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Parts of Speech and Dependent Clauses a Typological Study Published By Parts of Speech and Dependent Clauses A typological study Published by LOT phone +31 (0)30 253 6006 Janskerkhof 13 fax +31 (0)30 253 6406 3512 BL Utrecht e-mail [email protected] The Netherlands http: / / wwwlot.let.uu.nl Cover design Stien Eelsingh 1903-1964, Schaftende vrouwen op het land, 1955-1956, 55 x 70 cm. p.c., inv. SES E31. Layout Claartje Sweere isbn 978-90-78328-95-7 nur 616 Copyright © 2009 by Eva van Lier. All rights reserved. Parts of Speech and Dependent Clauses A typological study academisch proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit van Amsterdam op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. dr. D.C. van den Boom ten overstaan van een door het college van promoties ingestelde commissie, in het openbaar te verdedigen in de Agnietenkapel op vrijdag 25 september 2009, te 12.00 uur door Eva Helena van Lier geboren te Den Haag Promotiecommissie Promotor prof. dr. P.C. Hengeveld Overige leden prof. dr. J.B. den Besten dr. S. Cristofaro dr. J. Don prof. dr. O.C.M. Fischer prof. dr. H. de Hoop dr. A. Malchukov Faculteit der Geesteswetenschappen Contents Acknowledgments vii List of Figures xi List of Tables xiii List of Abbreviations xix 1 Introduction 1 2 Parts of Speech 7 2.1 Introduction 7 2.2 Functional-typological attempts at defining parts of speech 8 2.3 Hengeveld’s syntactic-pragmatic approach 12 2.3.1 Slots and fillers 12 2.3.2 The cross-linguistic perspective 15 2.3.2.1 General introduction 15 2.3.2.2 The Parts of Speech Hierarchy (Hengeveld 1992) 17 2.3.2.3 Intermediate systems(Hengeveld, Rijkhoff & Siewierska 2004) 19 2.3.2.4 More diversity (Hengeveld & Van Lier 2008, forthcoming) 22 2.3.3 Summary 33 2.4 Critique on the syntactic approach 33 2.4.1 Introduction 33 2.4.2 Croft’s Universal-Typological Theory of Parts of Speech 34 2.4.3 Lexical categories within and across languages: 37 The generality and the subclass problems 2.4.4 Summary, outlook 41 2.5 Defining lexical flexibility 42 2.5.1 Introduction 42 2.5.2 The criterion of compositionality: flexibility and semantic shift 42 2.5.2.1 Evans and Osada’s proposal and some alternatives 42 2.5.2.2 An integrative approach to semantics in flexible languages 47 2.5.3 The criterion of exhaustiveness: 59 How flexible should a flexible language be? 2.5.4 The criterion of equivalent combinatorics: Bi-directional flexibility 59 2.5.5 Lexical flexibility: A summary 62 2.6 Summary 62 3 Dependent Clauses 65 3.1 Introduction 65 3.2 Dependent clauses and propositional functions 67 3.2.1 Slots and fillers 67 3.2.2 Structural coding in dependent clauses: 69 Subordinating conjunctions and dependent verb forms 3.2.3 Rigid and flexible dependent clauses 73 3.2.4 Summary 78 3.3 Behavioural potential in dependent clauses: 79 De-categorization and re-categorization 3.3.1 Introduction 79 3.3.2 Verbal and nominal feature hierarchies 80 3.3.2.1 Introduction 80 3.3.2.2 The verbal feature hierarchy 80 3.3.2.3 The nominal feature hierarchy 83 3.3.2.4 Summary, outlook 86 3.3.3 Feature mixing in DCs across languages: 86 Cross-linguistic generalizations and functional motivations 3.3.3.1 Introduction 86 3.3.3.2 The typology of subordination (Cristofaro 2003) 88 3.3.3.3 The typology of nominalization (Malchukov 2004) 91 3.3.4 Summary, outlook 97 3.4 A two-step typology of dependent clauses 98 3.5 Summary 108 4 Sampling, Research Questions, Method 109 4.1 Introduction 109 4.2 The language sample 109 4.3 Research Questions 114 4.3.1 Introduction 114 4.3.2 Global functional matching 115 4.3.3 Global matching including differentiation for structural DC type 115 4.3.4 Specific functional matching 118 4.3.5 Specific matching including differentiation for structural DC type 121 4.3.6 Summary 122 4.4 Method 123 4.5 Outlook 129 5 Parts of Speech in the Languages of the Sample 131 5.1 Introduction 131 5.2 Overview of the language data 132 5.3 Results in relation to implicational map of Parts of Speech 137 5.3.1 Introduction 137 5.3.2 Predicted and attested ‘pure’ systems 138 5.3.3 Predicted and attested ‘intermediate’ systems 141 5.3.4 Predicted but not attested systems 145 (and attested but not predicted systems) 5.3.5 Summary 150 5.4 The generality and the subclass problems in practice 150 5.4.1 The generality problem 150 5.4.2 The subclass problem 155 5.4.2.1 Fuzzy boundaries 155 5.4.2.2 Restricted classes 158 5.5 Non-verbal predication 162 5.6 Identifying flexibility 166 5.6.1 Introduction 166 5.6.2 Languages with contentives 166 5.6.2.1 Semantic compositionality 166 5.6.2.2 Exhaustiveness 173 5.6.2.3 Equivalent combinatorics 175 5.6.3 Non-verbs, nominals, and modifiers 177 5.6.3.1 Non-verbs 178 5.6.3.2 Nominals 180 5.6.3.3 Modifiers 183 5.6.4 Summary 188 5.7 Conclusion, outlook 185 6 Dependent Clauses in the Languages of the Sample 187 6.1 Introduction 187 6.2 DC constructions and propositional functions 187 6.2.1 Introduction 187 6.2.2 Rigid and flexible DCs: Attested types 188 6.2.2.1 Preliminary considerations 188 6.2.2.2 Language data 196 6.2.3 Discussion 204 6.2.3.1 Attested and predicted types 204 6.2.3.2 Predicted but not attested types: 211 The problem of predicate clauses 6.2.4 Summary 216 6.3 DC constructions and behavioural potential 216 6.3.1 Introduction 216 6.3.2 Basic Data 217 6.3.2.1 Formal parameters 217 6.3.2.2 Language data 220 6.3.3 A three-way typology of DCs according to behavioural potential 229 6.3.3.1 Introduction 229 6.3.3.2 Preliminary considerations 230 6.3.3.3 Language data 235 6.3.4 Behavioural potential of different structural DC types 242 6.4 An integrated DC typology: Functional possibilities of three structural DC types 251 6.5 Summary, outlook 259 7 Results 261 7.1 Introduction 262 7.2 Global functional matches: 262 Flexibility versus rigidity in the PoS and DC domains 7.2.1 Global matching without differentiating for structural DC types 262 7.2.1.1 Introduction 262 7.2.1.2 Global match for flexible constructions 262 7.2.1.3 Global match for rigid constructions 264 7.2.1.4 Summary 264 7.2.2 The parameter of structural DC type 264 7.2.2.1 Introduction 264 7.2.2.2 Global match for flexible constructions, 265 differentiating for structural DC type 7.2.2.3 Global match for rigid constructions, differentiating for structural DC type 269 7.2.2.4 Summary 277 7.3 Specific functional matches: 278 Types and amounts of flexibility / rigidity in the PoS and DC domains 7.3.1 Introduction 278 7.3.2 Specific matches for flexible constructions 278 7.3.2.1 Introduction 278 7.3.2.2 Flexible match 1: Lexical contentives / non-verbs and contentive / multi-functional clauses 280 7.3.2.3 Flexible match 2: Nominals and nominal clauses 284 7.3.2.4 Flexible match 3: Modifiers and modifier clauses 287 7.3.2.5 Summary 288 7.3.3 Specific matches for rigid constructions 288 7.3.3.1 Introduction 289 7.3.3.2 Rigid match 1: Nouns and complement clauses 289 7.3.3.3 Rigid match 2: Adjectives and relative clauses 291 7.3.3.4 Rigid match 3: Manner adverbs and adverbial manner clauses 295 7.3.3.5 Summary 297 7.4 Summary, Conclusion 297 7.5 Language data 298 8 Discussion – Flexibility and Functional Transparency 313 8.1 Introduction 313 8.2 Theoretical background: 314 Trade-off effects between flexible and rigid constructions 8.3 Applying the complexity hypothesis to PoS and deranked DCs 320 8.3.1 Hypothesis 320 8.3.2 Results 322 8.3.2.1 Distribution of deranked DCs in languages with flexible PoS systems 322 8.3.2.2 Distribution of deranked DCs in languages with rigid PoS systems 331 8.3.3 Summary 334 8.4 Balanced constructions: Functional transparency and other factors 336 8.4.1 Introduction 336 8.4.2 Functional transparency 336 8.4.2.1 Flexible balanced DCs in languages with flexible PoS systems 337 8.4.2.2 Flexible balanced DCs in languages with rigid PoS systems 340 8.4.3 Other factors: diachrony and cognition 344 8.4.4 Summary 345 8.5 Summary 345 9 Summary and Conclusion 349 References 355 References for the Sample Languages 369 Appendices Appendix I: Language Sample 379 Appendix II: Excluded Parts of Speech systems 381 Appendix III: Dependent Clause Constructions. Key Examples 387 Summary in English 453 Samenvatting in het Nederlands (Summary in Dutch) 467 Curriculum Vitae 481 Acknowledgments I like languages. At least that much was clear to me when I finished high school. The problem was that I didn’t know yet why I liked them so much. And since there didn’t seem to be any particular language that I liked better than any other, I decided to start studying my own language: Dutch.
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