Rapid Phenotyping of Knockout Mice to Identify Genetic Determinants of Bone Strength
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231 1 B FREUDENTHAL and others Rapid skeletal phenotyping of 231:1 R31–R46 Review knockout mice Open Access Rapid phenotyping of knockout mice to identify genetic determinants of bone strength Correspondence should be addressed Bernard Freudenthal1, John Logan1, Sanger Institute Mouse Pipelines2, to J H D Bassett or Peter I Croucher3, Graham R Williams1 and J H Duncan Bassett1 G R Williams Email 1Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK [email protected] or 2Mouse Pipelines, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Trust Genome Campus, Hinxton, Cambridge, UK graham.williams@imperial. 3Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia ac.uk Abstract The genetic determinants of osteoporosis remain poorly understood, and there is a Key Words large unmet need for new treatments in our ageing society. Thus, new approaches f osteoporosis for gene discovery in skeletal disease are required to complement the current f bone genome-wide association studies in human populations. The International Knockout f genetics Mouse Consortium (IKMC) and the International Mouse Phenotyping Consortium (IMPC) f gene discovery provide such an opportunity. The IKMC generates knockout mice representing each of Endocrinology of the known protein-coding genes in C57BL/6 mice and, as part of the IMPC initiative, the Origins of Bone and Cartilage Disease project identifies mutants with significant outlier skeletal phenotypes. This initiative will add value to data from large human cohorts and Journal provide a new understanding of bone and cartilage pathophysiology, ultimately leading to the identification of novel drug targets for the treatment of skeletal disease. Journal of Endocrinology (2016) 231, R31–R46 Introduction A novel strategy for osteoporosis gene discovery whose aim is to disrupt each of the protein-coding genes in C57BL/6 mice, and the International Mouse Studies of human monogenic extreme phenotype Phenotyping Consortium (IMPC) that has established disorders have been instrumental in discovering a multidisciplinary and broad primary phenotype genetic and molecular mechanisms of common screen to characterise these mutant mice. By using diseases including obesity and diabetes (Yamagata et al. 1996, Montague et al. 1997). However, collection of samples from mice that have undergone the IMPC human extreme phenotype cohorts takes many years phenotyping pipeline, a bespoke rapid-throughput and requires significant effort and financial resource. multi-parameter skeletal phenotyping platform has A new approach to osteoporosis gene discovery been applied systematically to detect significant involves systematic identification of extreme skeletal phenotypes by screening minimal number of samples. phenotypes in mutant mouse lines that carry single- This phenotyping programme exploits the excellent gene knockouts representing all the known protein- replication of human skeletal disease in mice, and novel coding genes. This approach has been made possible by susceptibility genes can be validated by interrogating the International Knockout Mouse Consortium (IKMC), human osteoporosis cohorts. http://joe.endocrinology-journals.org © 2016 The authors This work is licensed under a Creative Commons DOI: 10.1530/JOE-16-0258 Published by Bioscientifica Ltd. Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Printed in Great Britain Downloaded from Bioscientifica.com at 09/29/2021 03:45:34AM via free access 10.1530/JOE-16-0258 Review B FREUDENTHAL and others Rapid skeletal phenotyping of 231:1 R32 knockout mice ‘Known unknowns’ in osteoporosis regulate the function of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Both these pathways have subsequently been targeted by novel Osteoporosis is a worldwide healthcare problem that osteoporosis treatments. causes up to 9 million fractures annually (Johnell & Kanis The canonical Wnt/β-catenin signalling pathway 2006). Within the EU, it is estimated that osteoporosis is the key regulator of osteoblasts, which mediate bone affects 30 million people and osteoporotic fractures formation (Balemans et al. 2001, Gong et al. 2001, Boyden cost €37 billion annually (Hernlund et al. 2013). These et al. 2002, Little et al. 2002, Glass et al. 2005). The major numbers are projected to rise with the increasing elderly Wnt antagonist sclerostin (SOST) was first identified by population. Osteoporotic hip fractures are associated studying subjects with high bone mass due to sclerosteosis with a significant rise in mortality Sattui( & Saag 2014), and Van Buchem disease (Balemans et al. 2001, Brunkow especially during the year following fracture when it is et al. 2001). The importance of Wnt signalling was further estimated to be 8–36% (Abrahamsen et al. 2009). highlighted by the discovery of activating and inactivating The most important risk factors for osteoporotic mutations of the Wnt co-receptor LRP5, which results fracture are low bone mineral density (BMD) (clinically in high and low bone mass, respectively (Johnson et al. assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA or 1997, Little et al. 2002). DXA)), increasing age and history of fracture (Johnell The RANK-RANKL-OPG pathway regulates osteoclasts, et al. 2005). There are two key determinants of adult which mediate bone resorption. This signalling pathway BMD: the peak bone mass attained in early adulthood was discovered in a functional screen of tumour necrosis and the rate of bone loss during ageing. Variation in BMD factor (TNF)/TNF receptor superfamily members. OPG has a large heritable genetic component. This is known is an endogenous inhibiting decoy receptor of RANKL from observations of familial clustering of osteoporosis related to the TNF receptor. In vivo overexpression of (Seeman et al. 1989, Keen et al. 1999) and from twin studies OPG in mice was found to cause osteopetrosis due to that have calculated that the heritable contribution lies impairment of the later stages of osteoclast differentiation between 40 and 90% (Mitchell & Yerges-Armstrong 2011). (Simonet et al. 1997). Subsequently, human osteopetrosis The heritable contribution to variance in BMD is greatest Endocrinology phenotypes with increased BMD were found to be caused in early adulthood (Gueguen et al. 1995), yet variation in of by mutations of RANK, RANKL and other related genes the rate of bone loss per se is also genetically determined involved in osteoclast differentiation (Coudert et al. 2015). (Kelly et al. 1993). Thus, genetic mechanisms contribute Journal significantly to the risk of osteoporosis. Nevertheless, the known BMD-associated genetic variants account for only Regulatory mechanisms in bone turnover 5.8% of the total variance (Estrada et al. 2012), indicating Knowledge of the signalling pathways that regulate that the majority of susceptibility genes have yet to bone turnover is essential for understanding the be identified. pathophysiology of osteoporosis. The manifest complexity of the signalling pathways and networks that regulate the cellular processes involved in dynamic bone turnover is Gene discovery from skeletal extreme phenotypes significant as small differences in function of individual Intrinsic and extrinsic factors, systemic hormones, components, including those not yet discovered, may neuronal innovation and mineral homeostasis can all have a combined effect on heritable risk of osteoporosis. affect bone mass. Significantly, many of the genes and The opposing processes of bone resorption and formation signalling pathways involved in the intrinsic regulation are tightly regulated by critical mechanisms including the of bone turnover and bone mass have been identified Wnt signalling and RANKL/RANK/OPG pathways (Fig. 1). by the study of human monogenic disorders associated At the cellular level, bone remodelling takes place in with extremes of BMD (Table 1). In traditional gene multicellular units, which comprise co-located osteoclasts discovery, the loci of causative alleles would be identified and osteoblasts within a bone remodelling cavity (Raggatt by linkage analysis in the families of index cases, followed & Partridge 2010). The bone remodelling cycle is initiated by positional cloning of the relevant genes (Alonso & by osteocytes in response to altered mechanical loading Ralston 2014). Such studies have identified the two (Nakashima et al. 2011), local microdamage and systemic key regulatory pathways – canonical Wnt signalling factors such as parathyroid hormone (Goldring 2015). and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand Unloading stimulates expression of RANKL and the Wnt (RANKL)/RANK/osteoprotegerin (OPG) that respectively inhibitors sclerostin and Dickkopf-related protein 1 (DKK-1) http://joe.endocrinology-journals.org © 2016 Society for Endocrinology Published by Bioscientifica Ltd. DOI: 10.1530/JOE-16-0258 Printed in Great Britain Downloaded from Bioscientifica.com at 09/29/2021 03:45:34AM via free access Review B FREUDENTHAL and others Rapid skeletal phenotyping of 231:1 R33 knockout mice Table 1 Monogenic disorders that have identified key skeletal genes in bone remodelling. Disease Clinical features Gene Mechanism Reference Reduced Osteoporosis- Reduced bone mass LRP5 Loss-of-function (Gong et al. 2001) bone mass pseudoglioma and blindness mutations disrupt Wnt syndrome (OPPGS) signalling and reduce osteoblastic bone formation. Osteogenesis Increased bone COL1A1, COL1A2, Loss-of-function (Baldridge et al. 2008; imperfecta fragility; blue sclerae CRTAP, LEPRE, mutations in collagen Sykes