Reading the Book of Nature

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Habent sua fata libelli

Volume 41 of Sixteenth Century Essays & Studies

Raymond A. Mentzer, General Editor

Composed by Thomas Jefferson University Press at Truman State University, Kirksville, Missouri 63501 Cover Art and Title Page by Teresa Wheeler, TSU Designer Manufactured by Edwards Brothers, Ann Arbor, Michigan Body text is set in Galliard Old Style by Carter & Cone, 10/13

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This book has been brought to publication with the generous support of Truman State University, Kirksville, Missouri

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Reading the book of nature : the other side of the Scientific Revolution / Debus, Allen G., and Michael T. Walton, eds. p. cm. — (Sixteenth century essays and studies : v. 41) “The present volume is composed of papers read at a series of sessions centered on the history of renaissance and early modern science and medicine held in St. Louis at the Sixteenth Century Studies Conference 24–27 October 1996”–Pref. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-940474-47-6 (alk. paper; casebound) ISBN 0-940474-48-4 (alk. paper; paperback) 1. Medicine–History–16th century–Congresses. 2. Alchemy–History– 16th century–Congresses. 3. Science–History–16th century–Congresses. I. Debus, Allen G. II. Walton, Michael Thomson, 1945– . III. Sixteenth Century Studies Conference (1996, St. Louis, Mo.) IV. Series. R146.R43 1997 509'.031–DC21 97–33101 CIP

No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any format by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any informa- tion storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. The paper in this publication meets or exceeds the minimum requirements of the American National Standard—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48 (1984).

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CONTENTS

Preface vii Michael T. Walton Genesis and Chemistry in the Sixteenth Century 1 Jole Shackelford Seeds with a Mechanical Purpose: Severinus’ Semina and Seventeenth- Century Matter Theory 15 Charles D. Gunnoe, Jr. Erastus and Patracelsianism: Theological Motifs in Thomas Erastus’ Rejection of Paracelsian Natural Philosophy 45 Bruce T. Moran Libavius the Paracelsian? Monstrous Novelties, Institutions, and the Norms of Social Virtue 67 William R. Newman Alchemical and Baconian Views on the Art-Nature Division 81 Stephen A. McKnight The Wisdom of the Ancients and Francis Bacon’s New Atlantis 91 Nicholas H. Clulee John Dee and the Paracelsians 111 Ana Maria Alfonso-Goldfarb An “Older” View about Matter in John Wilkins’ “Modern” Mathematical Magick 133 Allen G. Debus Paracelsus and the Delayed Scientific Revolution in Spain: A Legacy of Philip II 147

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Martha Baldwin Danish Medicines for the Danes and the Defense of Indigenous Medicines 163 Lawrence M. Principe Diversity in Alchemy: The Case of Gaston “Claveus” DuClo, a Scholastic Mercurialist Chrysopoeian 181 Thomas Willard The Many Worlds of Jean D’Espagnet 201 Kathleen Wellman Talismans, Incubi, Divination, and the Book of M*: The Bureau d’adresse Confronts the Occult 215 Ursula Klein Nature and Art in Seventeenth-Century French Chemical Textbooks 239 Vera Cecília Machline The Contribution of Laurent Joubert’s Traité du Ris to Sixteenth- Century Physiology of Laughter 251

Contributors 265

Index 268

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P|eFACE

THE PRESENT VOLUME IS COMPOSED OF PAPERS read at a series of sessions centered on the history of Renaissance and early modern science and medicine held in Saint Louis at the Sixteenth Century Studies Conference, October 24– 27, 1996. These sessions were organized at the request of Robert V. Schnucker by Allen G. Debus and Michael T. Walton in part to bring together a group of scholars with similar interests from several disciplines and in part to present this work to the Sixteenth Century Studies Conference, which traditionally has had relatively few papers on science and medicine at its meetings. The history of science has changed considerably over the course of the past few decades. Forty years ago the emphasis was on the Scientific Revolu- tion of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but interpreted largely on the development of the physics of motion and astronomy from the publication of the De revolutionibus orbium of Copernicus (1543) to the Principia mathematica of Isaac Newton (1687). To a large extent the historian’s task was thought to be a positivistic enterprise in which earlier science was evaluated in relation to modern science. The work of Kepler, Galileo, and other predecessors to New- ton was examined carefully to seek out the “modern” elements of their thought. There was far less interest in the biological sciences, with the excep- tion of William Harvey because of his description of the circulation of the blood in the De motu cordis (1628). The background to his anatomical work was recognized in a series of great Paduan anatomists beginning with Andreas Vesalius (whose monumental De fabrica was also published in 1543) and leading to Hieronymus Fabricius, who taught Harvey as a student. Thus, as the development of classical mechanics was presented as a series of positive steps leading from Copernicus to Newton, the discovery of the circulation of the blood was presented as a “ladder of success” stretching from Vesalius to Har- vey. In short, the Scientific Revolution was presented largely in terms of the mathematicized physical sciences, but with a nod to one development in the biological sciences. As for the history of medicine, there was relatively little interest expressed by historians of science. The founder of the discipline in this century, George Sarton, believed that the biological sciences stood far below

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the mathematical sciences, and he believed that medicine was lower still. Because he was convinced that medicine was a practical art, he was distressed by those medical historians who claimed that medicine is the real foundation of the other sciences. Indeed, he wrote that “the main misunderstandings con- cerning the history of science are due to historians of medicine who have the notion that medicine is the center of science.”1 But what of other areas of interest to scholars interested in the Renais- sance and early modern periods? The research of Lynn Thorndike, Paul Oskar Kristeller, Frances Yates, and Walter Pagel had pointed to the Neoplatonic revival and the prevalence of interest in natural magic, Hermeticism, and alchemy. Sarton felt that these subjects could largely be neglected. He wrote: The historian of science cannot devote much attention to the study of super- stition and magic, that is, of unreason, because this does not help him very much to understand human progress. Magic is essentially unprogressive and conservative; science is essentially progressive; the former goes backward; the latter, forward. We cannot possibly deal with both movements at once except to indicate their constant strife, and even that is not very instructive, because that strife has hardly varied throughout the ages.2 In his very influential The Origins of Modern Science 1300–1800 (1949) Her- bert Butterfield wrote that historians who specialize in alchemy “seem to be under the wrath of God themselves; for like those who write on the Bacon- Shakespeare controversy or on Spanish politics, they seem to become tinc- tured with the kind of lunacy they set out to describe.”3 Even Marie Boas titled the chapter on the mystical natural philosophies of the Renaissance in her The Scientific Renaissance 1450–1630 (1962) “Ravished by Magic.”4 Only in the past thirty years has more attention been given to these subjects due mainly to the work of Dame Frances Yates and Walter Pagel. In par- ticular Pagel’s Paracelsus: An Introduction to Philosophical Medicine in the Era of the Renaissance (1958) proved to be an influential work for those interested in an alternative approach to the period of the Scientific Revolution. Many of the natural magicians and Paracelsians opposed ancient tradition and sought a new observational base for the understanding of nature. While it is true that theirs was not “modern” science, they certainly did contribute to modern

1George Sarton, History of Science: Ancient Science through the Golden Age of Greece (Cam- bridge: Harvard University Press, 1952), xi. 2George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, 3 vols. (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1927–1947), 1:19. 3Herbert Butterfield, The Origins of Modern Science 1300–1800 (New York: Macmillan, 1952), 98. 4Marie Boas, The Scientific Renaissance 1450–1630 (New York: Harper, 1962), 166–196.

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science because of specific discoveries and concepts, and because of their debates both with the proponents of ancient tradition and with seventeenth- century mechanists. Indeed, they played a significant role in the methodolog- ical debates crucial to the rise of a new science. Here Paracelsus (1493–1541) may be seen as a major figure. A younger contemporary of Copernicus (1473– 1543) and an older contemporary of Vesalius (1514–1564), Paracelsus produced an extensive corpus of writings touching on many topics, among them of special importance, the joining of chemistry and medicine. He rejected the ancient authors and relied on observational evidence, but he distrusted mathematics and sought truth in the macrocosm-microcosm analogy. The influence of Paracelsus extended to disciples over a period of more than a century. They developed a Chemical Philosophy that was fully as well known to their contemporaries as the Mechanical Philosophy, which is much better known to historians of science today. This Chemical Philosophy resulted in heated debates not only between the Paracelsian chemical physicians and the Galen- ists, but also between various sects of chemists and mechanists who sought to develop a mathematically based rather than a chemically based interpretation of nature. The complex nature of these various strands of chemical thought are evident in current research detailing the alchemical interests of Isaac New- ton and Robert Boyle, who previously were thought to be exemplars only of the new mechanical science of the seventeenth century. As we probe deeper into these texts we find also that their ramifications extend beyond the sciences into related cultural, political, and intellectual spheres. A large proportion of the Paracelsian authors were Protestant rather than Roman Catholic. As a result we find opposition based upon religious views—as well as opposition from the educational establishment that remained largely wedded to the ancients. Both in England and France political factions sought to support either the chemists or the ancients in a bid for control of medical organizations. Here and in other cases we can see a result- ing debate on many levels. The papers from this conference reflect current research in this area. Some of these papers center on specific technical aspects of Renaissance alchemy, chemistry, and Paracelsian thought, but others deal with the impact of this thought on other areas ranging from religious and political considerations to the role of alchemy in the methodology of the history of science. The volume begins appropriately with the beginning itself, a paper on the profound influence of the creation account in Genesis on sixteenth- and seventeenth-century scientists. Michael T. Walton’s account opens with a Renaissance Jewish scholar, Ovadiah Sforno, whose commentary on the Pentateuch dealt with the

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creation of the earth and the elements while referring to chemical terminology. Although Sforno accepted many aspects of Aristotelian thought, the next author discussed, Paracelsus, challenged the Greek authors at every turn. For him the very basis of understanding should be a belief in God and the biblical account of creation which in practice could be evidenced in a proper union of medicine and chemistry. His was a “Mosaical” philosophy, and Walton fol- lows this concept through the work of the Dane, Peter Severinus, the English- man, R. Bostocke, and the German, Oswald Croll, all of whom sought a true Christian philosophy that in practice emphasized chemistry and medicine. Robert Fludd and Jean Baptiste van Helmont, two very different chemical philosophers, continued to base their philosophy on the creation account, and even Robert Boyle founded his concept of corpuscularian matter on the divine creation. Like Walton, Jole Shackelford views the influence of the chemical philosophy over a long period, pointing to the sixteenth-century iatrochemist and Paracelsian, Peter Severinus, whose work was read widely and may be seen to have influenced Robert Boyle a century later. Shackelford centers his discus- sion on the semina or seeds of Severinus which were developed by him into a complete biological philosophy, one in which they were pictured as the principles from which bodies arise and to which they return. Again, there was a chemical basis for this since their nature was determined by stripping off their outer husk to reveal their inner virtue. This was to be accomplished by chemical means. Shackelford also points to the use of the term “mechanical” by Sev- erinus when referring to chemical activity on a seminal level, thus noting the danger of using this term only in reference to an atomistic philosophy. The influence of Severinus’ work was considerable and Shackelford notes the use of the semina by many authors, but pays special attention to the English scene concluding with Robert Boyle, whose corpuscular views and use of a “mechanical philosophy” are shown to have been influenced by Severinus. From the persistent Paracelsian concepts that link the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century scientific and medical literature, Charles D. Gunnoe, Jr., turns to arguments used to counter this new medical and philosophical school. Here he rightly compares the religious reformation initiated by Mar- tin Luther with the reformation in natural philosophy begun by Paracelsus. The rapid spread of Paracelsian thought after 1550 brought charges of heresy which culminated in the Disputations on the New Medicine of Paracelsus (1571– 1573) of Thomas Erastus. Gunnoe takes up two points, Paracelsus’ views on the creation, and his views on Adam’s flesh and the resurrection. Erastus attacked Paracelsus first for teaching that matter was uncreated, a heretical

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viewpoint. No better was the Swiss reformer’s belief in a threefold division of man (elemental, sidereal, and divine) which, for him, helped to explain the interrelation of the macrocosm and the microcosm. But for Erastus this meant that the resurrection would only be of the divine part of the body rather than the body in its entirety. Even worse was the fact that to save Mary from the original sin, Paracelsus taught that Mary was not descended from Adam, but from Abraham. From these examples it is clear that the religious implications of the Paracelsian corpus were fully as inflammatory to sixteenth-century scholars as were his views on natural magic, chemistry, and medicine. Bruce Moran’s paper deals with the debate between Andreas Libavius and Pierre Le Paulmier. The latter, a member of the Parisian Faculty of Medicine, had attacked Libavius as an alchemist and Paracelsian—this at a time when the medical school at Paris had rejected Paracelsian medicine and chemistry, insist- ing on reliance on Hippocratic and Galenic texts. Accordingly the Parisian physicians rejected the work of their colleague Le Paulmier, who had advo- cated use for chemistry in medicine that seemed to reflect alchemy. This he had called Galenochymia. As for Libavius, he had attacked Paracelsus himself, but at the same time he had called for practical chemical preparations. At times he had accepted alchemical procedures and he seems to have accepted some accounts of the philosophers’ stone. Although Libavius may have been unique in his own definition of the proper use of chemistry and pharmacy in medical practice, his insistence on the proper use of words and clear language indeed sets him apart from many other chemical authors in this period. In short, the debate between Libavius and Le Paulmier warns us that we cannot read the texts of this period with preconceived notions of what key words mean. Rather, it is essential that we try to understand what those words meant to their authors. With William R. Newman we turn to a group of papers related to English authors. Newman emphasizes the work of Francis Bacon, who had been neglected by historians of science for many years, but has recently been named as a major figure in ending the Aristotelian belief that art and nature “were distinct and inviolable realms which could not interact.” In this way Bacon is presented in the work of Daston, Dear, and Pérez-Ramon as key players in the establishment of the new science. Newman demolishes this view through the citation of medieval alchemical texts that reject the belief that art and nature were distinct. These alchemists were both Aristotelian in their views on natural philosophy and proponents of observational and experimental studies. In short, it was not necessary to attack Aristotle to erase the division of art and nature since these alchemists saw no such dividing line. There seems little

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INDEX

academies, Bureau d’addresse, 215-38 anatomy, as taught by Bartholin, 174 Aelianus, Claudius, 141 Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (ca. 500-428 Agrippa von Nettesheim, Heinrich Cor- BC), 54 nelius (1486-1535), 2n2 Ancient Wisdom, in Bacon’s writings, air 91, 94-97 Helmont’s theories of, 11-12 Angel Angeleres, Buenaventura, 154 pollution of, and disease, 152-53 Anglicus, Richardus, Correctio fatuorum, and Wilkin’s perpetual lamps, 141 90 Albert the Great, 188, 194 anthropology, 57-59 alchemy Antonioli, Roland, 253 and art-nature dichotomy, 81-91 apocalypticism, and millenarianism, 92- and astronomy, 125 94 attacked by Avicenna, 85-86 archeus, as mechanical agent, 25, 43, 210 in Bacon’s writing, 93-94 Archimedes, 135 and Dee’s Monas Hieroglyphica, 124 Aristotelianism diversity in, 181-200 and alchemy, 86 of DuClo, 181-200 and art-nature dichotomy, 82, 240 Fire of Nature elixir, 72 and emotions, 260-61 Jungian approach to, 212 of Erastus, 55 Lullian, 208 and modern science, 83 and Paracelsianism, 67-79 opinions about, 56 pharmaceutical, 73-79 and optics, 84, 84n16 scholastic, 195-96 and Paracelsianism, 5, 44, 60 and theosophy, 119 and Sforno’s commentary on the Pen- varieties of, 195-96 tateuch, 3 vessels of, 128 and transmutation of metals, 188-89 in Wilkin’s Mathematical Magick, 136 Aristotle and World Soul, 205 and perpetual lamps, 140 Alfonso-Goldfarb, Ana Maria, 133-46, Physics II, 82ff. 264 Arnald of Villanova, 89 Alfred of Sareshel, 86 artisans/craftsmen, and Boyle’s philoso- alphabet of nature, (Dee’s monas), 121 phy, 42, 42n89 Alvarez del Corral, Antonio, Hippocrates art-nature dichotomy Vindicato (1713), 158 and artificial mixtures, 247-49 American Indians, and Paracelsianism, and Francis Bacon, 81-91 63 in French chemical textbooks, 239-50 American Philosophical Society, 199 and the occult, 229-30, 234-36

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Ashmole, Elias, 37, 146 Bartholin, Thomas (continued) gloss on Norton’s Ordinall of Cista medica hafniensis, 175 Alchemy, 37 De medicina danorum domestica astringents, terminology for, 77 (1666), 163-80 astronomy, and alchemy, 125 Batsdorff, Heinrich von (aka Reibe- atomism/atomists hand), 186 D’Espagnet, 205 Bayle, Pierre, 207 in England, 15 Becher, Johann Joachim, 197 Gassendi, 12, 17, 34, 222 Beguin, Jean (ca. 1550-ca. 1620), 239 Lucretius, 19 Bennett, J. A., 41 Mosaification of, 12-13 Bensalem, in New Atlantis, 97, 101, 104 Spigelius, 174 Bernard Becker Medical Library, 47, 53, Augustine (saint), 2n2 57 and perpetual lamps, 137, 138, 139 Bertrand, Alexis, 254 and seminal theory, 19 Beryllisticus (one who has visions in crys- Avicenna (980-1037), 85-86 tals), 115 Bible Bacon, Francis (1561-1626), 137, 152 and chemistry, 1-14, 19, 19n8 and art-nature debate, 81-91 commentaries of Sforno, 3-14 the Great Instauration, 103-5 Genesis, 1-14, 4n5, 19, 55 influenced by mechanical arts, 81 Psalms, 4 and Platonism, 98-101 and semina theory, 21-22 and Servinus’ philosophy, 31n45, 31-32 Vulgate, and apocalypticism, 93 vision of human restoration, 105, 109 biology, in Severinus’ philosophy, 27 writings of, 91-110 Blas (wind), 10-11 Advancement of Learning (1605), blood circulation, 153, 157, 159 94, 95, 96 bloodletting, 155-56 De...augmentis scientiarum (1623), Bodenstein, Adam von, 113 95 bodily stones, and semina theory, 36-37 De sapientia verterum (1609), 94, Boerhaave, Herman, 144 95, 96, 98, 99 Boix y Moliner, Miguel Marcelino “Discourse Touching the Happy Hippocrates defendido (1711), 156 Unions...” (1603), 95 Hippocrates aclarado (1716), 157, 158 Instauratio Magna (1620), 91n1, Book of M*, and the occult, 233-36 107 (fig. 1) Borch, Olaf, 179, 210 New Atlantis, 97-101, 108-9 Bostock, Robert (d. 1656), 7, 56-57 Sylva Sylvarum (1627), 108 (fig. 2) Difference between the Anncient Phi- Baglivi (mechanist), 157 sicke... (1585), 7, 30, 116 Bakhtin, Mikhail M., 252 Bostocke, Richard. See Bostock, Robert Baldwin, Martha, 163-80 botanicals, 164-80 balneology (science of therapeutic Boë Sylvius, Franciscus de la, 157 baths), 33 Boyle, Robert (1627-1691), 158, 197, 239 Bartholin, Caspar (1585-1629), 173-74 corpuscular chemistry of, 12-13, 15 Bartholin, Thomas (1616-1680) Excellency of Theology (1674), 64-65 Acta medica & philosophia Hafniensa, and Francis Bacon, 88-89 175-76 natural philosophy of, 12-14

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Index

Boyle, Robert (continued) chemical philosophy (continued) Sceptical Chymist, 12-13, 39, 183, 190-91 in France, 33-35, 67-79, 239-50 seminal forms and mechanical philos- and Genesis, 1-14 ophy, 38-44 of Juanini, 152 Usefulness of Experimental Philosophy, legitimization of, 77-78 88-89 of Libavius, 70-79 Bravo de Sobremonte, Gaspar (1610- and natural philosophy, 1-2 1683), Resolutiones Medicae, 151 of Palacios, 158-59 Bruno, Giordano, 201, 206-8 of Palmarius, 67-79 Bult, Conrad, 65 and Paracelsian worldview, 148-49 Bureau d’addresse, and the occult, 215-38 professional boundaries and institu- tional virtues, 74-76 Cabala/cabalistic philosophy and Severinus, 16-44 in Bacon’s writing, 94 source of, 7 cabala of the real, 121, 129 in Spain, 147-61 and creation, 2n2 chemistry, ancient, 136 of Dee, 121, 124-25 Child, Robert, 37 of Fludd, 8-9 chocolate, and longevity, 152 of Helmont, 10-12 Christianity and magic, 231-32 Apostles’ Creed and Paracelsianism, and Neoplatonism, 4 63 of Paracelsus, 6 baptism, and resurrection, 59 Cabriada, Juan de, Carta filosofica, med- and medical chemistry, 7 ico-chymica (1687), 153-55 and natural philosophy, 22-23, 56-57 Calder, Ruth, 253 in New Atlantis, 97, 103 Camden, William, 137 and pagan philosophy, 2n2 carbuncles, 141 and Paracelsianism, 6, 149 Cardano, Girolamo, 140 and Protestant natural philosophy, Castiglione, Baldassare (1478-1529), 255 45-65 Catholic Church and semina theory, 19-22 and Paracelsianism, 149 christology, of Paracelsus, 61, 62, 63 and Spanish science, 160-61 Christopher of Paris, 210 Charles II (Spain), 151 chrysopoeia (gold-making), 181-82 Charleton, Walter, 17, 27, 32, 38 Chymeriastes (French editor), 205 Physiologia Epicuro-Gassendo-Charleto- civil philosophy, 94-95 niana (1654), 39 Clave, Estienne de, 239 Spiritus Gorgonicus, 36 Claves, Gaston le Deux. See DuClo, Gas- Ternary of Paradoxes (1650), 36 ton chemiatria. See iatrochemistry Clavius, Christopher, 83 chemical medicine. See iatrochemistry Clericuzio, Antonio, 16, 28, 31, 37, 88 chemical philosophy Coçar, Llorenç, Duaikgys veris neducubae and Boyle, 38-44 fontes indicans, 150 of Coçar, 150ff. coffee, condemned in Denmark, 160, and creation, 153 1778 of Dorn, 126-27, 128 (fig. 10) Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento of Le Febvre, 241-45 Científico e Tecnológico, 264

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CoordenaçTILao de Aperfeiçoamento Descartes, René, 15, 25, 42-43, 152, 157, de Pessoal de Nível Superior 206 (CAPES), 264 D’Espagnet, Jean, 201-14 copyright, of John Dee, 119 Deucalion, in Bacon’s philosophy, 94, 95 corpuscular chemistry, of Boyle, 12-14, disease 15, 38-44 botanical medicines for, 166-68 cosmology and effluvia, 40 and emotions, 259 epidemics, and air pollution, 152 plures mundi of D’Espagnet, 202-14 hippocratic debate about cures, 156-57 Council of Castile, 148 semina theories of, 19-44 Crato von Krafftheim, Johannes, 48, 50- and Severinus’ pathological process, 51 26-29, 31-32 creation theories and talismans, 220 and Cabalistic philosophy, 2n2, 10-13 divine kiss (Binsicam), 10 and chemical philosophy, 153 divinity Dee’s monad symbol for, 5), 7), 121, role in mechanical philosophy, 38 122 (figs. 4, 123 (figs. 6 and three-substance anthropology, and elemental philosophy, 2n2, 10-13 57-59 Erastus vs. Paracelsus, 51-58 doctrine of the mean, and emotions, 259, and Genesis, 51-58 261-62 and Gnosticism, 51 Dorn, Gerhard, 56-57, 113, 210 “Great Mystery” (Mysterium mag- Chymisticum Artificium Naturae, 119, num) of Paracelsus, 5-6, 54-55 120 (fig. 3), 126-27, 129 plures mundi of D’Espagnet, 202-14 Doux, Gaston le. See DuClo, Gaston Croll, Oswald, Admonitory preface drugs. See medicines (1609), 8 dualism. See under Paracelsus crystals, 115 Duchesne, Joseph (Quercetanus; 1544- 1609), 113, 130 Daedalus, in Wilkins’ Mathematical chemical philosophy of, 34, 34n55 Magick, 136 friend of Libavius, 68, 79 dairy products, as medicines, 166 spagiric art of, 69 Daston, Lorraine, 82 DuClo, Gaston “Claveus” (b. ca. 1530), Davidson, William, 33-35, 43 181-200 Davis, Natalie Zemon, 251 Davisson, William (1593-1669), 239 Echeneis, as term for astringents, 77 Dear, Peter, 82-83 Eco, Umberto, 201 Debus, Allen G., 16, 116, 147-61, 181 effluvia, of Boyle, 40-41 Dee, John elemental philosophy angel conversations, 116, 129 of Agrippa von Nettesheim, 2n2 critics of, 117 and creation, in Paracelsus, 5-6 “Horizon aeternitatis,” 117, 118 (fig. 2) of D’Espagnet, 211-12 and Paracelsianism, 111-31 of Fludd, 10 Propaedeumata Aphoristica (1558), 115, of Helmont, 11-12 119 of Juanini, 152 Della Porta, Giacomo (1532-1602), 138 and medical therapy, 57 Denmark, domestic medicines, 163-80 and principles, 241-45

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elemental philosophy (continued) folk medicines, 163-80 of spagyric sect, 151 Fracastoro, Girolamo (1478-1553) in Spain, 149 on laughter, 261 water, as mother mineral, 5 semina theory of disease, 19 Elias, Norbert, 255 France Elizabeth I (Eng.), defends John Dee, 117 Bureau d’adresse and the occult, 215- emotions, and medical theory, 257-58 38 England chemical philosophy in, 33-35 atomism in, 15 chemical textbooks, 239-50 Dee’s Paracelsianism, 116-31 Jardin des Plantes, Paris, 33, 239, 241 mechanical philosophy tradition, Paracelsianism in, 33-35, 240 18nn5-6, 133-46 Paris faculty of medicine, 68-79 Paracelsianism in, 7, 9, 111-31 Fuiren, George, 165 and Severinus’ semina principles, 16- 44 Gabella, Philipp à, 131 Wilkins’ Mathematical Magick, 133-46 Galenism Epicureanism. See atomism of Bartholin, 164 epistemology and emotions, 257 of Libavius, 78-79 and iatrochemistry, 153-55 and the occult, 225-26 opinions about, 56 Erastus, Thomas (1524-1583) of Palmarius, 71-73 anti-Paracelsian, 4, 6n15, 6-7, 45-65, rejected by Paracelsus, 44 117 in Spain, 148 anti-Severinian, 21 and transmutation of metals, 191 Aristotelian, 55, 60 Gammaaea (talisman), 115 Astronomia Magna odr die gantze Gassendi, Pierre (1592-1655), 12, 17, 34, Philosophia... (1571), 45, 58 (fig. 3), 222 60, 61-62 Gas (water vapor/spirit), 11 career of, 49-52 Gazola, José, Enthusiasmos medicos, políti- Disputationum de medicina nova cos y astronomicos, 155 de...Paracelsi (1571), 45-65, 47(fig. Geber (pseudo-Geber), 189-90, 193-94 1) Gelbart, Nina Rattner, 16, 32 on transmutation of metals, 184 Gemma, Cornelius, 119 essences, enhancement and extraction of, Germany 245-47 Coburg, chemical philosophy of Pal- d’Espagnet, Jean, 201-14 marius, 67 d’Etaples, Jacques Lefèevre, 210 and Protestant natural philosophy, 45 experiment, and art-nature division, 83 Gesner, Konrad (1516-1565), 48, 113 Giles of Rome, 89 fables, in Bacon’s philosophy, 94-97 Gilly, Carlos, 48 Faivre, Antoine, 207 Giovanni, Conte. See Pico della Miran- Festugière, A. J., 205-6 dola Ficino, Marsilio (1433-1499), 218 Giovanni, Giambattista. See Juanini, Platonic-Mosaical philosophy of, 2n2 Juan Bautista Fincke, Thomas (1561-1656), 174 Glaser, Christopher (1621-1679), 239 Fludd, Robert (1574-1637), 8-9 glassmaking, 89

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Glauber, Johan, 222 history/historiography (continued) Glauber, Rudolf (1604-1670), 239 in Bacon’s writings, 98-101 Gnosticism, in Paracelsian creation the- Jesuit sources, for Baconian views, ory, 51-52, 54n24 83-84 Goldammer, Kurt, 61 Marxist, and mechanical philosophy, gold-making (chrysopoeia), 181-82 41 grafting, of trees, 89 of Scientific Revolution, 15, 43-44, 81- Great Britain. See England 110 Great Mystery, 5-6, 54-55 sociopolitical, in Denmark, 168-69 Gunnoe, Charles D., Jr., 45-65 Hohenheim, Theophrastus Bombastus Gutherius, J., 139 von. See Paracelsus Hooke, Robert (1635-1703), 42, 133 Hannaway, Owen, 70 horizon of etermity, 117-19 Hartmann, Johannes (1568-1631), 35, 75 Horst, Gregor, and semina theory, 35 Harvey, William (1578-1657), 151, 153 Hunter, Michael, 88 Hekman Library, 65 hydroponics, 13-14 Helmont, Jean Baptiste van (1577-1644) cabalistic chemist, 9-13 iatrochemistry, 127, 151-55 censured in Spain, 151, 157 incubi and succubi, 223 influenced by Severinus, 16-17, 28 Index of prohibited books, 148-49 influence on Boyle, 12-14, 15, 38-44 instauration (instauro/instauratio), 92-94 inventor of Gas and Blas terminology, Institute of the History of Medicine, 264 10-11 intellectual property rights, 119 Magnetic Cure of Wounds, 37 “I.W.”, The Copie of a Letter (1586), 31 Ortus medicine, vel Opera et Opuscula Omnia(psth.1648), 29, 38 James, William, 201 Supplementum de spadanis fontibus James I (Eng.), and Bacon’s philosophy, (1624), 31 94-95 tree experiment, 12 Jerome (saint), 2n2 Henry, John, 16, 17, 38 Jewish tradition, and Platonic-Aristote- Herbert, Mary, 30 lian worldview, 3, 3n3 heresy, of Paracelsus, 4-5, 45-65 Johns Hopkins University, 264 Hermann, Johann, 50 Jorden, Edward Hermes Trismegistus (Thoth), 7, 222 Discovrse of Natvrall Bathes, and Min- Book of Hermes, and alchemy, 86-87 erall Waters (1631), 33-34 Emerald Tablet, 124, 127 and semina theory, 33 James I as, 95 Joubert, Laurent (1529-1582), Traité du hermeticism, 94, 204, 212 Ris, 251-64 Heshuss, Tilemann, 49 Juanini, Juan Bautista (1636-1691) Hester, John, 29 Discurso politico, y phisico (1679), 152 Hippocrates (ca. 460-ca. 377 BC) Nueva Idea Physica Natural, 153 cited by Severinus, 22 Juan José (Spain), interest in new sci- vindicated, by Spaniards, 155-58 ence, 151-52 history/historiography Judaeo-Christian themes, in Bacon’s of alchemy, 181ff. writings, 91, 98, 103, 104 of art-nature distinctions, 85-86 Jung, C. G., 212

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Jungius, Joachim, 239 Lingo, Alison K., 259 linguistic terms. See terminology Kabbala[h]. See Cabala Linnaeus, Carl, 179 Kahn, Didier, 127, 129 literary criticism, Bacon’s Instauratio Kelly, Edward, 130 Magna and Advancement of Learn- Khunrath, Henirich, Amphitheatrum ing, 91-110 Sapientiae, 114, 130, 131 literature, alchemical, 111-31, 181-200 Koyré, Alexandre, 206 lit[h]urgia, in Severinus’ philosophy, 23- Krafftheim, Johannes Crato von, 48, 50- 24 51 Lucretius (ca.96-ca.55 BC), 19 Lull, Raymond, 222 La Brosse, Guy de, 33 (pseudo-Lull), 193, 207, 208 López-Piñnero, José María, 147 table from De Significatione Liter- language arum, 209-10 and the Book of M*, 234-36 Lullianism, and Paracelsianism, 210 of D’Espagnet, 213 of nature (Dee’s monas), 121, 124 McArthur, Michael, 79 and term definition, 220-22, 248n20 Machline, Vera Cecíilia, 251-64 laughter, and Joubert’s Traité du Ris, 251- McKnight, Stephen A., 91-110 64 Maggi, Vincenzo (c. 1500-1564), 261 Le Doux, Gaston. See DuClo, Gaston magic, 94, 95 Le Febvre, Nicaise (1610-1669), Traicté de and the Book of M*, 235 la Chymie, 239, 240 defended in Spain, 160 Lemery, Nicolas (1645-1715), 239 and Libavius, 68 Le Paulmier, Pierre. See Palmarius, Trithemius’ explanation, 125 Petrus Magliotti, Lorenzo, 148 Libavius, Andreas (1540?-1616), 34n55, 35 magnetism, 218n9 Alchymia (1597), 68, 118 Magnus, Olaus, 169 Alchymia Triumphans, 68 Maier, Michael, 210 debate with Palmarius, 67-79 Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon, a/k/a De Igne Naturae in Syntagmatis Rambam; 1135-1204), 3 Arcanorum Chymicorum (1613), mandrakes, 223-24, 228-29 69 Mariana (Sp. queen), 151 denounces DuClo, 185 Mary (Virgin), and Paracelsian christol- Neoparacelsica (1594), 71 ogy, 61-63 Tractatus duo physici (1594), 117-18 mathematics libraries and art-nature dichotomy, 83-84 Bernard Becker Medical Library, 47 and natural philosophy, 44n94 (fig. 1), 53 (fig.2), 57 (fig. 3) matter theory Hekman Library, 65 and Gnosticism, 52-53 of John Dee, 113-14 and Serverinus’ semina, 16-44 Milton S. Eisenhower Library, 264 mechanical philosophy National Library of Medicine, 161 archeus of, 25 New York Society Library, 119 Bacon’s art-nature views, 81-91 Royal Library of Copenhagen, 130 and Boyle, 38-44 Licetus, Fortunius, 138-39, 145 Cartesian mechanism, 15, 25, 42-43

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mechanical philosophy (continued) Mosaical philosophy, as Christian phi- and emotions, 257 losophy, 8n24 in England, 18nn5-6, 133-46 “Mosaic” physics, 22 and occult philosophy, 15 Moses Atticus. See Plato role of divinity, 37 Mysterium magnum, 5-6, 54-55 and semina, in England, 16-44 mythology. See fables of Wilkins, 133-46 mechanical processes, of organic devel- National Institutes of Health, 161 opment, 23-25 National Library of Medicine, 161 medical chemistry. See chemical philoso- natural philosophy. See also Aristotelian- phy ism medical therapy and Bacon, 81-91, 94 laughter as, 251-64 of Boyle, 12-14, 38-44 and Paracelsianism, 57 and chemical philosophy, 1-2 in Spain, 153-55 and Christianity, 22-23, 45-65 medicines and the occult, 226-27 chemical, 126, 127, 158-59 and Paracelsianism, 6, 45-65 folk, 163-80 and predestination, 22 Hippocratic, 156-57, 157 nature-art dichotomy. See art-nature indigenous domestic, 163-80 dichotomy mandrakes, 223-24, 228-29 neologisims. See also terminology mechanical, 157 and Paracelsianism, 77 and sociopolitical concerns, 168-69 Neoplatonism Melanchthon, Philip (1497-1560), and and cabalistic philosophy, 4 Protestant natural philosophy, 45 and migration of the soul, 61 Mersenne, Marin, 222 and semina concept, 19-22 metals New Atlantis, 97-101, 108-9 chrysopoeia (gold-making), 181-82 Newman, William R., 36, 81-91, 129, 189 mercury/mercuries, 184, 192-93, 196- New York Society Library, 119 97 Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464), and sem- properties of gold, silver, mercury, ina theory, 22 187-88 Numenius, 2n2 transmutation of, 89, 183-93, 208, 211 numerology, of Dorn, 127 metempsychosis, and sorcery, 231-33 millinarianism, 92-94 occult philosophy Milton S. Eisenhower Library, 264 in Bacon’s writing, 93-94 miracles, and perpetual lamps, 139ff. and Bureau d’adresse, 215-38 Moffet, Thomas, 30 and Dee’s language of nature, 125 De iure et praestantia chemicorum and mechanical philosophy, 15, 16-17 medicamentorum (1584), 30 of Thomas Tymme, 130 monad hieroglyph, 5), 111, 112 (fig. 1), 118, Offusius, Joannes, 119 119, 121, 122 (figs. 4 Olson, Glending, 258 Monas Hieroglyphica (1564), of John Dee, Oporinus, Johann, 4, 44 111-31 optics moral philosophy, 94-95 and alchemy, 114-15, 130-31 Moran, Bruce T., 65, 67-79 and Aristotelianism, 84, 84n16

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Orpheus, in Bacon’s philosophy, 94 Paracelsus (continued) Oster, Malcolm, 41 rejects Galen and Aristotle, 44 religiosity of, 46n4 pagan philosophy, and Christianity, 2n2 and Scientific Revolution in Spain, Pagel, Walter, 10, 16, 52-55, 54n24 147-61 Palacios, Felix, 158-59 semina concept, 19-20 Palmarius, Petrus (1568-1610) student of Trithemius, 2n2 censured by Paris faculty of medicine, works of 69 Astronomia Magna, 45, 64 Lapis Philosophicus Dogmaticorum Baderbüchlein, 113 (1609), 67-79 Book of M*, 233-36 and Paracelsianism, 71 De Meteoris, 52 Paracelsianism Meterology, 5 and “Adam’s Flesh,” 45-65 Paramirum, 60 and alchemy, 67-79 spurious works of and American Indians, 63 Das Buch de Mineralibus, 52 anthropology of, 57-59 Philosophia ad Athenienses (1564), and Aristotelianism, 5, 44, 60 52-54n23, 53 (fig. 2), 55, 64 and Christianity, 6, 63, 149 Philosophy to the Athenians, 20 creation theory, 51-58 Secretum magicum, 52 and Dee, 111-31 pathological process, in Severinus’ phi- as defined by Palmarius, 71 losophy, 26-29 development of, 2n2 pathology. See disease in England, 7, 9, 111-31 Paulli, Simon, 165, 169, 173-74 in France, 33-35 Commentarius de abusu tabaci et and French chemical textbooks, 240 herbae theae, 170 and Libavius, 68 Quadripartitum botanicum (1667), 174 and Lullianism, 210 Le Paulmier, Pierre. See Palmarius, and mechanical philosophy, 17, 17n4 Petrus and medical therapy, 57 Penotus, 29 and neologisms, 77-78 Pereira, Gomez, 157 and Palmarius, 71 Pérez-Ramos, Antonio, 41, 82 rejected by Erastus, 45-65 perpetual lamps, 136-46 resurrection theory, 57-64 perpetual motion, 136, 137 of Suarez, 159 pharmacy and Trithemius’ magic, 129 and Andreas Libavius, 68, 73-79 Paracelsus, Philippus Aureolus (1493- of Thomas Bartholin, 171-72 1541) Philalethes, Eirenaeus, 183, 197 accused of Arianism, 56 Philip II, and Spain’s Scientific Revolu- censured in Spain, 149, 151 tion, 147-61 creation views of, attacked by Eras- philosophers’ stone tus, 51-58 and Dee’s Monas Hieroglyphica, 124 dualism of, 60-61, 61n52, 63-64 in D’Espagnet’s cosmology, 204 as inventor of chemical medicine, 126 and Galenochemistry of Palmarius, 72 philosophy of, 4-6 and transmutation of metals, 186, 191 rejection of, by Erastus, 45-65

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philosophy. See, e.g., chemical philoso- Reußner, BartholomÑus (1532-1572) phy, pagan philosophy, etc. biography, 48n10 physics, “mosaical,” and semina theory, A Short Explanation and Christian 22 Refutation of...Paracelsus (1570), Pico della Mirandola (Conte Giovanni; 48 1463-1494), 2n2, 119 Riccoboni, Antonio (1541-1599), 260-61 Pineda, Juan de, 157 Riolan, Jean (1539-1606), 70 Plato. See also Neoplatonism Roberts, Julian, 113, 114 as Moses Atticus, 2n2 Rocher, Gregory D. de, 251, 254 and New Atlantis, 97-98 Roman Catholic Church, 149, 160-61 Platonic-Mosaical philosophy, 2n2, 5-6 Rosicrucianism Pliny, 137 and the Book of M*, 235 predestination, and semina theory, 22 and Dee’s monas, 131 Principe, Lawrence M., 36, 88, 181-200 and perpetual lamps, 138 principles, and elements, 241-45 Rossi, Paolo, 81, 82, 94 prisca theologia, 91, 94-97 Royal Library of Copenhagen, 130 Prometheus, in Bacon’s philosophy, 94, Royal Society 95 and Bacon’s New Atlantis, 102 Protestant Reformation, and Spanish and matter theory, 43 science, 148 and mechanical philosophy, 82 psychology, and the occult, 230-31 of Spain (See Regia Sociedad) Pumfrey, Stephen, 42 and Wilkins’ Mathematical Magick, Puritanism, and Bacon’s instauration 133 concept, 93-94 Ruach Elohim, in Fludd’s philosophy, 9 Ruland, Martin (1509-1611), 68 quantum mechanics, 212 Quercetanus. See Duchesne, Joseph Salamander wool, 141 Quevedo y Villégas, Francisco Gómez de Santiago, Diego de, Arte separatoria (1580-1645), España defendida (1598), 149 (1609), 150 Sarcilly, C. de, 34 Sargent, Rose-Mary, 88 Rabelais, François (ca. 1494-1553), 252-55 Scaliger, Julius Caesar (1484-1558), 189 Rattner Gelbart, Nina. see Gelbart, Nina Schaffer, Simon, 25, 41n85 Rattner Scheiner, Christopher, 84 Reformation. See Protestant Reforma- scholasticism tion of DuClo, 194ff. Regia Sociedad de Medicina y otras and Spanish Scientific Revolution, Ciencias, 156, 158 148, 153 Reibehand, Christoph (aka Batsdorff), and transmutation of metals, 187, 190 186 Scientific Revolution religion, and Bureau d’adresse confer- historiography of, 15, 42-43, 44n94, ences, 219n11, 220 81-110 religious orthodoxy, and Libavius, 68 and matter theory, 16-44 Renaudot, Eusèbe, 217 Screech, Michael A., 253 Renaudot, Theophraste, 215-16 seminal principles (semina) resurrection, bodily, 57-64 and bodily stones, 36

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seminal principles (continued) Stahl, Georg Ernst (1660-1734), 183, 197 and corpuscular theories, 15, 22-23, 38- Struck, Kathleen, 65 44 Suarez de Rivera, Francisco (c. 1680- and disease, 26-29 1754), 159 and mechanical philosophy, 16-44 Suchten, Alexander von, 113, 183, 197 varieties of, 195-96 Sudhoff, Karl, 52, 52n23, 113 semina morborum, 26-29 sugar, and disease, 169 Sendivoius, Michael, 202, 207, 210 Sugars, J. Mark, 79 Sennert, Daniel, 12, 35, 239 surgery, 159-60 Severinus, Peter, 113 Szulakowska, Urszula, 111, 114, 115 Idea medicinae philosophicae (1571), 6, 19, 27, 28, 31, 33, 36, 40 talismans, 115, 217-20 influence on Helmont, 16-17, 33 tea, condemned, in Denmark, 170 and mechanical philosophy, 17-18 Temkin, Owsei, 257 Paracelsianism, 6-7 terminology Sforno, Ovadiah (1470-1550), 3-4 of alchemy and Paracelcianism, 70-74 Shackelford, Jole, 15-44 for astringents, 77 Shakespeare, William, 24 Blas, of Helmont, 10-11 Shapin, Steven, 25, 41n85 and definitions, 220-22, 248n20 sidereal substance, of humans, 57-59, Gas, of Helmont, 11 61n52 of mechanical philosophy, 43, 43n94 Sidney, Philip, 116 medical, of Libavius, 70-74 Simpson, William neologisms, 77 Hydrologia Chymica (1669), 33 principle and element, 241-45 mechanical principles, 33 Theophrastus, and perpetual lamps, 144 Zymologia Physica (1675), 33 theosophy, and alchemy, 118 sociopolitical renewal, Bacon’s concept Thoth. See Hermes Trismegistus of, 93, 97-98 Thurneysser zun Thurn, Leonhardt, 113, Socrates, Timaeus, Bacon’s view of, 99- 117 100 tinctures Solomon’s House, in New Atlantis, 93, and Boyle’s effluvia, 41 98, 101-4 in Severinus’ philosophy, 26-29, sorcery, and metempsychosis, 231-33 27n27, 32-33 Sorel, Charles, 207 Tishbourn, John, 130 soteriology, of Paracelsus, 61, 63 Tixedas, Christoval, Verdad Defendida, y spagiric art Respuestra, 155 of Palmarius, 77 tobacco, condemned, in Denmark, 170, of Quercetanus, 69 177 in Spain, 151 Toxites, Michael, 113 Spagyrus, vs. Spagirus, 78 editor of Astronomia Magna, 57, 58 Spain (fig. 3) Paracelsianism in, 147-61 transmutation. See under metals Regia Sociedad de Medicina y otras tree experiment, of Helmont, 11-12 Ciencias, 156 Trismegistus. See Hermes Trismegistus Spigelius (atomist), 174 Trithemius, Johannes (1462-1516), 2n2, spontaneous generation, 87 111, 125, 129

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Tymme, Thomas, 130 water (continued) tzimtzum, and creation, 9n27 in Solomon’s Natural History, 102 Watson, Andrew G., 113, 114 unicorns, 224 Webster, Charles, 16, 48, 93, 104, 116 Universities Webster, John, 33, 36-37 at Basel, 44, 49 Metallographia (1671), 33 of Chicago, 161 Wecker, Joannes, 138 at Heidelberg, 49 Wellcome Institute, 161 at Marburg, 75 Wellman, Kathleen, 215-38 of Wisconsin-Madison, 161 Whitney, Charles, 93, 104 Urim and Thummin, in Wilkin’s Mathe- Wickersheimer, Ernest, 252, 254 matical Magick, 144 Wilkins, John, Mathematical Magick, 133- 46 vacuums, and perpetual lamps, 143 Willard, Thomas, 201-14 Valeriole, François (1504-1580), 261 Willis, Thomas (1621-1675), 152, 157, 158 Valles, Francisco, 151 Willughby, Francis, 148 Van Helmont, Jean Baptiste. See Hel- Winthrop, John, Jr., 37, 119 mont, Jean Baptiste van Woodall, John, The Surgions Mate (1617), Vaughn, Thomas, 36-37 116 Anthroposophia Theomagica (1650), 36- World Soul, 205 37 Worm, Olaus (1588-1654), 176 Virgin Mary, 61-63 vital agency. See seminal principles Zanchi, Girolamo, and perpetual lamps, Vives, Juan Luis, 137 137, 139 Zapata, Diego Mateo, Verdadera apologia Walton, Michael T., 1-14 en Defensa de la Medicina Racional water Philosophica (1690), 155 Boyle’s theories about, 12-14 Zilsel, Edgar, 41 Fludd’s theories about, 10 zodiac, in Dee’s monas, 121, 124 Helmont’s theories about, 11-12 Zwinger, Theodor, 44

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