DOCSLIB.ORG

SHAPING up the BASQUE COASTAL ZONE: GEOLOGICAL CONTROLS the Basque Coast Is, Predominantly, a Cliffed Coast. Such Coasts Occur A

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
SHAPING up the BASQUE COASTAL ZONE: GEOLOGICAL CONTROLS the Basque Coast Is, Predominantly, a Cliffed Coast. Such Coasts Occur A Subject 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES IN THE BASQUE COUNTRY Module 1A. GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE BASQUE COUNTRY: SUBSTRATE AND CLIMATE SHAPING UP THE BASQUE COASTAL ZONE: GEOLOGICAL CONTROLS Victoriano PUJALTE Dept. Estratigrafía y Paleontología. Universidad del País Vasco The Basque coast is, predominantly, a cliffed coast. Such coasts occur at rocky shorelines because of the destructive action of waves, especially during storms. Larges waves hitting the coast exert enormous pressures at the base of the cliffs, breaking and removing fragments of rocks. Such erosion first cut back an indentation, or “notch”, at the at the bottom of the cliff, and eventually result in the collapse of the rocks above, thus creating a vertical or near vertical cliff- face. Reiteration of this process causes cliff retreat and generates an erosional, near horizontal surface known as wave-cut platform or, to use the local name, “rasas”. Present-day rasas are best observed at low tide. Ancient, uplifted rasas can also be seen, attesting to either a former higher position of the sea-level, a tectonic elevation of the coast or a combination of both factors. Inspection of the Basque coast (or of any cliffed coast elsewhere) readily reveals that its outline is highly irregular, with capes, promontories or headlands alternating with bays and estuaries. This implies that the rate of erosion varies greatly along the coast or, in other words, that some parts of the coast are easier to erode than others. Such differential erosion is controlled by two main factors: (a) Type of rocks. As explained in a previous talk, rocks of the Basque Country are predominantly of sedimentary origin, both of siliciclastic (conglomerates, sandstones, mudstones) and carbonate nature (limestones, marls). A small proportion of igneous rocks also exist. Igneous rocks, conglomerates, sandstones and limestones (especially when they are massive) are very resistant to erosion, whereas mudstones and marls are soft and easily removed. Besides, limestones and marls are not only mechanically eroded, but can be dissolved as well. (b) Position of rocks relatively to the sea. One of the most distinctive features of sedimentary rocks is that they are stratified, that is, arranged in beds or layers called strata. Strata are originally laid down horizontally but, if are later subjected to tectonic stresses, they may be Subject 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES IN THE BASQUE COUNTRY Module 1A. GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE BASQUE COUNTRY: SUBSTRATE AND CLIMATE tilted or brought to a vertical position. Strata can thus be found sloping away or inclined towards the sea, placed vertically parallel or perpendicular to the shore, or at any other position intermediate from those. Others factors influencing the rate of coastal erosion are whether the rocks are homogeneous or made up of alternating lithologies, the wholeness or splintered state of the rocks and, of course, the relative intensity of wave action. In this talk, examples showing the effects of the above controls, notably of (a) and (b), will be demonstrated. A minor portion of the Basque coast (about 10%) is fronted by sandy beaches, the location of which is also largely controlled by geological factors. Some of the beaches are placed (or used to be placed) at the mouth of estuaries, the position and shape of which being determined by the underlying geology. The Bilbao estuary, for instance, occur in a zone where the coast is dissected by a major fracture (the Bilbao fault), which splintered the country rocks and made them much less resistant to erosion. Likewise, the Urdaibai estuary is located at the core of a major estructure (a “diapiric anticline”) in which soft easily eroded Upper Triassic clays and evaporites were brought to the surface. Most of the Basque beaches, however, occur at the head of bays (and are consequently named “bay-head beaches”). In plant view, they are characterized by a crescent-shaped profile, which closely match the contour of the crests of the approaching waves, a contour in turn dictated by the shape of the surrounding cliffed areas. The underlying geological control in the shaping of the Basque coast also mean that care must be taken when tampering with coastal features: this will be illustrated with examples of undesirable side effects that followed man-made actions in or near the shoreline..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Download Download PDF -.Tllllllll
    Journal of Coastal Research 1231-1241 Royal Palm Beach, Florida Fall 1998 Coastal Erosion Along the Todos Santos Bay, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico: An Overview Roman Lizarraga-Arciniegat and David W. Fischer'[ tInst. Invest. Oceanologicas/ :j:Fac. Ciencias MarinaslUABC UABC Km. 103 Carret. Tijuana­ Ensenada Ensenada, B.C. Mexico ABSTRACT . LIZARRAGA-ARCINIEGA, R. and FISCHER D.W., 1998. Coastal erosion along the Todos Santos Bay, Ensenada, .tllllllll:. Baja California, Mexico. Journal ofCoastal Research, 14(4),1231-1241. Royal Palm Beach (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208. ~ This paper presents an overview of the factors influencing the erosion regime in Todos Santos Bay, Ensenada, Baja eusss California, Mexico. Such factors include the geomorphology of the area, the degree of coastal erosion along the bay's ---~JLt cliffs and beaches, the area's climate and sediment supply, sea level, and human intervention. Human intervention ... b is rapidly becoming the most significant factor influencing coastal erosion, as urbanization and its associated infra­ structure have disrupted coastal processes and the sediment budget. The management of coastal erosion was found to be limited to attempts to buttress the shoreline with a variety of materials. The coastal laws of Mexico are silent on erosion issues, leaving erosion to be viewed as a natural threat to human occupancy of the shoreline. It is suggested that for a coastal management program to be effective for the Bahia de Todos Santos, it is critical to integrate local authorities, local scientists,
    [Show full text]
  • Disappearing Coasts Understanding How Our Coasts Are Eroded Is Vital in a Future of Climate Change and Sea Level Rise, Writes Catherine Poulton
    Disappearing coasts Understanding how our coasts are eroded is vital in a future of climate change and sea level rise, writes Catherine Poulton. ngland has some of the fastest retreating coastlines in Europe. At the British Geological Survey (BGS) we’ve been studying Along some of the coasts in the south and east, the cliffs are the process of coastal erosion and cliff retreat as part of our E made up of soft sediments that are easily eroded. Whole Stability of Cliffed Coasts project. By studying 12 study sites on villages have been lost to the sea over the years and many more the ‘soft rock’ coasts of Dorset, Kent, Sussex, Norfolk and North may be on the brink of joining them. Yorkshire, we’re trying to find out how the nature of the rocks and For local people, erosion is a serious issue. They have become climate change influence coastal erosion. accustomed to watching houses teeter dangerously on the cliff Standing on a specific point on the beach, we scan the cliffs edge. They have seen whole streets topple into the sea. The and beach with a low power laser to monitor and measure change consequences to the environment, and people’s assets and lives can along the coast. The laser measures the distance and relative be enormous – especially as home-owners do not usually receive position between our survey point and a set grid of points on the compensation for the loss of their homes and livelihoods. cliff face. We then feed our many thousands of measurements into How can people most effectively plan to live and work in such a computer to generate models of the shape of the cliff face.
    [Show full text]
  • Coastal Management
    Coastal Management Mapping of littoral cells J M Motyka Dr A H Brampton Report SR 326 January 1993 HR Wallingfprd Registered Office: HR Wallingford Ltd. Howbery Park, Wallingford, Oxfordshire OXlO 8BA. UK Telephone: 0491 35381 International+ 44 491 35381 Telex: 848552. HRSWAL G. Facsimile; 0491 32233 lnternationaJ+ 44 491 32233 Registered in England No. 1622174 SR 328 29101193 ---····---- ---- Contract This report describes work commissioned by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food under Contract CSA 2167 for which the MAFF nominated Project Officer was Mr B D Richardson. It is published on behalf of the Ministry of Agricutture, Fisheries and Food but any opinions expressed in this report are not necessarily those of the funding Ministry. The HR job number was CBS 0012. The work was carried out by and the report written by Mr J M Motyka and Dr A H Bramplon. Dr A H Bramplon was the Project Manager. Prepared by c;,ljl>.�.�············ . t'..�.0.. �.r.......... (name) Oob title) Approved by ........................['yd;;"(lj:�(! ..... // l7lt.i�w; Dale . .............. f)...........if?J .. © Copyright Ministry of Agricuhure, Fisheries and Food 1993 SA 328 29ro t/93 Summary Coastal Management Mapping of littoral cells J M Motyka Dr A H Brampton Report SR 328 January 1993 As a guide for coastal managers a study has been carried out identifying the major regional littoral drift cells in England and Wales. For coastal defence management the regional cells have been further subdivided into sub-cells which are either independent or only weakly dependent upon each other. The coastal regime within each cell has been described and this together with the maps of the coastline identify the special characteristics of each area.
    [Show full text]
  • Coastal Geological Map of Samoa (Savai'i Island)
    * Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM) † Geoscience Section, Samoa Meteorology Division (SMD) ‡ Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) Coastal Geological Map of Samoa (Savai’i Island) - Map Sheet Explanation - 2008. 12 S.W. Chang*, S.-P. Kim*, J.H. Chang*, L. Talia†, S. Taape†, R. Smith‡ The image in the cover page shows a part of the Sheet I of the Coastal Geological Map of Samoa, in which the coastal features around the Cape Vaitoloa between Avata and Falealupo villages. A carbonate sand beach draped with wind-blown sand landward decorates the coastal area which resides on the Pu’apu’a volcanic formation (Middle to late Holocene). In the backshore area swamps are developed presumably due to coastal inundation during storm or cyclone periods. [텍스트 입력] Coastal Geological Map of Samoa (Savai’i Island) - Map Sheet Explanation - 2008. 12 S.W. Chang*, S.-P. Kim*, J.H. Chang*, L. Talia†, S. Taape†, R. Smith‡ * Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM) † Geoscience Section, Samoa Meteorology Division (SMD) ‡ Pacific Islands Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC) Introduction Since 2005 Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM) has conducted a three-year project of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP Project Number: 00044540 (ROK/05/003)). The project is aimed at capacity-building of the Samoan government for establishing their management strategy and relevant faculties against coastal geohazards. The main objects of the project are; (1) to produce coastal geologi- cal map of the Savai’i Island, (2) to support staff training of the Samoa Meteorology Division, (3) to give advic- es on geohazard mitigation planning, and (4) to improve public awareness on coastal geohazard indicators.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 7 the Rock Coast of the Mediterranean and Black Seas
    Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on August 27, 2014 Geological Society, London, Memoirs Chapter 7 The rock coast of the Mediterranean and Black seas S. Furlani, M. Pappalardo, L. Gómez-Pujol and A. Chelli Geological Society, London, Memoirs 2014, v.40; p89-123. doi: 10.1144/M40.7 Email alerting click here to receive free e-mail alerts when new articles cite this article service Permission click here to seek permission to re-use all or part of this article request Subscribe click here to subscribe to Geological Society, London, Memoirs or the Lyell Collection Notes © The Geological Society of London 2014 Downloaded from http://mem.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on August 27, 2014 Chapter 7 The rock coast of the Mediterranean and Black seas S. FURLANI1*, M. PAPPALARDO2,L.GO´ MEZ-PUJOL3 & A. CHELLI4 1Department of Mathematics and Geosciences, University of Trieste, via Weiss 2, 34127 Trieste, Italy 2Department of Geosciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy 3SOCIB, Balearic Islands Coastal Observing and Forecasting System, ParcBit, Ctra. Valldemossa km 7.4, Ed. Naorte, 07121 Palma, Illes Balears, Spain 4Department of Physics and Earth Sciences ‘M. Melloni’, University of Parma, V. le G.P. Usberti, 157/A, 43100 Parma, Italy *Corresponding author (e-mail: [email protected]) Abstract: Rock coasts and shore platforms are conspicuous landforms along the Mediterranean and Black Sea (MBS) coasts. These coasts have been fashioned by changes in sea level because of vertical movements of the land and variations in eustatic and isostatic sea-level. For this reason, the Quaternary evolution of MBS coasts has been extensively studied, even starting from geomorphological markers, while very few researches have addressed the processes related to their origin and evolution.
    [Show full text]
  • A Global Representative System Of
    A GLOBAL REPRESENTATIVE SYSTEM OF. MARTNE PROTE CTED AREAS Public Disclosure Authorized ; ,a,o k. @ S~~ ~r' ~~~~, - ( .,t, 24762 Volume 4 Public Disclosure Authorized .. ~fr..'ne .. G~,eat Barrier R M P.'k Authority Public Disclosure Authorized £S EM' '' , 0Th.o1,, ;, Public Disclosure Authorized a a b . ' Gtat Barrier Rdeef Mnarine Park Authori ''*' i' . ' ; -, a5@ttTh jO The'Wor1&~B'ank .~ ' a K ' ;' 6''-7 Th WorId>Conserutsibn Union (IUCN) $-. , tA,, -h, . §,; . A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas Principal Editors Graeme Kelleher, Chris Bleakley, and Sue Wells Volume IV The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority The World Bank The World Conservation Union (IUCN) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Manufactured in the United States of America First printing May 1995 The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. This publication was printed with the generous financial support of the Government of The Netherlands. Copies of this publication may be requested by writing to: Environment Department The World Bank Room S 5-143 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. WORLD CNPPA MARINE REGIONS 0 CNPPAMARINE REGION NUMBERS - CNPPAMARINE REGION BOUNDARIES / > SJ/) a l ti c \~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ali OD ' 0 Nort/h@ / North East %f , Nrkwestltsni North Eastt IPaa _?q g Nrharr etwcific \ t\ / , .............
    [Show full text]
  • Coastal Cliffs of India
    Coastal Cliffs of India Inside.... • Rock cliffs • Overview of sea cliffs • Formation of cliffs • Coastal cliffs on different types of rocks • Cliffed coasts of India • Ecological and social importance of the cliff system Vol.16 (1) October 2016 - March 2017 For Private Circulation only ENVIS - MOEF&CC Newsletter on Coastal Zone Management and Coastal Shelter Belt Vol.16 (1) | October 2016 - March 2017 CONTENTS 1 Rock Cliffs 1 Overview of Sea Cliffs 2 Formation of Cliffs 4 Coastal Cliffs on Different Types of Rocks 9 Cliffed Coasts of India 13 Ecological and Social Importance of the Cliff System Cover Design & Layout Ms. S. Sathya Information Officer - ENVIS, Institute for Ocean Management, Anna University, Chennai - 600025 Printed at: Houston Graphics, Chennai Editorial Note Cliffs are common coastal features formed by the combination of erosion and weathering. The weathering process works on the upper parts of the cliff and erosion occurs on the base of the cliff. Steep cliffs are formed where the land consists of hard, more resistant rocks, and their height obviously being determined by the difference between the sea level and the level of the land. Hard rocks erode and weather slowly and the less fractured rock is the better, it will resist breaking down. Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt form rugged vertical cliffs. Softer rocks, such as clay, shale and some sandstones erode more easily and can create more gently sloping cliffs although this is not always the case. Sedimetary rocks that have been laid down in distinct strata may dip towards the sea or away from it.
    [Show full text]
  • A Study of Coastal Erosion & Its Causes, Effectsand Control Strategies
    International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI) | Volume III, Issue VI, June 2016 | ISSN 2321–2705 A Study of Coastal Erosion & Its Causes, Effects and Control Strategies Vijeta Nehra Lecturer, Chhaju Ram Memorial (CRM) Jat College, Hisar Abstract: Coastal erosion can be defined as the removal of progressively splinter and remove pieces. Over time, the material from the coast by wave action, tidal currents and/or the cracks can grow, sometimes forming a cave. The splinters fall activities of man, typically causing a landward retreat of the 1 to the sea bed where they are subjected to further wave action. coastline . In this paper we studied about Coastal Erosion, The higher the wave energy, the higher the rate of erosion (all Causes and Impact of Coastal Erosion. Coastal erosion is a other things being equal). Wave energy is the result of three mostly natural process; however, man-made structures such as piers and harbors can contribute to erosion due to restructuring factors: the speed of the wind blowing over the surface of the of the natural environment. sea, the length of fetch (i.e., the distance of sea over which the wind has been blowing) and the length of time that the wind I. INTRODUCTION has been blowing for. Corrasion or otherwise known as abrasion occurs when waves break on cliff faces and slowly onsider a (still) more or less natural stretch of a sandy erode it. As the sea pounds cliff faces it also uses the scree C coast (so without any hard structures). A cross-shore from other wave actions to batter and break off pieces of rock profile of that stretch of coast, seen in seaward direction, from higher up the cliff face which can be used for this same consists out of the mainland or dunes at a level well above wave action and attrition.
    [Show full text]
  • Geometrical Analysis of the Inland Topography to Assess the Likely Response of Wave-Dominated Coastline to Sea Level: Application to Great Britain
    Journal of Marine Science and Engineering Article Geometrical Analysis of the Inland Topography to Assess the Likely Response of Wave-Dominated Coastline to Sea Level: Application to Great Britain Andres Payo * , Chris Williams, Rowan Vernon, Andrew G. Hulbert, Kathryn A. Lee and Jonathan R. Lee British Geological Survey, Nicker Hill, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK; [email protected] (C.W.); [email protected] (R.V.); [email protected] (A.G.H.); [email protected] (K.A.L.); [email protected] (J.R.L.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-0115-936-3103 Received: 24 September 2020; Accepted: 29 October 2020; Published: 31 October 2020 Abstract: The need for quantitative assessments at a large spatial scale (103 km) and over time horizons of the order 101 to 102 years have been reinforced by the 2019 Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate, which concluded that adaptation to a sea-level rise will be needed no matter what emission scenario is followed. Here, we used a simple geometrical analysis of the backshore topography to assess the likely response of any wave-dominated coastline to a sea-level rise, and we applied it along the entire Great Britain (GB) coastline, which is ca. 17,820 km long. We illustrated how the backshore geometry can be linked to the shoreline response (rate of change and net response: erosion or accretion) to a sea-level rise by using a generalized shoreline Exner equation, which includes the effect of the backshore slope and differences in sediment fractions within the nearshore.
    [Show full text]
  • Reconstruction of the Paleo-Coastline of Santorini Island (Greece), After the 1613 BC Volcanic Eruption: a GIS-Based Quantitative Methodology
    Reconstruction of the paleo-coastline of Santorini island (Greece), after the 1613 BC volcanic eruption: A GIS-based quantitative methodology Dimitrios Oikonomidis∗, Konstantinos Albanakis, Spyridon Pavlides and Michael Fytikas Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, School of Geology, 54124, Thessaloniki, Greece. ∗Corresponding author. e-mail: [email protected] A catastrophic volcanic explosion took place in Thera/Santorini island around 1613 BC, known as the ‘Minoan’ eruption. Many papers have dealt with the shape of the shoreline of the island before the eruption, but none with the shape of the shoreline exactly after it, assuming that it would be the same with the contemporary one. However, this is not correct due to the wave erosion. In this paper, a new DEM was constructed, covering both land and submarine morphology, then topographic sections were drawn around the island. Using these sections, the ‘missing parts’ (sea-wave erosion) were calcu- lated, the shoreline was reconstructed as it was one day after the eruption and finally the erosion rate was calculated. 1. Introduction history, changing dramatically the life of the people of the Bronze age in the eastern Mediterranean The study area is Thera/Santorini island com- Basin. It also changed the morphology of the island plex, which is located in the southern Aegean Sea, itself, creating the famous caldera. This fact trig- Greece (figure 1a). It consists of the main island gered the scientists’ interest and many efforts have of Thera covering an area of 75.92 km2,Therasia been made in order to reconstruct the morphology (9.19 km2), Nea Kammeni where the volcano is lo- of the area as it was before the eruption (Heiken cated (3.33 km2), Palea Kammeni (0.51 km2)and and McCoy 1984; Friedrich et al.
    [Show full text]
  • Anglesea, Great Ocean Road
    Understanding shoreline change on the Victorian coast: Anglesea, Great Ocean Road Victoria has more than 2,500 km Understanding trends and changes in erosion rates is important for of coastline. In addition to its informing coastal management and planning activities. Researchers at the important and varied natural National Centre for Coasts and Climate (NCCC) in the Earth Systems and values, the coast provides critical Climate Change Hub worked with the Department of Environment, Land, social, cultural and economic Water and Planning and Deakin University on the Victorian Coastal benefits to communities. Coastal Monitoring Program to investigate changes in the frequency and intensity erosion already affects these of historic erosion, and to shed light on the drivers of shoreline change, values in many parts of Victoria. now and into the future. The program investigated historic shoreline Climate change is likely to change for 15 coastal areas in Victoria. increase the frequency, intensity and extent of existing coastal This fact sheet summarises the patterns of historic change at Anglesea on hazards, further increasing the the Great Ocean Road. This and other regional summaries are available at impact of erosion on the Victorian www.nespclimate.com.au. coast. Historic shoreline change on the Anglesea coast The Earth Systems and Climate Anglesea is a coastal town located 120 km south-west of Melbourne. This Change Hub is investigating study focuses on a 900 m section of coast from Point Roadknight to shoreline change in Victoria Soapy Rock. This is a cliffed coast that is easily eroded by waves due to through the National Centre for the softness of the rock.
    [Show full text]
  • Of the Lower Alaska Peninsula
    • The Ar~hae()logy 1.1 , of the Lower Alaska Peninsula " J H'erbert D. G. Maschner, Ph.D. James W. Jordan, M.A. B~ian W. Hoffman, M.A. ~ Tina M. Dochat, Ph.D. ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LOWER ALASKA PENINSULA: FIELD REPORT OF THE 1995 AND 1996 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE IZEMBEK NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE AND ADJACENT LANDS BY 1 2 HERBERT D.G. MASCHNER , Ph.D. JAMES W. JORDAN , MA. 3 BRIAN W. HOFFMAN , MA, AND TINA M. DOCHAT\ Ph.D. WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF 5 6 JESSICA CZEDERPll..TZ , MEGAN PARTLOW , MA, 7 8 9 KATHERINE L. REEDy , BA, ANDY ZEIGERT , CAROLINE L. FUNK , MA, lO ll BRIAN J. VAN PAY , BA AND TY BECK REPORT 4 OF THE LABORATORY OF ARCTIC AND NORTH PACIFIC ARCHAEOLOG~UNIVERSITYOF WISCONSIN-MADISON SUMBITTED TO: THE UNITED STATES FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE; THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION; THE ALEUT CORPORATION; THE ALEUTIANS EAST BOROUGH; THE COMMUNITITIES OF COLD BA~ FALSE PASS, AND KING COVE; THE ALASKA STATE HISTORIC PRESERVATION OFFICE; AND THE GREATER ALASKA ARCHAEOLOGICALCOMMUNITY; 15 MAY 1997 Reference as: Maschner, Herbert D. G., James W. Jordan, Brian W. Hoffman, and Tina M. Dochat (1997). The Archaeology ofthe Lower Alaska Peninsula. Report 4 of the Laboratory of Arctic and North Pacific Archaeology, University ofWisconsin - Madison. 1,3,5,6,7,8,9,11 Department of Anthropology, 5240 Social Science, University ofWisconsin, Madison, WI 53706. 2 Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706. 4 Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706. 10 Environmental Remote Sensing Center, University ofWisconsin, Madison, WI 53706.
    [Show full text]