Copyright by Sarah Katherine Steinbock-Pratt 2013 The Dissertation Committee for Sarah Katherine Steinbock-Pratt Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: “A Great Army of Instruction”: American Teachers and the Negotiation of Empire in the Philippines Committee: Laurie B. Green, Co-Supervisor H.W. Brands, Co-Supervisor Robert Abzug Erika Bsumek Philippa Levine Paul Kramer “A Great Army of Instruction”: American Teachers and the Negotiation of Empire in the Philippines by Sarah Katherine Steinbock-Pratt, B.A., M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May, 2013 Dedication For Eric. Thank you. Acknowledgements I owe a deep debt of gratitude to the many, many people who helped translate this project from a germ of an idea into a dissertation. I have been lucky enough to work with some wonderful scholars at the University of Texas at Austin and beyond. Without the generous support, razor sharp insight, and unfailing kindness of Laurie Green and H.W. Brands, this project could not have been realized. I am also indebted to the feedback and encouragement of Robert Abzug, Erika Bsumek, and Philippa Levine, Carolyn Eastman, Judy Coffin, Frank Guridy, Kimberly Alidio and Paul Kramer. I am also obliged to a number of fellow graduate students, for listening to me rabbit on about my ideas, and helping to steer me toward the nuggets of real value, especially Kyle Shelton, Cristina Salinas, Leah Deane, Deidre Doughty, Eric Bush, Erica Whittington, Luritta DuBois, Emily Brownell, Shannon Nagy, Rachel Ozanne, Juandrea Bates, and Julia Ogden. I owe thanks as well to the many more whose ideas and support helped make this work stronger and better. While the virtues of this dissertation are due to a wonderful community of scholars and friends, its faults remain mine alone. To the archivists who helped me track down a wealth of sources, especially Dhea Santos at the American Historical Collection at the Ateneo de Manila, the staff at the library of the University of the Philippines, Diliman, Lee Blake at the New Bedford Historical Society, Amber Miranda at Southeast Missouri State University, and Jean Bischoff at Elizabeth City State University, this dissertation would have a been poorer work without your tireless aid. And to Lino Dizon, Jhon Roces, Tony Perez, and Judy Ick, thank you so much for your time, your help, and your friendship; you made my trip to the Philippines a true pleasure. v To all the Thomasite descendants who generously shared your time, your ideas, and your history, I cannot thank you enough, especially Bob Gray, Ruth Bell McArthur, Esperanza del Rosario, Edna Concepcion, Mylene Lysek, Carol Bonner, and Dale Murphy. And finally, to my family, whose faith never faltered. And last, and best, to Eric. For everything. vi “A Great Army of Instruction”: American Teachers and the Negotiation of Empire in the Philippines Sarah Katherine Steinbock-Pratt, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2013 Co-Supervisors: H.W. Brands and Laurie B. Green In the summer of 1901, the United States government began a project of colonial education in the Philippines, sending close to one thousand teachers to the newly- acquired colony. These teachers, called “Thomasites,” were part of a wider justification of empire, which was intimately linked with notions of manly duty, masculine endeavor, and the innate superiority of whiteness. However, all of the American teachers headed for the Philippines, male and female, black and white, engaged with the idea of strenuous living and imperial duty, viewing themselves as personally adventurous, as well as integral members of the imperial project. More so than any other group, these teachers were positioned between the colonial administration and the Filipino people. It was the teachers who were often responsible for implementing colonial policies on the ground and for representing American government and values to Filipinos. Their position as imperial mediators allowed the teachers to create roles for themselves that would not have been possible at home, which both complemented and challenged official visions of empire. Examining these teachers’ negotiations with American officials and Filipinos illuminates the gulf vii between official policies and the day to day functioning of empire, demonstrating how the implementation of empire on the ground often deviated from the expectations of the colonial state. Rather than construing their experiences as expressions of maternalism – which many scholars argue was the linchpin of women’s Progressive Era politics – white female teachers in the Philippines constructed identities as adventurers, imperial officials and professionals. African American teachers, on the other hand, used their positions within empire to disrupt the linking of civilization and modernity with whiteness. Black teachers argued that their racial sympathy with the Filipino people made them most fit to be benevolent colonizers, and linked racial oppression in the United States to the imperial mission in the Philippines. This dissertation examines how notions of race, gender, and national identity colored quotidian colonial interactions. I argue that these interactions nuance the narrative of American empire and provide deeper understanding of the processes of colonization. viii Table of Contents List of Illustrations ...................................................................................................x Introduction ..............................................................................................................1 Chapter One: The Roots of Empire .......................................................................27 Chapter Two: Imperial Visions and the Creation of Imperial Identities ...............71 Chapter Three: A Political Education ..................................................................129 Chapter Four: Colonial Intimacy and the Paradox of Empire .............................170 Chapter Five: Not Just a White Man's Burden ....................................................230 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................277 Bibliography ........................................................................................................292 ix List of Illustrations Figure 1: Map of the Philippines ............................................................................26 Figure 2: U.S.A.T. Thomas .....................................................................................50 Figure 3: The Saleeby Family ................................................................................84 Figure 4: Illustration of Children from The First Year Book ...............................129 Figure 5: Frontispiece of the Arnold Primer ....................................................130 Figure 6: Frontispiece of The First Year Book ....................................................130 Figure 7: Illustration of Boys Playing from The First Year Book .......................131 Figure 8: Rand's Students in Silay .......................................................................136 Figure 9: A "Bad" Filipino Market and a “Good” American Market ..................141 Figure 10: A Game of Indoor Baseball ................................................................143 Figure 11: An Indoor Baseball Game at Baguio ..................................................144 Figure 12: Mary Cole with American teacher and domestic servants .................194 Figure 13: Philinda Rand being carried to a boat ................................................207 Figure 14: Margaret Purcell, Philinda Rand, and Sofia Reyes ............................215 Figure 15: Susan Gladwin, Mary Cole and a Filipina woman .............................217 Figure 16: Theophilus Gould Steward .................................................................244 Figure 17: Frederick Douglass Bonner ................................................................246 Figure 18: Charlotte D. Bonner in 1916 ..............................................................247 Figure 19: John Henry Manning Butler ...............................................................248 Figure 20: Carter G. Woodson .............................................................................250 Figure 21: Map of Luzon .....................................................................................253 Figure 21: American Teachers at Baguio Teachers’ Camp .................................257 x Introduction In the summer of 1901, the United States Army Transport Thomas traversed the Pacific Ocean, bearing over five hundred American teachers from San Francisco to Manila. In a panegyric written on board, journalist Adeline Knapp hailed the voyage of the “white ship in mid-ocean, her forefoot set toward the Philippines, her deck thronged with young men and women actuated for the most part by high ideals and a genuine desire to be helpful.”1 The Thomas and its voyage became one of the most enduring icons of American colonization of the Philippines. Indeed, while the men and women who traveled to the Philippines on the Thomas styled themselves “Thomasites,” imbuing their own journey with missionary-style purpose, this moniker came to refer to all of the thousands of American teachers in the early years of colonization.2