Analysis for the year 2014-15 reveals that there were 58 students in arts. Among these some students came from places like Chorao, Bardez, Corlim, Karambolim etc. which are within a radius of 5 to 10 kms and most of the students came from areas within radius of 5 to 7 kms like Amona, Kumbharjua, Banastarim, Marcel, Khandola, St. Estevam. Feeder Institutions The college, gets the arts students from different Higher Secondary Schools located in and around Khandola. The arts students mostly come from the nearby higher secondary Schools. However, some of them come to the college because the college provides some of the important subjects like geography and psychology with other combinations. Hence, the college has been getting students even from the far off localities like Keri in Sattari taluka, Usgao in Ponda Taluka, Porvorim in Bardez Taluka, Sal in Bicholim taluka and many far off places from Tiswadi and Ponda Talukas. Year: 1989-1990 An analysis of the arts students coming from different Higher Secondary Schools has been analyzed here and presented in tabular form (1989-1990 to 2012-2013). The analysis for 1989-1990 reveals that though there were only 26 students, they came from 10 different Higher Secondary Schools. It is found that the neighboring Higher Secondary School had given 5 students (19.23%) while a large number of students came from Panaji, one student came from Bicholim HSSS and another one student came from far off Candolim HSS located in Bardez Taluka. Year: 2012-2013 The analysis for 2012-2013 reveals that there were 70 students; they came from 17 different Higher Secondary Schools. It is found that the neighbouring Higher Secondary School had given 31 students (44.28%), while remaining students came from Higher 43 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
Secondary Schools located in Sanquelim, Farmagudi, Ponda, Panaji, Chorao, Ella Old Goa, Bicholim, Miramar, Kavlem, Borim, Candolim, New Delhi (NIOS) and Valpoi. Findings The information concerning the year of birth, student’s age of entry in the college, residences and previous institution reveals interesting findings. The analysis has been carried out year wise and composite analysis has been done for the period of 1989-1990 to 2014-2015. During the year, 1989 to 2014 there were 1225 students who took admission in arts stream of the college, of which majority of the students belonged to the age group of 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 and 24 (single age return). Remaining students were mostly in the higher age group of 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 30 and even early young age group of 16. The modal age is 18 year (27.51 Percentage). The next higher age at entry with no. of students belonged to 19 years (22.61 Percentage). The median age group is 17 years to 21 years at the entry level. Table 1: GCASCK Age at entry of Arts Students, 1989-2014 Entry Ages Total no. of Student Percentage
16 3 0.24 17 179 14.61 18 337 27.51 19 277 22.61 20 205 16.73 21 102 8.33 22 60 4.9 23 32 2.61 24 15 1.24 25 4 0.33 26 7 0.57 27 1 0.08 28 1 0.08 29 1 0.08 30 1 0.08 Table 2: Year of Birth of Arts Students, 1989-2014 in GCASCK
Residential Background The Arts students are drawn from different places within Goa coming from neighbouring villages within a radius of 5 kms. Few of them coming from 6 to 10 kms radius of the college. Remaining come from more than 10 kms radius of college. Marcela contributes 10.30% of the total students. Kumbharjua contributes around 7.28% of the students and St. Estevam contributes 7.51%.
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Year of Birth of Arts Students, GCASCK Percentage Total no. of Student
337 277 205 179 102 3 60 15 4 7 1 1 27.51 22.61 32 1 1 0.24 14.61 16.73 8.33 4.9 2.61 1.24 0.33 0.57 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
Entry 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Ages
The average number of students coming from Khandola is around 5.97% and Bicholim 4.65%. Chorao shares up to 3.84%, Corlim contributes around 2.88% and Amona has 2.62%, Betki was with 2.36% and Tivrem with 2.30%. Students also came from Ribandar and it contributes up to 1.80%, Table 3: GCASCK- Residential background at the time of entry of Arts Students, 1989-2014 Place of No. of Percentage Place of Residence No. of Percentage Residence Student Student Marcela 126 10.30% Carambolim 21 1.72% Bambolim 3 0.24% Britona 1 0.08% Ribandar 22 1.80% Merces 2 0.16% Tiswadi 167 13.65% Margao 2 0.16% Old Goa 12 0.98% Curtolim 3 0.24% Betki 29 2.36% Narva 1 0.08% Chodan 47 3.84% Kudne 2 0.16% Bicholim 57 4.65% Sattari 12 0.99% Nerul 1 0.08% Corlim 35 2.88% Verem 5 0.41% Prssurlem 1 0.08% Taligao 2 0.16% Bordem 1 0.08% St. Estevam 92 7.51% Keri 2 0.16% Santa Cruz 5 0.40% Priol 3 0.24% Mercurim 1 0.08% Mapua 1 0.08% Kumbharjua 89 7.28% Surla 3 0.24% Khandola 73 5.97% Candolim 1 0.08% Amona 32 2.62% Salcete 3 0.24% Borim 2 0.16% St. Stephen 1 0.08%
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Diwar 19 1.56% Savoi 1 0.08% Mandur 1 0.08% Porvorim 1 0.08% Akhada 5 0.41% Ugao 3 0.24% Ponda 172 14.07% Dona Paula 2 0.16% Tivrem 28 2.30% Sanguem 3 0.24% Tonca 8 0.65% Shiroda 2 0.16% Volvoi 16 1.31% Velha 1 0.08% Savoiverem 10 0.82% Mormugao 1 0.08% Kaisur 1 0.08% Quepem 2 0.16% Madkaim 2 0.16% Sidhudurg 1 0.08% Nevra 3 0.24% Dharbandoda 1 0.08% Shiolim 3 0.24% Mardol 2 0.16% Panjim 10 0.82% Zuver 1 0.08% Pennha-de- 1 0.08% Chincolim 1 0.08% France Bhoma 3 0.24% Madapai 5 0.40% Narvem 1 0.08% Karmali 1 0.08% Mayem 4 0.33% Vasco 1 0.08% Ozarim 1 0.08% Calangute 1 0.08% Pilgao 5 0.40% Navelim 2 0.16%
Banastari 12 0.98% Bardez 7 0.57% Valpai 1 0.08% Sanquelim 12 0.98% Khandapar 3 0.24% Chimbel 5 0.40% Total no. 100.00% 1225
Diwar shares around 1.56% of the total percentage of the students. Volvoi with 1.31%, Carambolim with 1.72% are the regular feeder areas. A few students came from the places like Bambolim (0.24%), Old Goa (0.98%), Nerul (0.08%), Verem (0.41%), Taleigao (0.16%), Santa Cruz (0.40%), Mercaim (0.08%), Borim (0.16%), Mandur (0.08%), Akhada (0.41%), Tonca (0.65%), Savoi-Verem (0.82%), Madkai (0.16%), Neura (0.24%), Siolim (0.24%), Panjim (0.82%), Penha-de-France (0.08%), Bhoma (0.24%), Narvem (0.08%), Mayem (0.33%), Ozarim (0.08%), Pilgao (0.40%), Valpoi (0.08%), Khandepar (0.24%), Chimbel (0.40%), Bardez (0.57%), Sanquelim (0.98%), Banastari (0.98%), Kaisua (0.08%), Usgao (0.24%), Brittona (0.08%), Merces (0.16%), Margao (0.16%), Curtorim (0.24%), Narva (0.08%), Kudne (0.16%), Sattari (0.99%), Pissurlem (0.08%), Bordem (0.08%), Keri (0.16%), Priol (0.24%), Mapusa (0.08%), Surla (0.24%), Candolim (0.08%), Salcete (0.24%), St. Stephen (0.08%), Savoi (0.08%), Porvorim (0.08%), Dona Paula 46 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
(0.16%), Sanguem (0.24%), Shiroda (0.16%), Goa Velha (0.08%), Mormugao (0.08%), Quepem (0.16%), Sindhudurg (0.08%), Dharbandora (0.08%), Mardol (0.16%), Juvem (0.08%), Madapai (0.40%), Chincholim (0.08%), Karmali (0.08%), Vasco (0.08%), Calangute (0.08%) and Navelim (0.16%). Table 4: Residential Background of Arts Students, 1989-2014
Major Residential Background of Arts Students 16.00% 14.00% 12.00% 10.00% 8.00% 6.00% 4.00% 2.00% 0.00%
Percentage
Higher Secondary School Background An analysis of arts students coming from different higher secondary Schools has been analyzed here. It reveals that most of the arts students had come from Government Higher Secondary School, Khandola to this college. The neighbouring Higher Secondary School, i.e. Govt. HSS, Khandola had accounted for 54.39% (595) students. In all, 61 students had come from P.E.S. Higher Secondary School, Ponda contributing 5.58%. In third position, 55 students came from Old Goa Educational Society’s Vasant V. S. Kunkalekar Higher Secondary School, Ella-Old Goa, which accounts for around 5.03%. From Raghuvir & Premavati Salkar Higher Secondary School, Chorao the college got 33 students for arts (3.02%). Around 31 Students came from Govt. Higher Secondary School, Sanquelim.
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Fig. 6: Buffer Zone of Govt. College, Khandola-Arts Students, 1989-2014
People's Higher Secondary Section, Panaji also sent 31 students (2.83%). About (2.29%) of the students numbering 25 students came from G.V. M’s Smt. Nelly J. Aguiar Higher Secondary School, Ponda. Similarly, 24 students came from Dr. T. B. Cunha Govt. Higher Secondary School, Panaji with the percentage of 2.19%. However, 1.37% of the students came from Shri Shantadurga Higher Secondary School, Bicholim. About 1.28% of students came from the National Institution of Open Schooling NIOS, New Delhi. From Shri Ameya Higher Secondary School, Curti-Ponda, the college got 13 students (1.19%), Dhempe College of Arts & Science, Panaji and Fr. Agnel Higher Secondary School, Pilar the college got 1.01% students each. From Vividha Vidya Pratisthan (Vishnu R. Gauns Memorial HSS), 9 students came with the percentage of 0.82%. Remaining students came from Vidhyavardhak Mandal Shri Shantadurga S.S. Dicholim and Shri Saraswati Higher Secondary School, Kavlem, S. S. Dempo College of Commerce & Economics, Panjim, Don Bosco Night Higher Secondary / Junior College, Panaji, Vidya Prabodhini Higher Secondary School, Porvorim, Kamaxi Education Society’s Higher Secondary School, Curti, Ponda, and Smt. Nelly J. Aguiar H.S.S. Ponda, Swami Vivekanand Higher Secondary School, Borim and P.E.T.'s Peoples higher Secondary School, Panaji, Sidharth Bandodkar Higher Secondary School, Shri Bhumika Higher Secondary School, Parye, Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya, Sattari, Shri Dayanand Arya Higher Secondary School and K.E.S. Higher Secondary School, Curti, St. Thereas`s Junior College, Candolim, etc. All 48 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
these Hss come under Goa Board of Secondary & Higher Secondary Education, Alto- Betim. Some other Higher Secondary Schools from where the arts students have come are S. S. Angle Higher Secondary School, Our Lady of Rosary Higher Secondary School, Dona-Paula, and Shri Vijayanand Higher Secondary School, Mayem, Bicholim with different percentages of students. Students from Vaicuntrao Sinai Dempo H.S.S., Miramar, Govt. Higher Secondary School, Valpoi, Shiroda H.S.S., Shiroda, St. Xavier's Higher Secondary School, Mapusa, B.B.S.S. Higher Secondary School, Dharbandora, S.H.S.S. Kavlem-Ponda, Dempo Charity Trust Higher Secondary School, Panaji, Purushottam Walawalkar Junior CASC Telang Nagar Mapusa, Govt. Higher Secondary School, Valpoi, Shri Navadurga Higher Secondary School, Madkaim also have come to this college with varying percentages. Some of the students also came from other Higher Secondary Schools like G.E.S Dhempe College of Arts and Science, Govt. Higher Secondary School, Panaji, Shri Damodar D. Ed. Training College, Margao, Our Lady of Grace Higher Secondary School- Bicholim etc. It indicates that students mostly came from nearby Higher Secondary Schools and some from higher secondary schools of neighbouring talukas. Professional achievements of Arts Graduates The students who have graduated from the college with outstanding performances had done well in their life and have got white collar jobs (Table 5). Table 5: Professional Achievements/Engagement of Students, GCASCK 1989-2014 Profession Percentage Profession Percentage Advocate 3.00% Private Service 8.00% Govt. Servent 8.00% Abroad 6.00% Housewife 7.00% Media Profession 2.00% Goa University 1.00% Religious 1.00% Employee Teacher 3.00% Hotel Industry 6.20% Tourism Profession 3.00% Councilar 1.00% International 1.00% Bakery 3.00% Teacher Contructing 2.00% BPO 0.40% Company Politician 1.00% Legal Assistant 0.40% Ship Making 1.00% Unemployed 4.50% Banking Profession 2.00% Dead (Late 3.50% Teacher) Buisness 5.00% Artist 2.00% Police 5.00% Libererian 1.00% Lawyer 1.00% Event Manager 1.00% Beautician 3.00% Higher Studies 8.00% Musician 2.00% Under Graduate 4.00% All Profession 100.00%
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Fig. 7a: Professional Achievements/Engagement of Students, GCASCK 1989-2014
Fig. 7b: Professional Achievements/Engagement of Students, GCASCK 1989-2014
Summary and Conclusion The study of the student’s background as well as progress in future is an important criterion to understand the quality of education. Govt. College, Khandola has been imparting Under Graduate education at the institute for the last 30 years and more. It has been drawing students from most parts of Goa irrespective of their caste, religion, economic grouping and from different age groups. The arts students of the college are drawn from different places within Goa some of them coming from neighbouring village within a radius of 5 kms. Many of them came from 6 to 10 kms radius of the college. Few of them come from more than 10 kms radius of college. The college has been drawing students from different Higher Secondary Schools located in and around Khandola. An analysis of it has been critically carried out in this study. The students who have graduated from the college with outstanding performances have done well in their life and have got white collar jobs. 50 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
Most of the students belonged to the age group of 18 and 19 years. Most of the students during the study period belonged to the nearby places like Kumbharjua, Marcela, etc. The College has been getting students from all over Goa due to good teaching and caring teachers. Looking at the professions of the ex-students, it is found that the teaching staffs of the college were successful in building bright future of the students. There is a need to bring awareness for the need of research and a balance between Teaching and Research in the subjects of arts stream in the College. Internal and External Academic audit is necessary to strike a balance between teaching and research. Suggestions Details of the students should be maintained properly in the College Admission Book. Students should be made aware about the scope of arts stream. Good infrastructure, library facilities, laboratory facilities should be provided to the students. Highly qualified teaching staff should be added to the college. Limitations of the study The study is only a beginning and provides the clue for the future studies in this field. It has helped in getting the insight to the profile of the students, teaching and research in arts stream. Non availability of socio-economic background of the students from the admission registers provided by the College is a void in the study. The present study and its findings will be a guiding force for detailed study in similar line, which will be helpful for both the students and the college. End Note: The paper was presented at the XIV DGSI International Geog. Conference, Dept. of Geog., Univ. of Rajasthan, Jaipur, 27-29th September, 2019 based on the UG Project Report prepared by Gaonkar Shreya et al under the guidance of Dr. Prabir Kumar Rath.
References Govt College-Khandola, 1989-2016 Admission registers, of the students, administration section (5 nos). Govt College-Khandola, 2014-2015 Mahashala, the Annual college Magazine Vol. XXVI, 2016, Silver Moments Inside, Sahyadri Offset System, Corlim, Goa. Govt College-Khandola, 1989-90 to 2016-2017 College Prospectus, printed at Samrat Offset, Swarnamudra Printers, Miltimpact, etc., Marcela, Goa. Govt. of India, 2016 Incredible India Tourist map of Goa, printed by Rohan Multigraphics Pvt. Ltd, Panjim. Websites http://streamoftheconscious.com/importance-of-the-arts/ https://bachelorstudies.com/BA/Arts
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m.indiatoday.in/education/story/career-option-after-12th-for-students-from- humanities-stream/1/351495.html www.khandolacollege.edu.in/ www.incredibleindia.org www.homeofgeography.org ------
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 01. Jan/Feb. 2021 International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal
Disaster Management in The Indian Sub Continent
Dr.Harvinder Singh, Associate Professor in Geography, GKSM Govt. College, Tanda
Urmar, District hoshiarpur(Punjab) [email protected]
Research Paper Accepted on 2-6-2020 Edited on 15-08-2020 Abstract- About 569.4 million people were reportedly affected by disaster in the world during the year 2016. Disasters can wipe out work of years in a matter of hours, minutes nay in seconds, destroying houses, killing people and animals, disturbing environment equilibrium and even taking away people’s resources of sustenance and exposing them to famines and diseases. Indian sub continent region is vulnerable to different types of disaster. This region has a young fold mountains in the north and ancient Deccan Plateau in the South and Islands spreading in the Indian Ocean. Due to its complex Geological structural and climatic conditions and location region is prone to disasters. Objectives: (1) To identify the natural disaster occurring in the Indian Sub continent. (2) To identify the regions/areas which require disaster management? (3) Disaster management stages for each region. Methodology: In order to study Disaster Management in Indian subcontinent, simple methodology is followed. Firstly a brief Introduction to Indian subcontinent is given, then various types of natural disasters occurring are identified. From these natural disasters, areas or regions requiring disaster management strategies are earmarked as I,II & so on. Lastly, for each region three level management steps are suggested. First level suggestions are about the preparations or preparedness stage before the disaster. Second stage suggestions are those which are to be followed while actually facing the natural disasters. Finally, third stage involves the efforts aimed at assessing the damage and rehabilitation of the displaced people. The Indian sub continent : The Indian subcontinent is a part of Asian Continent. It is flanked by Himalayas in the North and by Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal from South. The Indian Subcontinent is a vast region with total area 4549894 sq kms, comprising SAARC Countries like India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Maldives. India is the largest country and Maldives is the smallest country of the region. Nepal and Bhutan are landlocked countries. Sri Lanka and Maldives are Islands. Pakistan, India and Bangladesh are having land and water sharing boundaries .
Countries Area in sq. kms Percentage of the total Population
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area Numbers India 3287263 73.2 135.26 crores. Pakistan 880254 17.8 21.22 ,, Nepal 147181 3.1 2.18 ,, Bhutan 46673 1.0 7.54 lakh Bangladesh 142615 3.3 16.14 crores Sri Lanka 65610 1.4 2.17 crores Maldives 298 0.006 5.16 lakh
Natural Disasters and the Indian subcontinent: According to the Chambers Second Learner’s Dictionary ‘Disaster’ means extremely unfortunate happening, especially one that causes great damage, loss. These disasters are causing wide spread damage to human life and property, Fauna and Flora, infrastructure and environment. Disasters may be natural or man made. Natural disasters are caused by extreme geotectonic events, extreme weather conditions and other extreme incidents (See fig no.3). Extreme geotectonic events lead to earthquakes, submarine earthquakes and tsunami, volcanic eruptions, avalanches and landslides. Extreme weather conditions lead to floods, coastal sea flooding, cyclones, hailstorms, thunderstorms. The other extreme incidents cause disasters in terms of forest fires, desertification, steppe formation and disastrous drought. The Indian sub continent is experiencing a variety of natural disasters. These are: Earthquakes: The Indian sub continent on the North-West, North and North-East side has a convergent tectonic plate. On the north sided is located Eurasian plate and towards South is Indian plate. Convergence of these plates is causing deep focus earthquakes. The recent earthquakes of Uttarkashi, Chamoli, Bhuj and POK are the examples of this. On the South, there is Deccan Plateau region of India, which is having ancient Gondwana rocks and deep faults and fractures. These are causing earthquakes in this region e.g. Latur earthquake in 1993, Koyna earthquake in 1967, Jabalpur earthquake in 1997. (See fig. No. 4(A)) Tsunami: Tsunami, a series of extremely long length waves caused by under water earthquake, landslide, volcanic eruption or meteorite impact. The Indian sub continent has a long history of Tsunami disaster in the coastal region. The Indian sub continent is experiencing. Tsunami disaster since 1524 A.D. when it first ever struck at Maharashtra Coastal Region. Recently, on 26th December, 2004, Tsunami waves struck the Coastal areas of Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Maldives etc. In this disaster more than 41000 people were killed and property worth crores of rupees were destroyed. Apart from this loss to environment fauna and flora was also there. Cyclones: Cyclones are amongst the most awesome events that nature can produce. They pose a major threat to life and property in coastal region of the Indian sub continent. A wind storm’s destructive work is done by the high wind, flood producing rains and 54 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
associated storm surges. The most vulnerable areas of cyclonic disaster are coast of Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka and Pakistan. These cyclones originate in Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea and strike at the coast. (See fig. No. 4(c)
Floods: The Indian Sub Continent experienced floods during the monsoon season. Every year large areas of India, Bangladesh are submerged under water in this season. The over flowing of rivers cause wide spread floods in the region. In Bangladesh flooding is common. In India flooding is common in Bihar, North-East States like Assam, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa. In Pakistan Indus River Basin. Recently floods disaster was seen in Bihar, Assam, Rajasthan, Gujarat etc. These floods have caused a lot of hardships to the people. In 1974 floods engulfed half of India and killed 1200 people and another 27,500 died from subsequent diseases and starvation. Approximately 4,25,000 houses were destroyed or severely damaged(See fig. No. 4(D).
Droughts: Droughts are common in north western region, central parts of Deccan plateau and Pakistan. Landslides: The Hilly Region of Indian sub continent are prone to landslides. Landslides are gravity –driven movement of earth material results from water saturation, slope 55 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
modifications and earthquakes. Landslide regions of Indian sub continent are Himalayas, eastern and western Ghats. In Himalayas Gutpt Kashi, Rudraprayag, UttarKashi, etc. and in western Ghat Konkan region. In Himalayan region 205 people were killed on 18th August and more than two dozen killed in Rudraprayag District on 19th August 2004 due to land sliding damaged(See fig. No. 4(E)..
. MAJOR DISASTER REGIONS: After studying the natural disasters of the Indian sub continent, the following disasters regions can be identified for the management of disasters. Region –I: Earthquake and land sliding prone region. This region is located in the Himalayas and in Deccan Plateau region. Region –II: Tsunami and cyclone prone disaster region. This region is located in the coastal areas of the sub continent. . Region –III: This region is prone to floods disasters. Located in the Basin of the Brahmaputra river, Bihar, western U.P., Godavari Basin, Indus Basin in Pakistan .Region –IV: This Region is prone to droughts and heat waves. Located mainly in NW region of the Sub-Continent. I Indian Sub-Continent
Disaster Prone Regions
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DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN THE IDENTIFIED REGIONS: Although disaster’s cannot altogether be controlled but their impact can be reduced to some extent by taking efficient steps and effective management. Management involves three stages: First stage is preparation or preparedness stage, second is what to do stage and third is aftermath and rehabilitation stage. Disaster Management for Region –I (a) Preparedness stage: Typical preparation measures include ready and upto date counter –disaster plans, operative early warning systems, public education and awareness. Campaigning and training activities. It includes: . Selecting stable sites for construction purposes. . Keep in a handy place, a torch and a portable radio. . Reinforcement using geo –synthetic materials. . Aware the public of the area about earthquake and land sliding. . Use light material for constructions. . Keep heavy and bulky articles either at the floor level or lowest shelf. . Design the house and arrange the household goods in such a way, so that it is possible for all the family members to move out easily, even if it is dark. . Every member of the house should have the knowledge of “how to turn off electricity, water and gas supply?”. . Study the weather conditions and terrain of the area. . Help the NGO’s and Govt. rescue workers during disaster. (b) During the earthquake or land sliding stage: . Keep calm and let others keep calm. . If you are at home or inside a building and auditorium: o Vacate it immediately. o Never use lifts. o Keep away from windows, mirrors, chimneys, and furniture. . Protect yourself by staying under lintel, under table or a bed. . Keep yourself away from tall buildings, slopes, walls etc. (c) Aftermath Stage and Rehabilitation : . Keep calms listen to Radio and follow the instructions. . Keep away from beaches and river banks as a huge wave may strike. . Turn off water supply, gas and electricity. . Expect after shocks. . Do not move the injured people unless there is danger to their lives. . If people have been buried, tell the rescue teams. . Do not touch the electric wire. Disaster Management for Region-II: 57 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
This region is prone to Tsunami and Cyclonic disasters. (a) Preparedness stage: . Identify the coastal areas from the map facing threat of Tsunami, Cyclones and train the people about these. . Make the general public aware about the warning signs of Tsunami (Noticeable fall or rise in water level) and cyclones (Noticeable change in weather conditions). . Keep the coastal areas under forest cover. . Ask people specially slum dwellers and fishermen not to settle or make their habitations along the coast. . Indian sub continent countries must go for TWS and Cyclone warning bulletin. . To reduce the damage go for an extensive wall construction in front of populated coastal area. . Keep two three life saving Jackets at home. . Organize seminars and conferences to make people aware about the consequences of disasters. . Educate people through electronic media. . Keep some food articles for emergency use at home. (b) Facing Tsunami or Cyclone stage: . Shift to higher places without wasting anytime. . Climb on to something that floats. . If you have life saving jacket, wear it immediately. . Use mobile phones to seek help from the authorities. . Keep patience, follow the advice of authorities. . Use local area geographical factors to save yourself. . Rush the state Govt. agencies, NGO’s, para military forces to affected people, to distribute food, clothes and medical aid to make temporary arrangement for their living. (c) Aftermath Stage and Rehabilitation: . Provide the basic needs and articles to the displaced population. . Make temporary arrangement for affected people. It may be in schools, in tents etc. . Clear the coastal area from dead bodies by mass cremations. . Clear the drains and garbage to avoid any outbreak of epidemics. . Provide free of cost medical aid to the injured. . Provide monetary help to the affected people for their rehabilitation. Disaster Management for Region –III: This region is prone to floods. (a) Preparedness stage:
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. Listen to radio/TV for the latest weather bulletins and flood warnings. Pass on the information to others. . Make a family emergency kit (portable radio, spare batteries, first aid box, essential medicine, ORS, dry food items, candles, match boxes etc. . Keep Lantern, umbrella, Bamboo stick in your house. . Keep your cash, jewellery, valuables, important documents etc. in a safe place. . Prepare flood protection plan for your area with the help of administration. . Identify flood prone areas before monsoon season and traind the people in this regard. (b) During Floods: . Move along with your family members and cattle to safe areas like relief camp, elevated places immediately. . Turn off the power and gas connections. . Stay away from sewerage line, gutters, drains, culverts. . Stay away from electric appliances and electric poles or fallen power lines to avoid electrocution. . Use fresh cooked and dry food. . Use boiled and filtered drinking water. . In case of sickness seek medical assistance. . Use bleaching powder and lime to disinfect the surroundings. (c) Aftermath Stage and Rehabilitation: . Assess the damage to human life, livestock, fauna and flora. . Be careful of water borne diseases. . Clean the drains, gutters near to your house. . Provide monetary help to all affected people. . Provide them shelters till their houses are repaired. . Clear the stagnant water as this can breed vector or water –borne diseases. . Govt. agencies and NGO’s must help the affected to bring them back in main stream of life. Disaster Management for Region –IV: This region is drought prone, located in the North West side and in the central parts of Deccan Plateau. (a) Preparedness stage: . Listen to weather Bulletins and note the rising temperatures, humidity change. . If Temperature is rising rapidly and humidity is decreasing it reflects the drought conditions. . Preserve the water bodies by keeping them covered. . Shift the livestock to the greener places. . Listen or follow the instructions of administration. 59 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
. Keep your cash, jewellery, valuables important documents etc. in a safe place. . Move to safe place when you notice signs of drought. . Keep stored water at home, adopt rain water harvesting techniques. (b) During the Droughts: . Make optimum use of available water resources. . Shift to green places. . Keep yourself and livestock inside the house. . Move outside only in emergency, that too with drinking water. . Govt. agencies must supply potable water by tankers to the affected people. (c) Aftermath Stage and Rehabilitation: . Asses the damage to crops and livestock. . Provide medical and monetary aid to the affected. . Make long term plans to prevent droughts in future, like lying canal system , rain water harvesting technique, green belt. . Adopt all those measures which lead to conservation of water resources in the region.
References
1. A Text book of Geography By Rita Rajen, General Printers and Publishers, Girgaon, Bombay. 2. Chambers Second Learner’s Dictionary 3. Earthquakes By A.K.R. Hemmady NBT, India. 4. Environment & Development: Challenges and opportunities By Jagbir Singh, I.K. International Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 5. Monsoon Asia Book –II, Certificate Physical & Human Geography By Charles Ferro, General Printers and Publishers, Girgaon, Bombay. 6. Oxford Student Atlas for India Oxford Univ. Press New Delhi. 7. Restless Earth, Disasters of Nature By National Geographic Society Washington D.C. 8. The Tribune, Jalandhar, 20th August 2006
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 01. Jan/Feb. 2021 International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal
Emerging Population Trends In India 1971 – 2011 :
A Regional Scenario
DR. C. P. HIREMATH, Associate Professor, Department Of Geography Dpm’s Shree Mallikarjun College, Canacona- Goa, Email- [email protected]
Research Paper Accepted on 26-12-2019 Edited on 25-09-2020
ABSTRACT Human population is one of the important component of regional development. The geographers approach include integrated framework in the process of development, mainly because of dual role, aspirations, change in humans actions, etc are necessarily associated with time and space and physical elements.
India, 7th largest in terms of geographical area and 2nd most populous country, It took nearly hundred years to double its population till 1971.Thereafter from 1971 (548 mn) to 2011 (1225 mn) India’s population growth witnessed nearly five times more than the base year (1947). In spite of the exponential increase in the human population, the growth rate within and between the decades has noticed a considerable decrease i e 1971-81 (30.6%), 1981-91 (23.86%), 1991-2001 ( 21.34%), and 2001-2011 (19.22%). The growth rate of human population among the five regions differ, more so during 1971 -2011. The Southern region growth rate declined from 23.17% and 13.3% respectively. Similarly, Northern region experienced from 37.36% and 18%. The western region 29.35% and 28.12% and Northeast region 38.55% and 17.28%, exhibited similar trend respectively. It is interesting to note with an exception of Eastern region 1971-11 i.e. from 22.83% and 32.81% respectively.
The pattern of growth of human population in 1971-81 (151.3%) to 2001-11 (109.5%) shows the consistent decrease in Southern, Northern and Northeastern regions against the Western and Eastern regions. The latter regions continued to maintain consistency in growth, rather than counterparts. The region wise (group of states in the respective part of the country) distribution shows the discrete pattern, registered wide variation among five regions. The highest concentration of human population in 6 (21%) states comprise 55% of the total population of the nation (1971), where as 53% (2011) reveal the consistency, volume over the decades. Southern region accounted for 24.8% (1971) of population against 26% (2011). Similarly the share of Northern region 7% in (1971) and 8.3% (2011). The picture is no more different in case of Eastern, Western and Northeast regions.
The percentage figures have been worked out to take a note on the spatial and temporal inequalities in distribution and growth among the five regions. Northeastern and Northern regions 61 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
are exceptional, where inconsistency in growth and distribution of human population over 1971- 2011.The study expects more of integrated approach to understand the vital aspects of human population, and its spatial dimensions. The paper makes an in-depth numerical as well as graphical analysis, emphasizing on geographic regions. (Key words – Human population, Regional setup Distribution, Growth, Development.)
INTRODUCTION
Study of human population is significant in development of a region over a period, more so in case of India where human population had noticed a exponential growth from 1971 to 2011 than the earlier decades,1971 (54 Crore), 1981(68.33 Crore) 1991 (84.64 Crore) 2001 (102 Crore) 2011 (121Crore). The present study attempts to understand the spatial distribution of human population and its growth at regional as well as state level over the decades. The same may help us to identify and quantify the regional distribution of human population and the trend which may enable to address the region related issues.
SCOPEOF THE STUDY
The study of human Population is concerned not only with the variables, the relationship between population variables in terms of spatial, temporal, economic, political, aspects of a region. the studies of similar nature may help us to delineate the differences between the regions over the decades. One of the efforts is to understand the spatial and temporal distribution of human population, and the trend with the possible precision, to address therelated social and economic issues. HYPOTHESIS 1) Regional distribution human population is not uniform among the five regions, as well as states from 1971 to 2011. 2) The regional concentration of human population confined to few pockets/states where natural advantages are. 3) The growth of human population has wide variation among the regions states and from 1971 to 2011. OBJECTIVE 1) To know the pattern of distribution of population in its regional context in India. 2) To know the growth of human population within the regions, as well as statesover the decades DATA BASE METHADOLOGY The present study has been carried out on the basis of the data collected from the various reliable sources which include the directorate of censusGovernment of India report of 1971 to 2011,The secondary sources which include journals and books. The data had been classified in to FIVE REGIONS comprising states and union territories, ie Western,
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Southern, Eastern Northeastern and Northern respectively. The data had beenprocessed with simple statistical techniques for percentage and ratios, for states and union territories, regional and national level averages to find for the year 1971 to 2011. Further categorized into various levels /categories to find the differences among the states on distribution, growth patterns, the same data had been used to represent the form of graphs.
LIMITATIONS
The study on Spatio temporal aspects of human population has come across some of the limitations, the prominent limitations include, non availability and accessibility of classified district wise data to correlate with topography,landscape etc for the period of 1971 to 2011.Non availability of data related to physiographic divisions /sub divisions at national as well as state level had restricted our study to consider state and union territory as one unit to process the data and to regionalize the same to arrive for a possible solution.
REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
India comprises only 2.4 percent of the land, and consists nearly 16.87 percent of the world (2011) population, in other words more than the population of U.S.A, Russia, Canada, Australia and Brazil together. The spatial distribution of 121 Crore (2011) population in states and UTs is not uniform. Many of the states and union territories consists about three fourth of the total population living in the rural settlements, which has a significant role in the decadal growth of human population, In view of these inequalities an attempt has been made to explore the regional imbalance and inequalities in the growth of human population in case of states as well as region from 1971 to 2011.the rate of growth of human population among the states does not show the uniformity within the five regions.South region 1971 (24%) -2011 (26 %) Northern 1971 (7%-) 2011 (8% ) Eastern 1971 (39%) - 2011 (41%) Western 1971 (24%) - 2011 (26%) and Northeastern 1971( 3.5%) - 2011 (3.7%) for the said periods respectively.Thisdisplays’a consistent control over the distribution and growth of population compared with rest of the regions of India.
The following tables reveal the state wise and decade wise percentage of human population distribution in India 1971 to 2011. The extracted numerical information has been categorized in to five groups based on higher the numerical value greater the leval vice versa same identified as Very High, High, Moderate,Low and Very low,respectively.
VERY HIGH The distribution of human population shows the consistence and continuity from 1971( 4 states) against 2011(11 states) the states which were there in 1971 continued to be in 2011. The prominent states include Uttar Pradesh 1971 (8.3cr) (15.29%) and in 2011, (19.9cr) (16.49%) Bihar 1971 (4.2cr) (7.6%) and in 2011, (10.3 cr) (8.5%) etc. Nearly 11%of the states in this category comprises 40%of total population of the country. 63 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
REGIONWISE,STATE,UT WISE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION (IN %) INDIA 1971 - 2011
REGION STATES 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 SOUTH 1 Karnataka 5.344 5.434 5.313 5.126 5.0513 2 Kerala 3.894 3.724 3.437 3.094 2.7588 3 Tamil Nadu 7.515 7.084 6.599 6.037 5.9609 4 A Pradesh 7.936 7.836 7.857 7.361 12.101 5 Pondicherry 0.086 0.088 0.095 0.094 0.1028
6 Lakshadweep 0.006 0.005 0.006 0.005 0.0053 7 Andaman and 0.021 0.027 0.033 0.034 0.0313 TOTAL 24.802 24.198 23.34 21.751 26.0114 NORTH 8 Jammu and K 0.842 0.876 0.911 0.978 1.036 9 H Pradesh 0.631 0.3 0.61 0.59 0.566 10 Punjab 2.472 2.456 2.396 2.361 2.289 11 Haryana 1.83 1.891 1.945 2.049 2.128 12 Uttarakhand 0.819 0.838 0.833 0.825 0.835 13 Delhi 0.741 0.91 1.113 1.346 1.384 14 Chandigarh 0.046 0.066 0.075 0.087 0.087 TOTAL 7.381 7.337 7.883 8.236 8.325 EAST 15 Chhattisgarh 2.123 2.05 2.081 2.025 2.11 16 Orissa 4.003 3.859 3.74 3.568 3.466 17 Jharkhand 2.595 2.577 2.58 2.619 2.724 18 West Bengal 8.083 7.987 8.043 7.798 7.548 19 Uttar p 15.29 15.38 15.6 16.14 16.49 20 Bihar 7.685 7.654 7.624 8.056 8.577 TOTAL 39.779 39.507 39.668 40.206 40.915 WEST 21 Rajasthan 4.7 5.028 5.199 5.489 5.67 22 Gujarat 4.87 4.988 4.88 4.918 4.989 23 Madya Pradesh 5.475 5.585 5.737 5.869 5.998 24 Daman and Diu 0.011 0.011 0.012 0.015 0.02 25 D,N Haveli 0.013 0.015 0.016 0.021 0.028 26 Goa 0.145 0.147 0.138 0.131 0.12 27 Maharashtra 9.196 9.187 9.325 9.404 9.285 TOTAL 24.41 24.961 25.307 25.847 26.11 N. EAST 28 Sikkim 0.038 0.046 0.047 0.052 0.05 29 Assam 2.668 2.64 2.648 2.589 2.575 30 Arunachal P 0.085 0.092 0.102 1.028 0.114 31 Meghalaya 0.184 0.195 0.209 0.224 0.244 32 Mizoram 0.06 0.072 0.081 0.086 0.09
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33 Manipur 0.195 0.207 0.217 0.223 0.224 34 Nagaland 0.094 0.113 0.143 0.193 0.163 35 Tripura 0.184 0.3 0.325 0.31 0.303 TOTAL 3.508 3.665 3.772 4.705 3.763
HIGH In this some of the states and UTs have noticed inconsistency in the population size, 1971 ( 2 states) 2011 (3 states). Nearly 30% (10 states)of states and union territories contribute. Of which West Bengal 1971(4.4cr)(8%)2011 (9.1 cr) (7.5%), followed by Tamil Nadu 1971, (4.1 cr) ( 7.5%) 2011 ( 7.2 cr) (5.9%). The states having lowest population in this category are Jharkhand 1971 (1.4 cr) ( 2.5%), 2011 ( 3.2 cr) (2.7%) and Assam 1971 (1.4 cr) (2.6%), ( 2011, 3.1 cr) (2.5%). The other states in this category are from the peninsular India. 30 %of the states in this category have 20%of total population of the country
MODERATE The distribution is inconsistent no specific pattern from 1971 - 2011.Together 4 states which include Gujarat 1971(2.6 cr) (4.8%) 2011 (6 cr) (4.9%), Punjab 1971( 1.3 cr) (2.4%), 2011(2.7 cr) (2.2%). The states with lowest population are Haryana 1971(1 cr) (1.8%) 2011 (2.5 cr) (2.1%), Chhattisgarh 1971 (1.1 cr) (2.1%) 2011 (2.5 cr) (2.1%),. 11%of the states in this category have 11%of total population
LOW population of the states decreasing up to 2001 and then increasing. There are 3 states Jammu and Kashmir in 1971(4.6 Lakhs, 0.8%) 2011 (1.1cr) (1%) followed by Uttarkhand in 1971(44 Lakhs) (0.8%) and in 2011 (1.01 Cr) (0.8%). The states having
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lowest population are Delhi in 1971 (40 lakhs)(0.7%) and in 2011(1.6 Cr) (1.3%).There is a sudden increase in population of Delhi from 2011. Together 9%of the states in this category have24%of total population
VERY LOW The number of states and union territories in 1971 (18 states) relatively show more thanhalf of the total, against 2011 (15 states).Prominent states includes Himachal Pradesh 1971 (34 lakh) (0.6%) 2011 (68 lakh) (0.5%) Tripura 1971 (15 lakh) (0.1%) 2011(36 lakh) (0.3%) the lower populated states/UTs include Lakshadweep island in 1971(32,000) (0.006%), 2011 (64,000) (0.005%), followed by Daman and Diu 1971 (63,000) (0.01%) 2011 (2.4 lakh) (0.02%). 43%of the states/UTs in this category have 5 %of total population.
The percentagewise distribution of human population in terms of states and UTs in Southern region shows. In which Andhra Pradesh 1971 (7.9%) and 2011 (12.1%), Tamil Nadu 1971 (7.5%) and 2011(5.9%) and Karnataka 1971 (5.3%) and 2011 (5%) are in leading position comparing with the national average 1971 (2.8%) and 2011(2.8%) and regional average1971 (3.4%) and 2011(3.7%) for the year 1971 and 2011.Whereas except Kerala where state average is less than the national average (regional average1971 (3.8%) and 2011(2.7%).
Rest of the union territories have insignificant against the above mentioned states, from 1971 and 2011 the pattern of distribution of human population is uniform over the decades 1981, 1991 and 2001. Nearly 20 % states comprise 24%of total population. Displayed stable within the regional average 1971 (3.4) and 2011(3.7) and the national average over the years i e from 1971 (2.8) – 2011 (2.8).
The states of Northern region, in which Punjab 1971(2.4%) and 2011(2.2%) and Haryana 1971(1.8%) and 2011(2.1%) are in leading position compared with the national average 1971 (2.8%) and 2011(2.8%) and regional average1971 (1.04%) and 2011(1.18%), 1971 and 2011. All other states viz Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttara Khand, Delhi and Chandigarh have less population distribution pattern for the respective decades. Except Delhi rest of the states is having increasing trend in the population distribution from 1991 and onwards with uniform population distribution from 1971 to 2011.Nearly 20%of the states of India and the region in this category has 7.38%of total population. . The distribution of human population over the decade has shown slight increase within the states ,regional average 1971 (1.04) and 2011 (1.18) and the national average in 1971and 2011 is(2.8).
The Eastern region in which Uttar pradesh1971 (15.2%) and 2011(16.4%), Bihar 1971 (7.6(%) and 2011 (8.5%) and West bengal1971 (8%) and 2011(7.5%) are leading,
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compared with the national average 1971 (2.8%) and 2011 (2.8%) and regional average1971 (6.6%) and 2011 (6.8%) for the year 1971 and 2011.All other states like Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Jharkhand have less population from their respective decades. The summary is from 1971 and 2011 the pattern of distribution of human population is uniform for the year 1981, 1991 and 2001. 17.14%of the states in this category has 39.79%of total population. . The distribution of human population over the decade has shown slight increase within the states ,regional average 1971 (6.6) and 2011 (6.8) and the national average in 1971and 2011 is(2.8)
The Western region in which Maharashtra1971 (9.1%) and 2011 (9.2%), Madhya Pradesh 1971 (5.4%) and 2011 (5.9%),Gujarat 1971 (4.8%) and 2011 (4.9%) and Rajasthan 1971(4.7%) and 2011(5.67%) are in leading position comparing with the national average 1971 (2.8%) and 2011 (2.8%) and regional average1971 (3.4%) and 2011 (4.35%) for the year 1971 and 2011.All other states like Daman and Diu, Goa and Dadra and NagarHaveli have negligible population from their respective decades. The summary is from 1971 and 2011 the pattern of distribution of human population is un uniform for the year 1981, 1991 and 2001. 20%of the states in this category has 24.41%of total population.The distribution of human population over the decade has shown increase within the states ,regional average 1971 (3.4) and 2011 (4.35) and the national average in 1971and 2011 (2.8).
The Northeastern region in which Assam1971 (2.6%) and 2011(2.5%) is the leading state compare only to regional average, national average is higher than this. all the others states have population concentration less then regional as well as national average. The states with low population are Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Tripura. There is a uniform distribution of human population in this category from 1971 to 2011. 22.85%of the states in this category has 3.5%of total population. . The distribution of human population over the decade has shown increase within the states ,regional average 1971 (0.42) and 2011 (0.71) and the national average 1971 and 2011 (2.8).
GROWTH RATE OF HUMAN POPULATIONIn this the effort was to explore the regional inequalities in the growth of human population in states and union territories, as well as region. The rate of growth of human population in India on an average, as well as states and UTs had noticed a considerable and consistent decline from 1971-81 (30.6) 1981-91 (23.86) 1991-2001 (21.34) and 2001- 2011 (19.22).that too between 1981–1991, whereas 1991 to 2011 the rate of growth is nearer to 2%, which is so insignificant against previous period. The same has been considered to compare with REGIONAL and NATIONAL growth of population.The extracted result shows that the rate of growth of human population among the states does not show the uniformity within the states, as well 67 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
as respective five regions. Among the prominent regions South region displayed a consistent control over growth compared with rest of the regions, Western, Northeastern regions of India. The Eastern region comprises high concentration and high growth of human population over the successive decades.The kind of growth in population and the rate of growth has coupled with measuresthat are changing in volume over time.
GROWTH RATE (IN %) OF HUMAN POPULATION IN STATES AND UYs OF INDIA 1971 - 2011
States and UT’S 1971-81 1981-91 1991-2001 2001-2011 Andaman & N 63.53 48.7 26.94 6.68 Andhra P 23.09 24.2 13.86 11.01 Arunachal P 34.89 36.83 26.21 25.42 Assam 26.35 NA 18.85 16.93 Bihar 24.15 23.38 28.43 25.07 Chandigarh 76.18 42.16 40.33 17.01 Chhattisgarh 20.38 25.73 18.08 22.59 Dadra & Nagar 39.28 33.57 59.2 58.55 Daman & Diu 26.73 28.62 55.59 53.54 Delhi 52.98 51.45 46.31 20.96 Goa 26.68 16.08 14.89 8.17 Gujarat 27.67 21.19 22.48 19.17 Haryana 28.75 27.41 28.06 19.09 Himachal P 23.7 20.79 17.53 12.81 Jammu &K 29.31 29.04 29.04 23.71 Jharkhand 23.78 30.24 23.19 22.34 Karnataka 26.74 33.64 20.56 15.67 Kerala 9.01 21.12 17.25 4.86 Lakshadweep 22.34 14.32 9.42 6.23 Madhya P 27.15 28.47 17.19 20.03 Maharashtra 24.53 27.24 24.34 15.99 Manipur 32.39 25.73 22.57 18.65 Meghalaya 32.03 29.29 30.02 27.82 Mizoram 48.84 32.86 29.94 22.78 Nagaland 50.27 39.7 29.18 -0.42 Orissa 20.16 56.08 64.41 13.97 Pondicherry NA 33.64 15.94 33.64 Punjab 23.89 20.81 9.76 13.73 Rajasthan 33.36 28.44 28.33 21.44 Sikkim 50.72 28.47 32.98 12.36 Tamil Nadu 17.49 15.39 11.19 15.06
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Tripura 31.91 34.3 15.74 14.75 Uttar Pradesh 25.35 25.55 25.8 20.09 Uttaranchal 27.43 24.23 19.2 19.17 West Bengal 23.17 24.73 17.84 13.93 INDIA 30.6 23.86 21.34 19.22
DISTRIBUTION NUMBER OF STATES AND UT’S IN THEIR RESPECTIVE CATEGORIES
Classification 71-81 % 81-91 % 91-01 % 01-11 % O-1(VLOW) 2 5.7 1 2.8 1 2.8 5 14.28 1-2(LOW) 1 2.8 5 14.28 13 37.14 16 45.71 2-3(MOD) 20 57.14 18 51.42 14 40 11 31.42 3-4(HIGH) 6 17.14 7 20 2 5.7 1 2.8 4&<(V HIGH) 6 17.14 4 11.4 5 14.2 2 5.7 Total 35 100 35 100 35 100 35 100
The processed data on population display about the absolute growth rate in human population states and union territories 1971 - 2011.These states and union territories have been categorized into FIVE groups in order to understood the growth rate and number of states and union territories along with rate of growth over decades, respectively.
Very High - High, The states and UTs in 1971 (6 states) 2011 ( 2 states)with very high growth rate Chandigarh 1971 (76.18) Mizoram (48.84).In 2011 (2states).In this highest among this Dadra and Nagar(58.55) and lowest Daman and Diu (53.54).17.14%of the states are in this category out of total. The states in the high category includes 1971 (6 states) and 2011(1 state). The highest growthrate among the 1971 Dadra n Nagar (39.28%) and lowest Tripura (31.91%).In thishighestamong the 2011 Pondicherry (33.64%).17.14%of the states are in this category out of total.. 69 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
ModerateThe number of states display decrease in the growth, 1971 ( 20 states) 2011 ( 11 states). The highest growth rate among 1971 Haryana (28.75) and lowest growth rate is Orissa (20.16) In 2011 the highest is Meghalaya (27.82) and lowest is Madhya Pradesh (20.03). 7%of the states are in this category out of total..
Low In this states display gradual increase, 1971 (1 state) 2011 (16 states). Tamil Nadu1971 (17.49) 2011(16 states).Highest among Gujarat and Uttaranchal both are same (19.17)and Lowest Andhra Pradesh (11.01). 0.35%of the states are in this category out of total..
Very Low Thestates being flexible 1971 (2 states) 2011 (5 states) have Highest growth rate among 1971 Kerala (9.01) and lowest Pondicherry (NA) with an population of Growth rate.In 2011 (5 states).In this Highest among this Goa (8.17) & lowest is Nagaland (-0.42). 0.7%of the states are in this category out of total.
REGIONWISE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION GROWTH STATES,UT’S INDIA 1971- 2011
EASTERN 1971-81 1981-91 1991-01 2001-11 REG Total 136.99 185.71 177.75 117.99 Regional Avg 22.83 30.95 37.03 32.81 National Avg 30.60 23.86 21.34 19.22
The states with distribution of growth rate in the Eastern region shows In which Uttar Pradesh 1971(25.35) 2011 (20.09) followed by Bihar 1971 (24.15) 2011 (25.07). Compare to national average 1971 (30.60) 2011 (19.22) and regional average 1971 (22.83) 2011 (32.81) and the states with low density are 1971 Orissa (20.16) 2011 (13.97) Chhattisgarh 1971 (20.38) 2011 (22.59) It has uniform growth rate Pattern in 1971 and 2011.(17.14%) states are there in this category. . The growth rate of human population over the decade has shown consistent increase within the states,regional average 1971 (22.83) and 2011(32.81) and the national average 1971 (30.60) and 2011(19.22).
N E REGION 1971-81 1981-91 1991-01 2001-11 Total 304.4 227.18 205.49 138.29 Regional Avg 38.05 28.39 25.68 17.28 National Avg 30.60 23.86 21.34 19.22
The growth rate in the Northeastern region show in table, In which Sikkim in 1971 (50.72) and 2011(12.36) followed by Nagaland 1971(50.27) 2011(-0.42).as compare to national average 1971(30.60) 2011(19.22) and regional average 1971 (38.05) 2011(17.28) and state with low density 1971 Assam (23.35) 2011(16.93) and Tripura 1971(31.91)
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2011(14.75). It has uniform growth rate pattern in 1971 and 2011. 20% states are there in this category. The growth rate of human population over the decade has shown consistent decrease within the states ,regional average 1971 (38.05) and 2011(17.28) and the national average in 1971 (30.60) and 2011(19.22).
WESTERN REG 1971-81 1981-91 1991-01 2001-11 Total 205.4 183.61 222.02 196.89 Regional Avg 29.34 26.23 31.71 28.12 National Avg 30.60 23.86 21.34 19.22
Western region show, Dadra and Nagar Haveli 1971 (39.28) 2011(58.55) followed by Rajasthan 1971 (33.36) 2011(21.44).as comprise to national average 1971 (30.60) 2011 (19.22) and regional average 1971(29.34) 2011(28.12) and the states with low density are Maharashtra 1971 (24.53) 2011 (15.99) and Goa 1971 (26.68) 2011(8.17).It has uniform growth ratepattern 1971 and 2011, nearly 20% states are in this category. The growth rate of human population over the decade has shown consistent decrease within the states regional average 1971 (29.34) and 2011(28.12) and the national average in 1971 (30.60) and 2011 (19.22).
NORTHERN REG 1971-81 1981-91 1991-01 2001-11 Total 262.24 215.89 200.23 126.06 Regional Avg 37.46 30.84 28.60 18.00 National Avg 30.60 23.86 21.34 19.22
The growth rate in the Northern region show In which Chandigarh 1971 (76.18) 2011 (17.01) followed by Delhi 1971 (52.98) 2011 (20.96).as comprise to national average 1971 (30.60) 2011 (19.22) and regional average in 1971 (37.46) and in 2011 (18.00) and the states with low density are 1971 Himachal Pradesh (23.70) 2011 (12.81) and Punjab 1971 (23.89) 2011 (13.73) . It has uniform growth rate pattern from 1971 and 2011. 20% states are there in this category. The growth rate of human population over the decade has shown consistent decrease within the states ,regional average 1971 (37.46) 2011(18) and the national average 1971 (30.60) 2011 (19.22)
SOUTHERN REG 1971-81 1981-91 1991-01 2001-11 TOTAL 162.2 191.01 115.16 93.15 REGIONAL AVG 23.17 27.28 16.45 13.3 NATIONAL AVG 30.6 23.86 21.34 19.22
In Southern region shows Andaman and Nicobar island 1971 (63.53) 2011 (6.68) followed by Karnataka 1971 (26.74) 2011(15.67).as comprise to national average 1971(30.60) 2011 (19.22) and regional average 1971(23.17) 2011 (13.30) and the states 71 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
with low density are 1971 Kerala ( 9.01) 2011(4.86) and Tamil Nadu 1971 (17.49) 2011(15.06).It has uniforms growth rate pattern 1971 and 2011.22.85% states are there in this category. . The growth rate of human population over the decade has shown consistent decrease within the states ,regional average 1971 (23.17) 2011(13.3) and the national average 1971 (30.60), 2011(19.22).
REGIONWISE DISTRIBUTION OF GROWTH RATE OF INDIA FROM 1971 TO 2011
REGION 71-81 81-91 91-01 01-11 SOUTH 23.17 27.28 16.45 13.3 NORTH 37.36 30.84 28.16 18 EAST 22.83 30.95 37.03 32.81 WEST 29.35 26.23 31.71 28.12 N.EAST 38.05 28.39 25.68 17.28 TOTAL 151.3 143.69 139.47 109.51
SUMMARY
The distribution of human population in states and union territories in India displayedconsistent increase from 1971 to 2011, some of the regions/states have higher share in comparison to rest of the states where the volume is insignificant, speciallyNortheastern states and Islands. The states like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Delhi and Utter Pradesh haveregistered highest population distribution against other states of India from 1971-2011.The state with highest population in 1971 Uttar Pradesh with the population of 8.3 Crore and in 2011 is Uttar Pradesh with population of 19.9 Crore. The state with lowestin 1971 Lakshadweep Island (32,000) 2011 (64,000). Out of all the states and union territories of India the rate of increase of human population is increasing as well, with inconsistency in their size.
The growth rate, andgrowth trend of human population in all five regions of India from 1971-2011. increase in the growth rate in India 1971- 1981,(30.6) against 2001-2011 (19.22).because of the less increase in the population and also because of awareness among the general public on better, and quality family life.In 1971-1981 the highest growth rate among the states and union territory having highest population is Chandigarh (76.18) and in 2011 it has decreased 17.01 but in 2011, the state with highest growth rate is Dadra & Nagar (58.55) and in 1971 it was 39.28. There increase in growth rate of Dadra & Nagar from 1971-2011,One may summarize that there is decrease in growth rate from 1971-2011 .In all the major states and union territory of India.
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BLIOGRAPHY 1 Directorate of Census Govt of India 1971 – 2011, Panaji Goa 2 Chandna R.C (1989) A geography of population Kalyani publisher, Ludhiana 3 Kayasta S L (1998) Geography of population New Delhi 4 New Bold B L (2002) Population geography tools and issues 5 Mehata Richa (2007) Population geography New Delhi Internet (www.wikipedia.com) (en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_census_of_India) (en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/census) (en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ census_ of _India) (en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/ census _information of India)
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 01. Jan/Feb. 2021 International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal
Analysis of Medical Facilities in Sawantwadi Taluka of Sindhudurg District Prof. Dr. Shivram Thakur, Head Dept. of Geography, S.P.K. Mahavidyalay, Sawantwadi, Dist : Sindhudurg, Maharastra State, INDIA.
Head Dept. of Geography, Arts And Commerce College, Phondaghat, Dr. Rajaram Patil, Dist : Sindhudurg, Maharastra State, INDIA.
Research Paper Accepted on 26-12-2019 Edited on 05-10-2020
Introduction :
“ Health up to two Thousand Year” this has been suggested by Universal Health Organization in 1978 Century. To achieve this objective attempts were made in cities, villages & Primitive place. But as per increasing population Health facilities should be available.Human health is a very important factor in a social Nation & Economical status depended. The Purposes served by Morbidity Statistics are many. They are essential to public health agencies for the control of disease & epidemics & for the location. Design & Administration of public health & Medical care facilities & services, including rehabilitation Programs and for estimating health man power needs. Voluntary health agencies also rely on morbidity data for their operations in both the solicitation & disbursement of funds. The soundness of voluntary & social insurance plans for medical. Surgical & Hospital care for dependent upon an adequate body of both morbidity & utilization data. Industry is concerned with morbidity as it affects its employs the armed forces has a similar concern with respect to its manpower resources pharmaceutical houses & manufacturers of medical surgical & hospital supplies gauge their markets from morbidity statistics. Many research activities are guide by morbidity statistic, particularly when the data are sufficiently detailed to establish relationships during the course of the disease. Morbidity statistics have in both become of increasing interest in the study of human genetics & also the effects of radiation. Population growth & the associated pressures of development are increasing the difficulties associated with sustaining effective public health practices & policies. Principal concerns include injuries & facilities related to server weather events & heat waves, infection, diseases related to changes in vector biology, Water & food conformation allergic symptoms, related to increased allergen production respiratory &Cardiovascular, disease related too worsening air pollution, & nutritional shortage related to change in food production vector – borne & zoometric diseases water contamination, air borne contaminants, bio – accumulative contaminants in the food chain & environmental threats to public health. The world requires marshaling at all our scientific knowledge & knows – how to develop new solutions. There is scientific consensus that the global climate is changing with rising surface temperatures melting ice & snow, rising sea, levels & increasing climate variability these changes are expected to have substantial impacts on human health. There is known, effective public health, responses for many of these impacts but the scope,
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timeline & complexity of climate changes are unprecedented. The major public health problem. Medical institutions of one or the other types are function in villages. the village enjoying medical facilities through primary health centers sub centers & dispensaries served not only the resident population of concerned villages but also those residing in surrounding villages availability of medical facility are depend as per the distribution of villages according to the distance range from nearest statutory town. At the time when agriculture was developed some twelve thousands years ago, world population did not exceed 10 million. After the invention of agriculture, increases in food supply helped in the substantial growth of the population. During the twelve thousand years between the discovery of agriculture & the advent of the industrial revolution, the population increased continuously, but at a very slow pace. In the middle of the19th century, medical facilities was increased. Various & advanced medicines was came through research, because of these reasons population was rapidly increased. Increasing population found in mainly developing countries. At present in developing countries population is very high. So more deficiency found in primary human facilities like food, drinking water, house shade, education & medical facilities. Factors affecting the utilization or consumption of medical facilities are also important matters. These are not merely organizational or economic, but are often strongly cultural & perceptual, perception, distance & transportation all affect accessibility & utilization. Geographers are constantly preoccupied with decisions relating to optimum location & optimization of location. Aim and Objective:
1.To find out the availability of Medical facilities in Sawantwadi Taluka. 2.To Study the Distribution of Medical facilities in Sawantwadi Taluka
Hypothesis :
Distribution of Medical facilities in Sawantwadi Taluka is uneven.
Sources of data Collection :
In the present study data has been collection from various Journals, Books District Census Hand Books, Sindhudurg, Socio-Economic review and District abstract of Sindhudurg, Sawantwadi Municipal corporation Office, Statistical Information, Internet etc.
Methodology :
Research paper is based on mainly secondary sources for Interpreted of collection data Maps are used for show the distribution of Medical facilities, various statistical Methods are used for Research paper.
The Study Region: Sawantwadi Taluka is one of the taluka in Sindhudurg District. It situated south of Sindhudurg District. Sawantwadi Taluka lies between 15037’ North to 16040’ North
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latitude and 73019’ East to 74013’ East longitude. It covers an area 837.78 sq. km. and having total population is 148990 persons according to 2001. In this Taluka 85 Villages and one Town i.e Sawantwadi. Its population Density is 178 person per sq. km. Physiographically Sawantwadi is Rough and Rug.
Avaibility of Medical facilities.
In Sawantwadi Taluka 85 villages and 1 Town is Present. In this Taluka various Medical facilities are available.
Table No.1 Sawantwadi Taluka Medical Facilities
Sr. Medical Facilities No. Of No. Facilities 1 Hospital 02 2 DA (Dispensary Ayurvedic) 08 3 PHC (Primary Health Center) 06 4 PHS 37 5 RMP 65 6 SMP 09 7 CHW 25 8 D (Dispensary) 09 Total 161
Table No.1 shows the Medical facilities in Sawantwadi taluka. Only 2 Hospital Facilities are found in Sawantwadi taluka, DA (Dispensary Ayurvedic) are 8 , Primary Health Care Center i 6 , PHS are 37, RMP are highest in 65 No., SMP are 9 , CHM are 25 and Dispensary are 9 No. of Medical Facilities in Sawantwadi taluka.
Size Of Population and Distribution of Medical facilities :-
To Study the distribution of Medical facilities in Sawantwadi Taluka, all the villages are distribute in different category. These category based on population size i.e. below 400, 401 – 800, 801 - 1200 , 1201 – 1600, 1601 – 2000, 2001 – 2400 and above 2401 population.
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Table No. 02 Sawantwadi Taluka Distribution of Medical Facilities Sr. Size Of No. Of Percentage Medical Percentage No. Population Villages Facilities 1 Below – 400 10 11.76 4 5.88 2 401 – 800 19 22.35 13 19.12 3 801 – 1200 15 17.65 11 16.17 4 1201 – 1600 12 14.12 12 17.62 5 1601 – 2000 06 7.06 05 7.35 6 2001 – 2400 04 4.71 04 5.88 7 Above - 19 22.35 19 27.94 2401 Total -85 Total - 68
In Sawantwadi Taluka in below – 400 categories 10 (11.76%) No. of villages had 4 (5.8%) Medical facilities. There are six villages were not available Medical facilities i.e. Bhom, Savarjara, Sarmale, Dabhil, Udeli, Gharap. In 401 – 800 categories 19 (22.35%) No. of villages had 13 (19.12%) medical facilities. There are five villages were not found Medical facilities i.e. Konas, Bhalawal, Padve Majgoan ,Padve Dinghe, Dongarpal. In 801-1200 categories 15 (17.65%) No. of Villages had 11 (16.17 %) medical facilities. There are 4 Villages were not found Medical facilities i.e. Galel, Padlos, Satose, Satele Tarf Satarda. In 1601-2000 categories 6 (7.06%) No. of villages had 5 (7.35) medical facilities. There are 1 village were not found medical facilities i.e. Kavathani. In 1201- 1600, 2001 – 2400 & above 2401 categories same no of villages and same no of medical facilities i.e. 35 villages & 35 medical facilities.
Table No.03 Sr. Medical Facilities Sawantwadi Sindhudurg No. Taluka District 1 Hospitals 02 15 2 Allopathic Hospitals - 05 3 Ayurvedic Dispensary 08 50 4 Dispensary Homeopathic - 19 5 Maternity & Child welfare - 08 6 Maternity Homes - 19 7 CWE – HC - 02 8 Primary Health Centers 06 37
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9 PHS 37 245 01 Family Welfare Center - TB - 03 11 Nursing Home - 04 12 RMP 65 424 13 SMP 09 40 14 CHW 25 459 15 Dispensary 09 25 16 Child welfare Center - 02 Total 161 1357
Table No.3 it is shows that the picture of comparison of No. of Medical Facilities available in Sawantwadi Taluka and Sindhudurg District. Total 1357 number of Medical Facilities are in Sindhudurg .Out of 1357 Medical Facilities only 161 Medical Facilities were found in Sawantwadi Taluka. i.e. 11.86% of the total %. In Sawantwadi Taluka there is 08 Facitities of Ayurvedic Dispensary,06 Primary Health Centers, RMP 65,SMP 09,CHW 25. In Sawantwadi Taluka there is not a single facility of Allopathic Hospitals, Dispensary Homeopathic ,Maternity & Child welfare, Maternity Homes, CWE – HC Family Welfare Center - TB, Nursing Home, Child welfare Center. Conclusion Only 2 Hospital Facilities are found in Sawantwadi taluka, DA(Dispensary Ayurvedic) are 8 , Primary Health Care Center i 6 , PHS are 37, RMP are highest in 65 No., SMP are 9 , CHM are 25 and Dispensary are 9 No. of Medical Facilities in Sawantwadi taluka. In Sawantwadi Taluka there are sixteen villages were not available Medical facilities i.e. Bhom, Savarjara, Sarmale, Dabhil, Udeli, Gharap Konas, Bhalawal, Padve Majgoan ,Padve Dinghe, Dongarpal, Galel, Padlos, Satose, Satele Tarf Satarda, Kavathani. In Category of 1201- 1600, 2001 – 2400 & above 2401 same no of villages and same no of medical facilities i.e. 35 villages & 35 medical facilities. In Sindhudurg District total1357 Medical Facilities are available out of them only 161 Medical Facilities are found in Sawantwadi Taluka. i.e. 11.86% of the total %. References –
1) Desai P.B. (Sept. 2012) Primary Health Centre and Rural Women Health, Journal of multidimensional Research ,Vol-1,pp135. 2) Lokhande T.N. Kale V.P.( Jan.-Feb.2014) Spatial Distribution of Health care Facilities in Nanded District- International Interdisciplinary Research Journal , Voi.-IV-pp316-325. 3) M. Durairaj,V. Rajani (Oct.2013) Data Mining Applications in Healthcare Sector, International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research , Vol.2,pp 29- 78 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 01. Jan/Feb. 2021 International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal
Origin and Growth of Bilaspur City- A Historical Approach
(Mrs) Z. T. Khan, Dipankar Bera, Ex-Professor & Dean of Science Faculty, SOS in Geography, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, (CG) India Dipankar Bera, Research Scholar, Email: [email protected]
Research Paper Accepted on 18-04-2020 Edited on 10-09-2020 Abstract
The study of the origin and evolution of a city is mainly the study of different stages of its growth through which the life of the city has been passed. Till the 19th or 20th century the people had not come in contact with industrial development. In India, most of the cities grew from small villages due to physical, cultural, political, and historical factors. In the case of Bilaspur once it was a small fishery village which was situated on the bank of Arpa River but day by day the cultural and the historical events changed it into a small town and it became a city.The main objectives of the research paper is to study the sequence of growth, in four historical periods, which is the main changing characteristic of the basic fundamental elements of the city and analyses the evolution of Bilaspur city over almost 400 years.The present study is based on field survey and imperial data, which was collected from the District gazetteer. Several old maps and present maps are compared to get the details of changes in the city.At the beginning of the year, 1571 city had the ‘infantile stage’ of a city began to rise with one state among the residential house.In the British period, the city has included in 'Juvenile Stage' of urban growth. But presently the city belongs to 'Late Mature Stage'. In the last decade the growth showed a peculiar tendency of urbanization outside area which layout of the limit of the town and were suburban. Some multi-growth centers have started functioning as urban center and these have been later on included into the Municipal limit. The expansion crossed the railway lines too in some places.
Key Wards: Multi-Growth Centre, Suburban, Infantile Stage, Juvenile Stage, Late Mature Stage. Introduction The origin of towns came into binge as early as 6000-5000 B.C. (Davis et al.)But these were mostly based on Neolithic agrarian culture. According to Wheeler urban culture of Indus-valley flourished during 2500-1500 B.C. With its prime centerMohenjo- Daro,where the presence of copper and bronze affected the way of life. Egypt had an earlier beginning and was the crossroad of ancient world civilization. The Nile valley as well as the copper belt of the Sinai Peninsula gave impetus to the contemporary urban revolution.Mesopotamia formed the Doab of Tigris and Euphrates rivers where a fertile belt, also known as ‘Fertile Crescent gave rise to empires known as Sumerian, Babylonian,
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Assyrian, and Children (Varma, 2006).Around 1000B.c. in the Gangetic plains Aryans settlement spread from Kurukshetra to Pataliputra. The study of the origin and evolution of a city is mainly the study of different stages of its growth through which the life of the city has been passed. Thus it gives a living and interesting study of the physical and cultural development of the present urban landscape, which the city has attained so for. Till the 19th or 20th century the people had not come in contact with industrial development. In India, most of the cities grew from small villages due to physical, cultural, political, and historical factors. In the case of Bilaspur once it was a small fishery village which was situated on the bank of Arpa River but day by day the cultural and the historical events changed it into a small town and it became a city (Khan, 1994). Literature Review Ahmad (1945) has summarized in the case of India, the village origin, religious origin as well as industrial, commercial, transport, and whim of rulers as factors of urban origin and growth.Dickinson(1967) argued that “having determined precisely the physical conditions of situation and site which affected the beginnings of the urban settlement, the geographer examines how, with time, the settlement utilizes adapts itself to, and transforms these conditions in the process of its formation and expansion. History must be made sub diary to this main object”.Taylor (1945) has traced the cyclic character of city development and argued that a town reaches the end stage of one cycle with the decay of previous civilization of which it was a product and it begins a new life with the imposition of a new civilization. The cultural background of an urban center cannot be fully comprehended without knowledge, its history of origin, and evolution.Garnier et al. (1967) concluded that the establishment of a factory, the discovery of mineral deposits, and a good network communication area or crossing point has the role of transformed a village to a town. Study Area Bilaspur City population is 3, 35, 293, (2011census), which is the Third-largest city after Raipur and Bhilai-Durg. Bilaspur city is located on the bank of Arpa River with latitude 22o6'5'' N to 22o6’30’’N and longitude 82o6'45'' E to 82o12'5'' E. The Bilaspur city is the commercial capital of the state of Chhattisgarh (See Fig.1)
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Objectives 1.Main goal of the research paper is to study the sequence of growth, in fourhistorical periods,which is the main changing characteristic ofthe basic fundamental elements of the city. 2. To analyses the evolution of Bilaspur city over almost 400 years. Sources of Data and Methodology The present study is based on field survey and secondary imperial data, which was collected from theDistrict gazetteer. Several old maps and present maps are compared to get the details of changes in the city. Advanced cartographic techniques have been used for evolution maps (see fig.2). Nomenclature According to historical records and the settlement evidence, there is a vivid description of Bilaspur's history and its source and establishment of the city of Bilaspur. Approx. four hundred years ago, Bilaspur was the center of transportation of Chhattisgarh, was a dense forest area. The river Arpa, a non-perineal tributary of the Seonath, was
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running through it and some huts of the fisherman located on the bank of the river. The available records and life nature tells about the tragic story of a fisherwoman and their hamlet, from where the name Bilaspur was coined. The name 'Bilaspur' was kept to give a lasting commemoration to a fisherwoman rolled Belasa. The name of the city, Bilaspur came from the name of the girl, 'Bilasa' who was the daughter of a poor fisherman who used to live in the slum area (Kila ward). Ratanpur raja was having a feeling towards Bilasa and expressed to marry her but being conflicted about this issue she sunk on the river to protect her dignity. In popular belief, many people consider this settlement covered with Palash tree as palashpur or Belaspur also known as Bilaspur. There is no mention of the Settlement of Bilaspur before 1770. Origin and Historical growth of Bilaspur City The first settlement in Bilaspur was found in the 16th century by a group of fishermen. When the Mughals ruled India. This settlement was named 'Bilaspur' after a fisherwoman named ‘Bilasa’at that time. This settlement was in the form of a small settlement along the eastern bank of the Arpa River, this place is known as Pachri Ghat of Juna Bilaspur. In 1571 Chhattisgarh was under Haihay Vanshi Rajputs, whose capital was Ratanpur, under the Bilaspur settlement, there was only a road developed with fishermen’s houses and some retail shop. The origin and historical growth of Bilaspur city can be divided into the four historical periods that are following I. Haihay Rajput Period (After1570) II. Maratha Period (1741-1818 and 1830-1853) III. British Period (1818-1830 and 1853-1943) IV. Post-independence Period (1947- up to date) I. Haihay Rajput Period (After1570) In the 16th century, when the Mughals ruled over India, the Haihay Vonsai Rajputs reached its last stage. The 44th Kalyan Sai, who obtained the title 'Mahammad' from Akbar, was first extended to the landlocked and isolated region of Chhattisgarh. He maintained an army consisting of 14,200 men to protest against the external foreign attacks. During the Haihay Dynasty Bilaspur seems to have come into its real existence. The original center of Bilaspur from where the general characteristics of the ‘sub infantile stage of a city’ began to rise (The Gazetteer of the Central Provinces of India,1984). But there was no symbol and existence of this slum are before 1770.In1742 Bhaskar Panth who belonged to Haiya Dynasty defeated Raghunath Singh and became the king of Ratanpur and established the administration. Raghunath Singh established again own administration after the death of Bhaskar panth in 1755.Ratanpurwas regained by Radhaji-I.
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Biswaji achieved the state of Chhattisgarh and Ratanpur was its Capital. Biswaji lived in Ratanpur on the duration of 1758-1787. One day Biswaji stayed at night in the slum (Fishermen’s huts) to take rest and he started to build a kila on the bank of the river Arpa in 1770 but he could not complete that kila. Pachari Ghat was built where water transport (Boat) was availed to go to Ratanpur. After the death of Biswaji, his widow wife, Anada Bai got the power and wanted to keep his dynasty and she appointed a commander–in–Chief from 1788 to 1816. She was attacked by the Maratha. Later on, Chattisgarh and Bilaspur were controlled by the Power of British and Their administration. II. Maratha Period (1741-1818 and 1830-1853) Maratha General, Bhaskar Panth declared the whole Chhattisgarh from 1741-1853 but in middle, from 1818-1830 it was ruled by British but later the Maratha ruled again until 1853. In 1770 the Maratha commander, Keshav Choose Bilaspur as his administrative headquarter and started to build a fort named 'Pachri Ghat' at Juna Bilaspur. But it could not be completed due to some unavoidable reasons. Still, this fort is seen in that place.Thus Bilaspur achieved its political importance in the Maratha period because of its site and situation. III. British Period (1818-1830 and 1853-1943) In the British period, Bilaspur was the headquarters of the Central Provinces Agency for recruiting labor for the Assam Tea Gardens. Britishers started developing the name of the Bengal-Nagpur railway. The railway line passes through Bilaspur, for that reason Bilaspur developed into an important commercial and transport hub. In 1856, the British declared Bilaspur as a tehsil and started establishing administrative offices here. In 1861 it was declared a district. In 1867, Bilaspur city got the status of a Nagar Panchayat. The Bilaspur Nagar Panchayat was set up of the villages, namely Bilaspur, Chantapara, and Kududand. At that time it was divided into 3 wards- Chantapara, Golbazar, and old Bilaspur. Golbazar developed into a major market along the east bank of the river. It was the west of old Bilaspur. In the west part of Golbazar, a new residential area Chantapara was developed. Expansion of railway Bilaspur rail station was constructed in 1890 on the Bengal-Nagpur railway line, about 3 km. from the city towards south direction. This led to the development of the city in the south direction as well. Railway colony was also proposed to settle railway employees in the area of 1 sq. km. of the station. The town hall was established in 1859 and the church in 1907. In 1891, the railway line was extended to katni in the northeast. This led to Bilaspur becoming an important rail junction. As a result, it was made a divisional headquarters. The city had become a population of 18,937 in 1901. In the 19th century areas like Sadar Bazar, Masanganj Juna line, and Chantapara developed in this period. Important landmarks like railway station, railway colony, court building, hospital, Golbazar, police line, high school, main post office, rest house, tehsil office, and 83 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
company garden were also constructed during this period. Some industries such as tasar (Kosa) silk, cotton, brass utensils, etc. also flourished during this period. In the first half of the 20th century During the II world war, the Sarakanda pool was built over the Arpa River in 1920. Due to this, the northern part of the river was connected with the southern part and the flow of development also started spreading to the north direction. Villages in the north a new construction was started such as Sarkanda and Chantidin. This resulted in further expansion in the urban area. To provide better facilities in the newly developed areas, the Nagar Panchayat was expanded in 1913 and divided into 14 wards. The total population of Bilaspur in 1921 was 24,295 Koni village was situated near Bilaspur- Katghora road on 5 km distance from Bilaspur city. In 1941, the boundary of Bilaspur Nagar Panchayat was redefined and divided into 14 wards (see table 1). They were Juna Bilaspur, Bilaspur Najul (Formerly Umbrella or Bilaspur Cantonment), Kududand, Jarabhata, and Talapara
Fig. No.2
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IV. After independence in 1947-71 In 1958, the range of Nagar Panchayat was expanded to include 2 villages, Sarakanda and Chantidih, north of the Arpa river and Torwa village east of old Bilaspur. Now the area of Nagar Panchayat is increased to 21.24 sq. km., which covering 24 wards. Special attention was paid to the development of social facilities, such as educational institutions, government offices, banks, etc., the following are some of the major factors that have helped in the growth and development of the city (See Fig.3). 1. Immigration After independence, many Sindhi people migrated from Pakistan to India and settled in Bilaspur. This caused the population of the city increased from 39,099 in 1951 to 86,706 in 1961. Due to relocation of the locomotive workshop from Kharagpur to Bilaspur in 1961, the Railways had to build new colonies for its employees. All these events increased the population of the city rapidly and increased to 86,706 in 1961 and 1, 36,636 in 1971 (Census of India). 2. Koni-An Emerging Educational center In 1980, in the view of the needs of the people, the government came up with one Technical Institute and established an engineering college in Koni village. Due to these development activities increased here even though the village was not in the Nagar Panchayat border. Guru Ghasidas University was also established in 1983 in this village. 3. Public Facilities Nagar Panchayat built many types of infrastructure such as water supply, rainwater drainage, solid waste disposal, street lights, roads, education, health, and recreation, etc. that helped population growth at that time. In 1967, without any change in the limits of the Nagar Panchayat, the wards were re- delimited from 24-31. 4. Industrialization Industrialization among the main industries of the city was cotton and tasar silk-cutting mills, other industries including paddy dal, saw, and steel rolling mills. In the 1970s, 25 such industries had been registered at the district industries center. 5. Technical Institution With the establishment of technical colleges in the academic and administrative Koni village, Bilaspur city developed into an educational center for the surrounding areas. District headquarters, many administrative offices were established here for these reasons. These reasons greatly encouraged immigration and urban development in the city. After 1971 Bilaspur city emerged as a city cluster in 1971 in addition to Nagar Panchayats, surrounding villages such as Tifra, Deorikhurd, Kududand, Ameri, and Mangla were also involved. In these villages, like the city, physical development was taking place due to this reason, they were called outgrowth. In 1973, the boundary of the Nagar Panchayat was 85 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
rerecorded without any increase, enumerated, and divided into 35 wards (See Fig.No.3). Bilaspur Municipal council was up grated into a corporation (Nagar Nigam) on dated 01.01.1981. The growth of the city was instrumental in the establishment of metallurgical and thermal power plants at Korba and Amrkantak. Industrial development on regional routes such Mungeli marg, Raipur road, Shivrinarayan Marg, and Katghora road gave impetus to development in the outlying areas of the city. A new bus terminal was also established on Raipur road in this interval. The place of development was found in the north of the river due to the establishment of Guru Ghasidas University in Koni in 1983 After2000 In 2001 and 2011, Bilaspur municipality had included 55 wards whereas in 1991 ward limit was 48. In 2014 during the municipal election, Municipal boundary was an extended and reconstructed boundary and divided into 66 wards, based on total voter’s inwards (see table1).While the northern part of development into an institutional cum residential, the southern part like Silpahri, Sirgitti, etc. had emerged as industrial centers. Major activities related to transport in this industrial center such as Transport Nagar at Parasada, Bridget Sirgitti (which used to connect with Raipur road), etc. were also established. From these industrial areas, several ancillary industries originated in nearby villages. Which gave the villagers considerable employment. With the establishment of the state of Chhattisgarh in November 2000. The High Court was established with employee accommodation in Bodri village. The establishment of the High Court paved the way for the construction of several residential colonies. Apollo Hospital was established in October 2001 at Chatidihi village. It was the first multispecialty hospital in Chhattisgarh. The 300-bed hospital had been set up on a 19-acre campus. Table 1. Structural changes in Bilaspur Municipal Corporation Limit. Census No. of wards of No. of Ward of Bilaspur City Total No.of years Railway colony Ward West part of Arpa East part of Arpa River River 1951 12 14 Nil 14 1961 12 21 3 24 1971 12 27 4 31 1981 12 30 5 35 1991 12 35 7 42 2001 7* 39 9 55 2011 7 39 9 55 2016 7 44 15 66 Source: Bilaspur Municipal Corporation, 2016.*12th wards were merged into 7th wards.
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GROWTH OF BILASPUR CITY, 1961-2016
Fig.no.3
Potential Development centers Sakri village on Mungali-Bilaspur road had emerged as a major development center.But with the development of the bridge, the connection between Bilaspur and Sakri become smooth and many new colonies started to develop in sakri.Abridge over the railway line is under construction in Mahmand village on the Bilaspur-Shivrinarayan route with the completion of this bridge, the pace of development will increase in Mahmand and nearby villages also. Major events mentioned in the above-mentioned history of Bilaspur are as follows: 1. In the 16th century establishment of Bilaspur settlement. 2. 1856-The British declared Bilaspur a tehsil 3. 1861-Bilaspur was declared a district.
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4. 1867-Bilaspur city got the status of a Nagar Panchayat. 5. 1859-Town hall was established. 6. 1907-Church was established. 7. 1889- Development of Raipur-Bilaspur railway line 8. 1890-Development of Raigarh-Bilaspur railway line. 9. 1890- Construction of Bilaspur railway station building had completed and Formed as a divisional headquarters of South Eastern Central Railway. 10. 1891- Railway line extended to the north-east katni line. 1920-The Sarakenda bridge was constructed over the Arpa River. After the development of the communication network, some power loom and small scale industry was set up at Chatidihi and Sarkanda village. 11. 1939-1945 During II world war Koni village, which is nearby Bilaspur-Katghora road was converted into a cantonment. 12. 1961-The locomotive shed and workshop was moved from Kharagpur to Bilaspur. 13. 1960-I.T.I. and Engineering college was established at Koni village. 14. 1983- Established of Guru Ghasidas University in Koni village. 15. November 2000-Highcourt established in Bodri village. 16. October 2001-Apollo hospital was established.
Conclusion Concluding the trend of origin and growth of the city around the world as well as India, this may be strongly established that the underlying reasons are multifarious ranging from economic to cultural, social, and political (Verma,2006).Whereas physical factors like relief,slope gradient,drainage pattern, undergroundwater, soil fertility, etc. affect its location,cultural,social, and economic factors play a dominant role in affecting its evolution and growth.The changing equations of these factors lead to a rise and fall in the importance and growth of the city. In the Ganga plain during ancient times due to the utilization of rivers as a means of transport and big cities thrived along their banks. But during the British period and modern time the development of rail and road transport has led to the decline of a number of these cities (Tiwari, 2020). Infect Bilaspur is an overgrown village. Its growth is mostly unplanned and uncontrolled (Khan, 1994).In Haihay dynasty period Bilaspur had political importance. But in the British period, the city was developed as a transport city. Now the city includes a commercial hub in central India. At the beginning of the year, 1571 city had the 'Sub- infantile stage' (Taylor, 1945) of a city began to rise with one state among the residential house. Juna Bilaspur was regarded as the origin place of the city. In the British period, the city has included in 'Juvenile Stage' (Taylor, 1945) of urban growth.But presently the city belongs to 'Late Mature Stage'.In the last decade the growth showed a peculiar tendency of urbanization outside area like Vinoba Nagar, Vidya Nagar, Nehru Nagar, Vikas Nagar, 88 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
which layout of the limit of the town and were suburban. Some multi-growth centers have started functioning as urban center and these have been later on included into the Municipal limit. The expansion crossed the railway lines too in some places. References: 1. Ahmad, Enayat, Geographical Essays in India, Kusum Prakashan, Patna, 1954. 2. Davis, K. and Hertz, H. The Pattern of World Urbanization, New York. 3. Dickinson, R. E. The Scope and Status of Urban Geography-An Assessment, in Mayer, H. M., and Kohn,C. F. Readings in Urban Geography, Central Book Depot, Allahabad, 1967. 4. District Gazetteer of Bilaspur, Govt. of M.P. Bhopal, 1998. 5. Garnier, J. B, and Chabot, G. Urban Geography, Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd., 1967. 6. Grant Charles (Etd.) The Gazetteer of the Central Provinces of India, Usha Publication, New Delhi, 1984. 7. Khan, Z. T. Bilaspur- A Study in Urban Geography, Northern Book Centre, New Delhi, 1994. 8. Taylor Griffith “Age The Seven Age of Town” in Journal of Economic Geography, Taylor and Francis Ltd. Vol.21, No.3, July, 1945 PP. 157-160. 9. Tiwari, R. C. Settlement Geography, Pravalika Publication, Prayagraj, 2020. 10. Varma L. N. Urban Geography, Rawat Publication, Jaipur, 2004 11. Wheeler, Civilization of the Indus valley.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 01. Jan/Feb. 2021 International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal
An Analysis of Geomorphic Influences and Anthropogenic Influences
on cliff Destruction in Varkala Coast, Kerala Athulya, Research Student, Kalady University, Ernakulam, Kerala
Research Paper Accepted on 26-12-2019 Edited on 05-09-2020
Introduction
The importance of geography is physical geography and human geography. Geomorphology is defined as the science of landforms with an emphasis on their origin, evolution, form and distribution across the physical landscape. Geomorphologic features are coast, shore, and cliff which are constantly shaping by geographic process. Coastal geomorphology is the study of the morphological development and evolution of the coast as it acts under the influence of winds, waves, currents and sea level changes.
The cliff is the most important erosional feature of the coast and coastline is eroded to form a cliff. Sea cliffs are formed by the erosional process of coast. The most widespread landforms of erosional coasts are sea cliffs. These very steep to vertical bedrock cliffs range from only a few meters high to hundreds of meters above sea level. Their vertical nature is the result of wave induced erosion near sea level and the subsequent collapse of rocks at higher elevation. Many coastal locations, there is a thin, narrow form of sediments forming a beach along the base of sea cliffs. Cenozoic sedimentary formation cliffs are a unique geological feature on the flat Kerala coast. The cliff formation is a slow process and affecting factors are geology, rainfall, soil erosion, wave action and slope. Gradually physical processes are affecting the cliff deterioration. Tourism activity and other anthropogenic activities are affected on the cliff destruction.
Location of the study area
Varkala is a major commercial, tourism region in Thiruvananthapuram district. It is located between 8° 43' 59.88" N and 76° 43' 0.12" E. Varkala is a coastal town and elevation is 191m. Varkala is the only place in Kerala where cliffs are found adjacent to the Arabian Sea. Cliff are a unique geological feature on the flat Kerala coast, are known among geologists as Varkala Formation and a national geological monument as declared by the Geological Survey of India for their protection, maintenance, promotion and enhancement of ecotourism. Varkala is an important place as far as Kerala Geology is concerned as it exposes sedimentary rocks belonging to the Cenozoic age, popularly known in the Geological literature as the Warkalli formation. Varkala has a moderate humid climate. It has heavy rains during June to August due to a south-west monsoon. In summer,
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the temperature rises to a maximum of 32°C and 31°C in the winter time. The Varkala Municipality has population of 40,048 of which 18,312 are males while 21,736 are females. The cliff is located at the papanasam beach side and is adjacent to the north to south portion of the varkala beach. The selected geographical area of the study is Varkala is a coastal town which is located on the north-western portion of the Thiruvanathapuram District. It is a major tourist; religious, commercial and traditional place. Varkala is well- known for the holy faith Vavu Bali and the famous social reformer Sreenarayanaguru. Varkala cliff geographically located between 8°43'19.91"N to 76°42’53.35"E latitudes and 8°44'17.15"N to 76°42'0.16"E longitudes. Highest elevation of the study area is 191m and the geographical area of the Varkala town is 15.42 sq. km and the area of cliff is 0.088 sq. km. and width is 2.25 km. The cliff is located at the Papanasam beach side and is adjacent to the north to south portion of the Varkala beach. (Map 1)
Objectives To analyze the geomorphic influence for the formation of Varkala cliff. To identify the main anthropogenic destruction of Varkala cliff. Methods and Techniques Primary and secondary data are used for the study. Primary data includes toposheet - for base map preparation (1:25000, 1:50000), satellite images - Landsat 4 to 8 series for analysing the shoreline changes. Questionnaire survey was carried out for analyzing the problems and population pressure on cliff destruction. Secondary data such as census, technical reports and other statistical data are used for interpreting the study. Results and Discussion
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Mainly the formation and destruction of cliff are due to physical activities, especially geologic, geographic and hydrologic activities. Formation and Destruction of Varkala cliff The formation of the cliff is mainly in three forms. These are geologically, geomorphologically and hydrologically. All three are interconnected and inter linked. The Cliff is unique Geomorphological feature and the formation is based on the Geology. Varkala and adjacent areas form a part of Kerala Khondolite Belt of the Southern Granulite Terrain of India. Three geological formations are formed in the tertiary periods. Main formations are Vaikom formation, Quilon formation and Warkalli formations. The Tertiary sedimentary formations of Kerala basin uncomfortably cover the Precambrians. The name Kerala Basin denotes the southernmost division of a great sedimentary zone spread over a major part of the western continental margin of the Peninsula. Constructive waves and Destructive waves are regularly formed in the Varkala coast. The name indicated that the Constructive waves are constructing many land forms and Destructive waves destructing the landforms. Destructive waves are common in Varkala, because erosional action is high in waves. Destructive waves are formed the cliff, because the destructive waves are creating the erosional landform. It is the most important problem is affected into the cliffs. As the waves move and break against the cliffs, some features are formed and the landform is wave-cut-notch and it is the base of the cliff. Wave action is mainly affected the formation of coast and its landforms. The water of the oceans is in constant motion. The gravitational pull of the sun and moon oscillates the surface of the Oceans twice a day while the wind agitates it into waves. Coastal currents are generally joined to winds, waves and land formations. Wind is the most powerful agent; it forms currents, tides and waves. Currents and tides are the most important agents of the cliff formation. strongest winds creates the currents and the currents create the tides and waves. These things are mostly affect the coast and forming the landforms. Tidal currents happen to stronger near the coast and play and more and more significant role in narrow movement. Mainly trade winds or easterlies are affecting the Kerala coast and the after effects are landform formation and landforms destruction in slowly. Physical Activities Cliff is a physical feature and natural one. Cliff is formed by the some physical activities like currents, tides, waves and wind. These activities are mainly affected the formation and destruction of Varkala cliff. Especially geological, geographical and hydrologic actions are due to the formation and destruction of cliff. Many physical activities are affecting the destruction of cliff are given below; Geology With the presence of warkalli formation in area is capped by hard laterites. These are formed during the second laterisation cycle observed in Kerala. North cliff exposed to
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wildly wave action. North cliff exposes carbonaceous clay witness in Kerala. This soft sandstone is distant eroded by seawater and creation the top laterite overhangs the cliff face. Varkala cliff faces the tension cracks enlarge in the surface which eventually leads to erosion. Sometimes geological tension cracks leads to landslide. Geology of the cliff plays a significant role in formation the cliff. The rock is highly weathered and the soft rocks are eroded and the base rock is consisting the remaining portion. Waves Action Wave action is related to hydrologic activity and mainly Varkala beach is affected by destructive and constructive waves. Destructive waves are high frequency waves and erosional action is high in the coastal areas. The Varkala beach has high waves, due to strong winds. High tides are affecting the cliff area and slowly eroding periodically. Then the soft rocks are suddenly moving to the sea. Rainfall Rainfall is the major geographical action of the destruction of cliff, because the laterite soil is suddenly subjected to leaching and moving. The average annual rainfall is 1900mm and in some instances the area experiences more than 2500mm of rainfall. The south east and north east monsoon is highly influenced in the cliff structure and shape. Carbonaceous clay and laterite soil are highly leached soils and rigorous erosion is happened in the cliff. Slope Slope gradient is a critical factor controlling the distribution of cliff destruction and failure occurs only on slopes exceeding the critical angle for the materials to be moved. Varkala cliff is nearly in vertical shape and formed due to west coast faulting. Weathering is mainly attacks the gently slopes and the affected area become weaker and weaker. Ground water Ground water is the hydrological action for cliff destruction. The most significant attraction of Varkala cliff is a natural mineral spring. Water springs are naturally occurred in the cliff and cliff is a hill, therefore, ground water is contact between the laterite and carbonaceous clay; this is the main reason for the destruction of cliff. Soil erosion Soil is mainly eroded due to the action of waves, rainfall, and weathering. Geographically weathering is affected by the soil and soil erosion is suddenly happened by erosion. The present study identified these problems through questionnaires and by field visit. Varkala cliff is mainly attracted to tourists in times ago. Anthropogenic activities are created by man. The problem associated with cliff destruction is caused by extreme intervention of humans. Anthropogenic actions continuously changed the surface of the earth.
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Among them are pressure of tourists, vehicles, vehicle parking area on the top of the cliff and the shops and resorts. Being an important tourist destination, the tourist influence is growing year after year. The surrounding areas of the cliff were littered by the local population, construction of resorts, restaurants and other shops. They encroached up to the top most space of the cliff. Vehicular movements along the edge of the cliff and parking of vehicles in the helipad area lead to high vulnerability of cliff failure. Main anthropogenic activities are found in the cliff area is given below; Tourist Population The main reason is the pressure of tourist population in all seasons. High human pressure is occuring in papanasam beach and varkala cliff area is due to the vavubali time (July to August), sreenarayana guru festival time from December 30th to January 1st the pilgrim season starting and annual fest for people and janardhanaswami temple festival time, kaliyootu festival is the core attraction of this temple at the festival time of the month is march. This time period tourist population is high in Varkala. The flow of domestic and foreign tourists is attracted to the place is these time periods. They are usually doing to visit cliff area and climbing, taking selfies at the top of the cliff leads to collapse. Table no .1 Tourist arrivals in Varkala 2012-2018
Year Domestic Foreign Tourists Tourists 2012 216248 47659
2013 230922 58105
2014 236441 61311
2015 186147 51599
2016 183482 121508
2017 207518 133658
2018 229365 103602
Source: Kerala tourism Department (2019)
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Fig: 2 Tourist arrivals in Varkala 2012-2018
The above figure shows that the tourist arrival in Varkala from 2012 to 2018. Domestic tourist is high because of the presence of pilgrim centers and foreign tourists are low. From 2012 to 2014 domestic tourist arrivals is highly increasing and from 2015 to 2016 domestic (Fig no.1) tourist arrival is comparatively low due to high destructive waves and sea erosion. The human pressure made by pilgrims, foreign and domestic tourist, ritual population, religious festivals is highly influencing destruction of Varkala cliff. Vehicle Parking Another important problem is vehicle parking. The movement of the vehicles, the noise they make, and their pressure can cause the cliff destruction. Vehicle parking creates pressure on the cliff. It is estimated that an approximate number of these vehicles are usually parking in the helipad area (Fig:2). There is a helicopter landing ground situated near the cliff area, when the helicopter landing on the top pressure will affect the land.
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Fig:1
Constructional Works Construction works on the cliff side causes destruction at high rate. Due to this, some portion has already broken cliff down. The helipad construction at the top of the cliff, resorts construction, balimandapam causes destruction in the cliff. The various combination activities like resorts, restaurents, shops, stairs and others. The study clearly identified that population pressure on Varkala beach and adjacent cliff places are enormously increasing year by year (Fig:1). Varkala is very famous for the tourism activities. Many people are visiting Varkala beach and adjacent tourist places. Most important attraction of the Varkala are Sivagiri mut, Papanasam beach, Janardhana swami temple, Angego fort, Varkala light house and Back water tourism. These are the main destinations of tourists and also these people are visiting Varkala cliff too. Well established facilities attracting the tourists to these places. The number of foreign tourists and domestic tourists are increasing. The following table shows the year wise distribution of tourists. Conclusion
This paper deals with the geomorphic influences are affecting the formation and destruction of varkala cliff. This study mainly focuses on the formation and destruction of cliff in Varkala coast. Warkali formation is mainly based on the geology, and then geographically, hydrologically cliff formation is based on the geographical factors and geomorphological factors. Physical factors and anthropogenic activities are responsible for the destruction of cliff. Cliff formation is the very slowly process, but destruction is the much hidden process. Population pressure is the severe problem on the cliff and constructional works in the surroundings of the cliff area. Important constructional activities are resorts, stairs and shops. Besides of the above reasons are the anthropogenic influences. These affect the destruction and damage of the cliff. Physical activities and anthropogenic activities are equally affecting the Varkala cliff destruction. The problem
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associated with cliff destruction is caused by extreme intervention of humans. Anthropogenic actions continuously changed the cliff surface of the earth. Among them are pressure of tourists, vehicles, vehicle parking area on the top of the cliff and the shops and resorts. The present study clearly identified these problems through questionnaires and by field visit, thematic map preparation, and secondary data. Considering as a rare natural monument it should be protected for future generation
Reference
Agarwal, Amitha. 2000. Indian Ocean and World Peace. New Delhi. Kanishka publishers distributors.Pp.1-41. Dr:N.Balakrishnan. 1994. Kadal Oru Adbhutham. Thiruvananthapuram. The State Institute of Languages.Pp. Dr.A.N.P. Ummarkutty, Kuryan.K.K, Ramachandran.K.K, Thomas.K.V, Sreedharan.C.R.2000.Samudrashasthram. Thiruvananthapuram. The State Institute of Languages.Pp-1-6. Sharma.R.C, Vatal.M. 2001. Oceanography for Geographers. Allahabad. Jain for Chaithanya Publishing House.Pp.1-11,190-215. Hastlet.K.Simon.2009.Coastal Systems.London and Newyork. Routledge Introduction to Environment Series. Singh,Surender. 2011. Geography. New Delhi. Tata Mc Graw Hill Education pvt ltd.Pp-4.1-4.37. Craghan Michael. 2003. Physical Geography: A Self Teaching Guide. Canada. John wiley and sons. Smithson peter, Addison Ken, Atkinson Ken. 2008. Fundamentals of the Physical Environment. USA and Canada. Routledge Publishers. Pp.229-248,400-421.
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THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER Vol. No. 01. Jan/Feb. 2021 International Interdisciplinary Peer Reviewed Research Journal
Health Hazards Caused by Arsenic Contamination A Case Study of Nadia District, West Bengal
Arunima Bhattacharya, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography,
Vidyasagar College For Women, Kolkata, West Bengal
Research Paper Accepted on 26-12-2019 Edited on 05-10-2020 Abstract
The arsenic contamination of groundwater used for drinking purposes has been envisaged as a problem of global concern.This has been reported from many countries but the severity of this contamination in India and Bangladesh is unprecedented. Nadia district of West Bengal is the most prominent of all as 17 of its blocks are suffering from arsenic contamination.The paper highlights on the problem of arsenic contamination in the groundwater of Nadia district of West Bengal and the related health problems of the people there. Arsenic contamination of groundwater poses a serious threat to human health.Arsenic poisoning culminates into potentially fatal diseases like skin and internal cancer. Keratosis has always been associated with pigmentation, but in Nadia, it is present in the population without pigmentation as well. The impact of arsenic on human health is slow but dangerous, so it is also called slow poison. Many of the people in the affected villages are not aware of the contamination of their home tube wells with arsenic. Certain steps taken by the Central and State Governments and other agencies can bring about changes in the level of arsenic contamination in Nadia district and reduce the resultant health impacts- the red markings on the tube wells and water quality monitoring are some of them. Awareness generation and motivation of the people for testing their drinking water sources for arsenic are also important to prevent the further exposure of arsenic to these people.
Keywords: arsenic contamination, human health, arsenicosis, awareness, mitigation.
Introduction The most important pathway of exposure to arsenic in human population is drinking water. The majority of the arsenic problems is related to drinking water which directly comes from groundwater in most districts of West Bengal.When inorganic arsenic forms at the deeper layers of the groundwater, it causes groundwater pollution. This is the main cause of arsenic contamination. The overdraft of groundwater by deep tube wells in the gangetic basin has been the root of the problem.Apart from the naturally occurring arsenic, the human factors that aggravate it are mining, fossil fuels, use of various fungicides and preservatives in agriculture. The arsenic poisoning of West Bengal was first diagnosed by a dermatologist, K.C.Saha of School of Tropical Medicine, Kolkata on 6th July, 1983. At present, the arsenic contamination of groundwater in the state has been detected in 79
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blocks in 9 Districts of the state. Of these, the major affected districts are Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, Burdwan and North and South 24 Parganas. It is estimated that 6 million people are exposed to arsenic contaminated ground water (>50μg/l). Most of the people in the district are showing skin lesions. However, insufficient education, poverty, lack of awareness and ineffective health care support are major factors causing immense plight to severely arsenic affected people.Arsenic free safe water source is not available in all the arsenic affected villages of the state. Study Area The geographical extent of Nadia district lies within 22041’23’’N and 72051’24’’ E longitude. It covers an area of 3927 sq. kms. It is bounded on the north and north-west by the district of Murshidabad, on the south-east by Bangladesh, to the south and east it is bounded by North 24 Parganas district.The district aligns from north to south in an irregular format. The district is about 46ft. above the mean sea-level.
Objective The objective of this paper is to highlight the problem and level of arsenic contamination in water in the blocks of Nadia District. It also reveals the various health problems that are cropping up due to indiscriminate use of arsenic affected water as it is becoming a serious health issue. It also aims at dealing with the adoptive measures in this scenario and the schemes to combat the problem. Methodology The paper heavily relies upon the mixed method- that is both qualitative and quantitative. The methodology used in preparing the article is mostly the secondary sources of information, namely, the books, journals, newspaper and the internet. The Problem
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Nadia district presents a gloomy picture of reality when it comes to arsenic contamination.As per the BIS Standard for drinking water the maximum permissible limit of arsenic concentration in ground water is 0.01 mg/litre. The permissible limit of arsenic in water is taken as 0.05 mg/ litre in the state.However, the situation shows a different picture. The list below gives the name of the blocks of Nadia that are worst affected by arsenic contamination. Table: Affected Blocks of High Arsenic(>0.05 mg/litre)in Ground Water
Max Arsenic Content in Sl No Blocks in Nadia mg/litre 1 Chakdah 0.824 2 Chapra 0.514 3 Hanskhali 0.526 4 Haringhata 0.769 5 Kaliganj 0.995 6 Karimpur I 1.08 7 Karimpur II 0.926 8 Krishnaganj 0.771 9 Krishnanagar I 0.629 10 Krishnanagar II 1.161 11 Nabadwip 0.712 12 Naksipara 0.586 13 Ranaghat I 1.072 14 Ranaghat II 0.741 15 Santipur 0.459 16 Tehatta I 0.544 17 Tehatta II 0.34 Source: Bhujal News: Journal of Central Groundwater Board
Investigations by Central Ground Water Board reveal that the arsenic contamination above 0.05 mg/ litre is highly affecting Nadia district.It is mainly an agriculture based district. According to the official website, irrigation facilities in the district has gone up by 78.05% in 2001. The mode of irrigation here is shallow levels of groundwater, there is an increasing contamination of soil. This has evoked a concern among the locals and the people nearby. Low socio economic conditions, improper education and disguised labour, poverty have contributed much towards the growing problem.
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Source: SOES, Jadavpur University From the above analysis, it appears that the groundwater of entire 17 blocks contains arsenic above the guideline value of arsenic in drinking water.The maximum arsenic contamination level found in this district is in the Tehatta-I block, according to SOES.The ways of contamination are found to be diet, drinking water, inhalation etc.In areas where crops are grown with irrigation water having higher levels of arsenic, the contamination of crops takes place and thus is transferred to humans indirectly. The Effects on Human Health The incidence of this disease was found to be significantly high (57.8%) in males compared to females (42.2%).When individuals fall victim of the disease it affects the life, livelihood and earning capacities of individuals. Deterioration in physical appearance makes women socially excluded. The arsenic contamination of a region, on a large scale, produces societal stress, disability in individuals, poverty and low income of the affected families. This problem can therefore be solved by debarring the residents of the district to drink contaminated water. However, in many locations, safe locations of arsenic free tube wells were not available. Other multi-systemic common features in arsenic affected blocks include burning and watering of eyes, weight loss, and weakness, loss of appetite, pulmonary tuberculosis, respiratory complaints, dyspepsia, enlarged lever and collection of fluid in the abdomen. Discussion The social consequences of the disease is far reaching as they are mostly found among poor and less educated people. Many public water sources including piped water supply system were found to be contaminated with arsenic in this study. Though some seriously arsenic affected people including cancer patients gave history of attending arsenic referral centres
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at Kolkata, they failed to get admission because of paucity of beds. Moreover, the cost of detecting the disease, treatment and hospital charges can be immense for most of them to afford. As there is no early perceptible symptom or sign of arsenic toxicity and the people are less educated, they are reluctant to test their water sources for arsenic and continue to drink arsenic contaminated water. Social counselling need to be given to the people in the community, to avoid social stigmatization of women and children, with arsenic-induced skin lesions. They need to be convinced that arsenical skin disease is neither infectious nor hereditary and hence need not be segregated from others. Due to a general lack of awareness, people suffer silently fearing ridicule and ostracism. Victims rarely report disease early. The impact on the livelihood of people remains underestimated. The various clinical manifestations of arsenicosis are crippling. Nine districts (Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, North-24-Parganas, South-24-Parganas, Bardhaman, Howrah, Hoogly and Kolkata), where more than 300 µg/L arsenic concentrations were found in tubewells are categorized as severely affected. Certain steps taken by the Central and State Government and other agencies can bring about changes in the level of arsenic contamination in Nadia district and reduce the resultant health impacts. Many test are conducted on the aquifers to observe the arsenic contamination from the tube wells. The results show that if the updraft is restricted within a permissible limit, it will not affect the layers of water. So safe yield is a primary necessity. The major finding of the collaborative project between CGWB and United Nations Industrial Development Organization indicates that Arsenic removal equipment are effective in bringing down the concentration of input water to less than 0.01 mg/L. The Government of India has set up a special Task Force to combat the situation. Various steps are taken for the mitigation of the problem, like, new hand pumps are fitted in deeper aquifers, setting up Arsenic Treating Units, planting surface water based pipes. Arsenic contamination of ground water in West Bengal is largely spread over the Gangetic Alluvium of West Bengal and therefore the State Government has taken up 12 (twelve) Mega Piped Water Supply Scheme based on River Ganges. One such scheme is named as “Haringhata and Chakdah (Part)” in the Nadia District which has been declared as the first ODF district in the State, very recently. The State is implementing 338 Ground Water based Piped Water Supply Schemes in arsenic affected areas, wherever Surface Water based schemes are not techno- economically feasible. A number of technologies have been adopted to treat the excess amount of arsenic present in ground water. Arsenic removal plants, comparatively on a smaller scale, have also been installed under other programmes like Border Area Development Programme, Minority Sector Development Programme etc. These plants are generally attached to the existing hand
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pump tubewells, yielding arsenic beyond permissible level and generally they cater to the drinking water need of school, madrasah, health centre etc. The State Government has taken up a slew of measures like red marking of tubewells, extensive awareness, training, water quality monitoring involving the GPs etc. State Government officials were advised to intensify the awareness programme involving the local PRIs and grassroot level ASHA and Anganwadi workers. Conclusion The rapid expansion of arsenic in ground water in Nadia district and the effects on the rural residents is in an alarming position. Arsenic slowly engulfs the healthy systems of the humans and thus it can be called a slow poison, which is dangerous.Availability of safe water is to be provided urgently to the affected district. Many of the people in the affected villages are not aware of contamination of their home tube wells with arsenic. To create awareness and to motivate people to drink safe water should be the urgent measures of the government agencies. Further, arsenic affected people with severe skin lesions and systemic manifestations like lung disease, neuropathy etc are having unbearable suffering. These people are very poor and live in distant villages where hospital facilities are not easily available. The sufferings of the people can be alleviated by treating them free in hospitals and giving them free and smooth transport facilities to these hospitals. Ponds, lakes, and rivers are generally low or free of arsenic and can be reintroduced in affected areas as a source of safe drinking water. Since ancient times, the rainwater harvesting (RWH) has been a widely used practice throughout the world as a potential method of utilizing rainwater for domestic water supply. The implementation of mitigation options can be facilitated by setting proper guidelines and to control implementation at appropriate intervals. Reference
Mazumdar D, Ghosh A, Saha C, Arsenic Contamination of Ground Water and its Health Impact on Population of District of Nadia, West Bengal, India,Indian Journal Of Community Medicine, 2010 Apr; 35(2): pp 331–338. Garelick H, Jones H,Dybowska A, Arsenic Pollution Sources, US National Library of Medicine, Environ Contam Toxicol, 2008;197, pp 17-60. Shankar S, Shankar U, Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater: A Review of Sources, Prevalence, Health Risks, and Strategies for Mitigation, The Scientific World Journal Volume 2014 (2014), Article ID 304524, pp 1-18. Das A, Ground Water Arsenic Contamination-A Study of Major Arsenic Affected Districts of West Bengal, International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), Volume 4 Issue 6, June 2015. Groundwater arsenic contamination status of Nadia district, one of the nine arsenic affected districts of West Bengal-India, Reported work done by SOES, School of Environmental Studies & School of Water Resource Engineering, Jadavpur University, Kolkata - 700032, India 103 | P a g e e-journal -THE KONKAN GEOGRAPHER, Vol. 1
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