Academic Journal of 2011, 2, 150 - 167 Social Sciences Full-length paper

A new look on the economic history of Suriname* including a methodology to calculate reparations for damage caused by Dutch colonial rule.

Armand Zunder

Abstract

Suriname was created by design by merchant bankers and members of the Dutch elite in the Dutch Government, the elite in the City of Amsterdam and the elite of the other major Cities at that time. All services to produce and sell the commodities would be supplied by the merchant bankers. The Dutch elite in the Central Government and City Governments profited indirectly from the Colony by gathering taxes from the merchant bankers. Besides this employment opportunities were created in the harbours and other locations, all related to the original business from Suriname. During the period of the plantation-economy the amount of goods shipped from Suriname amounted to 1.763.442.000 florins, of which around 76% was shipped to the (mainly Amsterdam). The remaining 24% was shipped to England and the USA. The net present value of the goods imported in the Netherlands in the period 1683-1939 amounts to €. 126 billion at year end 2006. People were enslaved on the African West coast and shipped to Suriname to work on plantation estates. Meanwhile production took place under circumstances of extreme Human Rights abuses, where Mental Slavery was also systematically practised as a tool of total control towards the enslaved. Following the Durban conference 1 I published a book on reparations. In this book a methodology to calculate reparations in the Suriname case was introduced. In this article the focus is on the production, the value of the production and the major beneficiaries in the plantation-economy of Suriname.

Key words: colonialism, slavery, slave trade, merchant bankers, reparations, plantation-economy

Correspondence to: Armand Zunder, Economist & Management Consultant, Kersten Mall, Unit nr. 1, Paramaribo, Suriname. Tel 597 - 8654072. E-mail: [email protected]

Available on-line: 25 July, 2011

* Picture taken by Armand Zunder of the Scale used to weigh the slaves in the Dutch Colony in the period 1828. A copy of this Scale is in the hall of the Waag building, which is now a restaurant, at de Waterkant in Paramaribo, Suriname. 1 The United Nations World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, held in Durban, from August 31th – September 8 th 2001

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Introduction Van Aerssen van Sommelsdijck 4, was the sole owner of the Colony. From 1797-1802 and 1804- When the Spanish expansionists 1816 Suriname was also temporarily colonized rediscovered 2 Suriname at the end of the 15 th by English expansionists, who returned the Century they encountered the Indigenous people Colony to the Dutch in 1816. From that time as original inhabitants of Suriname. The Spanish until 1940 the plantation economy was under called the ‘The Wild Coast’. At that sole control of Dutch expansionists. time the number of the Indigenous people was around 70,000 The Spanish expansionists took The massive forced migration of the land of the Indigenous people and afterwards enslaved Africans to Suriname was initiated enslaved them. After the Spanish expansionists around 1630 by the West Indian Company and left, because the goldmines that they were lasted until 1740. It was later continued by looking for were not readily available, they were private shipping companies. During this period replaced by French, British and Dutch of more than two hundred years the enslaved expansionists. From 1667 Dutch expansionists Africans were cut off from their families, their took over the Colony, at that time called homeland and their languages. They were Suriname. furthermore heavily restricted to practice their original African cultures and religions. The Netherlands lacked natural resources before they entered their Colonial Around Emancipation Day, July 1 st adventure, but still they were able to become the 1863 merchant bankers and plantation owners centre of World trade in the 17 th Century, the so received compensations from the Dutch called Dutch Golden Age How did they do that? Government for the release of the enslaved Was it because of their excellence in navigation, persons who were considered their assets. The manufacturing, financial and other services? Or enslaved people received nothing, not even a were there other reasons that are not quite known penny, or a piece of land, or agricultural tools, or yet. In this paper I will reveal the Dutch’s Best any training to start a living or a business. Kept Secret. After Emancipation in 1863 the formerly enslaved people were still not really free. They The plantation economy in Suriname were obliged to sign a ten year contract to work was introduced by British expansionists 3 who for a few pennies in the same oppressive entered Suriname from the Caribbean hub island plantation system. of in 1650. They were accompanied by Jewish planters and their slaves. At a later stage Experiments with indentured workers the plantation society was strengthened by other started in 1853 when the first Chinese contract mainly Jewish emigrants who entered Suriname workers arrived in Suriname. In 1873 after an after the Dutch expansionists were driven out of agreement between the Dutch and English North by Portuguese expansionists. expansionists was reached, mass immigration followed from to Suriname. From 1882 the The plantation economy in Suriname Dutch Government in cooperation with Dutch covers the period 1650 till 1940 (start of the merchant bankers also initiated mass Second World War). The core objective of the immigration of indentured workers from Java. plantation economy was to produce agricultural The aim was that these workers would become crops on plantation estates and other raw the major workforce in the plantation economy, materials almost solely for the commodity replacing the enslaved African-Surinamese. markets in the Netherlands and especially to the Immigration from Asia lasted until the start of Amsterdam Commodity Bourse. World War II (1939), which also more or less marked the end of the plantation production From 1683 until 1792 the period in Suriname. “Geoctroyeerde Societeit van Suriname”, a merger between the West Indian Company, the 4 th City of Amsterdam, and the Dutch noble man Van Sommelsdijck is registered as the 17 richest person of the Dutch Golden Age (The 17 th Century). Part of his fortune was accumulated in Suriname. In 2 As a matter of fact Suriname was discovered by the 1682 he acquired a third part of the Colony Suriname Indigenous people of Suriname some 7,000 years ago. for the amount of 86,667 florins (net purchasing value 3 The leading expansionist was Lord Francis of € 1,952,842 at year end 2010), while his family sold Willoughby, Earl of Parham and Governor of that investment in 1770 to the WIC for the amount of Barbados, who arrived from the than British Colony, 700.000 florins (net purchasing value of € 13,665,568 Barbados with planters and enslaved Africans. at year end 2010) . Zandvliet K., page 42, De 250 Versteegh A., Suriname voor Columbus, Stichting rijksten van de Gouden Eeuw, Rijksmuseum, Surinaams Museum, Paramaribo, 2003 Amsterdam, 2006

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So the Surinamese society of the past company, called the West-Indian Company 6 has been a Dutch creation, but from the (WIC). This Company was licensed to trade, to perspective of the ancestors of the current conduct piracy and set up military posts. The , not such a pleasant one. The major investors in this Company were located in Surinamese society was created by merchant Amsterdam (40%), while the Government of the bankers and their associates in the public sector Netherlands also had a stake of 7% in the to benefit to the maximum of what the Colony Company. In addition the Government would could produce for exports to the Netherlands. To lend substantial funds to the WIC during the a certain extent raw materials imported from the course of its existence. Surinamese economy were processed in sugar, coffee and cacao processing industries in the The territorial scope of the WIC covered Netherlands and then re-exported to , the Netherlands, the West Coast of Africa and the East-Sea countries and the Dutch Colonies, the North East Coast of the America’s. Private by companies where the same merchant bankers entrepreneurs, merchants and other business were the major investors. providers, later identified as merchant bankers were allowed to trade under the In this paper I will focus on what has ‘umbrella’ of the WIC territory. These private been produced, the value of the production and entrepreneurs paid a commission, called the major beneficiaries in the plantation- ‘recognition fee’ to the WIC. This fee was paid economy of Suriname. The other side of the for the trading of enslaved people as well as for Dutch Colonial success story has to do with trading of material goods. human rights abuses during the period of the plantation economy. I.e. how the ancestors of In January 1624 the Dutch gathered current people of Suriname and these of similar several fleets near the Cape Verde Islands. Their countries in the world produced under conditions intention was to implement the so called ‘Great of forced labour. The second element in this Design’. This was the plan that the Dutch had paper is how the Surinamese people and the designed to conquer San Salvador the largest Dutch people can proceed towards the future. sugar harbour of Brazil and at the same time This approach will bring us to the centre of the attack Sao Paolo de Loando, the largest slave debate on the subject matter of Reparations. In depot of the Portuguese expansionists in Africa the last part of this article I will present a at that time. With the implementation of this plan methodology developed to calculate Reparations the Dutch would have established their two most in the case of Suriname. profitable trading routes in the West. The first route would start from the Netherlands with The preparations by design of the mostly inferior goods 7 and kauri shells that Netherlands to conquer and to enslave vessels of the VOC brought from the Maldive Africans Islands in the Pacific to Africa, and returning to Holland with , ivory and tropical goods. The The Netherlands as it is known now has second shipping route was the so-called not always been first in line when it comes to Transatlantic Slave Route. This route would fundamental changes on historical matters. This mostly start from the cities of Vlissingen, also goes for the expansionists movements to Middelburg or Veere in the Province of Zeeland conquer other . Before the launch of the to a destination on the West African coast. There East Indian Company 5 (VOC) in 1602, the merchants would trade the inferior goods and Netherlands was considered an underdeveloped kauri shells for enslaved people. These enslaved Nation and the Dutch people were even unaware Africans would then be shipped to the slave of goods such as: potatoes, tulips, tea, coffee, markets in the West Indies, South America and cocoa, sugar, , , citrus , , the USA. From the territories in the West Indies tobacco, indigo and other goods that are now where plantation economies were created by design, the ships would carry tropical agricultural considered basic consumer goods. 8 goods to the Netherlands, especially to In 1621 the Dutch Government established its second multinational expansionist 6 Shares of this Company were widely spread regionally among investors in the Netherlands. 7 These goods would include clothing, firearms, 5 This Company was the first Dutch multinational alcohol and all type of utensils. company. Heijer den H., Goud Ivoor en Slaven, page 8 The goods like sugar, coffee, cotton and cocoa and in 31, Walburg Press, 1997/ Israel J.I., de Republiek, some cases tobacco and other tropical goods were in 1477 – 1806, VOC Kenniscentrum KITLV, the case of Suriname mostly shipped to Dutch Amsterdam, 2004 commodity markets.

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Amsterdam, where the world market for these they were the most prominent in this type of goods was located during those days. doubtful business. After Dutch merchants had In order to effectively and efficiently conduct gained the ‘Asiento’ trade in 1662 they also their trading efforts, the Dutch West Indian dominated it, especially in the years 1686-1689. Company established a huge commercial As a matter of fact the Dutch claimed to have network of forts as trading entities in the shipped (only) around 495,730 Africans into a Netherlands, Africa and on the North East coast life of slavery on plantations in the West. With of the . this statement 11 some Dutch historians want to indicate that the Dutch had a minor position in When the WIC was established in 1621 this horrible type of business. Meanwhile scolars its business activities included piracy. Piracy like Joseph Inikori, Ivana Elb, Charles Becker, reached its climax in 1628 when the Dutch Joseph Becker and David Richardson have Admiral Piet Hein succeeded in conquering a indicated 12 13 that the Dutch involvement in the Spanish silver fleet in the Bay of Matanzas in Transatlantic Slave Trade was much larger. Cuba. Much larger 14 than their participation in the transatlantic slave trade however, was their Although some Dutch names appeared involvement in slavery. For example in Suriname in the slave shipping registers as early as 1528 as the Dutch practised slavery during the period slave traders, the Dutch were a little bit late on 1667-1873, excluding the period of 17 years that market. In 1596 the Dutch Province of when Suriname was under English rule. During Zeeland had its first encounter with enslaved this period of 190 years of oppression and African people when a skipper from Rotterdam slavery at least nine generations of Africans lived brought 130 enslaved Africans into the harbour and worked in Suriname. These numbers should of Middelburg 9. Ultimately it was the Dutch also be taken into account, because these people Christian Pastor Godfried Cornelis Udemans have also been victims of the Dutch involvement who supplied the WIC with the business solution in the slave trade. by writing the pamplet ’t Geestelijk roer van ‘t Coopmans jacht’. This document opened the way More than 300 years of human rights for the WIC to participate with peace of mind in violations the slave trade. Furthermore the Dutch elite and 10 ship owners also cited the Holy Bible in their Dutch traders arrived in Suriname efforts to justify barbaric acts like trade in human looking for trading opportunities as early as the beings followed by lifelong forced labor. first decade of the seventeenth century. They The involvement of the WIC in slave trading thus then traded with the Indigenous people, who started as early as 1630 and lasted until 1740 were the sole inhabitants of Suriname at that (110 years). Figure 1 also gives an overview of time. It would not take long however, that the periods when the involvement of the WIC because of greed, the Dutch expansionists robbed peaked and when it decreased. the Indigenous people of their land. After that the expansionists forced Indigenous people into Figure 2. Forced transport of enslaved Africans slavery on the land that had belonged to them for by the Dutch West Indian Company 1630-1740 more than 7.000 years. The Indigenous people started a guerrilla war against their oppressors, but were not successful against the superior weapons of the Dutch expansionists. During the first Dutch occupation of the Land of the Indigenous people the human rights of these people were heavily violated. One could say that the ‘Red’ genocide took place in Suriname, because when the first expansionists (the

11 The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave trade, 1600 - 1815, Johannes Menne Postma, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1990. When the Dutch were supplying Brazil And De Nederlandse slavenhandel, 1500 - 1850, P.C. with enslaved persons in the period 1636 to 1648 Emmer, Hilversum, 2003. 12 The Black Holocaust, S. E. Anderson, Writers and Readers Publishers Inc., New York, 1995. 9 Doeke, R., Zeeuwen en de West-Indische 13 Lorrendrayen op Africa, Ruud Paesie, Unknown Compagnie, 1662 – 1674, page 85, Van Geyt Publisher, 2008. productions, Hulst, 1992 14 Dutch smugglers, the so-called ‘Lorrendraaiers’ 10 Leviticus 25, 44 - 46. have not been included in those numbers.

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Spanish) arrived in Suriname in 1492, the The new expansionistic Nations like population of Indigenous people amounted to , England and the Netherlands did not 70,000 15 while at the census of 1920 only 1,400 respect this Treaty and decided to stimulate Indigenous people were counted piracy against the Spanish and Portuguese assets. The old as well as the new expansionists Nations When it was clear to the expansionists had in common that they all eventually turned to that the Indigenous people were not strong Africa for labour to sustain their plantation enough to do the hard labour on the plantations, economies. they operated with consent of their religious leaders as the new expansionists by challenging Table 1 shows the number of enslaved Africans the Spanish and Portuguese who were the first that were transported from Africa by different expansionist after the Treaties 16 of Tordesillas expansionist’s nations, according to Philip Curtin (1494) and Zaragoza (1529) that were signed (1969). with consent of the Roman Catholic Pope Alexander VI. Table 1. Forced migration from Africa by Nations/ Regions of Departure 1519 - 1867 Figure 3. First page of the treaty of Tordesilla Nations/Regions Number of Africans that were shipped to the ‘New World’ Senegal/Gambia 498.500 Sierra Leone 412.700 Windward Coast 182.000 Gold Coast 1.043.200 Bay of Benin 2.043.200 Bay of Biafra 1.517.900 West-Central Africa 4.887.500 South East-Africa 484.500 Total 11.069.500

Source: The Atlantic Slave Trade: A .Curtin, 1969

Progressive African, African-Guyanese and African-American scholars like Joseph Inikori, Ivana Elb, Charles Becker, David Richard, the late Walther Rodney, but also the British historian Basil Davidson doubted these numbers and are supporters of W.E.B. Du Bois 17 whose estimates reached the figure of around 100 million. The aforementioned scholars have

examined in great detail the log books of slave Source: National Library of ship captains and doctors, along with diaries. The scholars have concluded 18 among others that: • 15 Galibi, Peter Kloos, Bureau volkslektuur, The French slave trade was underestimated Paramaribo, 1975. by a full 50%; 16 The Treaty of Tordesillas divided the non European • The early Portuguese (1450-1521) slave world between and Portugal, these countries trade was actually double Curtain’s estimate being the organizers of the first discovery voyages. for the same period; Pope Alexander VI decided that after the discovery of • The volume of the 18 th century British slave the America all the Land at the Wet side of the line, trade was at least ¼ to 1/3 larger than 480 kilometers of the archipelago of the Cape Verde Islands belonged to Spain and all the Land located at Curtain’s estimate. the Eastern side of the line belonged to Portugal. In the Treaty of Tordesillas Spain agreed that this line was The cross over the Atlantic Ocean, shifted to the left (1,770 kilometers from Cape Verde depending on the winds at sea could lasted six Islands. For this reason Brasil that was discovered later became a Portuguese Colony. In 1529 the Treaty of Zaragoza was enacted. At this Treaty the line was 17 Herstelbetalingen, De Wiedergutmachung voor de shifted again. Now till the Pacific Ocean. The scgade die Suriname en haar bevolking hebben consequence of this demarcation line was that also the geleden onder het Nederlands kolonialisme, Armand seas were divided between the Portuguese and the Zunder, 2000. Spaniards. The original Treaties are kept at the 18 The Black Holocaust for Beginners, S.E. Anderson, Archives in Spain (Archivo General de ) and the page 157, Writers and Publishers Inc. New York, Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Portugal. 1995 .

Acad J Sur 2011 (2) 150 - 167 Methodology to calculate reparations for damage caused by Dutch colonial rule 155 weeks to three months. The trips to the ‘New thorough scientific research on the World’ were absolutely no picnic or tea party as aforementioned subject matters 19 . a matter of fact they were huge abuses against human rights as shown in the figure below. Suriname the most cruel place to be under Dutch Colonial rule Table 2 shows the destinations where the enslaved Africans were shipped to during the Slave trade and slavery as conducted by period 1519-1867 to work on different types of the Dutch in Suriname had an economic as well plantation estates. as racial background. The racial element comes to the forefront when one notices that the Dutch Table 2. Enslaved Africans shipped to the ‘New never considered or took the initiative to World’, 1519 - 1867 massively migrate their own local (white)

workforce to Suriname or other parts of the ‘New Destination Estimates North-America 361.100 World’ to do hard labour on plantations estates. British Leeward islands 304.900 The West Indian Company did place applications British Windward Islands + 362.000 in the Netherlands, but those applications were Trinidad directed to persons that could act as 1.077.100 entrepreneurs, or directors on plantations. Barbados 494.200 Furthermore headhunting practices took place by ’s 403.700 representatives of merchant bankers with regard French Windward Islands 305.200 to technicians such as carpenters and bricklayers. + 787.400 The labour contracts were enacted by Notaries Spanish North and South 430.300 and in those contracts it was specifically American Colonies Spanish Caribbean Colonies 791.900 mentioned that the white labour force would Dutch Caribbean Colonies 129.700 work and live among the white people in the North-East Brazil 876.100 colony. So the Dutch, instead of subjecting their Bahia in Brazil 1.008.000 own people to slave trade and slavery, started South-East Brazil 2.017.900 with the Indigenous people in Suriname and The rest of the Western 118.700 continued with Africans. While later indentured Hemisphere workers were introduced in the plantation- Inter-African migration 130.800 economy. Total 9.599.000 It would not take long before consensus Source: The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census. Philip D. Curtin, 1969. was reached between the Dutch Government and the West-Indian Company because of the close This mass migration of Africans from business entanglement. The Board of Directors their home territories to the ‘New World’ raises of this second Dutch multinational company at least the following four questions: consisted of business people as well as top public sector officials, who also has business interests. What contribution did the labour efforts of the Because of these ramifications The West Indian Africans had on the accumulation of Wealth of Company could easily attain monopolistic rights the expansionist Nations like The Netherlands, in 1630 to supply plantation economies with France, England, Germany, the USA, enslaved people from Africa. And when, due to and others?; mismanagement of the WIC they could not meet 1. What was the influence of this huge demands, the Government declared the market migration on the development of the open for other (private) slave shipping companies different countries on the African continent that were mostly located in and around the cities and on Pan-Africanism?; of Middelburg, Vlissingen and Veere in the 2. What was the intermediary role that African Provence of Zeeland. Kings, Chiefs and other influential Africans played in the Transatlantic slave trade?; In 1730 the Government lifted the 3. What are the reasons that core institutions monopolistic position of the WIC, since this like strong Governments, Exchange Offices, Company was unable to withstand the pressure Insurance Exchanges, a local banking of merchants who wanted to enter the very system, Central Banks etc were not created profitable slave trade business. by the African elite that participated as Intermediaries in the Slave Trade?

It will be a challenge to the Africans in 19 These subject matters are no part of this paper. Africa and those in the Diaspora to conduct

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156 Armand Zunder

Production and exports in the plantation 292.089 Afro-Surinamese did not survive this economy ‘Black Holocaust’.

In May 1697, 30 years after Dutch One of the conditions for the Abolition expansionists had seized Suriname from the set by the Dutch Parliament at that time was that British expansionists, they exposed their Reparations should be paid to the Slaveholders production plans for the newly acquired colony. by the Dutch Government for their “Human Governor Johan Scharpenhuyzen was the one to Stock”. It was agreed upon between the Dutch announce the plans. The intention was to Government and the slaveholders/plantation establish at least 1,000 sugar plantations entrepreneurs that they would receive an average 25 exporting annually 120 million kilogram of sugar compensation of 300 florins per enslaved mainly to the Amsterdam Commodity Bourse. person. The expected returns amounted to annual At that time approximately 80% of the plantation revenues of 67 million florins in prices 20 of those owners were merchant bankers who resided in days. In reality the Dutch managed to produce the City of Amsterdam, or elsewhere in the not more than around 10 percent of the forecast. Netherlands, the so-called absentee owners. The The main reason was that the estimated total settlement amounted to somewhat like 9 production level was based on the average million florins in 1863. Discounted at 3 percent availability of at least 250,000 enslaved Africans. the purchasing power of the total amount was € In reality there were never more than 60,000 694 million, of which € 556 million was paid in enslaved Africans at one single time in Suriname. Holland to merchant bankers. Besides these Profits were however high enough for the City of amounts were not taken from the Dutch budget, Amsterdam to try to keep these profits secret 21 but came from transfers from Colonial Indonesia from the other Provinces in the Netherlands at where the Dutch expansionists were heavily that time. involved in profitable business activities.

The infrastructure in Suriname during Even before the abolition of slavery in the period of the plantation economy consisted Suriname, the Dutch expansionists introduced mainly of waterways. The central warehouse was Indentured workers from (1853) and later the so-called Waaggebouw 22 , that was located in on Indentured workers from India (1873) and the harbor of the capital city, Paramaribo. from Indonesia (1890). These people worked under the same slavery conditions, but they had a According to Van Lier 23 300,000 to contract, although their contractual rights were 350,000 Africans were enslaved and shipped to frequently violated. Suriname between 1667 and 1830. For calculation purposes the average number of During the period 1683 to 1940 (257 325,000 enslaved persons has been used in this years), with an exception of 17 years, Dutch article. The forced mass migration voyages expansionists exploited the Surinamese economy continued for centuries, until due to different to the benefit of the merchant-bankers and the external and internal circumstances slave-trading Dutch government elites. The registered imports, was finally abolished in 1814 by the Dutch in mainly to the Dutch Commodity Bourse, located their Colonies. At the date of the Abolition the in the City of Amsterdam amounted to more than number of enslaved persons in Suriname was 1.3 billion florins of that time. Products from (only) 32,911. This implies that theoretically 24 Suriname were traded from two fixed seats on that market (see figure 3) and were also registered on the then international market price list. At that time these price lists were known all 20 Discounted at 3% the purchasing power at the end of over Europe as the “Amsterdam Price Lists”. 2008 was € 543.590.000. 21 G.W. van der Meiden. Betwist Bestuur, een eeuw strijd om de macht in Suriname 1651 - 1753, de Bataafse Leeuw, Amsterdam,1987 22 Translated into English Waaggebouw means the building were goods were weighted before export to the Netherlands. 23 Rudolph van Lier, a Surinamese scholar wrote: Samenleving in een grensgebied, Amsterdam, 1977. 24 Although the number of 292.089 is mentioned here 25 In the case of enslaved persons on the Islands of the we know for sure that this number is not correct, since Netherlands Antilles the amount per enslaved person at least nine generations of enslaved Africans that was less than in the case of Suriname. The purchasing arrived in Suriname lived there and had children and value of the amount of 300 florins/enslaved person those children also had children and so on. was € 2,832.75 at year end 2008.

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Figure 4. Floor Plan of the Amsterdam poor and not adequate; the supply of social Commodity Bourse/Amsterdam Staple Market. In housing was not adequate; the public budget th the 17 Century this Market was considered the showed structural deficits and a local business World Market for all Types of Goods and sector almost did not exist. Summarizing one can Services. conclude that the social-economic situation at the end of the plantation economy was extremely bad. One could also conclude that the society was in shambles and almost everything was below reasonable standards.

Beneficiaries of the colonization of Suriname

During the time span of the plantation economy in Suriname the major crops produced for export were sugar, coffee, cotton and cocoa.

From the perspective of the beneficiaries of the plantation economy the major beneficiaries of the system can be fitted in the following time categories:

A. From 1650 - 1683. During this period the Indigenous people traded with Europeans, namely Dutch expansionists and were later on enslaved and forced to work on the newly established plantation estates. French, British, Danish, American and Dutch The net present value of the amounts expansionists were the major beneficiaries in imported from Suriname into the Netherlands, this period; during the time span of the plantation economy, st if discounted at 3% is €. 125 billion as per 31 of B. From 1683 - 1873. This period marks the December 2006. rise and fall of the peak of the plantation

economy. In this period of the economy the While the Dutch Government workers were mainly enslaved Africans. accommodated their merchant bankers to do Dutch merchant-bankers and other Dutch business in Suriname and to accumulate these business suppliers were the major fortunes, investments in the Surinamese economy beneficiaries. British merchant-bankers were almost nil. Virtually no funds were profited from around 1799 - 1802 and 1804 - (re)invested neither in the human resource force 1816 of the Surinamese plantation economy, nor in the country. Instead the labour force was since the colony was in their hands during exploited to the maximum and deprived of its that time span. cultural heritage and human rights by the Plantation owners in Suriname also expansionists. benefited from Slavery during the captioned So the fortunes migrated to Amsterdam and some period. Table 4 lists the values of the main other major Dutch cities, where investments agricultural crops that were produced in preferably were made in processing industries, Suriname and imported in the Netherlands. warehouses, shipbuilding activities, paintings, jewellery, exports to Germany and the East Sea C. From 1873 - 1939. This period marks the countries and many luxurious dwellings along restart and formal fall of the plantation the canals of Amsterdam. The consequences of economy and plantation system. Slavery was the squeezing social-economic policies on the abolished and indentured workers with a five economy of Suriname around 1940 at the end of year contract continued the existing 27 the plantation economy can be summarized as follows: the infrastructure, if any, was left in a terrible condition 26 ; the education system was economie Suriname, 1873 – 1940, page 292, Amsterdam, 1980 27 These laborors worked under the same conditions as 26 Verschuuren, S., Infrastructuur in deplorabele their African predecessors. Beside this their human toestand, page 101 - 103,/ Willemsen, G.W., Koloniale rights were also heavily abused by the owners of the politiek en transformatieprocessen in een plantage modernized plantation-estates.

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production system. At the end of the and exported mainly to the commodity markets nineteenth century gold mining and later on in the Netherlands and the USA. products like balata and from the second decade of the 20 th century, The first serious signs of decomposition mining enhanced the export base of the of the plantation-economy in Suriname occurred economy. after the Dutch King William I decided to establish the Dutch Trading Company Table 3. Registered imports in the Netherlands (Nederlandsche Handel Maatschappij) in 1824 from Suriname, 1683 - 1863 (parent company of the now well-known ABN- AMRO-bank) and put all hands on deck towards Major In Weight in Value in the exploitation of Indonesia. At the same time crops kilogram Dutch florins the Surinamese plantation economic system was Sugar 1,513,649,000 750,503,000 put ‘in the waiting room’. The official ending of Coffee 405,110,000 470,722,000 the slave-trade by the Dutch expansionists in Cotton 52,437,000 95,921,000 1814 also played a pivotal role in the first signs Cocoa 16,653,000 14,831,000 of effective decline of the plantation-economy. Total 1,987,849,000 1,331,977,000 The British abolished the slave trade in Source: Herstelbetalingen, Armand Zunder, 2000. 1807. The Dutch followed in 1814. Soon after

D. In this time span the following values of the the abolition of the slave trade one could notice main agricultural crops were produced in that the plantation economy started a process of Suriname and imported in the Netherlands. decomposition. To a certain extent this process can also be derived from the numbers shown in Table 4. Registered imports in the Netherlands table 6, where in 1828 more than 20% of the from Suriname, 1873 - 1939 plantation-estates were already abandoned.

Major Weight in Value in The figures in Table 6 show that the crops kilograms Dutch florins plantation economy was clearly going down. Sugar 677,963,000 172,149,000 This downward spiral would continue until the Coffee 62,676,000 33,274,000 end of the plantation economy before the Cotton - - beginning of World War II. Cocoa 97,652,000 68,757,000 Total 838,290,000 274,180,000 Table 7 illustrates the total value of registered raw materials produced in Suriname during the Source: Herstelbetalingen, Armand Zunder, 2000. time span of the plantation economy.

In the total time span of the plantation economy Table 7. Migration of Capital from Colonial the following numbers of the four major crops Suriname, 1683 to 1940 was produced in Suriname and imported in the Netherlands, England and the USA. Product Import value In in florins percentages Table 5. Imports in the Netherlands from Sugar 979,244,000 56 Plus molasses Inclusive - Suriname, 1863 - 1939 Plus rum Inclusive - Plus dram Inclusive - Major Weight in Value in Dutch Coffee 504,237,000 29 crops kilograms florins Cotton 96,436,000 5 Cocoa 86,810,000 5 Sugar 787,715,000 235,582,000 Balata 54,651,000 3 Coffee 870,000 685,000 Wood products 1,779,000 0 Cotton 63,198,000 33,603,000 Gold 35,286,000 2 Cocoa 103,022,000 68,757,000 Tobacco Rokou Total 954,805,000 338,627,000 Indigo Raw wax Source: Herstelbetalingen, Armand Zunder, 2000. Wood paint 5,000,000 0 Copiague The major beneficiaries in the period of Honey the plantation economy were companies related Lime Juice to merchant-bankers. These companies were: Total 1,763,442,000 100 processing firms of raw agricultural material, importers, insurance brokers, insurance firms, Source: Herstelbetalingen, Armand Zunder, 2000. bankers and money lenders. As mentioned before also gold, balata and bauxite have been produced

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Table 6. Plantation enterprises in Suriname in 1827 Type of plantation Total Total in Total abandoned Total square Plantation enterprises number of production Plantation acres known enterprises with Plantations enterprises unknown square acres Sugar 141 110 31 157.691,11 29 Coffee 245 205 40 140.125,66 17 Cotton 73 72 1 39.472,50 9 Timber 199 135 64 166.338,50 94 Coffee - and Sugar 4 4 0 5.800 0 combined Coffee - and cacao 14 13 1 7.138 4 combined Coffee - and Cotton 31 25 6 16.178 5 combined Total 707 564 143 532.743,77 158

Source: Surinaamsche Almanak, 1828 Middelburg, Veere and Vlissingen also benefited directly from the exports from Suriname because Export consisted of seven major of fiscal benefits and the creation of many jobs. branches, including a branch identified as ‘other branches. The value of the registered exports from the colony Suriname during the time span How the merchant-bankers increased of the plantation-economy amounted to more their wealth in the period of the than 1.7 billion florins of that time. The majority plantation economy of this amount was exported to the Netherlands, being 1.329.000.000 florins (75%). The Schedule with the stages of wealth generation remaining export value was exported to England, and wealth creation. during the 17 years of British occupation. The export was to a certain extent also directed to the Stage 1 North East coast of the USA. Molasses and rum were mostly exported to the USA and return • Financing of plantation estates shiploads consisted mainly of salted fish, salted • Financing the purchase of enslaved persons meat, mules and horses. • Financing the freight expenses of indentured The net present value of the exports, workers • discounted at 3%, amounts to €. 126 billion by Suppliers of all types of services December 31 st 2006. These cash outflows from Suriname to the Netherlands can be considered Stage 2 The Dutch’s Best kept Secret! The major • beneficiaries in the plantation economy did not Importers of staple goods produced in reside in Suriname, but in the Netherlands and Suriname particularly in Amsterdam. The major • Taking of mortgages with the plantation beneficiaries were merchant bankers, who were estates, including the enslaved Africans as the service providers to the plantation standing security entrepreneurs. They rendered their services in almost every field that one could think of, such Stage 3 as shipping services, warehousing services, suppliers of enslaved Africans and indentured • Investments in agro-industries in the workers, bookkeeping and administrative Netherlands (not in Suriname) related to services, banking and especially mortgage sugar, cocoa, coffee and cotton services, insurance and brokerage services, importers of all types of consumer goods Stage 4 produced in the Netherlands, notary services and sales since the plantation entrepreneurs had no • Investments in money and capital market access to the Bourses in Amsterdam. The Central related securities Government of the Netherlands and the • Moneylenders who entered larger markets Municipal Governments of Amsterdam,

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160 Armand Zunder

• Marriages among family members based on in the period of the plantation economy. This existing wealth structure was designed for the benefit of the • Investments in luxurious buildings situated economy of the Netherlands. The consequence along the canals in Amsterdam or elsewhere for Suriname was that the economy of Suriname • Investments in expensive paintings of Dutch was kept in a stranglehold by the economy of the masters and in jewellery Netherlands and never developed to maturity. • Exporters and importers to Germany and The major ultimate beneficiaries were the East Sea Nations merchant bankers and public sector elites. The model is identified as a model for Source: Compilation by Armand Zunder, underdevelopment by design, whereby 2011. Suriname’s position was created by design.

It is estimated that around 57% of the The stages indicate that merchant revenues generated from imports from Suriname bankers who conducted ‘collective business have been absorbed by merchant bankers for activities’ could create wealth and continuously their business services, 16% of the revenues went develop more and more wealth. to the Colonial Authorities in Suriname as fiscal

revenues, while only 27% of the net revenues In the next picture one can admire such a person. produced in the time span of the plantation Figure 5. Picture of Mrs. Johanna Jacoba Borski, economy remained for the producers, who were 1764 - 1849 the plantation entrepreneurs. This last percentage has proven to be sufficient enough to autonomously sustain the plantation economic system.

Scientific Colonialists

For centuries the history of Suriname has been written by scientists from the Colonial motherland 29 , the Netherlands. These scientists looked at the history of Suriname from a Eurocentric perspective. Their thinking and analysis were in most cases based on general assumptions and lack 30 of quantitative data. They had hardly any interest in the oral history of the Surinamese people. The Scientific Colonialists can be characterized by the following ten points: 1. They concentrate their research mostly on slavery, and do not take the period of slavery or the genocide on the Indigenous people of Suriname into account; 2. They mostly conclude that slavery was not that bad and that the Dutch participation in the transatlantic slave trade was only limited to around 5%. They thereby do not take into account that nine generations of enslaved Source: Kees van Zandvliet. De 250 rijksten van de Gouden Eeuw, 2006. people lived and worked in slavery like conditions in Suriname. With these nine Mrs. Johanna Jacoba Borski was generations the number of victims of slavery considered one of the richest persons at the end increases substantially; of her life. She had also supplied mortgage loans (negotiatie leningen ) to plantation entrepreneurs in Suriname. Her fiscal net worth was estimated at 4 million florins. The purchasing value in 2008 29 Among the Scientific Colonialists one will also find was € 26,755,502.17. This implies that her real scientists of Surinamese origin, who have followed the net worth could easily be over € 100 million. same line as their colleague from the Netherlands. 30 The Dutch scientist Prof. Postma must be excluded In figure 6 one will find a graphic from the list, because he has quantified the export presentation of the way the Surinamese economy figures from Suriname to the Netherlands. The only was integrated in the economy of the Netherlands remarks that one could make regarding his conclusions are that he is not willing or able to go the extra mile.

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Figure 6. The model for underdevelopment was implemented by design during the plantation economy

3. They state with limited scientific p roof that 11. They prefer 34 not to discuss the matter of Suriname was not beneficial at all to the reparations. Netherlands, without analyzing the role of the merchant bankers and the cash outflow The scientific colonialists have dominated the that they generated. In their analysis they way Surinamese look at their history for a long concentrate almost fully on the position of time and up until today they have ramifications the plantation entrepreneurs; and support from historians who originate from 4. They suggest that the introduction of slavery Suriname. But there is an upcoming trend of in Suriname was a process by default and scientists who analyze Suriname’s history from a not by design; Surinamese perspective of suppression and 5. They do not accept that the society in those exploitation have come to other conclusions. days was one of suppression, racism and exploitation; The road map for ‘Wiedergutmachung ’ 6. They oppose the Eric Williams thesis: they between Suriname and the Netherlands state that slavery was not abolished for economic reasons, but mainly by ethic The Dutch Government still has an obligation to reasons of civilized Europeans; the Surinames e people for the historical moral 33 7. They state that the enslaved where better wrongdoings that the forefathers of the Dutch off in Suriname than in Africa, so slavery people have committed against the people of should be considered a blessing, instead of a Suriname. curse; These historical wrongdoings go back to the 8. They do not s eem to care that slave trade and times in history when crimes were committed by slavery have been declared as crimes against the forefathers of the Dutch a gainst the humanity in 2001; Indigenous people, against the people enslaved 9. They prefer not to compare the Black from Africa and against the people from China, Holocaust with the Jewish Holocaust India and Java that were used as indentured 10. They deny colonial racism and mental workers in the plantation economy. And last but slavery;

34 Prof. Dr. Piet Emmer is an advocate for the settlement of Reparations for historic wrongdoings. 33 Prof. Dr. Piet Emmer the front man of the scientific However his worries lie in the field of, to whom colonialists to be specific. Reparations should be paid.

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not least crimes committed against the should be understood as measures that will and against the so-called Burus 35 strengthen the development capabilities of These wrongdoings go far back, but still have a affected countries and affected groups”. traumatic influence on some descendants of the people that were victimized in the past. So, representatives of the Dutch Government as The moral wrongdoings include dispossession of well as one of the Surinamese Government have the land from the Indigenous people, taking away expressed an opinion on repairing the history the original names and cultural heritage from the between the people of both Nations. But no enslaved Africans that were employed against fundamental steps have been taken yet by either their will and horribly mistreated in the side. plantation system. Furthermore there is a causal link between the This article refers to and focuses on the underdevelopment of the Surinamese plantation Surinamese side of the story and proposes a economy and the migration of capital from structural restitution and compensation Road colonial Suriname to the Netherlands, especially Map that does not primarily focus on monetary to the City of Amsterdam. The other side of the compensation only. Monetary compensations are story is, that there is also a causal relationship however part of the healing process. The between the slave trade and slavery and the restitution and compensation Road Map is called migration of capital from Colonial Suriname to “Wiedergutmachung”. The fundamental meaning the Netherlands during the time span of the of the word is that wrongdoings of the past must plantation economy. be cleared and settled.

During the World Conference against Racism, “Wiedergutmachung” in the case of The Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and related Netherlands and Suriname will imply, initiating Intolerance in Durban in 2001 a Minister, Rogier and implementing the following nine proposed van Boxtel, of the Dutch Government stated 36 components of this Road Map:

“This World Conference in Durban is in our 1. Establish a Research Institute for the view a necessary moment to state to all people ‘Wiedergutmachung’. This Institute must be that racism and discrimination must be staffed by local experts, supported by eradicated. But we can only be credible if we foreign experts. The Institute has to be at the recognize the great injustices of the past. We forefront regarding awareness and research express deep remorse about the enslavement and on this matter; slave trade that took place. But an expression of 2. Rewrite the curriculum of History for remorse as such is not enough and cannot be schools and introduce this new curriculum as used as an excuse for not taking any action in the soon as possible in the schools. The present. It is important to take structural Surinamese economic and social history will measures that have effects for the descendents of have to be rewritten from a Surinamese former slaves and next generations” . perspective; 3. Establish two Chairs at the Anton de Kom At the same World Conference the Ambassador University of Suriname. One for research of Suriname to the Netherlands, Wim Udenhout, and teaching on the social history and one stated 37 among other things: for research and teaching on the economic history of Suriname; “My delegation is therefore convinced that 4. Start with the formulation of the Terms of reparations and compensatory measures are Reference of a broad and thorough scientific indispensable for acknowledging past wrongs, research project on the social and economic for the healing process that will accelerate the history of Suriname. This project will cover process of inclusion of the most marginalized the period of the plantation economy and its groups. The ways and means of these measures effects on the period thereafter; should be negotiable. The basic principle here 5. Rename ‘Fort Zeelandia’ in Fort ‘BUKU’ 38 , as a victory of the good historical times over the bad historical times. Establish a 35 Buru’s are Dutch farmers who emigrated from the mausoleum in this historic fort as a Netherlands in 1845. Many of them died within a couple of years after arrival in Suriname because the memorial to the thousands of forefathers Colonial government did not keep their promises who were tortured and, or lost their lives in towards this group of settlers. this fort in the time span of the plantation 36 Herstelbetalingen, Enclosure of Conference paper, economy. The mausoleum must be guarded Armand Zunder, 2000. 37 Herstelbetalingen, Enclosure of Conference paper, Armand Zunder, 2000. 38 Or another historic Surinamese name.

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Methodology to calculate reparations for damage caused by Dutch colonial rule 163

24/7 by members of the armed forces of colonial period of 1683 to 1939 must be Suriname; quantified first; 6. Develop and implement a program on self • An amount for compensations paid in the reparations. The main objective of this past by the expansionist nation for human program is to start the long lasting battle on suffering must be known or chosen; all types of ‘mental slavery’ that have been • The Net Present Value 39 must be calculated, planted during centuries in the minds of while a discount rate must be chosen. Surinamese people through the education and social system; The following basic formula is used to 7. Establish a centre were descendants of calculate the net present value of the amounts in victims from Dutch colonial rule can report the past: to be represented in a collective litigation against the Dutch Government for historical z wrongdoings against their forefathers, if this P=Y(1+X/100) should be necessary; 8. At this moment there is no monument in P stands for the amount of the net present value Suriname that demonstrates the (historic) or the net purchasing value Unity of the Surinamese people. So there is Y stands for the amount in the past great need to establish a monument for X stands for the interest rate per year used to Unity, Prosperity and Solidarity from the compound the amounts in the past perspective of Nation creation on a central z stands for the number of years. location in the City of Paramaribo; 9. Calculate and file a claim against the Methodology for calculation of the Government of the Netherlands, Dutch restitutions companies and institutions that benefited directly and indirectly from wrongdoings Based on these basic components the against the forefathers of the Surinamese methodology can be implemented, starting with people during Colonial times. These claims the methodology for calculation of restitutions. must be calculated to cover the periods of the enslavement of the Indigenous people, At first the vision must be that Suriname the slave trade and slavery as well as the should demand restitutions from the Netherlands period of Indentured workers, Maroons and for the extreme socio-economic neglect and Burus. improper management of the Surinamese economy in the period of the plantation We are convinced that only by implementing economy. This will implies a follow up on the a Road Map of ‘Wiedergutmachung’ position taken by Suriname in September 2001 in between Suriname and the Netherlands the Durban, South Africa..From this perspective impure pages between both countries in their Suriname should demand an amount of at least mutual history can ultimately be considered 30 percent of the calculated sum that merchant- as a matter of the past. Only than the people bankers and others have extracted from the of both countries can face a future without Surinamese economy, as imports from Suriname mixed feelings originating from the past. into the Netherlands during the period 1683 to 1940. As a matter of fact the proposed Methodology to calculate Reparations in percentage of 30 is at the low end, since neither the case of Suriname the Indigenous people nor the enslaved people that worked on the plantation estates received The methodology used to calculate any payment for their labour inputs, although Reparations is divided into two parts. The first their labour in the labour intensive production part refers to a methodology to calculate processes could be considered 60 – 70 percent of restitutions for social- economic neglect and the production value. The production value at mismanagement. The second part of the year end 2006 was calculated at the amount of € methodology is related to Reparations for human 126 billion. Based on the labour intensive forms suffering of the different ethnic groups under of production a wage quote of 60 to 70 percent Dutch Colonial rule. could be considered the amount to be paid to the factor labour. However the conservative figure of Basic components of the methodology are that: 30 percent is chosen.

• The total amount of imports (in this case into the Netherlands from Suriname) during the

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164 Armand Zunder

From the calculated amount the 2006. The net present value for the reparations to Development Aid 40 that was transferred to these ancestors amounts to €. 6.228.336.000 Suriname by the Netherlands in the period 1947 - billion. 2010 is subtracted. The calculated amount for restitutions for social and economic Calculations for reparations with mismanagement of the Surinamese economy reference to the disaster that hit the Indentured during Colonial times is € 36.7 billion. workers from India and from Indonesia/Java are based on the following assumption. The The results of the calculation of Surinamese author Oedraydsing Varma 41 restitutions and reparations calculated an amount of 3 billion florins to be paid to the descendants of the Indentured When calculating reparations for human workers from India, as per 1994. The same suffering one should keep in mind that these amount is added for the suffering of the figures are always symbolic and sensitive, since Indentured workers from Indonesia/Java, since human suffering can hardly (and should not) be the amount of persons that migrated from Java to expressed in monetary terms. This goes Suriname were more or less the same. especially for forced labour and continuous and The total amount is compounded at 3% per year st extreme suffering as was the case during the as per December 31 2006. At that date the net period of the plantation economy. present value reaches the level of €. Notwithstanding this basic assumption 5.703.044.000 billion for Reparations for the calculations for reparations for human suffering suffering and loss to these ancestors are an integral part of the methodology to calculate reparations as part of the Reparations have also been calculated Wiedergutmachung . for Chinese Indentured labourers, Burus and Maroons. They also suffered under Dutch The same basic formula to calculate the Colonial rule. net present value of amounts in the past will also be used to calculate reparations for human In conclusion, the calculations are shown in suffering, while the 300 florins that was made table 8. available by the Dutch Government to owners of slaves will be used as a standard. Table 8. Minimum amounts of reparations and restitutions as per 31 December 2006 Human suffering under colonial rule Amount in started with the forceful dispossession of the land Description of the Indigenous people of Suriname and their Euros For Indigenous people 16.392.989.,000 enslavement by European expansionists.

During the period 1600 – 1920 approximately For enslaved Africans who worked 6.228.336.,000 68,600 Indigenous people disappeared. As a on plantation estates reference point for our calculations the amount of For Maroons 205.515.,000 300 florins per person is taken. The amount for the reparations for the suffering of the ancestors For the Burus 3.499,000 of the Indigenous people is equal to €. 16.392,989.000 billion. For Chinese Indentured workers 21.543000 For Indentured workers from India 5.703.044,000 and Java Reparations for the African-Surinamese Total amount for Reparations for 28.6 billion for human suffering, who have been enslaved Human suffering from around 1650-1863. During this time frame Restitutions for economic and 36,7 billion around 292.089 of these enslaved workers social mismanagement of the disappeared. We multiplied this number by 300 Colony florins, the result is an amount of 88 million Total compensations and 65.3 billion florins. An amount of 100 florins per person is restitutions added for tools and equipment, necessary to have been able to start a small business after the From the perspective of a Abolition of Slavery. The total amount is ‘Wiedergutmachung’ between the Netherlands compounded at 3% per year as per December 31 st and Suriname as per year end 2006, compounded at 3% per year, a symbolic amount of over €. 65.3 billion, being the net present value can be 40 The proposal to subtract this amount of € 3.3 billion is carried out since we consider Development Aid a gift or grant, while Reparations are considered moral 41 De slavernij van Hindustanen in Suriname, F. H. R. historic rights. Oedayrajsingh Varma, alisa Che Varma, 1993.

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Methodology to calculate reparations for damage caused by Dutch colonial rule 167

Wallerstein, I. The Modern World System III, The Second Era of Great Expansion of the Capitalist World-Economy, 1730 - 1840s, New York, Academic Press, 1989. Waltmans, H. Een Koninkrijk in de West, Oosterhout, 2003. Waltmans, H. Suriname: 1650 - 2000, een politieke studie, Oosterhout, 2002. Walvin, James, Black Ivory, A history of British Slavery, London, 1992. Wereldconferentie tegen Racisme, Rassenhaat, Vreemdelingenhaat en Aanverwante Overdraagzaamheid, 31 augustus - 8 september 2001, Durban, Zuid-Afrika. Wesseling, H. L. Indië verloren, rampspoed geboren en andere opstellen over de geschiedenis van de Europese exapansie, Amsterdam, 1988. Willemsen, G. Koloniale Politiek en Transformatieprocessen in een Plantage - economie, Suriname 1873 - 1940, Amsterdam: 1980. Winbush, R. A. (editor), Should America Pay? Slavery and the raging debate on Reparations, Amistad/ Harper Collins, 2003. Wolbers, J. Geschiedenis van Suriname, Amsterdam, 1861. Zeegelaar, J. F. Suriname en de opheffing van de slavernij in 1863, Amsterdam. 1871. Zunder, A. Herstelbetalingen, De ‘Wiedergutmachun’ voor de schade die Suriname en haar bevolking hebben geleden onder het Nederlands kolonialisme, 2010 Zunder, A. Suriname, Een Nederlandse creatie en geldmakerij van allure, essay/ voorpublicatie van de onderhavige studie, 2004.

Archieven:

Nationaal archief, Den Haag. Archief van de N.V. West - Indische Bank, 1918 - 1949. Nationaal archief, Den Haag. Archief van de Nederlandsche Handels Maatschappij. Nationaal archief, Den Haag. Archief van de N.V. Surinaamsche Immigratie Maatschappij, 1865 - 1870, 2.20.01.

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