Upper-Voice Structures and Compositional Process in the

In the of , Guillaume de Machaut, and their contemporaries, tenors are often characterized as the primary shaping forces, prior in conception as well as in construction to the upper voices. Tenors are shaped by the interaction of talea and color, medieval terms now used to refer to the independent repetition of rhythms and pitches, respectively. The presence in the upper voices of the periodically repeating rhythmic patterns often referred to as “” has been characterized as an amplification of tenor structure. But a fresh look at the medieval treatises suggests a revised analytical vocabulary: for many fourteenth- and fifteenth-century writers, both color and talea involved rhythmic repetition, the latter in the upper voices specifically. And attention to upper-voice taleae independently of tenor structures brings renewed emphasis to the significant portion of the repertory in which upper voices evince formal schemes that differ from those in the tenors. These structures in turn suggest a revision of the presumed compositional process for motets, implying that in some cases upper-voice text and forms may have preceded the selection and organization of tenors. Such revisions have implications for hermeneutic endeavors, since not only the forms of motet voices but the meanings of their texts may change, depending on whether analysis proceeds from the tenor up or from the top down. Where the presumed compositional and structural primacy afforded to tenors has encouraged a strand of interpretation that reads upper-voice poetry as conforming to, and amplifying, the tenor text snippets and their liturgical contexts, a “bottom-down” view casts tenors in a supporting role and reveals the poetic impulse of the upper voices as the organizing principle of motets.

Anna Zayaruznaya is interested in the cultural and compositional contexts of late-medieval song. Her first book, The Monstrous New Art: Divided Forms in the Late-Medieval Motet (Cambridge University Press, 2015), explores the roles played by monstrous and hybrid imagery in fourteenth-century musical aesthetics. More recent publications center on Philippe de Vitry (1291–1369), a poet and well known to historians as a pioneer in the development of musical notation. Zayaruznaya received a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 2010 and teaches at Yale University, where she co-convenes the interdisciplinary Medieval Song Lab. Her awards include the Van Courtlandt Elliott Prize from the Medieval Academy of America, the Gaddis Smith International Book Prize from the MacMillan Center at Yale, a project grant from the Digital Humanities Lab at Yale, and a fellowship from the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study.

Upper-Voice Structures and Compositional Process in the Ars nova Motet

ANNA ZAYARUZNAYA First published 2018 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Zayaruznaya, Anna, author. Title: Upper-voice structures and compositional process in the ars nova motet / Anna Zayaruznaya. Description: London ; New York : Routledge, 2018. | Series: Royal musical association monographs ; 32 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017047511| ISBN 9781138302440 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780203730867 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Motets—500–1400—History and criticism. | Motets—500-1400—Analysis, appreciation. Classification: LCC ML1402 .Z39 2018 | DDC 782.2609/02—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017047511

ISBN: 978-1-138-30244-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-203-73086-7 (ebk)

Typeset in Palatino Linotype by Apex CoVantage, LLC Contents

List of music examples vii List of figures ix List of tables xi Acknowledgments xiii Note on music examples and naming conventions xv

1 Introduction 1

2 Foundational tenors and the power dynamics of compositional process 11

3 Talea and/as color 23

4 A catalog of upper-voice structures 43

5 The hermeneutic stakes: reading form in S’il estoit/S’Amours 65

6 A new paradigm for motet composition: Colla/Bona reconstructed 85

Conclusion 105

Appendix: music-theoretical discussions of color and talea, c. 1340–1430 109 Bibliography 145 Index 153

List of music examples

1.1 Vitry, In virtute/Decens, breves 1–60. Tenor taleae aligned; significant isorhythm shaded 2 1.2 Vitry, In virtute/Decens mm. 1–60, arranged to align upper-voice isorhythm (shaded) 5 3.1 Post missarum/Post misse, tenor as notated in I-Iv 115, fol. 8r 32 3.2 Post missarum/Post misse, triplum breves 53–9, 95–101, and 137–43 as notated in I-Iv 115, fol. 7v 32 4.1 Machaut, Trop plus/Biaute (text omitted), arranged to align upper-voice blocks; taleae shaded 53 4.2 In virtute/Decens arranged to align upper-voice blocks; taleae shaded 55 4.3 Vitry, Cum statua/Hugo, arranged to align upper-voice blocks; taleae shaded 56 4.4 Je voi/Fauvel, upper-voice blocks aligned 58 4.5 Flos/Celsa, mm. 1–84, arranged to align upper-voice taleae (shaded) 60 4.6 Flos/Celsa, arranged to align upper-voice blocks; taleae shaded 62 5.1 S’il estoit/S’Amours, tenor in original note-values (ligatures expanded) 66 5.2 S’il estoit/S’Amours, tenor as sung (note-values reduced 4:1; measure numbers correspond to Exx. 5.3 and 5.4) 66 5.3 S’il estoit/S’Amours arranged according to tenor taleae; tenor and upper-voice taleae shaded 71 5.4 S’il estoit/S’Amours arranged to align upper-voice blocks; taleae shaded 77 5.5 S’il estoit/S’Amours, upper voices, mm. 1–12; original in roman type, revisions necessary to excise mm. 1–3 in italics 82 5.6 S’il estoit/S’Amours, upper voices, mm. 46–57; original in roman type, revisions necessary to excise mm. 49–51 in italics 82 6.1 Colla/Bona, tenor, repeating pitches and taleae marked (ligatures expanded) 90 6.2 Colla/Bona, breves 64–75 97 6.3 Libera me de sanguinibus, F-Pn Lat. 10482, fol. 163v 99 6.4 Colla/Bona, upper-voice blocks aligned, taleae shaded 102

List of figures

2.1 Table IV, “Relation Between Sections of Poems and Taleae,” Frank Harrison, ed., Motets of French Provenance, Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century 5 (Monaco: Éditions de l’Oiseau-, 1968), 204 17 4.1 Upper-voice and tenor structures in Machaut, Hélas/Corde mesto (M12) 45 4.2 Upper-voice and tenor structures in Machaut, Amours/Faus Semblant (M15) 45 4.3 Upper-voice and tenor structures in Machaut, Qui/Ha! Fortune (M8) 46 4.4 Upper-voice and tenor structures in Tribum/Quoniam (exclusive of a twelve-breve introitus) 47 4.5 Upper-voice and tenor structures in Machaut, Quant/Amour (M1, left) and Hareu/Helas (M10, right) 48 4.6 Upper- and lower-voice structures in Vitry, Vos/Gratissima 50 4.7 Upper-voice and tenor structures in Pusiex, Ida/Portio 50 4.8 Schemes of periodic rhythmic repetition in the tenor (left) and upper voices (right) of Flos/Celsa 51 5.1 Gombosi’s analysis of the tenor of S’il estoit/S’Amours (“Machaut’s Messe de Notre-Dame,” 221); Key: α = w h h . h h; β = h –∑ h w; = –∑ h 68 5.2 Powell’s analysis of the tenor of S’il estoit/S’Amours (“Fibonacci and the Gold Mean,” 246) 68 5.3 Powell’s rendering of the Fibonacci hierarchy and geometric construction in the tenor of S’il estoit/S’Amours (“Fibonacci and the Gold Mean,” 251) 69 5.4 Telescopic tenor in Boogaart’s analysis of S’il estoit/S’amours (“Encompassing Past and Present,” 25; spacing modified) 72 5.5 Four ways of parsing the notated tenor of S’il estoit/S’Amours; GB-Ccc Fer, fol. 266r, image courtesy of DIAMM 80 5.6 Melodic comparison between the tenor of S’il estoit/S’Amours and fifteen sources, from Alice Clark, “Concordare cum materia: The Tenor in the Fourteenth-Century Motet” (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1996), 190. Reproduced with permission 84 6.1 Hypothetical compositional plan for Colla/Bona, summarizing the combination of text-lines in triplum (black circles) and motetus (white diamonds; hollow diamonds represent untexted motetus passages) 98

List of tables

1.1 French motets written c. 1315–75 whose upper-voice forms differ from those of the tenors 7 3.1 Definitions of color and talea, c. 1340–1430 26 6.1 Duration of poetic lines in Colla/Bona 95

Acknowledgments

Facile comparisons between collaborative scientists and lone-wolf humanists miss the enormous impact that peer-reviewers can have on the shape and particulars of an argument. This book would not exist if it had not been for the generosity of a dozen or so people of whom half remain anonymous to me. I know to thank and Law- rence M. Earp for reading multiple drafts, James Hepokoski for help- ing shape the final version, Sylvia Leith for excellent edits, and Bonnie Blackburn for her eagle eyes. For sending such stellar readers my way and for their encouragement I thank W. Anthony Sheppard, Joy H. Cal- ico, and Simon Keefe. Jacques Boogaart, Ardis Butterfield, Suzannah Clark, Sean Gallagher, Thomas Kelly, Jesse Rodin, and Emily Zazulia have all provided valuable feedback on this material at some point, and the translations in the appendix benefitted from unpublished edi- tions generously shared by Michael Scott Cuthbert and Jan Herlinger and from the expertise of Andrew Hicks. I am grateful to Gillian Steadman at Routledge for her patience and attention to detail during the proofing stages. As for the others: thank you, whoever you are, for engaging with this work on its winding way from article to monograph. Your ques- tions and concerns, your erudition, skepticism, and creativity have left their mark on every page. One of you pointed to a “killer omission” in an earlier draft: “The author simply must provide for readers the medi- eval appearances of the term talea (talla) and discuss them in the context of their original Latin music-theoretical sources . . . [it] might take up only 3–4 pages at most.” It turned out to take up more space than that: please see Chapter 3 and the Appendix, dear reader, and thank you for the prompt.

Note on music examples and naming conventions

The music examples in this book are not diplomatic transcriptions but editions using unligated ars nova notation. Sources used are indicated in the text. Dots of division are omitted where bar lines do their work. Alteration, which doubles a note’s length, is indicated with a “+” above the staff. In the pattern , the first semibreve is always longer (thus: ). Words have often been omitted for reasons of spacing, and in some cases bold, box-tipped lines ) mark poetic line boundaries. Those examples that are meant to convey the structure of an entire motets at a glance will necessarily be too small for other purposes. Motets are referred to throughout by the shortest reasonable incipit, in the order Triplum/Motetus, as in, for example, Kügle, The Manuscript Ivrea, Biblioteca capitolare 115: Studies in the Transmission and Composi- tion of Ars Nova (Ottawa: Institute of Mediaeval Music, 1997). The aim is not to ignore the existence of tenors but to avoid unwieldy references, since a large number of motets is discussed here. Medieval treatises referred to these motets by their motetus (before c. 1375) or triplum incipits (after c. 1375), but never by their tenors’ texts. For more on naming conventions, see Anna Zayaruznaya, “Form and Idea in the Ars nova Motet” (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2010), 17–27.

1

Introduction

Consider the first half of Philippe de Vitry’s In virtute/Decens (Exam- ple 1.1).1 Its lower voices are organized in a looping ten-breve rhythmic pattern easily spotted when the music is arranged in ten- breve systems: the tenor begins each system with two longs, the contratenor starts a dotted long in the last breve-measure of each system, and so forth. Such repeating patterns, whether identified by the Latin word talea or the twentieth-century term “isorhythm,” are a mainstay of fourteenth-century motet construction (much more on terminology later).2 Scanning the motet’s upper voices for repeated rhythms over those same ten-breve systems proves much less fruit- ful. The triplum repeats no rhythms at ten-breve intervals, and the motetus repeats only a single longa at the midpoint of each system (shaded in the example).3 This, presumably, was what led Frank Harrison to rate both triplum and motetus of In virtute/Decens as F (“isoperiodic”) on the scale of A–G (from “isorhythmic” to “non- isorhythmic”) that he used to tabulate “Isorhythm and Isoperiodic- ity in Upper Voices” in his edition of fourteenth-century motets of French provenance.4 But, while the upper voices accompanying odd-numbered tenor taleae are indeed largely through-composed, there is a notable amount of upper-voice rhythmic congruence during tenor taleae 2, 4, and 6. Or,

1 For confident attributions to Vitry, see Daniel Leech-Wilkinson, “Related Motets from Fourteenth-Century France,” Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 109 (1982–3): 5–8, 18; and Anna Zayaruznaya, The Monstrous New Art: Divided Forms in the Late Medieval Motet (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 107–8, 131–8. 2 On “isorhythm,” see Margaret Bent, “What Is Isorhythm?,” in Quomodo cantabimus canticum? Studies in Honor of Edward H. Roesner, ed. David Butler Cannata et al. (Mid- dleton: American Institute of , 2008), 121–42. I use the term “isorhythm” here in Bent’s restricted sense, to describe rhythms in any voice repeated exactly and periodically within a motet or section of a motet; for more on terminology, see Chapter 3. 3 Examples 1.1 and 1.2 follow the edition in Zayaruznaya, The Monstrous New Art, 237–42. The lower voices use the same talea ( ) but with the contratenor starting after five breves. 4 See the evaluations of the motet no. 18 in Tables II and IV, Frank Llewellyn Harrison, ed., Motets of French Provenance, Polyphonic Music of the Fourteenth Century 5 (Monaco: Éditions de l’Oiseau-Lyre, 1968), 202, 204. The assignment of “E” (“isorhythmic in hocket passages”) to part 1 and “F” (“Isoperiodic”) to part 2 must be an accidental reversal, since part 2 has hockets, whereas part 1 does not. Table IV is reproduced as Figure 2.1 below.

Example 1.1 Vitry, In virtute/Decens, breves 1–60; rhythms recurring at ten-breve intervals are shaded Introduction put another way: the cycles of rhythmic repetition in the upper voices are twice as long as those in the tenor, with several rhythmic passages recurring every twenty breves (see Example 1.2, with twenty-breve sys- tems). Re-arranged thus, the triplum and motetus of In virtute/Decens would deserve a C—Harrison’s category for “isorhythmic in part, with variants.” And there is more at stake than good marks, because In virtute/Decens is not alone: it belongs to a significant subset of ars nova motets whose upper voices are organized according to structures different from those observable in their tenors. The present study docu- ments these differences and considers their implications for analysis and interpretation. It is not news that motets’ upper voices and tenors do not always have the same periodic structure. The presence of these longer upper- voice units in the first section of In virtute/Decens was already rec- ognized by Heinrich Besseler when he tabulated the forms of all the ars nova motets known to him in the 1920s.5 From Besseler’s tables onward, the literature contains plenty of references to units some- times called “Großtalea,” or “supertalea”—blocks of music in the upper voices of motets whose congruence with each other is marked by periodically repeating rhythms and whose iterative cycles differ in length from (and are usually longer than) the taleae of the tenor. There are remarks about these upper-voice groupings in Besseler’s footnotes and Ursula Günther’s “asides”;6 Friedrich Ludwig’s edi- tions and Jacques Boogaart’s analyses of Machaut’s motets make fre- quent use of them;7 Karl Kügle has engaged with some of the formal irregularities they entail;8 and in at least one case—Margaret Bent’s pioneering analysis of Vitry’s Tribum/Quoniam—such upper-voice

5 Heinrich Besseler, “Studien zur Musik des Mittelalters II: Die Motette von Franko von Köln bis Philipp von Vitry,” Archiv für Musikwissenschaft 8 (1927): 222n9. Bes- seler’s evaluation of the motet’s second section is not accurate; see note 23 on p. 54 (Chapter 4). 6 See notes 4–5, 7–8, 12–16, and 18–19 to the table in “Studien zur Musik des Mit- telalters II,” 222–4. Interestingly, Besseler indicates the presence of hockets in his main table as though they were a property of tenor rather than of upper-voice construction. Ursula Günther makes brief mention of upper-voice structures in many of the motets discussed here in “The 14th-Century Motet and its Development,” Musica Disciplina 12 (1958): 30, 37. 7 Friedrich Ludwig, ed. Guillaume de Machaut: Musikalische Werke, Publikationen älterer Musik 1 (Leipzig: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1926–43); Jacques Boogaart, “O series summe rata: Die motetten van Guillaume de Machaut; De ordening van het corpus en de samenhang van tekst en muziek” (Ph.D. diss., University of Utrecht, 2001). 8 Although he does not explicitly invoke the possibility that upper-voice blocks defined by partial isorhythm might be of different lengths than the tenor taleae under them, Kügle has drawn attention to the results of such organization, noting, for exam- ple, that in the first half of Colla/Bona, “phrase joints occur at the beginning . . . of every second talea statement”; The Manuscript Ivrea, Biblioteca capitolare 115: Studies in the Transmission and Composition of Ars Nova Polyphony (Ottawa: Institute of Mediaeval Music, 1997), 98.

4 Example 1.2 Vitry, In virtute/Decens mm. 1–60, arranged to align repeating upper-voice rhythms; rhythms recurring at ten- and twenty-breve intervals shaded Introduction structures have been put on a par with tenor structures in describing the form of the whole.9 Bent’s approach has been especially influen- tial on the field and crucial in the development of the present argu- ment. Significant for present purposes is that Bent described the three longer periods in the upper voices of Tribum/Quoniam as a “counter- isorhythmic structure” superimposed on the “isorhythmic” tenor, and framed as an exceptional aspect of that particular motet closely tied to its meaning.10 In this book the rhythmic correspondences that delineate upper-voice blocks in motets like Tribum/Quoniam and In virtute/Decens set the terms of engagement for formal analysis. Rather than interpreting upper-voice forms as working against (“counter”) the structuring strategies most visible in tenors, I posit that tenor taleae might productively be seen, in some cases, as fitting into (or working against) the block structures in the upper voices. In what follows I build upon much of the work that has been done in the analysis of individual motets to suggest that upper-voice structures might have an even greater role to play as a compositional tool in the broader repertory. Table 1.1 gives a list of fourteenth-century French motets whose upper voices are built of blocks articulated through rhythmic repetition that differ in length from, or are significantly shifted in position relative to, their tenor’s taleae. These motets will be analyzed below. Of the fifteen works listed, two (Je voi/Fauvel and Tribum/Quoniam) survive in the , finished before c. 1320. The rest belong to the French ars nova corpus of c. 1325–1360 as represented by Machaut’s

9 Bent sees the textual contents of the two upper-voice quotations and the borrowed chant tenor as together determining the motet’s form, arguing that privileging the tenor’s structure in Tribum/Quoniam “will give only subsidiary attention to the amazing inter- locked [upper-voice] tripartite structure, with its own internal identities, that is counter- pointed against the two identical tenor color statements,” “Polyphony of Texts and Music in the Fourteenth-Century Motet: Tribum que non abhorruit/Quoniam secta latronum/Merito hec patimur and Its ‘Quotations’,” in Dolores Pesce, ed., Hearing the Motet: Essays on the Motet of the and Renaissance (New York and Oxford: , 1997), 92. The salience of upper-voice structures in Tribum/Quoniam was also noted by Ernest Sanders: “While the modal pattern of the early motet [Tribum/Quoniam] takes up a total of six longae, the taleae are determined by the design of the upper voices . . . The fact that the tenor consists of two colores is of no structural significance. Only in the motetus is the versification congruous with the musical structure,” “The Medieval Motet,” Gat- tungen der Musik in Einzeldarstellungen: Gedenkschrift , ed. Leo Schrade, Wulf Arlt, and Higini Anglès (Bern: Francke, 1973), 558. 10 “Polyphony of Texts and Music.” Neither Bent’s edition (ibid., Example 4.1 on p. 90), nor her schematic diagram (Figure 4.1 on p. 91) arranges the motet in three periods, even though this is the form in which the various shadings of isorhythm and isomelism would align. Arguably a discussion of the supertalea as a phenomenon would undermine the analysis, since the “grand hemiola of threefold form arranged over a twice-stated tenor melody” privileges the twice-stated tenor melody (hence the layout of Figure 4.1), and the analysis of the texts focuses on the significance of the numbers three and two (“Tribum. . . . secundum” in the triplum, p. 85). See also the account of “thrice two blocks of music arranged over twice three identical places in the tenor” (p. 92).

6 Introduction

Table 1.1 French motets written c. 1315–75 whose upper-voice forms differ from those of their tenors

Motet Composer Analysis below

Amours/Faus Semblant (M15) Machaut Figure 4.2 Colla/Bona (V9) Vitry Example 6.4 Cum statua/Hugo (V8) Vitry Example 4.3 Flos/Celsa ?Vitry Figure 4.8, Examples 4.5 and 4.6 Hareu/Helas (M10) Machaut Figure 4.5, right Hélas/Corde mesto (M12) Machaut Figure 4.1 Ida/Portio Edigius Figure 4.7 In virtute/Decens Vitry Example 4.2 Je voi/Fauvel Anon. Example 4.4 Quant/Amour (M1) Machaut Figure 4.5, left Qui/Ha! Fortune (M8) Machaut Figure 4.3 S’il estoit/S’Amours (M6) Machaut Example 5.4 Tribum/Quoniam (V3) ?Vitry Figure 4.4 Trop plus/Biauté (M20) Machaut Example 4.1 Vos/Gratissima (V7) Vitry Figure 4.6

first twenty motets and the repertory of Ivrea, Biblioteca Capitolare MS 115. Out of this repertory of 52 motets, the thirteen discussed here constitute a quarter—a significant fraction, though by no means the majority.11 Many of the structures under consideration have been noted before, while some are described below for the first time. Bringing them together in one place reveals the range of possible relationships between tenor and upper-voice cycles of repetition. But, more than this, as a group the analyses below suggest that in a significant number of ars nova motets upper-voice structure is to some extent independent of tenor taleae. In such cases, and perhaps more broadly, I will suggest that upper-voice structures might well have been decided upon before any tenor was chosen. This is undoubtedly a counter-intuitive claim. After all, tenors are the most regularly patterned voices of ars nova motets, and are the voices that determine the pitch content of the whole to a great extent, given the prevalence of consonant sonorities in the reperto- ry.12 It might seem difficult to imagine a compositional process in which upper-voice pitch content would have been determined before a tenor melody was selected and laid out—although recent analyses of

11 This number excludes Les l’ormel/Main and Clap/Sus robin, the two motets in Ivrea. See Kügle, The Manuscript Ivrea, 83, 154. This survey does not include fragmen- tary motets or those surviving in fragmentary sources such as F-CA MS B 1328. Closer scrutiny of those repertories might reveal further examples. 12 Note, however, that Justin Lavacek challenges the tenor’s role as determining upper-voice pitches and counterpoint in some of Machaut’s motets: “Contrapuntal Con- frontation and Expressive Signification in the Motets of Machaut” (Ph.D diss., Indiana University, 2011).

7 Introduction thirteenth-century motets that combine pre-existing melodic refrains with chant tenors suggest that just this kind of thing did happen, with tenor rhythms being designed, or pitches being adjusted, to accommodate the upper-voice material.13 But, even allowing that all or most upper-voice pitches would have been composed after a tenor was in place, much formal and rhythmic planning could have hap- pened before any pitches were settled upon. As a number of ana- lysts have pointed out, motets contain constellations of interlocking and interdependent musical and textual structures: the forms and content of the texts, the dimensions of isorhythmic or partially iso- rhythmic blocks, the length and placement of individual phrases in the upper voices, and the overlaps and nonoverlaps between rests in various voices.14 None of these parameters pertains to pitch, and yet they all have immense importance for the finished product. To rel- egate such decisions to a realm of so-called “pre-compositional plan- ning” would be to imply that real composition begins with pitch.15 But given the importance of rhythmic practice to this repertory (an importance that, I will argue in Chapter 2, is even more fundamen- tal than has hitherto been recognized), it is worth entertaining the notion that tenor pitches need not have been decided upon at the outset of composition. In focusing primarily on rhythmic repetition, I neither advocate for a view of ars nova motets as fundamentally mathematical, absolute struc- tures nor imply that the observation of such structures should signal the end of analysis. On the contrary: in this musico-poetic genre par excellence, formal analysis has both structural and hermeneutic impli- cations.16 The second chapter of this study chronicles and interrogates the idea that the structures of motets are grounded in the structures of their tenors. While it has often been refuted in individual cases, this idea is nevertheless frequently invoked as a norm, whether explicitly or implicitly. This rests, I suggest, on a conception of a compositional process that begins with tenor selection and organization and then

13 See Catherine Bradley, Plainsong Made Polyphonic: Compositional Process in the Thir- teenth Century (Cambridge University Press, forthcoming). 14 Bent, “Polyphony of Texts and Music” and “Words and Music in Machaut’s ‘Motet 9’,” 31, no. 1 (2003): 363–88, inter alia; Boogaart, “O series summe rata”; Kügle, The Manuscript Ivrea; Daniel Leech-Wilkinson, Compositional Techniques in the Four-Part Isorhythmic Motets of Philippe de Vitry and His Contemporaries, 2 vols. (New York: Garland, 1989). 15 Paul Doornbusch summarizes his own attitude as well as those of fellow compos- ers Richard Barrett and Gerard Pape thus: “Pre-composition? I never do it, for me it’s all composition”: “Pre-composition and Algorithmic Composition: Reflections on Disap- pearing Lines in the Sand,” Context 29 & 30 (2005): 48. 16 A number of studies have demonstrated the relevance of upper-voice structures to hermeneutic analysis of ars nova motets; see especially Bent, “Polyphony of Texts and Music,” Boogaart, “Love’s Unstable Balance, Part I: Analogy of Ideas in Text and Music of Machaut’s Motet 6,” Muziek & Wetenschap 3 (1993): 3–23 (discussed below), and Zayaruz- naya, The Monstrous New Art.

8 Introduction proceeds to the upper voices. Because in this scenario tenor selection is seen as having both semantic and formal implications, claims about the order of composition have in turn governed the kinds of evaluation and interpretation to which ars nova motet texts have been subject. Chapter 3 turns to -theoretical sources in search of an analytical vocabulary. While the terms color and talea are usually understood to refer to the independent, periodic repetition of pitch and rhythm, respectively, in motet tenors, I suggest that in the fourteenth century both terms more often referred to rhythmic repetition, and that talea especially was used to describe repeated upper-voice rhythms. The pertinent upper-voice rhythmic structures are documented in Chapter 4, progressing from simpler to more complicated relationships between upper voices and tenors. Chapter 5 turns to the hermeneutic implications of such structures, engaging with several prior analyses of Machaut’s S’il estoit/S’Amours (Motet 6) to demonstrate the ways in which assumptions about the structural primacy of tenors can influ- ence interpretation. The final chapter offers a new paradigm for motet composition exemplified by a hypothetical reconstruction of the crea- tion of Vitry’s Colla/Bona. In Colla/Bona, a compositional order in which upper-voice texts were composed first, then upper-voice structures laid out, and finally a tenor chosen to fit these structures provides the best explanation of the fin- ished work. I suggest further that such compositional processes need not have been limited to those motets in which they can be most easily gleaned. They may even have been a standard way of going about the process of creating motets. And if this is the case—or even might rea- sonably be the case—then giving consideration to this subset of works promises to inflect our understanding of the entire repertory.

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