Copyright by Amanda Jean Davis 2008 The Dissertation Committee for Amanda Jean Davis certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Unveiling the Rhetoric of Torture: Abu Ghraib and American National Identity Committee: Dana Cloud, Supervisor Barry Brummett Jennifer Fuller Roderick Hart Sharon Jarvis Unveiling the Rhetoric of Torture: Abu Ghraib and American National Identity by Amanda Jean Davis, B.A.; M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May, 2008 Dedication For Mom and Dad, who taught me at an early age that being compassionate is more important than being popular. Acknowledgements I am very grateful to my advisor, Dana Cloud, for her guidance, support, and belief in my abilities. Dana’s academic rigor and intellectual bravery is as inspiring as it is challenging. I could not ask for a better advisor or advocate. I would also like to thank the members of my dissertation committee, Barry Brummett, Jennifer Fuller, Rod Hart, and Sharon Jarvis. Barry Brummett is a great influence to me. His wisdom and thoughtful advice over the years have helped shape my scholarship in innumerable ways. Jennifer Fuller has always challenged me to question taken-for-granted aspects of the world, and for that I am deeply indebted. I would like to thank Rod Hart for always pushing me to think about the things I “don’t know.” This advice is infallible and will always guide my scholarship. I would also like to thank Sharon Jarvis. Through her guidance, mentorship, and constant support, Sharon has not only greatly influenced my research, but she has also taught me how to be a good teacher. Special thanks go to Nicole Laster, Lisa Perks, and Soo-Hye Han. Without these wonderful women, I don’t think I would have made it. Nicole’s grounded wisdom and unique style can only be matched by the size of her heart. Nicole and I met my first day at UT, and she has been one of my closest friends and biggest supporters ever since. Lisa is my hero. Her friendship, guidance, and above-average sense of humor have kept me afloat over the years. I am very grateful to Soo-Hye for helping me keep my life in perspective. She is a great friend and mentor. v I would also like to thank my family for their endless love and support throughout the years. Mom, Dad, and Kimmie, you have believed in me when I didn’t believe in myself. Without your support I would not be where I am today. Lastly, I would like to thank Roger Gatchet, my best friend and the love of my life. Roger’s love and support is immeasurable. Throughout the course of this project, I have often been overwhelmed by the violent injustices of this world. In Roger, I am reminded of the wonder and joy life has to offer, and with him I am given renewed belief in what is right. vi Unveiling the Rhetoric of Torture: Abu Ghraib and American National Identity Publication No._____________ Amanda Jean Davis, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2008 Supervisor: Dana L. Cloud This dissertation is guided by three central questions: Why did the Abu Ghraib photographs fail to generate widespread opposition to the Iraq War among U.S. citizens? How did U.S. political leaders, news media, and entertainment media rhetorically manage the impact of the violence at Abu Ghraib? Finally, what can the tortures at Abu Ghraib tell us about commitment to national identity and justifications for violence? I argue that the primary rhetorical, ideological work of national violence against a foreign other is to create and protect national identification that deflects potential critique of national policy and discourages alternative allegiances (e.g., those of race and class). In support of this argument, I analyze four sets of texts surrounding the scandal. First, I analyze the Abu Ghraib photographs. These photographs, revealing torture of Iraqi detainees by U.S. troops, posed a serious challenge to American national identity and the prevailing rationale for war: namely, that the U.S. would liberate Iraqis from a torturous dictator and the threat of terrorism. The remaining types of discourse, then, can be seen as rhetorical attempts at damage control, containing and softening the edges of the visual records of vii violence against an enemy Other. For example, the second set of discourses I examine contains the legal memoranda outlining U.S. “coercive interrogation practices” dating back to September 2001. I compare these documents to the political speeches made by public officials during the 2004 presidential campaign. These texts, I argue, provide insight into the Abu Ghraib scandal’s political context and illustrate how the scandal was ultimately managed by the Bush administration as a matter of private authority and prerogative rather than public accountability. Third, I explore mainstream media reports concerning Abu Ghraib in order to come to a better understanding of how violence is framed for public consumption. And finally, I analyze depictions of the torture within the popular television series 24. Because 24’s plotline deals with issues of torture and terrorist threat, I argue that it can help us better understand both the social climate in which the Abu Ghraib scandal emerged and our current climate in which torture is still very much an issue. viii Table of Contents List of Tables ........................................................................................................ xii List of Figures...................................................................................................... xiii Introduction: Tortured Identity: Nationalism, Violence, and the Rhetorical Discourses of Abu Ghraib .................................................................................................1 Structuring National Belonging ......................................................................4 Rhetoric, Ideology, and National Structure ....................................................5 Race, Identity, and National Belonging..........................................................6 Some Political and Economic Motivations behind National Sentiment.........8 National Identity, Violence, and Abu Ghraib .................................................9 Images of Torture.................................................................................10 Politics, Torture and the Interpretation of Law....................................10 Torture News: The Framing of Violence at Abu Ghraib.....................10 Popular Torture: 24..............................................................................11 Chapter 1: Snapshots of Torture: The Abu Ghraib Photographs as Icons of Imperial Dominance and Symbols of Invisible Violence Against Women ................12 Photographs as Ideographs ...........................................................................16 Iconic photography ..............................................................................17 Theorizing the Photographs at Abu Ghraib .........................................19 Rhetorical Functions of the Abu Ghraib Photographs..................................21 Iconic Photographs: Agent Absent ......................................................24 Iconic Photographs: Agent Present......................................................34 Iconic Photographs: Used in Protest....................................................47 Critical Re-appropriation of Images in the U.S. .........................50 Critical Re-appropriation of Images in the Middle East.............53 Veiled Photographs..............................................................................56 Conclusion ....................................................................................................64 ix Chapter 2: Private Persuasion, Public Denial: Politics, Torture and the Interpretation of Law ...........................................................................................................66 Legal Language and the Enactment of State Violence .................................70 Political Language, Private and Public .........................................................75 Private Persuasion: The Torture Memos as a Matter of Detainment...79 Private Persuasion: The Torture Memos as a Matter of Treatment.....83 Private Persuasion: Information Seeking as the Legalization of Torture87 Public Distance: The Bush Administration Under Fire .......................93 Public Distance: Surprise and Disgust.................................................95 Public Distance: Torture is Not the American Way ............................98 Public Distance: America will Investigate the Problem ....................100 Public Distance: The True Threat of Torture is Saddam Hussein .....105 Public Distance: John Kerry’s Failure to Challenge Bush Rhetoric..107 Conclusion ..................................................................................................111 Chapter 3: Torture News: The Framing of Violence at Abu Ghraib ..................113 Media Framing: News Coverage as Hegemony Maintenance....................116 Media Frames of Abu Ghraib ............................................................117 An Analysis of Abu Ghraib News Coverage..............................................119 Nature of violence..............................................................................123 “We don’t torture”: The abuse of Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib124