Glossary biomes are typically based on dominant vegetation structure (e.g. forest, grassland). within a biome function in a broadly similar way, although they may have very different species Abatement cost: See Marginal abatement cost. composition. For example, all forests share certain properties Abundance: The total number of individuals of a taxon or regarding nutrient cycling, disturbance, and biomass that are taxa in an area, population, or community. Relative abundance different from the properties of grasslands. Marine biomes are refers to the total number of individuals of one taxon compared typically based on biogeochemical properties. with the total number of individuals of all other taxa in an area, Biotechnology: Any technological application that uses volume, or community. biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof to Acidification:Acidification is a natural process. The term is make or modify products or processes for specific use. used to describe the loss of nutrient bases (calcium, magnesium Capacity building: A process of strengthening or developing and potassium) through the process of leaching and their human resources, institutions, organisations, or networks. Also replacement by acidic elements (hydrogen and aluminium). referred to as capacity development or capacity enhancement. Adaptation: Adjustment in natural or human systems to a Capture fisheries: see Fishery. new or changing environment. Various types of adaptation can Carbon sequestration: The process of increasing the be distinguished, including anticipatory and reactive adaptation, carbon content of a reservoir other than the atmosphere. private and public adaptation, and autonomous and planned Catch: The number or weight of all fish caught by fishing adaptation. operations, whether the fish are landed or not. Adaptive capacity: The general ability of institutions, Coastal system: Systems containing terrestrial areas systems, and individuals to adjust to potential damage, to take dominated by ocean influences of tides and marine aerosols, plus advantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences. nearshore marine areas. Adaptive management: A systematic process for continually Collaborative (or joint) forest management: Community- improving management policies and practices by learning from the based management of forests, where resource tenure by local outcomes of previously employed policies and practices. In active communities is secured. adaptive management, management is treated as a deliberate Community (ecological): An assemblage of species experiment for purposes of learning. occurring in the same space or time, often linked by biotic Afforestation: Planting of forests on land that has interactions such as competition or predation. historically not contained forests. Community (human, local): A collection of human Agrobiodiversity: The diversity of plants, insects, and soil beings who have something in common. A local community biota found in cultivated systems. is a fairly small group of people who share a common place of Alien species: Species introduced outside its normal residence and a set of institutions based on this fact, but the word distribution. ‘community’ is also used to refer to larger collections of people Alien invasive species: See Invasive alien species. who have something else in common (e.g. national community, Aquaculture: Breeding and rearing of fish, shellfish, or plants donor community). in ponds, , or other forms of confinement in fresh or Conceptual Framework: Is a concise summary in words marine waters for the direct harvest of the product. and pictures of the relationship between people and nature (a contraction of biological diversity): The including key components of interactions between humans and variability among living organisms from all sources, including ecological systems. Conceptual frameworks assist in organising terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological thinking and structuring work when assessing complex complexes of which they are part. Biodiversity includes diversity ecosystems, social arrangements and human-environment within species, between species, and between ecosystems. interactions. Biofuels: Liquid fuels derived from biomass and Condition of an : The capacity of an ecosystem predominantly used in transportation. The dominant biofuels to yield services, relative to its potential capacity. are ethanol and biodiesel. Ethanol is produced by fermenting Condition of an : The capacity of starch contained in plants such as sugar cane, sugar beet, an ecosystem service to yield benefits to people, relative to its maize, cassava, sweet sorghum or beetroot. Biodiesel is typically potential capacity. produced through a chemical process called trans-esterification, Contingent valuation: Economic valuation technique based whereby oily biomass such as rapeseed, soybeans, palm oil, on a survey of how much respondents would be willing to pay for jatropha seeds, waste cooking oils or vegetable oils is combined specified benefits. with methanol to form methyl esters (sometimes called “fatty acid Cost-benefit analysis: A technique designed to determine methyl ester” or FAME). the feasibility of a project or plan by quantifying its costs and Biogeographic realm: A large spatial region, within benefits. which ecosystems share a broadly similar biota. Eight terrestrial Cost-effectiveness analysis: Analysis to identify the least biogeographic realms are typically recognised, corresponding cost option that meets a particular goal. roughly to continents (e.g. Afrotropical realm). Critically : Species that face an Biological diversity: See Biodiversity. extremely high risk of in the wild. See also Threatened Biomass: The mass of tissues in living organisms in a species. population, ecosystem, or spatial unit. Cultural landscape: See Landscape. Biome: The largest unit of ecological classification that Cultural services: The nonmaterial benefits people obtain is convenient to recognise below the entire globe. Terrestrial from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive

1452 UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experience, achieving sustainability. It is based on an adaptive, collaboratively including, e.g. knowledge systems, social relations, and aesthetic developed vision of desired future conditions that integrates values. ecological, socioeconomic, and institutional perspectives, applied Decision-maker: A person whose decisions, and the actions within a geographic framework, and defined primarily by natural that follow from them, can influence a condition, process, or issue ecological boundaries. under consideration. Ecosystem process: An intrinsic ecosystem characteristic Decomposition: The ecological process carried out primarily whereby an ecosystem maintains its integrity. Ecosystem processes by microbes that leads to a transformation of dead organic matter include decomposition, production, nutrient cycling, and fluxes of into inorganic mater. nutrients and energy. Degradation of an ecosystem service: For provisioning Ecosystem properties: The size, biodiversity, stability, services, decreased production of the service through changes in degree of organisation, internal exchanges of materials, energy, area over which the services is provided, or decreased production and information among different pools, and other properties that per unit area. For regulating and supporting services, a reduction in characterise an ecosystem. Includes ecosystem functions and the benefits obtained from the service, either through a change in processes. the service or through human pressures on the service exceeding Ecosystem resilience: See Resilience. its limits. For cultural services, a change in the ecosystem features Ecosystem resistance: See Resistance. that decreases the cultural benefits provided by the ecosystem. Ecosystem robustness: See Ecosystem stability. Degradation of ecosystems: A persistent reduction in the Ecosystem services: The benefits people obtain from capacity to provide ecosystem services. ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and Direct use value (of ecosystems): The benefits derived from water; regulating services such as flood and disease control;cultural the services provided by an ecosystem that are used directly by an services such as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits; and economic agent. These include consumptive uses (e.g. harvesting supporting services such as nutrient cycling that maintain the goods) and nonconsumptive uses (e.g. enjoyment of scenic beauty). conditions for life on Earth. The concept “ecosystem goods and Agents are often physically present in an ecosystem to receive services” is synonymous with ecosystem services. direct use value. (Compare Indirect use value). Enabling conditions: Critical preconditions for success of Diversity: The variety and relative abundance of different responses, including political, institutional, social, economic, and entities in a sample. ecological factors. Driver: Any natural or human-induced that directly or Endangered species: Species that face a very high risk of indirectly causes a change in an ecosystem. extinction in the wild. See also . Driver, direct: A driver that unequivocally influences Environmental settings: Are the locations and places where ecosystem processes and can therefore be identified and measured humans interact with each other and nature that give rise to the to differing degrees of accuracy. (Compare Driver, indirect). cultural goods and benefits that people obtain from ecosystems. Driver, indirect: A driver that operates by altering the level Equity: Fairness of rights, distribution, and access. Depending or rate of change of one or more direct drivers. (Compare Driver, on context, this can refer to resources, services, or power. direct). Eutrophication: The increase in additions of nutrients to Ecological character: See Ecosystem properties. freshwater or marine systems, which leads to increases in plant Ecological degradation: See Degradation of ecosystems. growth and often to undesirable changes in ecosystem structure Ecosystem: A dynamic complex of plant, animal, and and function. microorganism communities and their non-living environment Evapotranspiration: See Transpiration. interacting as a functional unit. Existence value: The value that individuals place on knowing Ecosystem approach: A strategy for the integrated that a resource exists, even if they never use that resource (also management of land, water, and living resources that promotes sometimes known as conservation value or passive use value). conservation and sustainable use. An ecosystem approach is based Externality: A consequence of an action that affects someone on the application of appropriate scientific methods focused on other than the agent undertaking that action and for which the levels of biological organisation, which encompass the essential agent is neither compensated nor penalised through the markets. structure, processes, functions, and interactions among organisms Externalities can be positive or negative. and their environment. It recognises that humans, with their Final ecosystem service: Are the outcomes from ecosystems cultural diversity, are an integral component of many ecosystems. that directly lead to good(s) that are valued by people. Ecosystem assessment: A social process through which the Fishery: A particular kind of fishing activity, e.g. a trawl fishery, findings of science concerning the causes of ecosystem change, or a particular species targeted, e.g. a cod fishery or salmon fishery. their consequences for human well-being, and management and Fish stock: See Stock. policy options are brought to bear on the needs of decision-makers. Fixed nitrogen: See Reactive nitrogen. Ecosystem change: Any variation in the state, outputs, or Functional diversity: The value, range, and relative structure of an ecosystem. abundance of traits present in the organisms in an ecological Ecosystem function: See Ecosystem process. community. Ecosystem interactions: Exchanges of materials, energy, and Geographic information system: A computerised system information within and among ecosystems. organising data sets through a geographical referencing of all data Ecosystem management: An approach to maintaining included in its collections. or restoring the composition, structure, function, and delivery Goods: Are all use and non-use, material and non-material of services of natural and modified ecosystems for the goal of outputs from ecosystems that have value for people.

UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report 1453 Governance: The process of regulating human behaviour the specified measurement period (T). It gives an indication of in accordance with shared objectives. The term includes both the upper limit of fluctuating noise such as that from road traffic. governmental and nongovernmental mechanisms. LA10,18h is the arithmetic average of the 18 hourly LA10,1h values : Is an ecological or environmental area that is from 06.00 to 24.00. inhabited by a particular animal or plant species. ‘Broad ’ LA90,T: The A weighted noise level exceeded for 90% of the are used to classify different ecosystems for reporting. specified measurement period (T). In BS 4142: 1990 it is used to Health, human: A state of complete physical, mental, define background noise level. and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease LAeq,T: The equivalent continuous sound level or ambient or infirmity. The health of a whole community or population is noise level is the sound level of a notional steady sound having the reflected in measurements of disease incidence and prevalence, same energy as a fluctuating sound over a specified measurement age-specific death rates, and life expectancy. period (T). LAeq,T is used to describe many types of noise and can Heritage (cultural and natural): UNESCO defines heritage be measured directly with an integrating sound level meter. It is as 'our legacy from the past, what we live with today, and what written as Leq in connection with aircraft noise. we pass on to future generations'. Physical objects produced Land cover: The physical coverage of land, usually expressed and used by past generations, ranging from small-scale domestic in terms of vegetation cover or lack of it. Related to, but not utensils to large-scale buildings, monuments, places and synonymous with, land use. landscapes, may become valued as cultural heritage by their Landscape: An area of land that contains a mosaic of descendants. Equally, symbolic products of human creativity ecosystems, including human-dominated ecosystems. The term and imagination such as music, visual arts, poetry and prose, cultural landscape is often used when referring to landscapes knowledge and know-how contribute to a society or group's containing significant human populations or in which there has understanding of its cultural heritage. been significant human influence on the land. Human well-being: See Well-being. Landscape unit: A portion of relatively homogenous land Indirect use value: The benefits derived from the goods cover within the local-to-regional landscape. and services provided by an ecosystem that are used indirectly Land use: The human use of a piece of land for a certain by an economic agent. For example, an agent at some distance purpose (such as irrigated or recreation). Influenced from an ecosystem may derive benefits from drinking water that by, but not synonymous with, land cover. has been purified as it passed through the ecosystem. (Compare Marginal abatement cost: The cost of abating an Direct use value). incremental unit of, for instance, a pollutant or carbon. Intermediate ecosystem services: Those whose Market-based instruments: Mechanisms that create a ecological processes and functions support all life, and, by market for ecosystem services in order to improve the efficiency definition all other services. in the way the service is used. The term is used for mechanisms Institutions: The rules that guide how people within societies that create new markets, but also for responses such as taxes, live, work, and interact with each other. Formal institutions are subsidies, or regulations that affect existing markets. written or codified rules. Examples of formal institutions would Market failure: The inability of a market to capture the be the constitution, the judiciary laws, the organised market, and correct values of ecosystem services. property rights. Informal institutions are rules governed by social Marine system: Marine waters from the low-water mark and behavioural norms of the society, family, or community. Also to the high seas that support marine capture fisheries, as well referred to as organisations. as deepwater (>50 meters) habitats. Four sub-divisions (marine Integrated coastal zone management: Approaches that biomes) are recognised: the coastal boundary zone; trade-winds; integrate economic, social, and ecological perspectives for the westerlies; and polar. management of coastal resources and areas. Mitigation: An anthropogenic intervention to reduce Integrated pest management: Any practices that attempt negative or unsustainable uses of ecosystems or to enhance to capitalise on natural processes that reduce pest abundance. sustainable practices. Sometimes used to refer to monitoring programs where farmers Net primary productivity: See Production, biological. apply pesticides to improve economic efficiency (reducing Nutrient cycling: The processes by which elements are application rates and improving profitability). extracted from their mineral, aquatic, or atmospheric sources or Integrated responses: Responses that address recycled from their organic forms, converting them to the ionic degradation of ecosystem services across a number of systems form in which biotic uptake occurs and ultimately returning them simultaneously or that also explicitly include objectives to to the atmosphere, water, or soil. enhance human well-being. Nutrients: The approximately 20 chemical elements known River basin management: Integration of water planning to be essential for the growth of living organisms, including and management with environmental, social, and economic nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon. development concerns, with an explicit objective of improving Open access resource: A good or service over which no human welfare. property rights are recognised. Interventions: See Responses. Opportunity cost: The benefits forgone by undertaking one Intrinsic value: The value of someone or something in and for activity instead of another. itself, irrespective of its utility for people. Organic farming: Crop and livestock production systems Invasive alien species: An alien species whose that do not make use of synthetic fertilisers, pesticides, or establishment and spread modifies ecosystems, habitats, or species. herbicides. May also include restrictions on the use of transgenic LA10,T: The A weighted level of noise exceeded for 10% of crops (genetically modified organisms).

1454 UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report Policy-maker: A person with power to influence or determine Salinisation: The build-up of salts in soils. policies and practices at an international, national, regional, or local Scenario: A plausible and often simplified description of level. how the future may develop, based on a coherent and internally Pollination: A process in the sexual phase of reproduction in consistent set of assumptions about key driving forces (e.g. rate of some plants caused by the transportation of pollen. In the context technology change, prices) and relationships. Scenarios are neither of ecosystem services, pollination generally refers to animal- predictions nor projections and sometimes may be based on a assisted pollination, such as that done by bees, rather than wind “narrative storyline.” Scenarios may include projections but are pollination. often based on additional information from other sources. Population, biological: A group of individuals of the same Security: Access to resources, safety, and the ability to live in a species, occupying a defined area, and usually isolated to some predictable and controllable environment. degree from other similar groups. Populations can be relatively Service: See Ecosystem services. reproductively isolated and adapted to local environments. Shared social values: Refers to the fulfillment, meaning or Population, human: A collection of living people in a given significance of the collective needs of society in relation to social, area. (Compare Community (human, local)). health and cultural services. Precautionary principle: The management concept stating Soil fertility: The potential of the soil to supply nutrient that in cases “where there are threats of serious or irreversible elements in the quantity, form, and proportion required to support damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason optimum plant growth. See also Nutrients. for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental Species: An interbreeding group of organisms that is degradation,” as defined in the Rio Declaration. reproductively isolated from all other organisms, although Primary production: See Production, biological. there are many partial exceptions to this rule in particular taxa. Production, biological: Rate of biomass produced by an Operationally, the term species is a generally agreed fundamental ecosystem, generally expressed as biomass produced per unit of taxonomic unit, based on morphological or genetic similarity, that time per unit of surface or volume. Net primary productivity is once described and accepted is associated with a unique scientific defined as the energy fixed by plants minus their respiration. name. Productivity, biological: See Production, biological. Species diversity: Biodiversity at the species level, often Projection: A potential future evolution of a quantity or set combining aspects of species richness, their relative abundance, of quantities, often computed with the aid of a model. Projections and their dissimilarity. are distinguished from “predictions” in order to emphasise that Species richness: The number of species within a given projections involve assumptions concerning, for example, future sample, community, or area. socioeconomic and technological developments that may or Stock (in fisheries): The population or biomass of a fishery may not be realised; they are therefore subject to substantial resource. Such stocks are usually identified by their location. They uncertainty. can be, but are not always, genetically discrete from other stocks. Provisioning services: The products obtained from Storyline: A narrative description of a scenario, which ecosystems, including, for example, genetic resources, food and highlights its main features and the relationships between the fibre, and fresh water. scenario’s driving forces and its main features. Public good: A good or service in which the benefit received Strategies: See Responses. by any one party does not diminish the availability of the benefits to Subsidy: Transfer of resources to an entity, which either others, and where access to the good cannot be restricted. reduces the operating costs or increases the revenues of such entity Reactive nitrogen (or fixed nitrogen):The forms for the purpose of achieving some objective. of nitrogen that are generally available to organisms, such Subspecies: A population that is distinct from, and partially as ammonia, nitrate, and organic nitrogen. Nitrogen gas (or reproductively isolated from, other populations of a species but that dinitrogen), which is the major component of the atmosphere, is has not yet diverged sufficiently that interbreeding is impossible. inert to most organisms. Supporting services: Ecosystem services that are necessary Regulating services: The benefits obtained from the for the production of all other ecosystem services. Some examples regulation of ecosystem processes, including, for example, the include biomass production, production of atmospheric oxygen, regulation of climate, water, and some human diseases. soil formation and retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling, and Resilience: The level of disturbance that an ecosystem can provisioning of habitat. undergo without crossing a threshold to a situation with different Sustainable use (of an ecosystem): Human use of an structure or outputs. Resilience depends on ecological dynamics as ecosystem so that it may yield a continuous benefit to present well as the organisational and institutional capacity to understand, generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and manage, and respond to these dynamics. aspirations of future generations. Resistance: The capacity of an ecosystem to withstand the Sustainability: A characteristic or state whereby the impacts of drivers without displacement from its present state. needs of the present and local population can be met without Responses: Human actions, including policies, strategies, compromising the ability of future generations or populations in and interventions, to address specific issues, needs, opportunities, other locations to meet their needs. or problems. In the context of ecosystem management, responses Taxon (pl. taxa): The named classification unit to which may be of legal, technical, institutional, economic, and behavioural individuals or sets of species are assigned. Higher taxa are those nature and may operate at various spatial and time scales. above the species level. For example, the common mouse, Mus Riparian: Something related to, living on, or located at the musculus, belongs to the Genus Mus, the Family Muridae, and the banks of a watercourse, usually a river or stream. Class Mammalia.

UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report 1455 Threatened species: Species that face a high (vulnerable Well-being: A context- and situation-dependent state, species), very high (endangered species), or extremely high comprising basic material for a good life, freedom and choice, ( species) risk of extinction in the wild. health and bodily well-being, good social relations, security, peace Threshold: A point or level at which new properties emerge of mind, and spiritual experience. in an ecological, economic, or other system, invalidating : Areas of , fen, peatland, or water, whether predictions based on mathematical relationships that apply at natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is lower levels. For example, species diversity of a landscape may static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine decline steadily with increasing habitat degradation to a certain water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres. point, then fall sharply after a critical threshold of degradation is May incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the reached. Human behaviour, especially at group levels, sometimes wetlands and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six exhibits threshold effects. Thresholds at which irreversible metres at low tide laying within the wetlands. changes occur are especially of concern to decision-makers. Total economic value framework: A widely used framework to disaggregate the components of utilitarian value, including direct use value, indirect use value, option value, quasi- Abbreviations and option value, and existence value. Total fertility rate: The number of children a woman would Acronyms give birth to if through her lifetime she experienced the set of age-specific fertility rates currently observed. Since age-specific rates generally change over time, TFR does not in general give the AE Actual Evaporation actual number of births a woman alive today can be expected to AES Agri-environment scheme have. Rather, it is a synthetic index meant to measure age-specific ANGSt Accessible Natural Greenspace Standard birth rates in a given year. AOD Above Ordnance Datum Trade-off: Management choices that intentionally or AONB Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty otherwise change the type, magnitude, and relative mix of AoSP Areas of Special Protection services provided by ecosystems. ASNW Ancient Semi-natural Woodland Travel cost analysis: Economic valuation techniques that ASSI Area of Special Scientific Interest use observed costs to travel to a destination to derive demand AWI Ancient Woodland Inventory functions for that destination. BAP Biodiversity Action Plan Uncertainty: An expression of the degree to which a future BARS Biodiversity Action Reporting System condition (e.g. of an ecosystem) is unknown. Uncertainty can BBS Breeding Bird Survey result from lack of information or from disagreement about BBSRC Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research what is known or even knowable. It may have many types of Council sources, from quantifiable errors in the data to ambiguously BMI body mass index defined terminology or uncertain projections of human behaviour. BoBW Best of Both Worlds Uncertainty can therefore be represented by quantitative BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand measures (e.g. a range of values calculated by various models) or BRC Biological Records Centre by qualitative statements (e.g. reflecting the judgment of a team of BSBI Botanical Society of the British Isles experts). BSE Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy Urbanisation: An increase in the proportion of the bTB Bovine Tuberculosis population living in urban areas. BTO British Trust for Ornithology Urban Heat Island: A metropolitan area which is BTV Bluetongue Virus significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas. CABE Commission for Architecture and the Built Urban systems: Built environments with a high human Environment population density. CAMS Catchment Abstraction Management Areas Valuation: The process of expressing a value for a particular CAMSAR Condition and Management Survey of the good or service in a certain context (e.g. of decision-making) Archaeological Resource usually in terms of something that can be counted, often money, CAP Common Agricultural Policy but also through methods and measures from other disciplines CBA cost-benefit analysis (sociology, ecology, and so on). See also Value. CBD Convention on Biological Diversity Value: The contribution of an action or object to user- CCW Countryside Council for Wales specified goals, objectives, or conditions. (CompareValuation ). CD&E construction, demolition and excavation Value systems: Norms and precepts that guide human CDOM co-varying coloured dissolved organic matter judgment and action. CEA cost-effectiveness analysis Voluntary measures/actions: Measures that are adopted CEFAS Centre for Environment, Fisheries and by firms or other actors in the absence of government mandates. Aquaculture Science Watershed (also catchment basin): The land area that CEH Centre for Ecology & Hydrology drains into a particular watercourse or body of water. Sometimes CFP Common Fisheries Policy used to describe the dividing line of high ground between two CGT Capital Gains Tax catchment basins. CHD coronary heart disease

1456 UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report CHP Combined Heat and Power FFCD Foresight Flood and Coastal Defence CI confidence interval FGM farm gross margin CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered FIO faecal indicator organism Species of Wild Fauna and Flora FIT Feed-in Tariff CME Choice Modelling Experiments FLUF Foresight Land Use Futures CMS Convention on the Conservation of Migratory FLUFP Foresight Land Use Futures Project Species of Wild Animals FMD Foot and Mouth Disease

CO2 carbon dioxide FOG Fire Operations Group

CO2e carbon dioxide equivalent FSC Forest Stewardship Council COGAP Code of Good Agricultural Practice FTE full time employment Confor Confederation of Forest Industries FWAG Farm and Advisory Group COP Conference of Parties FWC forest-wood-chains COPR Control of Pesticides Regulations FWS Farm Woodland Scheme CP Charting Progress GAEC Good Agricultural and Environmental Condition CPRE Campaign to Protect Rural England GB Great Britain CQC Countryside Quality Counts GCR Geological Conservation Review CRoW Countryside and Rights of Way GDP Gross Domestic Product CS Countryside Stewardship GF Go with the Flow CSERGE Centre for Social and Economic Research on the GHG greenhouse gas Global Environment GIS geographic information system CSO Central Statistics Office GLUD Generalised Land Use Database CSS Countryside Stewardship Scheme GM genetically modified DARD Department of Agriculture and Rural GMO genetically modified organism Development GNI Global National Income DCLG Department of Communities and Local GPI genuine progress indicator Government GPL Green and Pleasant Land DDT dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane GPP gross primary production DECC Department of Energy and Climate Change GPS Global Positioning System Defra Department for Environment, Food and Rural GVA gross value added Affairs GW gigawatts DMG Deer Management Group GWCT Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust DNA deoxyribonucleic acid ha hectares DOC dissolved organic carbon HAP Habitat Action Plan DoE Department of Environment HaRPPS information retrieval system to support DON dissolved organic nitrogen management of habitats and rare priority EA protected species EASAC European Academies Science Advisory Council HLS Higher Level Stewardship EAU Environmental Advisory Unit HMS Harmonised Monitoring Scheme EC European Commission HNV High Nature Value ECG electrocardiogram HPAI Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza ECN Environmental Change Network HRV heart rate variability EEA European Environment Agency HSW Habitat Survey of Wales EEC European Economic Community HWP Harvested Wood Products EEZ exclusive economic zone ICES International Council for the Exploration of the EIA environmental impact assessment Sea ELME European Lifestyles & Marine Ecosystems ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management ELS Entry Level Stewardship IEEP Institute for European Environmental Policy ELVS English Leisure Visits Survey IFM Integrated Farm Management END European Directive on the Assessment and IPC Infrastructure Planning Commission Management of Environmental Noise IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change EQS Environmental Quality Standards IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control ERICA Environmental Risk from Ionising Contamination ISPV Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus ES ecosystem service IT Information Technology ESA Environmentally Sensitive Area ITS internal transcribed sequences ESRC Economic and Social Research Council IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature ET evapotranspiration IWA Institute of Welsh Affairs EU European Union JNCC Joint Nature Conservation Committee EUNIS European Nature Information System JULES Joint UK Land Environment Simulator FC Forestry Commission KE knowledge exchange FEPA Food and Environmental Protection Act Kw kilowatt

UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report 1457 LANR Local Authority Nature Reserve NICMS Northern Ireland Countryside Management LCM Land Cover Map Scheme LCM2000 Land Cover Map 2000 NIEA Northern Ireland Environment Agency LEAF Linking Environment and Farming NI-NFFO Non-Fossil Fuel Obligations LETS Local Exchange Trading Systems NISMR Northern Ireland Sites and Monuments Record LFA less favoured area NIWT National Inventory of Woodlands and Trees LNR Local Nature Reserve NLEPI Net Landscape Ecological Potential Index LS Local Stewardship NM nautical mile LSOA UK Census Lower Super Output Area NNR National Nature Reserve LU Livestock Unit NOFS New Organic Farming Scheme LUCID Local Urban Climate Model and its Application to NOx nitrogen oxides the Intelligent Design of Cities NP National Park m3 cubic metres NPP net primary production MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment NPS National Policy Statement MACC marginal abatement cost of carbon NRoSO National Register of Sprayer Operators MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food NS National Security MCCIP Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership NSAs Nitrate Sensitive Areas MCS Marine Conservation Society NSTS National Sprayer Testing Scheme MCZ Marine Conservation Zone NTFP non-timber forest product MEEB Minimum Entry Environmental Benefit NVC British National Vegetation Classification MEECE Marine Ecosystem Evolution in a Changing NVZ Nitrate Vulnerable Zone Environment NW Nature@Work MENE Monitoring Engagement with the Natural OAS Organic Aid Scheme Environment OMHoPDL Open Mosaic Habitats on Previously Developed MFA Material Flow Analysis Land MMH Mountains, Moorlands and Heaths ONS Office for National Statistics MMO Marine Management Organisation OPW Office of Public Works MNR Marine Nature Reserve OSNW Other Semi-natural Woodland MOD Ministry of Defence OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine MONARCH modelling natural resource responses to climate Environment of the North East Atlantic change OTMS Over Thirty-Month Scheme MORECS Met Office Rainfall and Evaporation Calculation p.a. per annum System PAN Planning Advice Note MOSS Management of Special Sites PAWS Plantations on Ancient Woodland Sites MPA Marine Protected Area PCB polychlorinated biphenyl MSC Marine Stewardship Council PDL Previously Developed Land MSFD Marine Strategy Framework Directive PDV Phocine Distemper Virus MSY maximum PE Potential Evaporation Mt megatonnes PEFC Programme for Endorsement of Forest

Mt CO2 megatonnes of carbon dioxide Certification MtC megatonnes of carbon PES payment for ecosystem services

MtCO2e megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent PFRA Preliminary Flood Risk Assessment MW megawatts PM particulate matter Mwe megawatts equivalent PM10 air pollution with particle diameter < 10 microns MWTP marginal willingness to pay PML Plymouth Marine Laboratory NAEI National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory POC particulate organic carbon NAO North Atlantic Oscillation POM particulate organic matter NBN National Biodiversity Network POP persistent organic pollutant NCC Nature Conservancy Council PPG Planning Policy Guidance NCMS National Countryside Monitoring Scheme PPS Planning Policy Statement NDVI Normalised Difference Vegetation Index PRD partial root drying NEA National Ecosystem Assessment QALY Quality Adjusted Life Year NEE net ecosystem exchange Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International NEP net ecosystem productivity Importance NERC Natural Environment Research Council RBMP River Basin Management Plan NERC Natural Environment and Rural Communities RCEP Royal Commission for Environmental Pollution NGO non-governmental organisation REC Regional Environmental Characterisation NHS National Health Service REP Rural Environment Protection NICE National Institute for Health and Clinical RFA Renewable Fuels Agency Excellence RHI Renewable Heat Incentive

1458 UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report RHS River Habitat Survey UKWIR UK Water Industry Research RIG Regionally Important Geological and UN United Nations Geomorphological Sites UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe RIMA reflexive interventionist or multi-agent-based UNEP United Nations Environment Programme approach US United States RoTAP Review of Transboundary Air Pollution USA United States of America RPA Rural Payments Agency USD United States dollar RPI Retail Price Index UV ultraviolet RSPB The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds UVB ultraviolet B SAC Special Area of Conservation VI Voluntary Initiative SAF Single Application Form VMA Valuation Meta-Analysis SAMS Scottish Association for Marine Science VMNR Voluntary Marine Nature Reserve SAP Species Action Plan VMS Vessel Monitoring System SAS Six Acre Standard VOC volatile organic compound SCaMP Sustainable Catchment Management Programme VPF value of a preventable fatality SCC social cost of carbon VRP Valleys Regional Park SCORCHIO Sustainable Cities: Options for Responding to VTG vitellogenin Climate cHange Impacts and Outcomes WAG Welsh Assembly Government SDA Severely Disadvantaged Area WATER Wetted Land Assessment and Techniques for SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment Restoration SEEA System of Environmental and Economic WFD Water Framework Directive Accounting WGS Woodland Grant Scheme SEER Social and Environmental Economic Research WHO World Health Organization SEP Special Environmental Project WHR waist to hip ratio SEPA Scottish Environment Protection Agency WiSe Wildlife SafE SFM sustainable forest management WM World Markets SGM Standard Gross Margin WPZ Water Protection Zone SLNCI Sites of Local Nature Conservation Importance WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development SMP Shoreline Management Plan WTP willingness to pay SNG semi-natural grassland WWF World Wide Fund for Nature SOC soil organic carbon WWI World War I SP Stated Preference WWII World War II SPA Special Protection Area WWTW wastewater treatment work SPM site prediction model SPP Scottish Planning Policy SRDP Rural Development Programme SRP soluble reactive phosphorus Contributors SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest SuDS Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems Expert Panel, Authors, Reviewers, User SUE Sustainable Urban Environment Group, Client Group and Secretariat TAG Technical Advisory Group TANs Technical Advice Notes TB tuberculosis Abson, David (University of Leeds) TEEB The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity Acreman, Mike (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) TEV Total Economic Value Ajax-Lewis, Nigel (Wildlife Trust for South & West Wales) TFR Total Fertility Rate Albon, Steve (The ) TGF trip generation function Aleem, Mariam (Food Standards Agency) THC tetrahydrocannabinol Alexander, Richard () TMP Tracking Mammals Partnership Allott, Tim (University of Manchester) TOC total organic carbon Alonso, Isabel (Natural England) UHI Urban Heat Intensity Anderson, Penny (Penny Anderson Associates) UK United Kingdom Andrews, Barnaby (University of East Anglia) UK NEA United Kingdom National Ecosystem Assessment Andrews, Julian (University of East Anglia) UKBAP United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan Angus, Stewart (Scottish Natural Heritage) UKCIP United Kingdom Climate Impacts Programme Annett, Judith (Northern Ireland Biodiversity Group) UKCP UK Climate Projection Archdale, Peter (Council for Nature Conservation & the UKMMAS United Kingdom Marine Monitoring and Countryside) Assessment Strategy Armitage, Heather (The James Hutton Institute) UKTS United Kingdom Tourism Statistics/Survey Armitage, Will (Her Majesty’s Treasury) UKWAS UK Woodland Assurance Standard Armstrong, Aileen (Scottish Natural Heritage)

UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report 1459 Asara, Viviana (University of Cambridge) Brooke, Diane (Association of Electricity Producers) Ashley, Jayne (Sustainable Development Commission) Brown, Bob (Independent / Joint Nature Conservation Ashmore, Mike (University of ) Committee) Ashworth, Jen (Natural England) Brown, Claire (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre) Askew, Tom (University of Cambridge) Brown, Lee (University of Leeds) Aslam, Uzma (University of Leeds) Bruce, Lee (Woodland Trust) Aspinall, Richard (The James Hutton Institute) Bruneau, Patricia (Scottish Natural Heritage) Atkinson, Giles (London School of Economics) Bubb, Philip (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre) Atkinson, Sian (Woodland Trust) Buckingham, David (Royal Society for the Protection of Austen, Melanie C. (Plymouth Marine Laboratory) Birds) Bailey, Sallie (Forestry Commission) Buckton, Seb (Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust) Bailey, Mark (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Bullock, James M. (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Baker, Julia (Balfour Beatty) Burgess, Jacquelin (University of East Anglia) Baker, Sandra (University of Oxford ) Burgess, Paul (Cranfield University) Baker, Tom (University of Liverpool) Burgess, Diane (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute) Balmford, Andrew (University of Cambridge) Burn, Alastair (Natural England) Bankhead, Judith (Rivers Agency) Burnett, Emma (Oxford University) Bardgett, Richard D. (Lancaster University) Burrows, Michael (Scottish Association for Marine Science) Barry, Caroline (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Butenschön, Momme (Plymouth Marine Laboratory) Barton, Jo (University of Essex) Butler, Christine (Department of Agriculture & Rural Bashford, Jenny (National Farmers’ Union) Development) Bateman, Ian J. (University of East Anglia) Cahalan, Christine (Bangor University) Batty, Michael (University College London) Campbell, Colin D. (The James Hutton Institute) Bazley, Tony (Earth Science Ireland Magazine) Carey, Martin (Mourne Heritage Trust) Beaumont, Nicola (Plymouth Marine Laboratory) Carter, Claire (University of Ulster) Beck, Helen (Commission for Architecture and the Built Carvell, Claire (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Environment) Casement, Patrick (Council for Nature Conservation & the Beharry-Borg, Nesha (University of Leeds) Countryside) Bell, Laverne (Quarry Products Association Northern Ireland) Chamberlain, David (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh) Benjamins, Stephen (Joint Nature Conservation Committee) Christie, Mary (Scottish Natural Heritage) Benton, Dustin (Campaign to Protect Rural England) Christie, Mike (Aberystwyth University) Berry, Pam (Oxford University) Christie, Peter (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute) Bide, Peter (Department of Communities and Local Christie, Susan J. (Northern Ireland Environment Link) Government) Church, Alistair (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Biesmeijer, Koos (University of Leeds) Church, Andrew (University of Brighton) Biggs, Jeremy (Pond Conservation) Clarke, Barrie (Water UK) Birchall, Caroline (Natural England) Clarke, Michelle (National Soil Resources Institute) Bird, William (Natural England) Clarke, Stewart (Natural England) Black, Helaina (The James Hutton Institute) Colbeck, Ian (University of Essex) Blackstock, Kirsty (The James Hutton Institute) Cole, Matthew (University of Birmingham) Blackstock, Tim H. (Countryside Council for Wales) Collins, Murray (London School of Economics) Blackwell, Martin (North Wyke Research) Comerford, Emma (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Blaney, Ralph (Scottish Natural Heritage) Coombes, Emma (University of East Anglia) Blyth, Simon (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre) Cooper, Nigel (Church of England / Anglia Ruskin University) Bolt, Katharine (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Cooper, David (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Bonn, Aletta (IUCN UK Peatland Programme) Affairs) Booker, Rob (The James Hutton Institute) Cooper, Alan (University of Ulster) Boon, Phil (Scottish Natural Heritage) Cooper, Andrew (University of Ulster) Bradburne, Robert (Department for Environment, Food and Corker, Pat (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Rural Affairs) Corstanje, Ron (Cranfield University) Bradbury, Richard (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Costigan, David (Department for Environment, Food and Bradley, Martin (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Rural Affairs) Bradshaw, Richard (University of Liverpool) Counsell, Dominic (Scottish Natural Heritage) Brady, Emily (Edinburgh University) Coupar, Andrew (Scottish Natural Heritage) Breen, Joe (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Crabbe, James (University of Bedfordshire) Breeze, Tom (University of Reading) Crang, Michael (Durham University) Brereton, Tom (Butterfly Conservation) Cregg, Patrick (Woodland Trust) Brett, Hope (Environment Agency) Crick, Mark (Joint Nature Conservation Committee) Brierley, Bill (Environment Agency) Crone, Victoria (Department of Environment) Broadmeadow, Mark (Forestry Commission) Cross, Paul (Bangor University)

1460 UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report Crowe, Andrew (University of East Anglia) Gale, Andrew (Natural England) Crowle, Alistair (Natural England) Garbutt, Angus (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Crute, Ian (Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board) Gaston, Kevin J. (University of Sheffield) Cush, Peter (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Gibbons, Steve (London School of Economics) Darnell, Amii (University of East Anglia) Gibby, Mary (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh) Dasgupta, Sir Partha (University of Cambridge) Gibson, Chris (Queen’s University, Belfast - retired) Davies, Keith (Countryside Council for Wales) Gilbert, Jack (Plymouth Marine Laboratory) Davies, Linda (Imperial College London) Gilchrist, Paul (University of Brighton) Davies, Iain (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Gilvear, David (University of Stirling) de Moor, Des (The Ramblers) Ginley, Sue (Forestry Commission) Delaney, Colum (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Glass, Jayne (University of the Highlands and Islands) Diack, Ian (Natural England) Glerum, Jonathan (Construction Industry Research and Doody, Pat (National Coastal Consultants) Information Association) Dornbusch, Uwe (Environment Agency) Golshetti, Giles (Department for Environment, Food and Downey, Philip (Department of Agriculture & Rural Rural Affairs) Development) Gordon, John (Scottish Natural Heritage) Drewitt, Joanna (Scottish Government) Goulding, Keith () Duck, Callan (Sea Mammal Research Unit) Graham, Andrea (National Farmers’ Union) Dugdale, Steve (University of East Anglia) Grant, Gary (Green Roof Consultancy) Duigan, Catherine (Countryside Council for Wales) Green, David (University of Aberdeen) Dunbar, Michael (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Gregory, Richard (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Duncan, Callan (Marine Conservation Society) Grice, Phil (Natural England) Dunn, Helen (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Griffin,John (Forest Service) Affairs) Griffiths,Richard (University of Kent) Durance, Isabelle (Cardiff University) Grime, Philip J. (University of Sheffield) Early, John (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Gruffudd, Pyrs (Swansea University) Easson, Lindsay (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute) Gupta, Anil (Convention of Scottish Local Authorities) Edmonds-Brown, Ronni (University of Hertfordshire) Gurnell, Angela (Queen Mary, University of London) Edward-Jones, Gareth (Aberystwyth & Bangor Universities) Hails, Rosemary (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology / Natural Edwards, Martin (Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Marine Capital Initiative) Science) Haines-Young, Roy (University of Nottingham) Elliot, Lindsey C. (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Halliday, Neil (Northern Ireland Environment Link) Centre) Hanley, Nick (University of Stirling) Elliot, Russell (Countryside Council for Wales) Hanna, Judith (Natural England) Ellis, Christopher J. (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh) Hansom, Jim (Glasgow University) Emmett, Bridget A. (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Harmer, Ralph (Forestry Commission) Evans, Chris (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Harrington, Lauren (University of Oxford) Evans, Hugh (Forest Research (Wales)) Harrington, Richard (Rothamsted Research) Evans, Martin (University of Leeds) Harris, Ian (Bangor University) Evans, Simon (National Forest Company) Harris, Jim A. (University of Cranfield) Everard, Mark (Environment Agency) Harvey, Simon C. (Canterbury Christ Church University) Falconer, Roger (Cardiff University) Hattam, Caroline (Plymouth Marine Laboratory) Falzon, Charles (C Falzon Associates) Haygarth, Phil (University of Lancaster) Feest, Alan (University of Bristol) Heard, Matt (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Ferguson, Scott (Scottish Natural Heritage) Heathwaite, Louise A. (University of Lancaster) Fezzi, Carlo (University of East Anglia) Helfer, Stephan (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh) Firbank, Les (University of Leeds) Henry, Clifford (Northern Ireland Environment Agency - Fish, Robert (University of Exeter) retired) Fisher, Brendan (Princeton University) Hesketh, Helen (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Fisher, Jane (Liverpool John Moores University) Hess, Tim (Cranfield University) Fitter, Alastair (University of York) Hester, Alison (The James Hutton Institute) Foden, Jo (University of East Anglia) Hicks, Kevin (Imperial College London) Foley, Nicola (Bangor University) Hiddink, Jan (Bangor University) Fortnam, Matthew (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Hills, Kate (Local Government Association) Centre) Hine, Rachel (University of Essex) Freer, Jim (Bristol University) Hinton, George (Natural England) Frogbrook, Zoe (Environment Agency Wales) Hobson, Edward (Commission for Architecture and the Built Frost, Peter (Countryside Council for Wales) Environment) Frost, Mathew (Marine Biological Association of the UK) Hockley, Neal (Bangor University) Fyfe, Gillian (Convention of Scottish Local Authorities) Holyoak, Vince (English Heritage)

UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report 1461 Hopkins, John (Natural England) Large, Andy (University of Newcastle) Hoskins, Stephen (King Edward VI School, Southampton) Lawlor, Declan (Loughs Agency) Houghton, Jane (Natural England) Lawson, Aileen (Ulster Farmers Union) Hourahane, Shelagh (Creu-Ad Consultants) Le Vay, Lewis (Bangor University) Hughes, Rob (Queen Mary University of London) Lea, Chris (Welsh Assembly Government) Hughes, Dermot (Ulster Wildlife Trust - retired) Leather, Simon (Imperial College London) Hulme, Mark (British Trust for Ornithology) Lerch, Andreas (Marine Scotland) Hume, Carrie (Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust/Wildlife and Lilly, Allan (The James Hutton Institute) Countryside Link) Logan, Niall (Glasgow Caledonian University) Humphrey, Jonathan (Ecological consultant) Long, David (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh) Ishwaran, Mallika (Department for Environment, Food and Lovett, Andrew (University of East Anglia) Rural Affairs) Lucas, Steve (Bat Conservation Trust) Jackson, Emma (Marine Biological Association of the UK) Luisetti, Tiziana (University of East Anglia) James, Philip (University of Salford) Lyme, Samantha (Natural England) Jarrett, Dafydd (National Farmers’ Union - Wales) Maberly, Steve (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Jefferson, Richard G. (Natural England) Macdonald, David (University of Oxford) Jenkins, Alan (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Mace, Georgina M. (Imperial College London) Jenkins, Martin (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Mack, Kim (Scottish Government) Centre) MacKerron, George (London School of Economics) Jennings, Simon (Centre for Environment Fisheries & Mackey, Ed (Scottish Natural Heritage) Aquaculture Science) MacKintosh, Jane (Scottish Natural Heritage) Jeavans, Mark (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Maddison, David (University of Birmingham) Affairs) Madgwick, Genevieve (Natural England) Johnes, Penny (University of Reading) Maggs, Chris (Queen’s University Belfast) Johns, David (Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean Science) Maguire, Cathy (Queen’s University Belfast) Johns, Tim (Environment Agency / Roehampton University) Maguire, Orla (Belfast City Council) Johnson, Sally (Scottish Natural Heritage) Malcolm, Stephen J. (Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Johnson, Andrew (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Aquaculture Science) Johnston, Robert (Fellow of the Society of Biology, Fellow of Mäler, Karl-Göran (The Stockholm School of Economics / the Linnean Society) Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics) Jones, Barbara (Countryside Council for Wales) Maltby, Edward (University of Liverpool) Jones, Glyn (Agricultural Development Advisory Service) Mangi, Stephen (Plymouth Marine Laboratory) Jones, Laurence (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Mannion, Kathrina (Department for Environment, Food and Jones, Ceris (National Farmers’ Union) Rural Affairs) Jordan, Crawford (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute) Marrington, Emma (Campaign to Protect Rural England) Kasier, Michael (Bangor University) Martin, John (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Kass, Gary (Natural England) Maskell, Lindsay (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Kay, David (Aberystwyth University) Maxwell, Simon (Department for Environment, Food and Kearney, Eimear (Lough Neagh Partnership) Rural Affairs) Keatinge, Ray (Department for Environment, Food and Rural May, Linda (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Affairs) McAdam, Jim (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute) Keith, Aidan (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) McAuley, Marcus (Department of Culture, Arts & Leisure) Kenney, Siobhan (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring McCall, Rob (Countryside Council for Wales) Centre) McCann, David (Northern Ireland Environment Link) Killeen, Steve (Environment Agency) McCann, Thomas (University of Ulster) King, Tony (Scottish Environment Link) McColgan, Ronan (Northern Ireland Environment Link) Kingham, Jonathan (Northern Ireland Environment Link) McCracken, Davy (Scottish Agricultural College) Kirby, Keith (Natural England) McCulloch, Neil (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Kirkpatrick, Hilary (University of Ulster) McFerran, Damian (Centre for Environmental Data & Kirkwood, Lisa (World Wildlife Fund) Recording) Kontoleon, Andreas (University of Cambridge) McHaffie,Heather (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh) Korn, Julia (Countryside Council for Wales) McKay, Hazel I. (Independant consultant) Kumar, Pushpam (University of Liverpool) McMorrow, Julia (University of Manchester) Kungu, Elizabeth (Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh) McMullan, Melina (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Kunin, William (University of Leeds) McMurray, Philip (Department of the Environment) Kwiatkowski, Lester (Imperial College London) McNee, Jonathan (Planning Service) Laidlaw, Scott (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute) McQuarrie, Alison (Marine Scotland) Landsberg, Florence (World Resources Institute) Meharg, Mike (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Langmead, Olivia (University of Plymouth) Memmott, Jane (Bristol University) Lansdown, Richard (Ardeola Environmental Services) Merino, Gorka (Plymouth Marine Laboratory)

1462 UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report Metcalfe, Robert (Oxford University) Pimm, Eunice (Joint Nature Conservation Committee) Middlebrook, Ian (Butterfly Conservation) Pinnegar, Sally (Natural England) Mieszkowska, Nova (Marine Biological Association of the Pitkin, Peter (Scottish Natural Heritage) UK) Polasky, Steve (University of Minnesota) Miles, Alison (Environment Agency) Poots, Brian (Northern Ireland Forest School Association) Mitchell, Arthur (Rural Development Council) Porter, Keith (Natural England) Mitchell, Diane (National Farmers' Union) Porter, David (Rivers Agency) Mitchell, Ian (Joint Nature Conservation Committee) Potschin, Marion (University of Nottingham) Moeller, Iris (University of Cambridge) Potts, Simon G. (University of Reading) Moffat, Andy (Forest Research) Pretty, Jules N. (University of Essex) Monteith, Don (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Procter, Julie (Greenspace Scotland) Montgomery, Ian (Queen’s University of Belfast) Purse, Beth (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Moore, Alan (Northern Ireland Water) Pye, Kenneth (Kenneth Pye Associates Ltd.) Moorhouse, Tom (University of Oxford) Pywell, Richard J. (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Moran, Dominic (Scottish Agricultural College) Quine, Chris (Forest Research, Forestry Commission) Morgan, Vicky (Joint Nature Conservation Committee) Quine, Timothy (University of Exeter) Morling, Paul (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Ragab, Ragab (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Morris, Joe (Cranfield University) Rahman, Amanna (Environment Agency) Morris, Tony (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Ravenscroft, Neil (University of Brighton) Morwood, Stuart (Forest Service) Rawcliff, Peter (Scottish Natural Heritage) Moss, Brian (University of Liverpool) Rayment, Mark (Bangor University) Moss, Joan (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute) Reading, Christopher (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Mourato, Susana (London School of Economics) Rebane, Mick (Natural England) Mudge, Greg (Scottish Natural Heritage) Reed, Mark (University of Aberdeen) Mulholland, Fiona (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Rees, Sue (Natural England) Munday, Paul (University of East Anglia) Reid, Christine (Natural England) Murchie, Archie (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute) Reid, Neil (Quercus) Neill, Ken (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Resende, Guliherme (London School of Economics) Newman, Jonathan (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Reynolds, Brian (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Nicholls, Robert (University of Southampton) Rhind, Peter (Countryside Council for Wales) Norris, Ken (University of Reading) Rimes, Carrie (Countryside Council for Wales) Nunn, Julia (Centre for Environmental Data & Recording) Roast, Stephen (Environment Agency) Nurse, Jo (Department of Health) Robertson, Anne (Roehampton University) Nuttall, Geoff (World Wildlife Fund) Robinson, Anna (Joint Nature Conservation Committee) O’Neill, John (Fisheries Division, Department of Agriculture & Robinson, David (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Rural Development) Rogers, Kenton (Hi-Line Consultancy) Ogden, Peter (Campaign for the Protection of Rural Wales) Rose, Paul (Joint Nature Conservation Committee) Oppenheimer, Sarah (Royal Society for the Protection of Rosell, Robert (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute) Birds) Ross, Louise (University of Aberdeen) Orford, Julian (Queen’s University Belfast) Ross, Martin (South West Water) Ormerod, Steve (University of Cardiff) Rowan, John (University of Dundee) Orr, Harriet (Environment Agency) Rowntree, Clare (National Farmers’ Union) Osborne, Juliet (Rothamsted Research) Ruddock, Diane (The National Trust) Osborne, Dan (Natural Environment Research Council) Russell, Shaun (Wales Environment Research Hub) Owen, Nicola (Mineral Products Association) Russell, Stephen (Landscape Institute) Owen, Roger (Scottish Environment Protection Agency) Sadler, Jon (University of Birmingham) Pagella, Saskia (Bangor University) Sajwaj, Todd (Unaffiliated) Pagella, Tim (Bangor University) Sanderson, Bill (Countryside Council for Wales) Pakeman, Robin J. (The James Hutton Institute) Savill, Peter (University of Oxford) Pascual, Unai (University of Cambridge) Schaible, Richard (Forest Service) Patterson, James (University of Nottingham) Schoeman, Dave (University of Ulster) Payne, Michael (National Farmers’ Union) Scholes, Lian (Middlesex University) Pearce-Higgins, James (British Trust for Ornithology) Scott, Robert (Belfast City Council) Pearson, Jon (Land Use Consultants) Scowen, Matt (Bangor University) Peel, Steve (Natural England) Sen, Antara (University of East Anglia) Perino, Grischa (University of East Anglia) Service, Matthew (Agri-Food & Biosciences Institute) Perry, Suzanne (Natural England) Shannon, Delia (Mineral Products Association) Phillips, Nick (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Sheate, William R. (Imperial College London) Pickup, Roger (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Shepherd, Matthew (Natural England) Pilgrim, Emma (Rothamsted Research) Sherry, Jan (Countryside Council for Wales)

UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report 1463 Shimmield, Tracy (Scottish Marine Institute) van Soest, Daan (Tilburg University) Silvertown, Jonathan (Open University) Vanbergen, Adam (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Sime, Iain (Scottish Natural Heritage) Vaughan, Ian (University of Cardiff) Simpson, Lucy (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Vincent, Claire (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Centre) Vira, Bhaskar (University of Cambridge) Siriwardena, Gavin (British Trust for Ornithology) Volpi, Massimiliano (Natural Environment Research Council) Sizaret, Maxime (Causeway Coast & Glens Heritage Trust) Wade, Rebecca (University of Abertay) Skates, James (Welsh Assembly Government) Wall, Diana (Colarado State University) Skea, Jim (UK Energy Research Centre) Waller, Paul (Paul Waller Consulting) Skinner, Ann (Scottish Natural Heritage) Walmsley, Clive (Countryside Council for Wales) Small, Emma (Countryside Council for Wales) Walpole, Matt (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Smith, Cecile (Scottish Natural Heritage) Centre) Smith, Pete (University of Aberdeen) Walton, Paul (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Smith, Philip (Land Use onsultants) Ward, Rob (British Geological Survey) Smith, Stuart (Countryside Council for Wales) Warren, Martin (Butterfly Conservation) Smithers, Richard (Woodland Trust) Warrington, Stuart (National Trust) Smyth, Emily (University of Ulster) Waters, Ruth (Natural England) Smyth, Tim (Plymouth Marine Laboratory) Watkinson, Andrew (Living With Environmental Change) Snowdon, Pat (Forestry Commission) Watson, Robert, T. (Department for Environment, Food and Somerfield,Paul (Plymouth Marine Laboratory) Rural Affairs & the Tyndall Centre, University of East Spence, Barbara (Forestry Commission) Anglia) Spode, Steve (Welsh Assembly Government) Watt, Allan (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Spray, Chris (University of Dundee) Weighell, Tony (Joint Natural Conservation Council) Spurgeon, James (Environmental Resources Management) Wernham, Chris (British Trust for Ornithology) Squire, Geoff (The James Hutton Institute) Wharfe, Jim (Environment Agency) Stein, Alexandra (Scottish Government) Whitbread, Tony (Wildlife Trust) Stentford, Grant (Centre for Environment, Fisheries & Whitehouse, Andrew (Buglife – The Invertebrate Aquaculture Science) Conservation Trust) Stephens, Jude (Queen’s University Belfast) Whitmore, Andrew P. (Rothamsted Research) Stewart Roper, Charles (Scottish Government) Wilks, Susie (Client Earth) Stirrat, Craig (Built Environment Forum Scotland) Williams, James (Joint Nature Conservation Committee) Stoate, Chris (Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust) Williams, Prysor (Bangor University) Storkey, Jonathan (Rothamsted Research) Willis, Graeme (Campaign to Protect Rural England) Stott, Andrew (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Wilson, Alister (Waverley Management Consultants) Affairs) Wilson, Jeremy (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) Swart, Chloe (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre) Winn, Jonathan (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Tallowin, Jerry (Rothamsted Research) Centre) Taylor, Colin (EDF Energy) Winter, Michael (University of Exeter) Termansen, Mette (University of Leeds / Aarhus University) Wood, Carly (University of Essex) Thomas, Huw (Department for Environment, Food and Rural Woodcock, Ben (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Affairs) Woodhurst, Ian (Campaign to Protect Rural England) Thomas, Clive (Forestry Commission) Wright, Mark (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) Thompson, Des (Scottish Natural Heritage) Wright, Timothy (Economic and Research Council) Thompson, Julian (University College London) Young, Mark (University of Aberdeen) Thomson, Amanda (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Young, Michael (Geological Survey Northern Ireland) Tierney, Megan (UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre) Tinch, Dugald (University of Stirling) Tolia-Kelly, Divya (Durham University) Tomlinson, Roy (Queen’s University Belfast - retired) Acknowledgements Townsend, Mike (Woodlands Trust) Treweek, Jo (Treweek Environmental Consultants) The UK National Ecosystem Assessment (UK NEA) was funded by Turley, Carol (Plymouth Marine Laboratory) the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affaris (Defra), Turner, Kerry (University of East Anglica) Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), Economic and Turner, Sarah (Centre for Ecology & Hydrology) Social Research Council (ESRC), Northern Ireland Environment Tyler, Charles (University of Exeter) Agency (NIEA), the Scottish Government, the Countryside Council Upton, Andrew (Ulster Wildlife Trust) for Wales (CCW) and the Welsh Assembly Government (WAG). Usher, Michael (University of Stirling) Valatin, Gregory (Forest Research) We would like to acknowledge the contributions of all the authors Van der Wal, René (University of Aberdeen) of the UK NEA and the support provided by their institutions that

1464 UK National Ecosystem Assessment: Technical Report enabled their participation. Writing this technical report would Feeder Report (Saunders 2010). Contributing authors from also not have been possible without the many comments and Plymouth Marine Laboratory and Scottish Association for Marine useful insights from the Expert Panel and Chairs, User Group Science were partially funded through the NERC Oceans 2025 and Client Group. We also wish to further acknowledge the many programme. constructive comments provided by independent reviewers, ensuring the assessment’s robustness. These comments were Supporting services further complemented by the many stakeholders who took part in workshops during the two years of the assessment. We are grateful to the many people who have contributed to the writing of this chapter specifically John Gordon, Alistair The UK NEA would not have been possible without the Rennie, Stewart Angus and Ness Kirkbride and several other availability of data that underpins the assessment, and we wish colleagues and referees. We are especially indebted to: Robert to acknowledge all institutions and individuals who provided Jones, Patricia Bruneau, John Gordon, Stephen Chapman, Alan data, specifically the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Natural Lilly, Nikki Baggaley and Willie Towers who provided valuable England, Scottish Natural Heritage, the Environment Agency, information for the soil formation section, Fangjie Zhao and Keith Forestry Commission, BTO, RSPB, The Woodlands Trust, Agri- Goulding who made available unpublished data for the nutrient Food & Biosciences Institute, Biotechnology & Biological Sciences cycling section, and Brian Reynolds for information on trends Research Council, the Met Office, and Cranfield University. We in soil phosphorus. We are also grateful to several referees who would also like to thank all of those who provided high resolution provided helpful comments on previous versions of this chapter, versions of graphics and photos for inclusion in the UK NEA and other Coordinating Lead Authors and members of the UK NEA Technical Report. Expert Panel who contributed through valuable comments and discussion. Special thanks are due to the Secretariat staff who worked tirelessley on the UK NEA and especially to Kate Trumper, Rhonda Economic valuation Pike, Chloe Cryus-Kent, Helen Walsh, Rowena Millar and the designers at NatureBureau who worked with the Secretariat, and The economic analysis (Chapter 22 & 26) was in part funded by on the production of the Technical Report. the ESRC Social, Economic and Environmental Research (SEER) project (funder ref: RES-060-25-0063) at CSERGE, University of Specifically, the following author teams would like to acknowledge: East Anglia, UK. The work carried out on valuing of woodland recreation was funded in part by the Forestry Commission. The Mountains, Moorlands and Heaths UK NEA economics team and many of the collaborating natural and social scientists were supported in part by the NERC Valuing The authors are grateful for comments on earlier drafts from Nature Network (funder ref: NE/I015086/1) which provides a Edward Maltby (University of Liverpool), Ian Montgomery forum for bringing together researchers and decision makers from (Queen’s University Belfast), Christine Reid (Natural England), across the ecosystem services spectrum. The authors are grateful Greg Mudge (Scottish Natural Heritage [SNH]), Mick Rebane to the UK NEA Economic Advisory Panel and in particular Sir (Natural England), Patrick Thompson (RSPB), Phil Burston Partha Dasgupta, Brendan Fisher, Karl-Göran Mäler, Steve Polasky (RSPB), Jeremy Wilson (RSPB), Penny Anderson (Penny Anderson and Kerry Turner. Associates), Diane Mitchell (National Farmers’ Union), Vicky Morgan (Senior Habitats Adviser JNCC), Sally Johnson (SNH), Scenarios Andrew Coupar (SNH), Jo Treweek (Treweek Environmental Consultants), James Pearce Higgins (BTO), Chris Gibson (Queen’s The Scenarios chapter could not have been completed without the University, Belfast - retired), and Robin Pakeman (Macaulay assistance, guidance and feedback from a large group of people: Institute). Megan Tierney, Matt Walpole, Jonathan Winn, Claire Brown and Lucy Simpson from UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge, UK; Bob Watson, Woodlands Robert Bradburne, Giles Golshetti, Josef Hargrave, Peter Costigan, and Fiona Lickorish from Defra, London, UK; Steve Albon, The The authors are grateful for assistance from Peter Crow, Elaine James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen, UK; Nicola George, Natural Dick, David H. Evans, Justin Gilbert, Ralph Harmer, Helen McKay, England; Alice Hardiman, RSPB, Sandy, UK; Kathryn Monk, James Morison, Jonathan Starling and others. Environment Agency Wales, Cardiff, UK; Jim Wharfe, Environment Agency, UK; Angela Wilkinson, Said Business School, University Marine of Oxford, UK; Diane Mitchell, NFU, Stoneleigh, UK; Louise Heathwaite, Lancaster Environment Centre, UK; Chris Quine, Some of the material for this chapter has been reproduced with Forest Research, Alice Holt, UK; also the Scenarios Expert Group, permission from the Charting Progress 2 (CP2) Healthy and the UK NEA economics team and the members of the UK NEA Biologically Diverse Seas Evidence Group Feeder Report 2010 stakeholder groups in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern (Frost 2010) and chapters therein. Reproduced information is Ireland. We are also grateful for input from former research highlighted in footnotes in the relevant sections. Information assistants at CEM Kate Moore (now University of Leicester) and has also been sourced from the Productive Seas Evidence Group Gabrielle Silfwerbrand (now University of Stockholm, Sweden).

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