Position Paper on the Use of Fish and Fish Products Position Paper on the Use of Fish and Fish Products

28.August 2014 Position paper on the use of fish and fish products Position paper on the use of fish and fish products

(February 2012)

The Federal Ministry of Health recommends at least 1 to 2 times fish per week in the Austrian food pyramid. The ecological consequences of this recommendation when fish from unsustainable fisheries is consumed are enormous. 32 % of the world’s fisheries are irreversibly overexploited, another 53 % of the fish stocks are depleted and show decreasing catch results. It is therefore especially important to prefer fish types whose population is not endangered or whose catch or aquaculture does not cause damage to the environment. From an ecological point of view the consumption of fish can therefore only be recommended to a limited extent.

According to EU Regulation 2065/2001 the following information shall be given on the price label or on the packaging for both fresh fish and packed frozen fish in order to enable the consumers to choose the respective fish: specification of the type of fish (commercial designation), method of production (aquaculture or wild caught) and the area in which it was caught (or farmed). Convenience products, such as processed fish, cans and salads are, however, exempted from this regulation.

Position on the use of fish and fish products:

Recommended fish of the greenlist shall be chosen. Fish types of the yellowlist are accepted by “ÖkoKauf Wien” in cases of urgent need. Fish on the redlist are endangered species and shall not be used.

Recommendation: Fish of the greenlist come from sustainable fisheries or organic aquacultures, these fish stocks are classified as stable. “ÖkoKauf Wien” recommends the use of fish of the greenlist such as fish from organic aquacultures, fish from domestic production and sea fish from certified fisheries. Fish types of the yellowlist can only be recommended to a limited extent, however, in cases of urgent need they may be used. Fish types of the redlist are either bred in aquacultures with negative impacts on the environment or are strongly endangered in nature. Catching them causes a big amount of unwanted bycatch and hence also endangers other species. Therefore the use of fish from the redlist is prohibited.

The same recommendation applies to convenience products; fish and fish products from the green and the yellowlist shall preferably be used as far as this is indicated by their labelling. If

such ready-made products do not specify the type of fish or origin and hence the criteria of the position paper cannot be applied these products may be used in cases of urgent need.

As an eco-friendly alternative to cover the dietical need of healthy and valuable omega-3 fatty acids which are mainly found in sea fish it is recommended to use vegetable oils, linseed, rape, walnuts and domestic soya as an additional source of omega-3 fatty acids.

The environmental organisations Greenpeace and WWF investigated the endangerment of the different fish species and graded them as acceptable, critical or calamitous. The following types of fish coming from the stated region of origins are generally acceptable and can be used in the kitchen. More information on acceptable fish, their fishing zones and fishing methods can be found in the sources specified below.

FISHING RECOMMENDED FISH ORIGIN SOURCE METHOD

ALL fish from organic aquaculture Worldwide Organic WWF aquaculture ALL fish with MSC certification Worldwide MSC wild WWF caught

Alaska pollock/ Arctic cod - MSC Worldwide MSC wild WWF caught

Trout Austria Aquaculture, Greenpeace wild caught Trout - organic Austria, Europe Organic Greenpeace, WWF aquaculture Gilt-head sea bream - organic Mediterranean Sea Organic WWF aquaculture Halibut Europe Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF Worldwide MSC wild WWF Halibut - MSC caught Worldwide MSC wild WWF Herring - MSC caught New Zealand Wild caught WWF Hoki – MSC Cod Eastern Baltic Sea Wild caught WWF

Worldwide MSC wild WWF Cod - MSC caught Carp Europe, Austria Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF

Carp - organic Austria organic Greenpeace aquaculture

Salmon Eastern Pacific (USA) Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF Pacific salmon

Salmon - organic Worldwide Organic WWF aquaculture Salmon, wild Alaskan salmon - MSC Worldwide MSC wild WWF caught

Mackerel North Atlantic Sea Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF Worldwide MSC wild WWF Mackerel - MSC caught

Iridescent shark / shark catfish - Vietnam Organic Greenpeace, WWF organic aquaculture Arctic cod/Alaska pollock – MSC Worldwide MSC wild WWF caught

Char/ brook trout Europe, Austria Aquaculture Greenpeace Char/ brook trout - organic Europe, Austria Aquaculture Greenpeace Anchovy France Bay of Biscay Wild caught WWF Worldwide MSC wild WWF Sardine – MSC caught Haddock Northeast Arctic Wild caught WWF Worldwide MSC wild WWF Haddock – MSC caught Worldwide MSC wild WWF Plaice – MSC caught Plaice / coalfish Northeast Arctic Wild caught WWF Worldwide MSC wild WWF Plaice / coalfish – MSC caught Shrimps and prawns - organic Worldwide Organic WWF aquaculture Shrimps and prawns - MSC Worldwide MSC wild WWF caught

Sprat North Sea & Baltic Wild caught WWF Sea Tilapia Honduras, Indonesia, Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF Europe and USA Tilapia – organic Worldwide Organic WWF aquaculture Tuna Worldwide MSC wild WWF Bonito/Skipjack caught

Worldwide MSC wild WWF Tuna, white – MSC caught Tuna, Bonito/Skipjack Maldives Wild caught WWF Victoria perch – organic Tanzania Organic WWF aquaculture Sea bass – organic Mediterranean Sea Organic WWF aquaculture Zander – organic Europe Organic Greenpeace aquaculture

FISHING ACCEPTABLE FISH ORIGIN SOURCE METHOD

Alaska pollock / Arctic cod Northwest Pacific Wild caught WWF Trout Northern Europe Aquaculture, WWF wild caught Prawns, crabs North Sea Wild caught WWF Halibut Northeast Arctic, Wild caught WWF Norwegian Sea Herring Celtic Sea, Western Wild caught WWF, Greenpeace Baltic Sea, Northeast Arctic Cod Iceland, Northeast Wild caught WWF Arctic, Norwegian Sea, Western Baltic Sea Dab Northeast Atlantic Wild caught WWF Salmon Ireland, Norway, Wild caught / WWF Scotland aquaculture Common mussel North Sea Wild caught / WWF aquaculture Iridescent shark - GAP Vietnam Aquaculture, WWF Germany Global Gap certified Arctic cod/Alaska pollock Northwest Pacific Wild caught WWF Anchovy Iberian waters, Wild caught WWF, Greenpeace Eastern Central Atlantic Sardine Mediterranean Sea, Wild caught WWF Northeast Atlantic, Eastern Central Atlantic Haddock North Sea, Iceland, Wild caught WWF Norwegian Sea, Northeast Atlantic Plaice Baltic Sea Wild caught WWF Saithe / coalfish Northeast Atlantic Wild caught WWF Tuna Pacific Ocean Wild caught WWF true Bonito = Skipjack Zander Western Europe Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF

NOT ACCEPTABLE FISHING ORIGIN SOURCE FISH METHOD

Eel Europe Wild caught / WWF aquaculture Alaska pollock/ Arctic cod Worldwide, excluding Wild caught Greenpeace see above Atlantic blue marlin Worldwide Wild caught WWF Trout Turkey, Chile Aquaculture WWF Gilt-head sea bream Mediterranean Sea, Aquaculture WWF excluding organic aquaculture Orange roughy Worldwide Wild caught WWF

Sharks and skates Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF Halibut Northeast Atlantic, Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF Northwest Atlantic Hoki, blue hake Pacific Wild caught Greenpeace Scallop Northeast Atlantic, Wild caught WWF Mediterranean Sea Cod Worldwide, excluding Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF see above Salmon Chile, Northeast Wild caught / Greenpeace, WWF Atlantic, Western aquaculture Pacific Ling Northeast Atlantic Wild caught WWF Mackerel Eastern Central Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF Atlantic Arctic cod / Alaska pollock Worldwide, excluding Wild caught Greenpeace see above Iridescent shark Vietnam, Thailand Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF Red Snapper Worldwide Wild caught WWF Redfish North Atlantic Wild caught WWF St. Peters fish Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace Anchovis Worldwide, excluding Wild caught WWF, Greenpeace see above Sardine Worldwide, excluding Wild caught Greenpeace see above

Haddock Worldwide, excluding Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF see above Dogfish/Sea eel (spiny dogfish) Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF Plaice Worldwide, excluding Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF see above Swordfish Worldwide Wild caught WWF Hake Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF Saithe/ coalfish Worldwide, excluding Wild caught Greenpeace see above Monkfish North Atlantic Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF Sole Northeast Atlantic, Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF Mediterranean Sea Spined loach/catfish/wolf fish North Atlantic Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF Shrimps and prawns Worldwide, excluding Wild caught/ Greenpeace, WWF see above aquaculture Sprat Worldwide, excluding Wild caught Greenpeace see above Squid/Octopus Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace Tilapia Worldwide, excluding Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF see above Tuna Worldwide, excluding Wild caught Greenpeace, WWF (in retail light tuna, bigeye tuna, see above bluefin tuna, red tuna or yellowfin, Albacore, Bonito del Norte) Tuna Indian Ocean Wild caught WWF true Bonito = Skipjack Victoria perch Tanzania Wild caught WWF Whiting Worldwide Wild caught Greenpeace Sea bass/Branzino Mediterranean Sea Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF Zander Eastern Europe Aquaculture Greenpeace, WWF

Sources:

WWF guide on purchasing fish and seafood (WWF-Einkaufsratgeber Fisch und Meeresfrüchte, only available in German) 11/2011 www.wwf.at/de/fischfuehrer

Greenpeace guide on fish (Greenpeace Fisch-Ratgeber, only available in German) 2011, http://marktcheck.greenpeace.at/fischratgeber.html

More information was researched by "die umweltberatung" Vienna and is summarised in the following chapter: “Explanation of the position paper on the use of fish and fish products”.

Explanation of the position paper on the use of fish and fish products

On behalf of “ÖkoKauf Wien”

Working Group “Food“

Gabriele Wittner, dietitian

"die umweltberatung" Vienna

Vienna, February 2012

Contents

1. Dietical benefits of fish 11

2. Ecological impact of fish consumption 12

2.1. Issue “overfishing” ...... 12

2.2. Issue “fish industry” ...... 12

2.3. Issue “aquaculture” ...... 13

2.4. Issue “fishing methods” ...... 14

2.5. Issue “deep sea fishing” ...... 16

3. Alternatives from sustainable fisheries 17

3.1. Domestic fish ...... 17

3.2. Organic fish ...... 18

3.3. Marine Stewardship Council ...... 19

3.4. Aquaculture Stewardship Council ...... 20

3.5. Vegetable alternatives to omega-3 fatty acids ...... 20

4. Literature 23

List of illustrations

Figure 1: Development of aquaculture production worldwide [FAO, 2010] ...... 13 Figure 2: Beam trawl [GREENPEACE, 2004] ...... 15 Figure 3: Bottom otter trawl with two sides [Fischerei in Europa 2004] ...... 15 Figure 4: State of deep sea stock [FAO, 2006] ...... 16 Figure 5: Development of total Austrian fish production [FAO, 2010] ...... 17 Figure 6: Trademark of ARGE Biofisch ...... 18 Figure 7: Blue label of Marine Stewardship Council ...... 19 Figure 8: Range of fatty acids in vegetable oils and fish oil concentrates ...... 21

1. Dietical benefits of fish

Nutrition Societies, such as the German Nutrition Society DGE recommend to eat fish once or twice a week [DGE, 2007]. The Austrian Federal Ministry of Health also recommends – based on the food pyramid - to eat oily sea or domestic cold-water fish once or twice a week [Federal Ministry of Health, BMfG, 2011]. The dietical benefits for our body provided by this healthy food group is undisputable.

It is a natural source of supply of iodine and vitamins (A, D, E, K, niacin, pyridoxine and cobalamin), it provides us with easily digestible protein and above all it has a unique range of fatty acids all of which need to be emphasised inter alia.

Beside iodised table salt there is no other food containing so much iodine than sea fish. At the moment 12 % of the daily iodine need is covered by fish dishes [KARL and MÜNKNER, 1999]. Supply with iodine could be improved in Austria, however since iodine has been added to table salt the situation has significantly improved in the last years. Severe iodine deficiencies occur very seldom.

Special benefits of eating fish are omega-3 fatty acids such as alpha-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. They are needed for a variety of metabolic functions in our body and also for forming cell membranes. Furthermore they are the original substances for the synthesis of eicosanoids, which play an important role both in blood clotting and in the immune system [ELMADFA, 2000].

Moreover, omega-3 fatty acids regularly consumed by eating oily sea fish significantly reduce the risk of fatal heart attacks in primary prevention of coronary diseases [DAVIGLUS et al., 1997] and in secondary prevention they inter alia significantly reduce the risk of sudden cardiac death [LEAF, 2002].

2. Ecological impact of fish consumption

Despite all the positive properties of fish, important ecological aspects need to be considered when fish is recommended due to its health benefits:

2.1. Issue “overfishing”

145.1 million tonnes of fish, including aquacultures, were officially caught and farmed in 2009. 90 million tonnes thereof were wild capture and 55.1 million tonnes originated in aquacultures [FAO, 2010]. Regarding the development of the stock of the 200 worldwide most important fisheries, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that 32 % are overexploited, 53 % are overfished and show decreasing catch and only 15 % show more potential [FAO, 2010].

Unwanted bycatch is one of the biggest unsolved problems in fishery. Bycatch is this share of a catch which is either thrown back into the sea or is not scientifically managed. All kinds of fish, ground animals, sea mammals, turtles and sea birds are affected. Cautious estimates say that about 40 percent of worldwide catch is unwanted bycatch, which is thrown back into the sea, in most cases dead [DAVIES, 2009].

On a short-term basis it is possible to minimise overfishing of the sea by the introduction of maximum permissible fishing quota (Total Allowable Catch - TAC) and annual fishing quota. On a long-term basis thorough protection zones for young fish need to be created for sustainable fishing. An increase of the minimum mesh size of the nets should also guarantee stock recovery, where not yet sexually mature young fish are able to develop. Furthermore, the use of selective gear shall help to prevent unwanted catch [Fischerei in Europa, 2004].

In 2002 at the European reform of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) the European Union has therefore in principle adopted recovery plans of the most threatened types of fish. However, these plans are inconsistent and their execution is not sufficiently controlled. The current fishing quota are hence clearly beyond the scientific recommendations of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea as in the years before. The consequence is that too many fish are taken out of the sea and sustainable fishery is hardly possible. [GREENPEACE, 2007].

2.2. Issue “fish industry”

Social consequences of fish industry are inter alia a high rate of unemployment of fishers caused by “industrial” ships. Only 1 % of the fleet, about 35 000 units, are big industrial trawlers over 24 m length. On these vessels work 10 % of the fishers and they catch about 50 % of the landings [NEWTON and FITZPATRICK, 1998]. Their catching methods are basically oriented towards maximum profit and do not consider ecological consequences such as destruction of coral reefs and sea grounds, unwanted bycatch of seabirds, ground animals, sea mammals and fish. The lack of legal regulation and control support this behaviour.

The differences in catch per fisher are also extreme: An EU-fisher in Denmark catches 293 t, a German fisher 60 t and a fisher in Greece 4 t fish/year [SALZ, 1991]. In India a fisher catches 0.8 t fish /year on average [ANON, 1998d].

2.3. Issue “aquaculture”

Since 1970 worldwide fish production in aquaculture has steadily increased. In 2009 55.1 million tonnes of fish were already farmed in aquaculture. This is about more than a third of the overall catch of 145.1 million tonnes. Aquaculture, which often is praised as the solution to overfishing of the sea has become one of the strongest growing economic sectors. In China the number of aquacultures has especially been growing.

Figure 1: Development of aquaculture production worldwide [FAO, 2010]

Fish are differentiated into freshwater and seawater (maricultures) aquaculture depending on the water the animals live in. A little bit more than half of worldwide aquaculture produce freshwater fish.

The fish farmed in seawater are usually kept in cages or crates made of nets, metal or wood in coastal areas. Fresh saltwater permanently flows through the cages or crates. Waster water, excrements and drug residues leak uncontrolled into the surrounding waters. Escaped farmed fish breed and become an unnatural competition to wild fish.

Furthermore, farmed fish may transmit diseases and parasites to wild fish. In Canada, for instance, the stocks of wild salmon are heavily endangered through parasites [Krkosek et al., 2007]. Also the salmon farms in Chile partially have devastating effects on the overall ecosystem – due also to the fact that Atlantic salmon is a stranger in Chile, introduces diseases and hence puts even more pressure on the endangered domestic species. Additionally the use of drugs and accumulated waste are a hazard to the eco system.

Aquaculture, which often is praised as the solution to overfishing of the sea has become one of the strongest growing economic sectors. Conventional aquaculture brings about ecological problems which are quite similar to intensive livestock farming onshore: The animals do not have enough space and are hence prone to illness. Therefore drugs are used in big amounts, very often precautionary. Energy feed and growth promoters replace natural diets. Chemicals are used to protect the marine organisms against algae and unwanted creatures. [aid Infodienst, 2005].

Carnivorous fish are a special problem in aquaculture which only can survive with fish as fodder, mostly in the form of fish meal or fish oil. Since these industrial fish are also taken from the sea, as a consequence the sea dwellers miss out on fodder and the ecological balance is seriously disrupted.

Ponds for e.g. prawns need enormous amounts of fresh water rich in oxygen. Hence fresh water needs to be pumped into the pools. About 25 million litre water are necessary for the production of 1 tonne of prawns. The enormous need of freshwater heavily strains the ground water reserves of the surrounding land. This damages the landscape and the population. [ÖKO-FAIR, 2006].

Since permanently new aquacultures are built in the sensitive coastal regions, mangrove forests are deforested which brings about uncontrolled flooding of the coastal regions. Mangroves, tropical coastal forests take up less than 0.1 % of the global land area, however, they are one of the most productive eco-systems and most efficient CO2 stores of our planet. In the last decades more than a third of the mangrove areas have been disturbed, mainly through urban development, agricultural activities and prawn farming. [DITTMAR et al, 2006].

2.4. Issue “fishing methods”

There are enormous differences regarding fishing methods. Plaices and soles are caught by e.g. beam trawls. Heavy iron chains are dragged across the sea bed, digging and ploughing up the

ground in order to catch bottom-dwelling fish. This fishing method destroys plants and animals of the sea bed. Catching fish with beam trawls produces a very high amount of bycatch: for 1 kg sole about 10 kg bycatch are caught!

Figure 2: Beam trawl [GREENPEACE, 2004]

Another fishing method are drag nets whose openings are 23,000 square metres wide and therefore as big as five football pitches, they are dragged by one or two trawlers. Such fleets have a significant impact, especially on species swimming in shoals.

Figure 3: Bottom otter trawl with two sides [Fischerei in Europa 2004]

For fishing demersal species (cod, hake, etc.) and bottom dwellers (prawns, deep-sea lobster, flat fish) bottom trawlers and bottom otter trawlers are used. The net which has a length of up to 200 m can be used in the deep sea (80m to 1500m). The otter or trawl board made of timber or steel stir up the sea bed to scare up the fish. The sea bed is ploughed up, the plants and animals living in the sediments are exposed, others are covered, destroying entire eco systems. The otter boards leave grooves up to 30 cm deep depending on the nature of the sea floor, and destroy habitats such as deep sea coral reefs. [GREENPEACE, 2010].

Sustainable fishery requires fishing methods which raise selectivity, keep bycatch as low as possible and maintain the ecological balance stable. Large mesh, escape opportunities for unwanted animals or special hooks on longlines are positive examples for sustainable and above all selective fishing methods.

2.5. Issue “deep sea fishing”

Due to the reduction of classic, offshore fishing and the growing pressure on the stock of fish in the sea, fishers looked for alternatives. The ideal solution seemed to be to exploit the grounds of the deep sea down to 2000 m where up to then no fishing had taken place. Best known deep sea species are orange roughy, blue ling, redfish and halibut. Deep sea sharks are also caught.

Since the water is very cold in the deep sea and there is not much food, animals living in the deep sea have a clearly slower vital rhythm and reproduce only sporadically. However, many species verifiably become very old – the orange roughy is an extreme example with its 150 years – sexual maturity starts only with 30. When big fleets catch adult fish, it can take decades until the stock recovers, if at all possible.

Furthermore, bottom trawls are mainly used, stirring up the seabed and destroying many sedentary organisms such as coral and sponges.

In 2000 a report of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) stated that most of the deep sea species are caught beyond their safe biological limit. The ICES recommended an immediate reduction of catch to an immediate stop of deep sea fishing. However, deep sea fish are still very popular, even on Austrian plates.

Figure 4: State of deep sea stock [FAO, 2006]

= overfished stock of deep sea fish

3. Alternatives are sustainable fisheries

Which fish can be recommended considering the ecological aspect? Alternatives are domestic fish such as carps and trout. Furthermore, certified fish like organic fish, “Alpenlachs arctic char” and MSC fish are recommendable.

3.1. Domestic fish

There are three different fishing methods used in Austria. In former times, lake fishing was economically significant, today it is only profitable for a few. Full-time professional fishers exist only at Lake Constance and the biggest customer of fish caught in lakes is gastronomy. Pole-and-line fishing is the fishing method for flowing waters. The fish caught this way are usually not sold on a market but are eaten by the families and friends of the fishers. [STAUDIGL, 2005]. The third method has a long tradition in Austria: pond fish culture. The species farmed most are carps, trout, chars, perches, catfish, etc.

Figure 5: Development of overall Austrian fish production [FAO, 2010]

Carp and trout are in particular the most important freshwater fish regarding quantity. Carp ponds are characterised by large areas with low water intake. Near-natural farming provides plankton and insects as fodder for the fish, grain (e.g. barley, ray, etc.) or oilcake can additionally be added [REIMOSER, 2005]. These conditions are also beneficial for other fish such as tench, zanders, pikes or catfish, therefore they are very often farmed together with carps in extensive carp ponds [STAUDIGL, 2005].

Trout are salmonids (salmon-like) living in cold water (about 14°C). Contrary to carps they need a lot of oxygen which gets into the water via the water supply [REIMOSER, 2005]. Trout are

predators and live mainly on water insects, crabs and small fish. Hence fish farming depends on fish meal.

The demand for salmonids such as trout and chars has strongly increased whereby only 25 % of the demand can be produced in Austria.

Supply sources: e.g.: www.alpenlachs.at, www.biofisch.at, www.wildfang-naturfisch.at, www.genuss-region.at/article/archive/25801 (fish of the Lake Neusiedl region)

3.2. Organic fish

The aim of organic aquacultures is environmentally friendly and species appropriate fish farming. Since 2009 farming of organic fish is regulated in a uniform way by the EU regulation on organic farming. The new regulations for organic aquacultures comprise the production of fish, crustaceans and seaweed/algae in fresh and salt water. Organic fish kept and certified according to the criteria of organic associations such as Arge Biofisch, Naturland or Demeter are subject to even stricter criteria than the EU regulation.

Stocking density is in general significantly lower in organic aquacultures and domestic species should be farmed, if possible. Austria accepts only near-natural earth ponds as surroundings for breeding, however, in other countries plastic ponds or plastic basins are used.

Preventional measures such as more space for the fish and clean water avoid the break out of diseases in advance. The fodder for the herbivorous fish shall originate from certified organic farming. Feeding carnivorous fish such as trout or char is more complicated: The share of animal components in the fodder shall be reduced to a minimum or replaced by plant-based components. The feedstuff must not be from conventionally produced land animals (mammals, birds). Organic fish products from certified enterprises, made of residues of processing of fish for human consumption and of bycatch of fish for human consumption are permissible [NATURLAND, 2007].

ARGE Biofisch is an initiative of Austrian pond farmers breeding fish according to the regulations of Bio-Austria (Richtlinien von Bio-Austria) and providing carps, trout, chars, roaches and tench. At the moment there are 16 organic carp farms and 10 organic trout farms which use 550 hectare of ponds, i.e. 20 % of the total pond area, for breeding organic fish. Organic fish products from Austria bear the the trademark [www.biofisch.at]. Moreover organic fish bred according to regulations of other European associations (Naturland, Soil-Association, AB-Agriculture Biologique France, etc.) are also available in Austria, e.g. salmon and gilt-head sea bream (sea bass).

Figure 6: Trademark of ARGE Biofisch

Supply sources for organic fish: www.biofisch.at, www.naturland.de

3.3. Marine Stewardship Council

It is very difficult for consumers in the supermarket to find out which fish filet comes from well- regulated, environmentally safe and sustainable fisheries. This was the reason why the environmental organisation WWF and the food producer Unilever founded the global organisation “Marine Stewardship Council” (MSC) in 1997, which became totally independent from both founders already in 1999. At the beginning stakeholders of fishers, retailers, fish processors, non- governmental organisations, consumers and scientists together worked out regulations according to which environmentally friendly fisheries can be assessed [HUBOLD, 2004].

About 12 % of worldwide catch and 64 fish species are already MSC certified. Almost 5,000 different products worldwide have the MSC blue label. By now 15 different and certified types of fish are available in Austrian supermarkets and gastronomical wholesale [MSC Annual Report, 2010].

Figure 7: Blue label of Marine Stewardship Council

Every fishery, independent of size and fishing zone can apply to an assessment according to MSC standards and consequently for the blue MSC label. They need to undergo a strict assessment procedure and continuous controls. All fisheries of a sea region fishing a certain fish type are certified, not individual fishers or vessels.

MSC does not do the assessments themselves, they take on the role of the “accreditor” assessing certification companies and approving them. The objectives are the “principles” according to which the fishing shall be conducted, and the “criteria” are the ways how they should be achieved.

The 3 principles of the Marine Stewardship Council

Principle 1: Protection of stocks

Fishery shall not lead to overfishing or exploitation of the respective fish stock. Fishery of exploited fish population shall be designed in such a way that the stocks verifiably recover.

Principle 2: Minimum impact on the eco-system

Fishery shall not have a negative impact on the structure, diversity and productivity of the respective eco-system and all species involved (including sea birds and sea mammals).

Principle 3: Effective and responsible management of fishery

Fishery shall be subject to an effective management system respecting the local, national and international laws and standards, and whose institutional and operational provisions require sustainable and responsible use of resources [HUBOLD, 2004].

Supply sources of MSC certified fish – the following link provides you with current brands and retailers: www.msc.org/where-to-buy/msc-labelled-seafood-in-shops-and-restaurants/austria

3.4. Aquaculture Stewardship Council

Similar to the MSC blue label for wild capture there will be a new quality label for farmed fishes in the future: the ASC label (Aquaculture Stewardship Council). The certification programme was initiated by WWF and labels only fish originating from sustainable aquacultures, i.e. from farms. The programme still is in development, the first fish will be available in 2012. (Anm.: wenn Satz angepasst werden soll, nämlich insofern, dass die ersten Fische 2012 bereits verkauft wurden, würde der Satz so lauten: The first fish were sold in 2012.

12 types of fish are already planned for the certification: inter alia different types of mussels, salmons, iridescent sharks, trout, mackerels, tilapia and shrimps [ASC, 2011]. (Anm: Auch hier gilt: wenn der Satz angepasst werden soll, dann müsste er so lauten, vorausgesetzt die Zahl 12 und die Fischarten stimmen: 12 types of fish are already certified: inter alia different types of mussels, salmons, iridescent sharks, trout, mackerels, tilapia and shrimps [ASC, 2011].

3.5. Plant-based alternatives to omega-3 fatty acids

Despite eating ecologically sound fish, the need of omega-3 fatty acids which are important for the human body can partially be covered by plant-based food. Linseed, rape, walnuts and soya contain high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. Lower levels can also be found in green vegetables such as savoy cabbage, spinach and sprouts [DITTRICH, 2000]. The most important dietically sources for the omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) are vegetable oils, especially linseed oil, nut and rape oil and dairy products of organic origin.

Figure 8: Range of fatty acids in vegetable oils and fish oil concentrates in g/100g [SINGER und WIRTH, 2003]

18:1 (n-9) 18:2 (n-6) 18:3 (n-3) 20:5 (n-3) 22:6 (n-3)

Olive oil 70 10 - - -

Sunflower oil 15 75 1 - -

Corn oil 30 60 1 - -

Soybean oil 21 54 9 - -

Rapeseed oil 58 22 9 - -

Walnut oil 15 59 13 - -

Perilla oil 10 15 64 - -

Linseed oil 20 20 60 - -

Codliver oil 25 2 1 12 8

Fish oil concentrate 15 2 1 18 12

Highly concentrated fish oil - - - 46 38

Both omega-3 acids, Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid are especially dietically valuable, but as a natural source they are only contained in fish and fish products. The human body, however, is able to produce them by conversion of alpha-linolenic acid.

It generally is assumed that only 10 % of alpha-linolenic acid can be converted into eicosapentaenoic acid. This factor 10 varies and is defined by an enzyme which depends on different variables, e.g. concurrent share of carbohydrates, saturated acids, linolenic acid, age, hunger or diabetes mellitus [SINGER und WIRTH, 2003]. This conversion factor can be increased up to 40 %, if at the same time only a low level of omega-6 fatty acids (e.g. in sunflower or safflower oil) is taken in. The reason is the fact that both groups of fatty acids need the same enzymes for conversion in the body.

It can definitely be concluded that there are good, plant-based alternatives to fish. Especially linseed oil and rape oil are excellent additions to sustainable fish consumption.

4. Literature

AID Infodienst. Was wir essen. Lebensmittel von A - Z: Fisch. Source: www.was-wir- essen.de/abisz/fisch_erzeugung.php (as of 10 January 2012, only available in German)

ANON. Fisheries employment still growing worldwide. World Fish Rep. (60) FS/4-5, 1998d

ASC. Aquaculture Stewardship Council. Source: www.ascworldwide.org (as of 12 January 2012)

Description of organic fish. Source: www.biofisch.at (as of 10 January 2012, only available in German)

BMfG. Bundesministerium für Gesundheit. Die Ernährungspyramide im Detail - 7 Stufen zur Gesundheit. Source:http://bmg.gv.at/home/Schwerpunkte/Ernaehrung/Empfehlungen/Die_Ern%C3%A4hrungsp yramide_im_Detail_-_7_Stufen_zur_Gesundheit (as of 10 January 2012, only available in German)

DAVIGLUS M.L, STAMLER J, ORENCIA A.J, DYER A.R, LIU K, GREENLAND P, WALSH M.K, MORRIS D, SHEKELLE R.B. Fish consumption and the 30-year risk of fatal myocardial infarction. New Engl. J. Med., 336; 1997: 1046-1053

DAVIES RWD, et al. Defining and estimating global marine fisheries bycatch. Marine Policy (2009), doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2009.01.003

DGE. Ökologisch verträglicher Fischverzehr. DGEinfo 07/2007 – Beratungspraxis. Source: www.dge.de/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=747 (as of 25 January 2012, only available in German)

DITTMAR T, HERTKORN N, KATTNER G, LARA RJ. Mangroves, a major source of dissolved organic carbon to the oceans. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 20, GB1012. 2006

DITTRICH K. Fischöl besser als Pflanzenöl?. UGB - Forum 3/2000: 150- 154

ELMADFA I. Fisch als Lebensmittel. Symposium Fisch und Wild; 2000 (only available in German)

FAO. The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2010. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, 2010. Source: www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1820e/i1820e.pdf (as of 25 January 2012)

FAO. Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profile – Austria, Fao Fishery Statistic. 2010. Quelle: www.fao.org/fi/website/FIRetrieveAction.do?xml=FI-CP_AT.xml&dom=countrysector&xp_nav=3 (as of 25 January 2012)

Fischerei in Europa. Bestandserholungspläne. 21; 2004:4

GREENPEACE. Supermärkte reagieren auf Fischereikrise. Press release 19 December 2007 Source: http://marktcheck.greenpeach.at/5251.html (as of 25 January 2012)

GREENPEACE. Fisch-Ratgeber 2011, Source: http://marktcheck.greenpeace.at/fischratgeber.html (as of 10 January 2012)

GREENPEACE. Fangmethoden - Grundschleppnetz und Scherbrettnetz. Source: http://www.greenpeace.org/austria/de/themen/meere/hintergrund- info/fangmethoden/grundschleppnetz (as of 10 January 2012)

HUBOLD G. Der Marine Stewardship Council- Zertifizierte Fischprodukte aus bestandserhaltender Fischerei. Forschungsreport, 2004; 2: 42- 45

KARL H, MÜNKNER W. Jod in marinen Lebensmitteln. Ernährungs- Umschau, 1999; 46- Heft 8: 288- 291

KRKOSEK M et al. Declining wild salmon populations in relation to parasites from farm salmon. Science, 2007; 318: 1772-1775

LEAF A. On the reanalysis of the GISSI- Prevenzione. Circulation 105; 2002: 1874-1875

MSC Annual Report - Marine Stewardship Council. 2009/2010. Source: www.msc.org/documents/msc-brochures/annual-report-archive (as of 10 January 2012)

MSC Produkte. Source: http://www.msc.org/wo-kaufen/suche-fuer-lieferanten (as of 1 August 2011)

NATURLAND. Naturland Richtlinien für die ökologische Aquakultur, Verband für ökologischen Landbau e.V. Source: www.naturland.de/richtlinien1.html (as of 25 January 2012)

NEWTON C, FITZPATRICK J. Assessment of the worlds fishing fleet 1991-1997. Greenpeace Int. Amsterdam, NL 1998

ÖKO-FAIR. Das Portal zum Öko- fairen Handeln. Aquakultur. 2003. Source: http://www.oekofair.de/oekofair.php/aid/934 (as of 25 January 2012)

REIMOSER H. Heimische Fische im Blickpunkt. Tagungsband Fisch und Wild als Lebensmittel, Universität Wien, 2005: 46- 49

SALZ P. The European Atlantic Fisheries. Structure, economic performance and policy. The Hague: Agricultural Economics Research Institute, Fisheries Division. Onderzoekverslag, 1991; 255

SINGER P., WIRTH M. Omega-3-Fettsäuren marinen und pflanzlichen Ursprungs: Versuch einer Bilanz. Ernährungs- Umschau 50; 2003: 296- 304

STAUDIGL H. Teichwirtschaft in Österreich. Tagungsband Fisch und Wild als Lebensmittel, Universität Wien, 2005: 38-45