Proc Soc Antiq Scot WRAPPINGS 144 (2014), 65–131OF POWER: A WOMAN’S BURIAL IN CATTLE HIDE AT STRATH OYKELS | 65

Wrappings of power: a woman’s burial in cattle hide at Langwell Farm, Strath Oykel

Olivia Lelong* with contributions by Iraia Arabaolaza, Thomas Booth, Jane Evans, Richard P Evershed, Susanna Harris, Hege Hollund, B J Keely, Angela Lamb, M D Pickering, A P Pinder, Susan Ramsay, Penelope Walton Rogers, Lucija Šoberl, Clare Wilson and Lyn Wilson

ABSTRACT A well-preserved burial, discovered during peat clearing on Langwell Farm in Strath Oykel, Easter Ross, consisted of a stone cist that held the skeleton of a woman who had died in 2200–1960 cal BC. Although the cist contents were disturbed and partly removed before archaeological investigation took place, the burial rite can be interpreted to some extent. The woman, who died in her late 20s, had been wrapped in brown cattle hide, and wooden and woven objects were placed with her body. Periodic waterlogging created conditions that allowed the rare, partial preservation of the organic materials. Analysis of bone histology indicated that decay of the human remains had been arrested, HLWKHUE\GHOLEHUDWHPXPPLÀFDWLRQRUE\ZDWHUORJJLQJ7KHFLVWKDGEHHQVHWLQWRDORZNQROORQWKH YDOOH\ÁRRUDQGLWPD\KDYHEHHQFRYHUHGZLWKDORZFDLUQRUEDUURZ7KLVVSRWKDGEHHQWKHVLWHRI DÀUHVHYHUDOKXQGUHG\HDUVHDUOLHUDQGLWPD\KDYHEHHQDQRGHRQDFURVVFRXQWU\URXWHOLQNLQJ east and west coasts in the Early Bronze Age. The use of animal hide suggests the creation and use of particular identities, linking the dead to ancestors and to powerful spiritual properties attributed to the natural world. The work was carried out for Historic Scotland under the Human Remains Call-off Contract.

INTRODUCTION discovery by Mr John White, who was operating the mechanical excavator, are shown in illus 2. In February 2009, a remarkable burial in a Mr Hampton informed Historic Scotland and the short cist was discovered on Langwell Farm, Northern Constabulary. Local police then visited Strath Oykel in Easter Ross (illus 1). While WKHVLWHDQGRQWKHRUGHUVRIWKHSURFXUDWRUÀVFDO VXSHUYLVLQJWKHFOHDULQJRISHDWIRUXVHLQÁRRG and in the absence of Mr Hampton, partially defences, the landowner, Mr Jonathan Hampton, emptied the cist of its contents. observed the mechanical excavator disturb A team of archaeologists from the former and crack a large slab and saw soil slip into the Glasgow University Archaeological Research void revealed beneath it. Looking into the void, Division subsequently investigated the cist he saw what appeared to be a skeleton covered under the direction of the principal author. This with white powdery material, with what he later involved the salvage excavation of the remain- described as woven material resembling a basket ing contents (illus 3) and the investigation of around the head and in the lower leg region. the cist’s construction, as well as an area 5m Three photographs taken immediately after its to the south (illus 1, Area B), where the

* Northlight Heritage, 64 Osborne Street, Glasgow G1 5QT

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Illus 1 Location plan

mechanical excavator had dislodged some adhering to their surfaces, was found to large slabs. The work was carried out over six accompany them. days in freezing, snowy conditions. The bones $ VHFRQG SKDVH RI ÀHOGZRUN WRRN SODFH LQ that the police had removed from the cist were August 2009, when a team of archaeologists retrieved by the principal author from Dornoch and a palaeobotanist from the former Glasgow police station on 20 February 2009, where they University Archaeological Research Division had been refrigerated since their removal. On conducted an environmental survey of the area receipt, the bones were in clear plastic bags under the direction of Alastair Becket, with the DQG QR RUJDQLF PDWHULDO RWKHU WKDQ ÀEUHV assistance of members of the North of Scotland

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Archaeological Society. This involved an auger around the cist. These are interpreted as the survey to test for the presence of additional remains of a robbed cairn or barrow. The cists in the surrounding area and characterise ORFDWLRQVRIWKHDXJHUSRLQWVDQGSHDWSURÀOLQJ the sub-surface topography of the site, as well test pits are shown in illus 4. DVSURÀOLQJDQGVDPSOLQJRISHDWGHSRVLWV7KH Historic Scotland funded and monitored both auger and visual surveys of the area recorded SKDVHVRIÀHOGZRUNDQGWKHSURJUDPPHRISRVW a concentration of river cobbles immediately excavation analysis.

Illus 7KHEXULDODVÀUVWGLVFRYHUHGZLWKGHWDLOHGYLHZVRIWKHKHDG WRSULJKW DQGÁH[HGORZHUOHJ ERWWRP ERWK associated with what appear to be woven materials. Photos taken from the south-east by John White

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Illus 7KHEXULDODVÀUVWREVHUYHGE\WKHH[FDYDWLRQWHDPORRNLQJGRZQLQWRWKHFLVWIURPWKHVRXWKHDVW

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SITE LOCATION ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONTEXT

7KHEXULDOZDVIRXQGLQDOHYHOÀHOGWKDWERUGHUV The presence of well-established communities the south bank of the River Oykel, immediately in Strath Oykel and neighbouring valleys during north of a modern conifer plantation named earlier prehistory is well attested; concentrations 0DQVÀHOG:RRGDW1*51&DQGDW of Neolithic chambered cairns as well as 20m above OD (illus 1). The excavated features later, Bronze Age ceremonial monuments and occupy a very slight ridge, approximately 18m settlement remains mark out areas of the landscape east/west by 10m in width. To the south of the that were the focus for communities over several forestry plantation, the ground rises steeply by millennia. These valleys form natural corridors 20m to 30m to several knolls. The solid geology through the northern Scottish land mass, which consists of unknown igneous bedrock of the may have been used as routeways in prehistory. Morar group, of Neoproterozoic age, while the Strath Oykel, for example, links the east and west VXSHUÀFLDOJHRORJ\FRQVLVWVRIDOOXYLDOVDQGDQG coasts of northern Scotland and also joins the gravel. valley of the River Shin that links Loch Shin and

Illus 4 The locations of auger points and test pits through the peat

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Illus 5 Chambered and long cairns in and around Strath Oykel

Illus 6 Bronze Age settlement and burial remains in and around Strath Oykel

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the Kyle of Sutherland. A striking concentration land devoted to sheep grazing and recreational of Neolithic chambered cairns occurs at each shooting, and managed from newly built lodges end of Strath Oykel, with 17 known around its and farmsteads like those at Langwell. The western end and eight at its east (illus 5). There is ÀUVW HGLWLRQ 2UGQDQFH 6XUYH\ PDS RI WKH DUHD also a notable cluster of chambered cairns along published in 1881, depicts the shooting lodge, the course of the River Shin and around the south kennels and other outbuildings at Langwell end of Loch Shin. VXUURXQGHG E\ ODUJH HQFORVHG ÀHOGV DORQJ WKH Archaeological remains of settlement and ULYHUVLGH7KHÀHOGFRQWDLQLQJWKHFLVWLVGHSLFWHG burial from the second millennium bc cluster as rough pasture. It has been improved and heavily in the valley of the River Shin, to the ploughed over the last approximately 50 years east of Loch Shin and around the Dornoch Firth, (Mr Jonathan Hampton pers comm). with a more diffuse trickle known along Strath Oykel and farther west (illus 6) – although this PD\ EH GXH WR ÀHOGZRUN ELDVHV $Q H[WHQVLYH METHODOLOGY programme of work was carried out in the 1980s in advance of road works near Lairg (McCullagh )HEUXDU\ÀHOGZRUN & Tipping 1998), which lies about 18km to the ENE of Langwell via river valleys. This found Upon arrival at the site, the excavation team abundant evidence for settled farming by 2200– removed the tarpaulin that covered the cist and 2000 bc, with cairns and enclosures containing recorded its contents by photograph and measured cremation burials associated with Beakers and sketch. A trench measuring 3m WNW/ESE by Food Vessels. This period also saw farming and 2m was laid out over the cist, and the surrounding land enclosure of unprecedented intensity, which area was cleaned to remove remnants of the peat resulted eventually in soil erosion (ibid: 205–7). and reveal the cut for the cist. The interior of In the immediate vicinity of the cist on the cist was cleaned to remove loose, intrusive Langwell Farm are several known archaeological deposits that had fallen inside during and after sites of prehistoric date. These include a group its discovery; this revealed several bones and RIWKUHHKXWFLUFOHVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDÀHOGV\VWHP concentrations of organic material lying in (NMRS NC40SW 6), another nearby hut circle disturbed deposits. To facilitate recording and and clearance heaps (NMRS NC40SW 5) and a sampling, a 20cm grid was laid out over the cist probable burial cairn (NMRS NC40SW 7), all ÁRRUDQGWKHFRQWHQWVZHUHUHFRUGHGE\GHWDLOHG on the opposite side of the river valley, about a photography and measured drawing. kilometre to the east. On a knoll a few hundred Just as excavation was about to commence, PHWUHVWRWKH:6:RIWKHFLVWLVWKHYLWULÀHGGXQ the upright slab forming the cist’s north side and earlier fort of Torr a’ Chorcain, which was fell inward. This slab was less securely set than partially excavated in the 1970s. The timber-laced the others – the north-east corner lacked the ZDOO RI WKH GXQ KDG EHHQ YLWULÀHG DQG WLPEHU pinning stones that wedged the other corners felled for its latest roof dated to the 3rd century tightly in place – and it had been destabilised bc (NMRS NC40SW 3; Nisbet 1995). by the movement of machine and feet around it. %\WKHHQGRIWKHÀUVWPLOOHQQLXPad, Strath Fortunately, it fell against the southern slab at Oykel formed the southern boundary of Sudrland an angle over the interior, so it did not touch the – the southern part of what was then the Norse contents. The slab was lifted clear of the cist with province and later earldom of Caithness – and the aid of Mr and Mrs Hampton’s tractor, and Norse place-names highlight its importance as excavation proceeded. a cross-country route during this period. The The contents of the cist were excavated in two early 19th century saw the transformation of VWDJHV7KHÀUVWLQYROYHGWKHUHPRYDORIWKHORRVH Strath Oykel’s social and economic landscape disturbed deposits that were exposed after initial from one of small, nucleated joint tenant farms cleaning; they were 100% sampled according to to one cleared of its tenants, with large tracts of context and grid square, and the positions of all

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human remains and organic materials lifted at the cist occupied, and transects extended from this stage were recorded. This process revealed LW LQ ÀYH GLUHFWLRQV WR PHDVXUH WKH VXEVXUIDFH further, in situ human remains and organic slope. The ground was augered at 1m² intervals, materials. After recording by photograph and recovering a contiguous sample of sediment from measured drawing, they were lifted and the the surface down to basal natural. The depth of sediment around and beneath them was excavated organic overburden was recorded along with and 100% sampled according to body area. sediment composition and any evidence of buried The underlying deposits were then excavated stones or plough truncation. Where sub-surface and sampled, also according to body area. All stones were encountered, their size and extent materials removed from the cist, including the were investigated using a thin metal bar prodded bones recovered by the police, were subsequently into the ground. A planned geophysical survey stored in cold conditions. Excavation personnel of the area was not carried out due to logistical wore latex gloves at all times during excavation problems. and when handling material from the cist. Two test pits were also excavated to the The north/south and east/west sections across east of the cist, close to the fence line, using a the cist were investigated and recorded to some PHFKDQLFDO H[FDYDWRU ÀWWHG ZLWK D WRRWKOHVV extent; however, at the landowners’ request, the GLWFKLQJ EXFNHW WR SURYLGH D SURÀOH WKURXJK cist structure was not dismantled. It also proved surviving peat deposits. In the eastern pit (2), impossible at this stage to excavate to the edge of which exposed the deepest peat deposits, one side the cut on the north (where the side slab had been was cleaned and photographed and three 30cm removed) because the deposits were frozen solid. Kubiena monolith tins were hammered into the After recording, the northern slab was reinstated exposed peat face, each overlapping by 5cm. The DQGWKHLQWHULRURIWKHFLVWZDVSDUWLDOO\EDFNÀOOHG basal tin (3) clipped the sandy natural subsoil. to stabilise the structure. The sediment above the uppermost tin (1) was A trench measuring 2.2m north-west/south- collected as a separate block, and all of the tins east by 1.8m was also opened about 5m to the were excavated and wrapped for storage. south of the cist, centred over the spot where two large slabs had been removed by the mechanical excavator (Area B). Removal of the overlying EXCAVATION OF THE BURIAL peat revealed an arcing, stone-built feature. After recording, a slot trench 0.5m wide was excavated 7KHFRQWHQWVRIWKHFLVW across it and through the surrounding deposits. The archaeology was recorded in plan and section 2Q WKH ÁRRU RI WKH FLVW EHORZ WKH GLVWXUEHG DQGWKHWUHQFKZDVEDFNÀOOHG deposits, part of the skeleton survived in situ. The positions of these skeletal elements are shown in plan in illus 7, along with those recovered from $XJXVWÀHOGZRUN the overlying deposits. The in situ elements 'XULQJWKH$XJXVWÀHOGZRUNWKHFLVWZDV indicated that the body had been placed on the left revisited and a small slot was excavated through VLGHZLWKWKHOHJVWLJKWO\ÁH[HGDQGWKHDUPVDOVR its exterior on the east to retrieve a bulk sample ÁH[HG WR OLH DFURVV WKH FKHVW 7KLV FRUURERUDWHV RIWKHPDWHULDOÀOOLQJWKHFXW$VDPSOHZDVDOVR the body position apparent in the pre-disturbance taken of the ground surface sealed beneath the photographs (see illus 2). A radiocarbon date arcing stone feature in Area B, which had been REWDLQHG IURP WKH ULJKW ÀEXODU VKDIW KDV EHHQ frozen earlier in the year. The underside of the calibrated to 2200–1960 cal bc (SUERC-24680) capping slab was examined for any markings, but DWFRQÀGHQFH 2[FDOY  QRQHZHUHLGHQWLÀHG The in situ elements, shown in illus 8, An area measuring approximately 12m north- included bones from the right upper and lower west/south-east by 10m was examined by auger arm (humerus and radius), several vertebrae and survey (illus 4). This centred on the low ridge both sides of the pelvis – although the right pelvis

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Illus 7 Plan of the human remains and organic materials

and the sacrum were highly degraded. The head white sediment (context 23) were found in the of the right femur (thigh bone) lay against the thoracic, abdominal and pelvic areas, one lying right pelvis, but the rest of the femur was absent. GLUHFWO\RQWKHOHIWSHOYLV)LQHÀEUHVZHUHIRXQG Parts of two long bones from the lower leg lay in around both pelvic components, in the lower leg approximately correct anatomical position, and to area and in the head area. Fibres were also found the south of these lay a concentration of highly on the upper jaw bone (right maxilla), right thigh degraded bone, possibly a talus or calcaneus from bone (femur) and both lower legs (tibiae) during the foot. Several teeth and soft, black cranial later examination of the human remains from fragments lay near the north-west end of the cist the cist, including those removed by the police in the position of the head. (see Arabaolaza, below). Subsequent analysis 7KHVHLQVLWXERQHVOD\LQJUHDV\ÀQHEODFN established that these were all from a cattle hide brown sediment (context 19), the extent of which that had been wrapped around the body at the corresponded to the position of the body. It most time of burial (see Walton Rogers, below). Four likely derived from the decay of the body and small stones (context 31) in a row along the upper associated organic materials. The burial rested right arm and another cluster (context 21) in the on loose brown-orange gravelly sand (context feet area may have been placed to hold down the 20), the exposed surface of the alluvial subsoil. edges of the hide wrapping. A radiocarbon date Several concentrations of soft, crumbly, creamy- IURPWKHÀEUHVLQGLFDWHVWKHDQLPDOGLHGEHWZHHQ

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Illus 8 The in situ human remains after removal of disturbed deposits, from the north and above

2040–1880 cal bc (SUERC-32348), while two On the east, this abutted a semi-circular wood samples from the burial matrix were dated deposit of very loose, crumbly, creamy-white to 2130–1890 cal bc and 2030–1880 cal bc sediment mixed with dark brown silt (context (SUERC-32865 and -32866 respectively), all at 15). In it lay fragments of cranium and mandible FRQÀGHQFH DQG VHYHUDO WHHWK DV ZHOO DV FDWWOH KLGH ÀEUHV Above the in situ elements of the burial (SF5, 9, 10, 22) and wood (SF5, 11). The right were several loose, disturbed deposits, up to humerus lay along the deposit’s south-west edge. 0.05m thick (see illus 9 and 10). Two deposits This mixed white deposit corresponds in position of soft grey clay silt lay at the north-west end and apparent character to the head as it appears of the cist (context 11) and in the south-east in photographs taken at the time of discovery end (context 18); the latter lay against the right (illus 2), where the head seems to be covered in pelvis and overlapped the black burial matrix white material in which possibly woven organic (context 19). Their white colour may be due to remains are visible (see Harris, below). periods of waterlogging in the cist (see C Wilson, $OLQHDUVSUHDGRIIULDEOHYHU\ÀQHVHGLPHQW below). A triangular spread of dark red-brown, forming yellow-white crumbs (context 16) friable, organic sediment (context 17) lay in the extended south-east from the head area, along north-western part of the cist, overlapping the the presumed line of the torso; pieces of grey clay silt, and this contained indeterminate indeterminate organic material (SF14) and a organic material (SF16) that most likely derived vertebra lay just within it. Again, this disturbed from organic components of the burial (such as deposit corresponded to an area of white material basketry; see Harris, below) that crumbled when visible in pre-disturbance photographs (illus 2). they were disturbed. An organic-rich deposit of very loose, crumbly,

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GDUN UHGEURZQ ÀQH VLOW FRQWH[W   OD\ DFURVV Along the south-west side of the cist lay a much of the rest of the interior, abutting the band of orange-brown silty sand (context 14), deposits described above. It contained abundant which contained thick lenses of light grey clay fragments of bone, wood and black organic silt towards the south-east corner. It overlapped PDWHULDO LQFOXGLQJ FRQFHQWUDWLRQV RI ÀEUHV and was mixed at its edges with the loose organic like context 17, it most likely derived from the deposit (context 12) that covered much of the decayed and disturbed organic components of the interior. Towards the south it lay directly over the burial. An upper arm bone (humerus), a lower in situ skeletal elements described above. This arm bone (radius) and several ribs lay in this may represent material that washed into the cist deposit towards the north side of the cist. Near over time. the north-east corner, a very degraded bone – Two sloping deposits of loose, orange-brown probably a ball joint from a long bone – lay near gravelly sand and small stones with lenses of grey several fragments of organic material and wood, clay silt lay at the north-west end of the cist and including part of a hazel stick covered with bark in the south-east corner, and these appeared to (SF4); this may correspond to the apparently have fallen in after its discovery. A large stone bark-covered stick visible in pre-disturbance ÁDNHIRXQGLQWKHQRUWKZHVWFRUQHUÀWWHGDÁDNH photographs (illus 2). scar on a stone that had been laid to support the

Illus 9 Pre-excavation plan of the cist, showing the extent of disturbed deposits

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Illus 10 Pre-excavation photograph showing the cut for the cist

capping slab (see below); it may have broken off down accordingly from north-west to south-east. when the slab was disturbed by the mechanical As far as could be established, given the frozen excavator. conditions during excavation, the sides of the pit were just wide enough to take the vertical 7KHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKHFLVW slabs on the north-east and south-west, plunging steeply from top to base, but the opposite sides Excavation of the cist exterior established that it sloped down more gradually. The interior of the KDG EHHQ EXLOW E\ ÀUVW GLJJLQJ D ODUJH RYDO SLW cist measured just over a metre long by about half (context 3) through the contemporary ground a metre wide by 0.65m deep. The slabs’ surfaces surface (context 2) and the underlying gravelly appeared weathered or waterworn. sand subsoil (context 20) to a depth of about The builders had wedged small, angular 0.75m on the north-east and south-west (illus 10 stones into the corners of the cist to support the and 11). The south-east slab was taller than the uprights – except at the north-east corner, where others, so the builders had excavated the subsoil WKHVODEVÀWWRRWLJKWO\WRDGPLWDQ\+HUHWKH\ to a greater depth to accommodate it, while for had set several angular stones against the base of the shorter north-west slab they had excavated the corner along with redeposited subsoil (context only to the extent necessary on that side to create 24) and had chocked a rectangular gap at the a level top for the cist (illus 11, B–B’). Bright lower west corner of the south-western slab with orange sand and gravel – excavated subsoil two tightly wedged stones. They had also levelled (context 24) – had been packed around the base WKHVORSLQJWRSRIWKLVVODEZLWKDFREEOHDÁDNH RIWKHVRXWKHDVWVODE7KHÁRRURIWKHFLVWVORSHG from which (mentioned above) was found in the

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south-west corner of the cist, where it may have remained in situ. The capping slab had been sealed been knocked off when the capping slab was with redeposited subsoil, which on excavation GLVWXUEHG7KHSLWDURXQGWKHFLVWZDVÀOOHGZLWK still lay 0.9m thick over the in situ fragment. This orange-brown gravel and sand, presumably the has been interpreted as the remnants of a more mixed subsoil and topsoil which had been dug out extensive deposit that incorporated stones – the to create it. cobbles noted in particular density around the cist Clean grey clay silt (context 5) lay against and in the auger survey – and which may have formed partly over the outer top edges of the slabs, and a cairn or composite barrow-cairn that covered this may have been placed to lute and seal the top the cist. of the cist. After the burial, the cist was covered The subsoil around the pit was covered with with the massive capping slab (contexts 6 and 7), a mineralised old ground surface (context 2, illus 1.7m long by up to 0.9m wide, and 0.09m thick   FRQVLVWLQJ RI ÀUP \HOORZRUDQJH VLOW\ VDQG (illus 9 and 10). It had been broken longitudinally with occasional stones, patches of light-grey clay by the mechanical excavator and the larger portion VLOW DQG FKDUFRDO ÁHFNV 7KH EDVH RI D SORXJK had been dragged to one side, but a long fragment IXUURZZDVHYLGHQWDVDOLQHDUKROORZÀOOHGZLWK

Illus 11 Sections across the cist structure

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remnants of peaty topsoil (context 1) in the north- LOOXV   7KH QXPEHU DQG UDQJH DOVR UHÁHFW west corner of the trench. the view, both of the excavation team and Historic Scotland, that despite that initial, non- archaeological intervention in the interior of the POST-EXCAVATION ANALYSIS OF THE cist, much of the potential for new information CIST was recoverable. The focus of the work evolved from attempts This section begins by describing the components to identify the white material through attempts of the burial as they were excavated and then to understand something of the complex chains presents the summary results of specialist analyses of biological and chemical processes that might (osteological, stable isotope and bone histology) have occurred within the cist. A second line of of the human remains, the organic remains (cattle enquiry developed rapidly with the discovery of hide, woven material, white material and plant possible animal hair and then parasites within the remains) and the soils (both organic and inorganic hair. A third line sought to establish whether the elements). For each specialist report, method apparently woven organic materials (see illus 2) statements and detailed results are available in the were really artefacts. archive reports. In the accounts that follow, the intention is to Initially, all soil samples were sub-sampled present the results of the analyses as objectively for geochemical analysis, and further sub-samples as possible. Few of the analyses come to a simple were taken from appropriate contexts where conclusion and several fail to agree. However, traces of material of indeterminate character the authors and Historic Scotland feel that it is were observed before and during the excavation, important to record what was done so that, in so that these could be subjected to other testing the inevitable event of the discovery of a similar for the presence of human tissue/adipocere, burial, both the questions and the analyses will mineral salts and so on. A sub-sample from evolve. HDFK EXON VDPSOH ZDV ÁRDWHG IRU WKH UHFRYHU\ RIÁ\SXSDHWLFNVFDUERQL]HGSODQWPDFURIRVVLO 6NHOHWDODQDO\VLVRIWKHKXPDQUHPDLQV remains and artefacts, and the dried retents were sorted to extract different categories of material. Iraia Arabaolaza Concentrations of white material observed in The human remains recovered from the cist the sub-samples were also extracted. Personnel were studied to establish the minimum number handling the material wore latex gloves at all of individuals represented, determine the age at times. death and sex, identify evidence of pathology, The different strands of specialist analysis growth and development and record metric and were designed to maximise information from the non-metric data. Osteological analysis followed retrieved material in order to shed light on the current discipline standards and guidelines, occupant(s) of the cist and to explain how the as outlined by English Heritage (Mays et al EXULDOZDVSXWWRJHWKHUDQGZKDWKDGLQÁXHQFHG 2002), the British Association of Biological its preservation. Some strands were added in Anthropologists and Osteologists/Institute of response to questions raised by preliminary Field Archaeologists (Brickley & McKinley results in another. The 13 analytical reports that 2004) and Historic Scotland (Historic Scotland follow range from standard human burial studies 1997). KXPDQERQHDQGPDFURSODQWLGHQWLÀFDWLRQVDQG Less than 50% of the skeleton was recovered, radiocarbon dating) through to a non-standard including the bones received from the Northern suite of soil chemical and organo-chemical Constabulary. The bone cortex was moderately analyses and studies of mammalian hair and preserved, although some bones were very friable parasites. The number and range of studies and poorly preserved. In addition, white chalky UHÁHFW WKH H[WUDRUGLQDU\ VWDWH RI SUHVHUYDWLRQ deposits were found on the skull, left pelvis, right ZLWKLQ WKH FLVW ZKHQ LW ZDV ÀUVW GLVFRYHUHG IHPRUDO GLDSK\VLV DQG ERWK WLELDH 9HU\ ÀQH

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VKRUWÀEUHVZHUHDOVRUHFRYHUHGDURXQGWKHULJKW maxilla, pelvic region, right femur and both tibiae. 2 The preservation of the bone and organic material from the grave may have been compromised by the police intervention, which disturbed the burial and displaced some bones. C P 1 SD N

Sexual dimorphic traits on the skull indicated 13 δ the individual was possibly female, but the HYLGHQFHIRUVH[ZDVPRUHGHÀQLWLYHRQWKHSHOYLV where the wide sciatic notch, the pronounced pre- auricular surface and the shape of the auricular ducibility of the NBS 120 C surface indicated female sex. The individual was N

therefore determined to be a female. 15 The age at death was determined by the δ auricular surface, a non-complete left pubic symphysis and an unfused left posterior iliac crest. These indicators gave an age of young adult, with a range of 25–29 years. The lack of any degenerative changes on the bones and the slight attrition present on the molars corroborate this age range. It was not possible to determine her stature, but the bones indicate she was of gracile EXLOG 7KH IHPXU ZDV SODW\PHULF RU ÁDWWHQHG from front to back, a shape generally found in skeletons from pre-industrial societies, including in prehistoric Scottish cist burials (cf Shepherd 1986: 17–23). While the poor preservation and partial QDWXUH RI WKH VNHOHWRQ PDGH LW GLIÀFXOW WR identify evidence of pathology, some dental 18O SMOW values and this results in ± 0.4 (1s) error on the calculated drinking water

SDWKRORJ\ ZDV LGHQWLÀHG 1LQH WHHWK SUHVHQWHG δ dental enamel hypoplasia (DEH), a linear hypoplastic defect on the enamel representing *O Daux Amt Amt Daux *O 18 16.87 2 –8.1 14.5 41 3.3 10.03 0.2 –21.22 0.11 –21.22 16.87 2 –8.1 14.5 0.2 41 10.03 3.3 DGHÀFLHQF\LQWKHHQDPHOWKLFNQHVVIRUPDWLRQ δ Although this childhood stress indicator is not completely understood, its possible causes include malnutrition, anaemia and high fever (Hillson 1996). A dental anomaly caused by GHYHORSPHQWDOGHYLDWLRQZDVDOVRLGHQWLÀHGRQ the maxillary right second incisor, which presents a peg incisor shape. There was no evidence of caries, dental abscesses, periodontal disease or ante-mortem tooth loss. Only slight calculus, a mineralised form of plaque which forms on the tooth due to poor dental hygiene, was observed. The occlusal attrition of the teeth was slight too, 1 which could be related to the young age of the Sample ppm 87Sr/86Sr SMOW n equation % N % C at C/N AIR 1 SD mean Table Strontium, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen data for the Langwell Farm skeleton. * A ± 0.2(1s) blanket error, derived from repro standard, is considered the best estimate of error for individual and/or the lack of a coarse diet. LF-09-SK1-e 123.6 0.711444

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6WDEOHLVRWRSHDQDO\VLVRIWKHKXPDQUHPDLQV

Jane Evans and Angela Lamb In order to illuminate the diet and possibly also the geographical origins of the person buried in the cist, samples were submitted for analysis of strontium and oxygen isotopes on tooth enamel and for analysis of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur isotopes on bone. Table 1 presents the data for strontium, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen isotopes. Strontium: The strontium isotope composition is below the value predicted for this part of Scotland (Evans et al 2010), although data from this area is sparse and the geology complex. The drinking water value is within the expected range for the eastern side of Sutherland (Darling et al 2003). Carbon and nitrogen: The carbon and nitrogen isotope composition for the individual from Langwell Farm suggests that she had a diet high in animal protein, but with no evidence of a marine component. The data have been compared with reference data from Norse-period Scottish sites of Cnip and Galson in the Outer Hebrides (Richards et al 2001; Montgomery et al 2003), Newark Bay, an Iron Age site on Orkney (Richards et al 2006) and Wetwang, an Iron Age chariot burial in Yorkshire (Jay & Richards 2006). The results are JLYHQLQ7DEOH7KH6FRWWLVKGDWDGHÀQHDQDUUD\ of values that result from a mixed diet of marine and non-marine protein components; the higher nitrogen values typify a marine component. The Wetwang dataset provides a reference set for a diet high in animal protein, with no evidence for DQ\VLJQLÀFDQWPDULQHIRRGLQSXW -D\ 5LFKDUGV 2006). The Langwell Farm individual plots on the margin of the Wetwang data set. The carbon S VCDT 1 SD n % S Amt % N Amt % C Amt % S at C/N at C/S at N/S

and nitrogen results from the Langwell individual 34 δ are also consistent with the preliminary results reported from the Beaker People Project, which analysed a large dataset from the main areas of Beaker burial across the UK (Jay et al 2012).

Sulphur: The application of sulphur isotope 2 analysis to archaeological material is relatively Table Sulphur data for the Langwell Farm skeleton  ,GHQWLÀHU new, but can illuminate both palaeodiet and LF09-SK1 16.6 0.25 0.20 2 14.5 41.0 0.20 3.3 544 165 residency or mobility (Richards et al 2001; 2003; Privat et al 2007). Sulphur is a vital nutrient for

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animals, and an animal’s sulphur composition a largely terrestrially based protein diet with derives from its food intake. Geology and soil SRVVLEO\ VRPH IUHVKZDWHU ÀVK LQSXW LOOXV  SURFHVVHVLQÁXHQFHWKHVXOSKXULVRWRSHVLJQDWXUHV Table 2). The bone has a relatively high δ34S deriving from plant food intake. Near the coast, sea value (16.6 ‰), intermediate between UK coastal spray can deposit marine sulphur and potentially and inland archaeological values when compared blur the terrestrial/marine δ34S distinction, but to data presented in Richards et al (2001). different δ34S values in marine, terrestrial and In conclusion, the stable isotope signatures in freshwater producers can be used to distinguish the bone and teeth indicate that the woman buried these sources. Away from areas affected by in the cist most likely grew up in eastern Sutherland sea-spray, δ34S can distinguish between marine and that she ate mainly terrestrially based protein, and terrestrially based diets (Krouse & Herbert SRVVLEO\DORQJZLWKVRPHIUHVKZDWHUÀVK 1988). The limitation of δ34S for archaeological palaeodiet studies is that it may not be able %RQHKLVWRORJ\DQDO\VLVRIWKHVNHOHWDOUHPDLQV to distinguish between truly marine diets and terrestrial diets in coastal locations due to the Two different radiocarbon dates were obtained issue of sea spray. If it is used in combination IURP WKH VNHOHWRQ LQ WKH FLVW WKH ULJKW ÀEXOD with other paleodietary isotopes (C, N) this may was dated to 3690 ± 35 bp (SUERC-24680), aid interpretations. while the right ulna was dated to 3615 ± 35 The sulphur isotope signature for the person bp (SUERC-33918). These dates calibrate at buried at Langwell Farm suggests that she had two-sigma to 2200–1960 bc and 2130–1880

Illus 12 Comparison of the Langwell Farm burial’s sulphur isotope composition with data from elsewhere in the UK

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bc respectively. The later of these two dates is protein in the early post-mortem period, causing virtually identical to those obtained from cattle small tunnels or micro-foci of destruction hide and wood from the burial (see Radiocarbon (MFD) (Hackett 1981; Bell et al 1996; Jans et al Dates and Table 19, below). However, as C14 2004). These MFD, representing bioerosion or starts decaying from the moment of death, the diagenetic attack, are visible through microscopic earlier date raised the possibility that the woman examination of bone thin sections. A 1cm × 1cm had been dead for a time before her remains were section of cortical bone was cut from the anterior put in the cist. mid-shaft of the left femur, and two 100μm In an attempt to throw some light on how transverse thin sections (S1 and S2) were created the remains had been treated before burial, bone from this, mounted on glass slides and examined histology analysis (that is, analysis of the bone’s by conventional binocular microscopy with microscopic anatomy) was carried out on two thin normal and polarized transmitted light. They sections taken from the femur, to establish the were quantitatively assessed, using the Oxford degree of microbial attack on the bone. Thomas Histological Index (OHI), at the periosteal (outer), Booth used binocular microscopy to examine the internal (middle) and endosteal (inner) surfaces of thin sections, while Hege Hollund carried out the thin sections. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy on the The results are shown in Table 3. The bone same thin sections. These two strands of analysis microstructure was preserved at the internal third were pursued in order to establish whether decay of the thin sections but deteriorated towards had been arrested, which might in turn indicate the inner and outer surfaces (illus 13), with the whether the body was preserved in some way obliteration of collagen birefringence apparent before burial. XQGHU SRODUL]HG OLJKW $EXQGDQW PLFURÀVVXUHV were visible in both thin sections, particularly Thin section analysis towards the outer surfaces. The bioerosion observed was not consistent Thomas Booth with the characteristics of bacterial attack. Bone from the Langwell Farm cist was analysed Rather than consisting of small discrete tunnels to assess the extent to which the body had been made by bacteria travelling through the bone attacked by putrefactive bacteria, which escape (Hackett 1981), the areas of microstructural loss from the body’s viscera and exploit the bone were large and nebulous, and more consistent

Illus 13 Periosteal surface of S1. Intense bacterial attack is visible as a dense accumulation of dark tunnels under normal light (left) and an absence of illuminated white collagen birefringence under polarized light (right). Width of the ÀHOGRIYLHZUHSUHVHQWVPP

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Table 3 Quantitative assessment of the thin sections

Periosteal OHI Internal OHI Endosteal OHI Median % remaining score % remaining score % remaining score OHI score

Slide 1 < 50% 2 > 50% 3 > 50% 3 3

Slide 2 > 50% 3 > 95% 5 >5 0% 3 3

with progressive staining, which is usually due an early post mortem stage, inhibiting bacterial to extraneous factors in the burial environment bone erosion. (Garland 1987; Schultz 1997). No MFD were Bodily putrefaction and related bone observed in either Langwell thin section. It bioerosion can be arrested in several ways. cannot be stated absolutely that the Langwell Excarnation (exposure above ground or in an bone was devoid of any microbial attack, as any open cist) is one way, as it means bodies are MFD present could have been obscured by the rapidly skeletonised by carnivores and insects intense staining, which was probably caused by (Simmons et al 2010) and gut bacteria have less WKH LQÀOWUDWLRQ RI KXPLF DFLGV 7KLV VXSSRUWV opportunity to attack the bone; however, as it WKH EXON VRLOV DQDO\VLV ÀQGLQJV WKDW WKH VRLO S+ results in at least partial disarticulation, it can be ZDV ORZ ZKHQ WKH /DQJZHOO UHPDLQV ZHUH ÀUVW discounted in this case. The cattle hide wrapping interred and that periodic waterlogging occurred around the body could theoretically provide (C Wilson, below), although the burial context an alternative explanation. There have been no could not have been highly acidic as corrosive direct studies of the relationship between bone environments normally promote catastrophic bioerosion and wrapping of a corpse, although bone dissolution (Nielsen-Marsh et al 2007; there have been some investigations into the Smith et al 2007).) effect of wrapping on overall bodily putrefaction. The articulation of the Langwell remains In a retrospective experimental study of human should have prohibited the bones from retaining cadaver decomposition rate in a variety of a good level of histological preservation (Jans contexts across southern Arizona, Galloway et al et al 2004; Nielsen-Marsh et al 2007). During (1989) found that the putrefaction of clothed or putrefaction, the decaying alimentary tract of wrapped bodies was commonly retarded when a an intact cadaver provides abundant deleterious body was wrapped in semi-permeable, absorbent bacteria that can transmigrate and gain access material that wicked away moisture. However, at to the bones via the circulatory system, which Langwell, the water-resistant cattle hide wrapping they can enter within 24 hours of death (Child would most likely have kept the body wet by 1995; Bell et al 1996). Bacterial bioerosion trapping moisture. usually engulfs most of the internal bone Mant’s (1987: 68) study of decomposition microstructure. It is the most common form of among Second World War soldiers buried in diagenetic attack observed in archaeological various contexts found that, in wet conditions, the bone from articulated individuals (Hedges et absorption of moisture by clothing and wrappings al 1995; Turner-Walker et al 2002; Jans et al encouraged the hydrogenation and hydrolysis of 2004), and levels of bacterial attack are due body fats, resulting in the formation of adipocere. mainly to treatment or environmental conditions $GLSRFHUH LV GLIÀFXOW WR EUHDN GRZQ DQG LWV UDWKHU WKDQ RWKHU SRVVLEOH LQWULQVLF LQÁXHQFHV formation slows bacterial decomposition of soft such as diet or disease (Jans et al 2004; Nielsen- tissue and could theoretically affect putrefactive Marsh et al 2007). Therefore, putrefaction of bioerosion of bone microstructure (Mant 1987; the Langwell body must have been arrested at Aufderheide 2003; Forbes et al 2005b). SEM-

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EDS analysis of samples of white material from Ypenburg in the Netherlands, which had small the cist established that they were the product concentrations of MFD below their periosteal of bone recrystallisation (C Wilson, below). (outer) margins. Waterlogged skeletons from Chemical signatures indicating decomposition the post-medieval cemetery at Carver Street, products were detected in the soils underneath 6KHIÀHOG 6RXWK

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visceral bacteria soon after death. The level the characteristics of the burial environment. of histological preservation would also be The bone microstructure demonstrated no visible theoretically consistent with evisceration, evidence of bacterial erosion, suggesting that although this process in itself would increase the microbial attack had been halted soon after death, overall chances of soft tissue preservation. probably leading to prolonged – but temporary – At the Bronze Age settlement site of Cladh soft tissue preservation. Hallan, South Uist in the Outer Hebrides, DNA ,WLVGLIÀFXOWWRLGHQWLI\WKHVSHFLÀFWDSKRQRPLF and osteological analyses of two bodies showed process that prevented putrefactive bacteria from WKH\ ZHUH FRPSRVHG RI IRUPHUO\ PXPPLÀHG attacking the internal bone microstructure. The elements of three different individuals who had simplest answer is that the cist was waterlogged died at different times (Parker Pearson et al within a few months of burial, but the diagenetic 2005; 2007; Hanna et al 2012). If the Langwell VLJQDWXUH LV DOVR FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK PXPPLÀFDWLRQ UHPDLQV KDG EHHQ PXPPLÀHG WKHQ WKLV ZRXOG or evisceration. The integrity of the thin sections provide a possible explanation for the differences more closely matches the consistently high levels in radiocarbon date ranges obtained from right of microstructural preservation recorded on ÀEXODDQGULJKWXOQD PXPPLÀHGLQGLYLGXDOVWKDQWKHYDULDEO\SUHVHUYHG In conclusion, histological analysis revealed histology observed on bone from waterlogged that the Langwell bone had been subjected contexts (Weinstein et al 1981; Thompson & to mild levels of acidic erosion and had been Cowen 1984; Stout 1986; Brothwell & Bourke LQÀOWUDWHG E\ KXPLF DFLGV ERWK FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK 1995; Hess et al 1998; Turner-Walker & Jans

Illus 14 Microscopic image of the bone sample, showing zones sampled for FTIR analysis

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Table 4 Splitting factor (SF), Carbonate/phosphate ratio (C/P) and amide/phosphate ratio (Am/P) of the Langwell cist sample aliquots, calculated on the basis of FTIR-spectra. The archaeological bone values are averages of three replicate measurements. The fresh bone values are based on eight replicate measurements of modern cattle bone. Sd = Standard deviation

Sample SF Sd C/P Sd Am/P Sd

Bulk 3.96 0.19 0.22 0.01 0.33 0.01

Periosteal zone 4.07 0.07 0.22 0.01 0.31 0.01

Middle zone 4.15 0.28 0.23 0.01 0.35 0.01

Endosteal zone 4.04 0.15 0.26 0.03 0.38 0.04

Fresh bone 3.17 0.14 0.34 0.02 0.32 0.01

2008). However, waterlogging soon after burial KDGWKH/DQJZHOOERG\EHHQPXPPLÀHGDQGWKHQ still stands as a plausible explanation. The two waterlogged. Under these circumstances, it is interpretations need not be mutually exclusive. impossible to say for certain whether the Langwell The same diagenetic signature would be observed LQGLYLGXDOZDVLQWHQWLRQDOO\PXPPLÀHGDQGWKLV

Illus 15 Graph displaying the C/P versus SF values of the Langwell Cist aliquot samples, compared to those of fresh bone

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cannot be dismissed as a possible explanation femur as that used for histological analysis for the histological preservation and the slight (Booth, above; illus 14). differences in the calibrated ranges for the Table 4 details all the parameters for the bulk radiocarbon dates. bone, the periosteal (outer) zone, the middle/ internal zone and the endosteal (inner) zone FTIR analysis samples, obtained by FTIR-ATR. The values Hege Hollund made on fresh cattle bone are also reported for comparison and the SF and C/P values are shown Archaeological skeletal material undergoes a graphically in illus 15. range of different physico-chemical alterations The values indicate that the inner zone is (known as diagenesis) during burial; the type somewhat better preserved than the outer-middle and rate of alteration depend on the burial zone, with higher collagen content (see illus 16). conditions (Hedges et al 1995). The state of the Overall, the organic phase is well preserved, ERQH WKXV UHÁHFWV WKH EXULDO HQYLURQPHQW DQG while the bone mineral has undergone substantial changes within it. Fourier-Transform Infrared alteration. The changes are consistent with a Spectroscopy (FTIR) is a method commonly wet and neutral to slightly acidic environment, used to investigate the degree of alteration in allowing for the dissolution and recrystallisation buried archaeological bones; it gives information of the bone mineral. The alterations of the material on both the crystal structure and chemical as found by FTIR are thus consistent with what is composition of the material (Weiner & Bar known about the burial environment within the Yosef 1990). The method used to analyse the Langwell cist. Langwell bone was FTIR-ATR (Stathopoulou et al 2008; Thompson et al 2009), which utilizes Bone histology conclusions DQ DWWHQXDWHG WRWDO UHÁHFWLRQ $75  DFFHVVRU\ The thin section light microscopy and FTIR Bone powder for analysis was drilled from the analyses of the Langwell Farm skeleton reached same 1cm × 1cm section taken from the left VLPLODU FRQFOXVLRQV 7KH PLFURÀVVXUHV REVHUYHG

Illus 16 Am/P values of the four sample aliquots from the Langwell cist bone

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Illus 17 Well-preserved cattle hide sample from context 15. The roots are at the top and the tips at the bottom. Scale in mm

towards the outer surface of the Langwell thin staining, but the lack of observable bacterial sections coincide with substantial increases attack in the visible outer zone of the thin in crystallinity recorded by the FTIR. These sections suggests that the protein loss was more observations are consistent with the bone likely due to extraneous acidic degradation. The having been subject to diffuse acidic erosion in conclusions from both methods are in accord: the slightly acidic burial conditions of the cist the diagenetic signature of the Langwell bone (Gordon & Buikstra 1981; Smith et al 2007; LV FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK PXPPLÀFDWLRQ EXW FRXOG Turner-Walker & Jans 2008). The high collagen equally have been promoted by waterlogging shortly after burial. content of the Langwell bone recorded by FTIR is concordant with the excellent levels of histological preservation and lack of bacterial exploitation %URZQFDWWOHKLGH observed in the thin sections. Penelope Walton Rogers The FTIR analysis reported some level of protein loss towards the outer surface of the THE ANGLO-SAXON LABORATORY Langwell sample. This could indicate minor $QLPDOÀEUHIURPWKHFLVWÀOOVDQGDVVRFLDWHGZLWK bacterial attack that went undetected in the the human remains was analysed to determine thin sections because of the obtrusive humic LWV RULJLQV 7XIWV RI DQLPDO ÀEUH ZHUH FROOHFWHG

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IURPWKHFLVWDVVSRWÀQGV 6)QXPEHUV DQG 7KH VSHFLPHQV DOO FDPH IURP WKH ÀOO RI WKH a further 19 specimens emerged during post- cist, in contexts 12, 14, 15, 18 and 19 (illus 7 and excavation processing of the bulk samples (BS 9); the best preserved and most extensive remains QXPEHUV PDNLQJÀEUHVDPSOHVIRUVWXG\7KH came from close to or on the body (illus 17). In SRVLWLRQV RI WKH VSRW ÀQGV ZHUH PDUNHG RQ WKH all but the most broken examples the roots and grave plan during excavation and the relationships WLSVRIWKHÀEUHZHUHSUHVHQW LOOXVD²E DQGLQ of the individual bulk samples to the skeleton some instances, remains of skin were preserved and the grave cut were recorded as the samples around the roots. All specimens proved to be were collected. This extensive sampling and essentially the same and very probably came FRPPHQGDEOHUHFRUGNHHSLQJLQWKHÀHOGDOORZHG from the same animal, although they varied in the full potential of the material to be realised in length (see Catalogue, below). Most intact tufts the laboratory. were 15–25mm long, but there were some only (DFKVSHFLPHQZDVÀUVWYLHZHGZLWKD× 10 7mm long, along the south-west side of the cist in microscope, to establish the general character context 14. It is possible that these represent the RI WKH PDWHULDO DQG WKHQ ÀEUHV ZHUH PRXQWHG top of the animal’s legs, where the hair is shorter, for optical (transmitted-light) microscopy at and therefore the edge of the hide. PDJQLÀFDWLRQVXSWR×)RUWKHLGHQWLÀFDWLRQ 7KH VSHFLHV FRXOG EH FRQÀGHQWO\ LGHQWLÀHG of animal species, the diagnostic features are the DV FDWWOH IURP WKH IROORZLQJ IHDWXUHV 7KH ÀEUH range of diameters, the cuticular scale pattern, diameters were 24–87μm and most were between the frequency and type of the medulla (central 30μm and 65μm. The scale pattern was irregular channel), the shape in cross-section and the mosaic with smooth near margins (illus 19a), distribution of pigmentation. In our laboratory, changing to rippled margins from mid-shank to tip these features are recorded and then compared (illus 19b). Medullas were rare and, when present, ZLWK VWDQGDUG ÀEUH DWODVHV :LOGPDQ  mostly narrow and fragmented (illus 19c), or Appleyard 1978; Textile Institute 1975) and a RFFDVLRQDOO\ZLGHLQWKHFRDUVHVWÀEUHV LOOXVG  collection of modern specimens. Cross-sections were consistently oval (illus 19d).

Illus &DWWOHKLGHÀEUHVVKRZLQJURRW D DQGWLS E 0LFURJUDSKVWDNHQZLWK× 40 objective and camera zoom

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Illus 19 Fibres showing the diagnostic features of cattle hair. (a)–(b) Casts of the scale pattern on medium- GLDPHWHUÀEUHV D ZLWKVPRRWKVFDOHPDUJLQVDQG E ZLWKULSSOHGPDUJLQVWRZDUGVWKHWLS F ÀEUHV with medullas; (d) oval cross-sections with and without medullas; (e) with the focus adjusted to view WKHLQWHUQDOSLJPHQWDWLRQDQG I DFDVWRIDFRDUVHWDLOÀEUH0LFURJUDSKVWDNHQZLWK× 40 objective and camera zoom

Pigmentation was light to moderate throughout 19f) (Wildman 1954: 139; Appleyard 1978: 49). (illus 19e), indicating a uniformly brown beast. This, then, represents the remains of a brown The hide must have come from an adult animal as cattle hide, including – probably – the top of calf hair has a different morphology (Appleyard the legs and the root of the tail. The hide ran 1978: 50; Textile Institute 1975: 67 (note that under the body in context 19, but the remains LQ WKLV ÀJXUHV D DQG E DSSHDU WR EH were particularly dense in the centre of the UHYHUVHG 6RPHRIWKHFRDUVHVWÀEUHVIURP6) grave and appeared to pass over the body in context 15, had the irregular scale pattern and context 14. Given the position of the tail end by FORVHULSSOHGFUHQDWHPDUJLQVRIWDLOÀEUHV LOOXV the skull and the probable edge to one side of the

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body, it seems likely that the hide was wrapped As well as inhumations, remains of cattle hide around the corpse with the head end by the body’s and other animal pelts have been found with feet and the long edges together on the south-west cremation urns of the Iron Age and early medieval side of the cist. It was impossible, however, to periods (Walton Rogers 2005). determine whether the hair side faced inwards or Few of the animal pelts from the Scottish outwards. Although there is no direct evidence for %URQ]H $JH KDYH EHHQ FODVVLÀHG PRUH FORVHO\ this from the excavated material, it seems likely than ‘bovine’ (and one pelt proved to be fur, WKDWWKHKLGHZRXOGKDYHEHHQGHÁHVKHGFXUHG possibly from stoat), but the example from the and dressed with fats or oils before use. 0DVWHUWRQFLVWZDVLGHQWLÀHGDV¶ERYLQHSUREDEO\ In a temperate climate, animal pelts and hides European bison or aurochs’ (McAdam 1982: are preserved only in particular soil conditions 127). Bison seems unlikely in the British Bronze (mostly waterlogged ones such as peat bogs) Age, but another bovine hide from Neolithic and the Langwell hide is therefore a relatively 0HDUH 6RPHUVHW KDG D ÀQH XQGHUFRDW ZKLFK rare survival. On the other hand, such evidence might indicate wild ox (aurochs) (Ryder 1969: as exists for burial with hides stretches from 517–18). Finland to Ireland and from the Bronze Age to The Langwell hide has none of the diagnostic the medieval period (Hald 1980: 313, 380), and features of bison (Wildman 1954: 140–1) and no it may have been a more common practice than ÀQHXQGHUFRDW,QVWHDGLWKDVDOOWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFV the small numbers recovered in Britain would of modern domestic cattle. In colour it was suggest. In an Early Bronze Age inhumation probably a uniform mid- to light brown, and can at Ingleby Barwick, Teesside (Grave 6), for be compared with the light-brown pigmentation example, the hide was preserved by association in the remains found with an early historic urn at with a corroding metal armlet and, if there had Stromness, Orkney (Walton Rogers 2005), and been no metalwork in the grave, its presence in hide bags from Iron Age Hallstatt in Austria would have gone undetected (Walton Rogers (Ryder 1992: 63–4), and also with the mid-brown 1999). Ellen McAdam has detailed 10 burials pigmentation of the remains associated with a less with animal skins in Scottish cists and has argued securely dated urn from Sebay, St Andrews, and that they were associated with individuals of Deerness, Orkney (Walton Rogers 2005: 165–6). special status (McAdam 1982: 126–7; Watkins A cattle-hide cape from Derrykeigan, Co Antrim, 1982: 61–2). Ireland, radiocarbon-dated to the 1st century ad In four Aberdeenshire cists, the animal skin (Walton Rogers n.d.), was piebald (black and was interpreted as a cover for the body and that white or dark brown and white) – and remains was probably also the case at Ingleby Barwick, of a probable cattle hide from an Arras Culture where the hair appeared to face upwards, on the burial on Skipwith Common, Yorkshire, were upper face of the armlet. At Masterton, Pitreavie, very pale to the naked eye (Bender Jørgensen & )LIHWKHKLGHFRYHUHGWKHÁRRURIWKHFLVW²DQG Walton unpublished). It would appear that by the skin remains under the head were recorded at time of the Roman Iron Age, there was a range Barns Farm Cist 1, Dalgety, Fife, and Cunighar, of different colours in cattle in the British Isles, Tillicoultry, Clackmannanshire (McAdam 1982: although only mid- and light brown have as yet 127). There are no other examples from Britain been attested for the Bronze Age. ZKHUHWKHERG\KDGEHHQZUDSSHGEXWLQDFRIÀQ NB: Analysis of stable isotopes in the cattle burial in Egtved, Denmark, a clothed woman hide could, in theory, have shed light on the had been laid on a cattle hide, with the hair side animal’s geographical origins; however, given facing upwards, and the edges folded over the the limited amount of reference material for ERG\ %URKROP +DOGÀJ ,QWKH this relatively new procedure (P W Rogers medieval period, bodies were sometimes stitched pers comm), any results were not likely to be into hides in Britain, Denmark and Iceland, which particularly informative, and so it was decided may represent a survival of an earlier practice this strand of analysis would be an unwise use of (Hald 1980: 380; Gilchrist & Sloane 2005: 107). resources.

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&DWDORJXHRIDQLPDOÀEUHVIURPWKHFLVW

CONTEXT 12: ORGANIC-RICH BURIAL MATRIX SF No Grid square Condition Description Size SF1 — Dry > 10mm (incomplete) 24–65μm SF2 C5 Wet 20–25mm (tips and roots) 34–80μm BS005a –– Wet 15mm (tips and roots) 29–50μm BS005b –– Dry Skin present –– BS017 B4 Wet 13mm (roots only) 40–56μm BS023 C4 Wet > 8mm (roots and some tips) 31–51μm BS025a C6 Wet Disaggregated (roots and tips) –– BS025b C6 Dry Disaggregated (tips only) 37–77μm

CONTEXT 14: MATERIAL OVERLYING BURIAL ON S SF15 A4 Dry 25–30mm (poor pres.) 34–50μm SF19 B6 Dry 18mm (poor preservation) –– %6D $ :HW PP WLSVDQG"URRWV  ²μm BS011b A4 Dry 7mm (tips and roots) –– %6 $ 'U\ 6NLQZLWKDIHZÀEUHV ²² BS018/019 B5–6 Wet Disaggregated –– BS039a B4 Wet 15–20mm (skin and tips) 34–60μm %6E % 'U\ !PP "  ²μm

&217(;7%85,$/0$75,;:,7+"'(&$<('%21( (a) SF5 B2 Dry 15–18mm whole pelt Disaggregated (roots and tips) 25–65μm –– SF11 B2 Wet 30mm (roots and tips) 26–73μm BS032 B2 Dry > 6mm (poor preservation) ––

CONTEXT 18: MATERIAL LAID WITH BURIAL BS035 A5 Dry > 6mm (poor preservation) 20–87μm

CONTEXT 19: STAINED BURIAL MATRIX SF18 B5 Dry 15mm (roots and tips) 30–60μm SF23 –– Wet 12mm (roots and tips) 24–70μm SF24 –– Wet 12mm (roots and tips) 24–70μm BS038 B4 Wet –– (incomplete) 24–61μm Sample from R femur –– Wet 20–25mm (tips only) 26–70μm

CONTEXT 24: PACKING MATERIAL FOR E SLAB SF27 –– Wet c 10mm (incomplete) ––

Samples collected from skeleton without context numbers: %URNHQUHPDLQVRIÀEUHVZHUHUHFRYHUHGIURPWKHULJKWDQGOHIWWLELDDQGWKHULJKWIHPXU Those from the right femur were 20–25mm long (tips only) and 26–70μm diameter.

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:RYHQPDWHULDO pixels, resolution 180 dpi at an image size of 433 × 324mm, colour representation sRGB – a Susanna Harris UHDVRQDEOH VSHFLÀFDWLRQ IRU D FRPSDFW FDPHUD What appears to be woven material resembling EXWQRWKLJKHQRXJKWRDOORZVLJQLÀFDQW]RRPLQJ basketry was observed in the photographs of to examine details. The photographs show several the Langwell Farm cist taken shortly after the YLHZVRIWKHFLVWFRQWHQWVZLWKGLIIHUHQWÀHOGVRI cist’s discovery, before the removal of some focus. Any analysis based purely on photographic of the contents by police (illus 2). Mr Jonathan VRXUFHVKDVFHUWDLQOLPLWDWLRQVÀEUHDQDO\VLVLVQRW Hampton, landowner and eyewitness at the cist SRVVLEOHWKHLGHQWLÀFDWLRQRIHOHPHQWVDQGIDEULF opening, also recounted that some areas of the structure is compromised, and measurements are skeleton appeared to be covered with woven only approximate. Therefore, this analysis cannot material resembling basketry (O Lelong pers lead to the same clarity of results as would be FRPP $OWKRXJKQRQHZDVLGHQWLÀHGLQWKHSRVW expected from an examination of the preserved excavation analysis, this could be the result of artefact. Nonetheless, whatever comment on the the cist disturbance; decayed textile and basketry woven material is possible from the available remains are often rendered incredibly fragile and evidence can provide a more holistic view of can readily turn to dust if handled heavily. the grave contents and the burial procedure, This report is based on the visual examination especially the wrappings. of eight photographs taken shortly after the cist’s 7KUHH DUHDV ZHUH LGHQWLÀHG ZKLFK PD\ discovery and before police disturbance (IMG- contain woven material: the leg region, the top 0322 to IMG-0330, excluding the blurred IMG- of the skull and a small central area (illus 20).  7KH\DUHMSHJLPDJHÀOHVRIð 7KHOHJDUHDZLOOEHGHVFULEHGÀUVWDVWKLVLVWKH

Illus 20 Three areas of possible woven material taken before the contents of the cist were disturbed: leg area (to right), small area in centre and on top of skull (left)

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Illus :RYHQPDWHULDOLQWKHOHJDUHD7KHODUJHDUURZVKRZVWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKHÀEURXVEXQGOHVRIWKHÀUVWVHW of elements; the four smaller arrows show where they are interworked with a second set of elements

PRVW UHDGLO\ LGHQWLÀHG 7KH GLVFXVVLRQ HPSOR\V 80–120mm apart. Two rows can be seen quite WKHPRUHQHXWUDOWHUPLQRORJ\RIÀUVWDQGVHFRQG clearly; a third row to the south end is much less set of elements, which is preferable when it is not distinct and covered in part by a small stone or possible to technically distinguish the passive area of soil, and a possible fourth row at the north warp from the active weft. end is very indistinct and partly covered by soil. 7KHHOHPHQWVRIWKHVHFRQGVHWDUHVLJQLÀFDQWO\ Woven material in the leg area: The area of woven ÀQHU DQG PHDVXUH DSSUR[LPDWHO\ PP LQ material over the leg area measures approximately GLDPHWHU DQG DUH QRW FOHDUO\ HQRXJK GHÀQHG WR 530 × 130mm. It consists of six rows of dark black- identify twist or spin direction. EURZQHOHPHQWV ÀUVWVHW UXQQLQJLQDQRUWKVRXWK direction. These are crossed at right angles in three Woven material on top of the skull: The area RU IRXU SODFHV E\ PXFK ÀQHU HOHPHQWV VHFRQG of woven material on top of the skull measures set) of the same colour. This falls into the ‘two or approximately 350 × 125mm. It is dark brown and more sets of elements’ fabric structure, in which largely covered by a white substance. It appears one set of roughly parallel longitudinal elements to have a colour and similar fabric structure to the is interworked at right angles with a second set of woven material in the leg area. elements (Emery 1966: 74). 7KHÀUVWVHWRIHOHPHQWVUXQVURXJKO\QRUWK 7KH ÀUVW VHW RI HOHPHQWV KDV D PD[LPXP east/south-west, curving as if following the shape length of approximately 530mm and each element of the skull. Where visible, these appear to be has a diameter of approximately 5–15mm. They ÀEURXVEXQGOHVPHDVXULQJ²PPLQGLDPHWHU FRQVLVWRIORQJÀEURXVEXQGOHVWKDWVKRZQRVSLQ with no spin or twist and a maximum length of or twist, and can be described as not spun, single 350mm. The second set of elements is barely elements (Emery 1966: 9). They are aligned in visible beneath the white substance. Where this roughly parallel rows separated by narrow gaps, LVDEVHQWWKH\FDQEHVHHQLQWHUVHFWLQJWKHÀUVW through which the underlying deposit is visible. set of elements in several places, in rows spaced The second set of elements is much less distinct; 80–100mm apart. Although much is obscured VLQJOHURZVFDQEHVHHQFURVVLQJWKHÀUVWVHWDQG beneath the white substance, the position of the where they do, drawing them in slightly (illus 21). rows is emphasised where they slightly depress There are only three or four rows, each spaced WKH ÀEURXV EXQGOHV RI WKH ÀUVW VHW RI HOHPHQWV

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The colour, elements and fabric structure appear cross-twisting elements, which are here described very similar to those in the leg area. as the second set of elements, can appear as a single row. Due to this cross-twist formation, the Possible woven material in central area: The fabric remains structurally sound even when the possible woven material in the central area is very rows are spaced apart, as in this example. As the indistinct. It measures approximately 60 × 100mm FURVVWZLVWZUDSVDURXQGWKHÀUVWVHWRIHOHPHQWV and consists of three short, parallel, dark brown it may have the effect of squeezing them slightly, sections with what appears to be an element creating the drawn-in feature seen here, while intersecting at right angles, in a manner similar also holding them slightly apart, hence the gaps. to the woven material of the leg area and on top :LWKRXW ÀUVWKDQG H[DPLQDWLRQ RI WKH of the skull. This small patch could suggest that preserved artefact, this remains a theory based on all three areas of woven material were once part the interpretation of the photographs. It cannot be of a large sheet that covered the body. However, completely ruled out that this could be another the areas are surrounded by other dark material type of fabric structure, such as coiled basketry, that could be fragments of wood or fur of a plaiting or wickerwork. However, the twining similar colour. Therefore, this can only remain a (cross-twisting) interpretation seems most likely speculative hypothesis. and the photographic evidence suggests that the skeleton was buried with material woven using Fabric structure this technique, perhaps as a cap and also a cover The fabric structure is composed of two sets of over at least the lower part of the body HOHPHQWVLQWHUVHFWLQJDWULJKWDQJOHV7KHÀEURXV EXQGOHV RI WKH ÀUVW VHW RI HOHPHQWV UHVW VOLJKWO\ Comparative material apart from one another (the underlying deposit can There has been relatively little examination of be seen through the gaps) and they appear drawn- Bronze Age basketry in Scotland, but Henshall’s in where they are intersected by the second set. (1950) report ‘Textiles and Weaving Appliances These features occur in a fabric structure called in Prehistoric Britain’ does allude to the presence twining, in which pairs of adjacent elements from of twining. Henshall describes several examples one set cross-twist with each other, enclosing of twining from British Bronze Age, Iron Age and the successive elements of the other set (Emery Roman contexts which are described as pairing 1966: 196). When the second set of elements is with a cross-twisted technique (ibid: 141–4, 151– widely spaced, as here, it is called open twining 5, 162). Several were Bronze Age cairns or cists (Adovasio 2010: 16) (illus 22). These pairs of (ibid: 153–4).

Illus 22 Schematic diagram of open twining. © Susanna Harris

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In the 1920s and 1930s, Mann excavated In conclusion, the pre-disturbance photographs organic material from several cairns or do appear to show some kind of woven material cists, including a cairn at North Cairn Farm, RQWKHOHJDQGVNXOODUHDRIWKHVNHOHWRQLGHQWLÀHG Corsewall, Dumfries and Galloway. Henshall as a fabric structure composed of two sets of describes the material as ‘small hanks with elements intersecting at right angles. The woven cross-binding technique separated about 3 inches material on the skull appears very similar to that apart’ [76mm] (ibid: 153). Mann compared the of the leg area, although it is obscured by a white fabric from North Cairn Farm to other material substance. The material in both areas appears he described as a ‘hair moss garment’, which to have a fabric structure called ‘open twining’ covered the crouched inhumation of a young with the second set of elements, or twines, spaced boy excavated from a cist at Greenoak Hill, approximately 80–120mm apart. This technique Mount Vernon, Glasgow, and was accompanied is known from a small number of comparative by an early Bronze Age Food Vessel (ibid). ÀQGVIURP6FRWWLVK%URQ]H$JHFLVWVDQGFDLUQV Henshall reports that this ‘garment’ was not and was a technique known widely throughout preserved with the rest of the cist contents at the prehistoric Europe. Kelvingrove Museum (ibid). At a much more speculative level, a small Another stone cist excavated by Mann at patch of dark material in the central area may be Ferniegair, Lanarkshire, provided evidence of the same material, which could suggest that a large organic material covering the skeleton (ibid: 154; sheet of woven material originally covered the Welfare 1977). The very friable and fragmentary whole skeleton. However, as the original woven remains of this material are conserved by Glasgow PDWHULDO ZDV QRW H[DPLQHG WKH LGHQWLÀFDWLRQ Museums and have been examined by the author. of open twining must be treated cautiously. As Henshall reports, the construction method of What appears apparent in a photograph or at a the Ferniegair matting is not apparent. However, ÀUVW JODQFH FDQ EH PLVOHDGLQJ DQG ZLWKRXW WKH it is possible to identify a number of dark brown, SUHVHUYHGDUWHIDFWLWFDQQRWEHYHULÀHG7KHWZR SDUDOOHOÀEURXVEXQGOHVZLWKDGLDPHWHURI² possible interpretations are shown in illus 29. 10mm, which are mainly preserved on the tibia bone of the inhumation (Harris unpublished). 0LFURIDXQD The Ferniegair skeleton was accompanied by an Early Bronze Age Food Vessel, with traces of a Olivia Lelong black substance inside (Welfare 1977: 5). The Thirteen mites, retrieved from bulk samples from best preserved example examined by Henshall WKHFLVWDQGIURPFDWWOHKLGHÀEUHVZHUHDQDO\VHG was found covering the body of an undated cist to identify them and shed light on how they at Firth’s Park, South End, Stromness, Orkney FDPH WR EH LQ WKH FLVW 7KH\ ZHUH LGHQWLÀHG E\ +HQVKDOO +HQVKDOOLGHQWLÀHVWKLVDV Dr Anne Baker at the Natural History Museum in cross-twisting technique (that is, twining) with London. All the mites were Eulaelaps stabularis interspacing of approximately ¾ to 1¼ inches .RFK  VHYHQ ZHUH LGHQWLÀDEOH DV IHPDOHV DQG (19–32mm) between the hanks; the raw material three as males. These particular mites are usually ZDV LGHQWLÀHG DV Scirpus lacustris (ibid), or found on rodents, and wood mice (Apodemus bulrush. sylvaticus) would have been their most likely Twining of various sorts is known from host in the Early Bronze Age (Paul Buckland pers prehistoric contexts throughout Britain and comm). However, they are also found in birds’ continental Europe (Gleba & Nikolova 2009; nests, refuse dumps, stable straw and grain-, hay- Henshall 1950: 151, 156; Médard 2010: 71–103; DQGVWUDZVWDFNVLQRSHQÀHOGVDQGLQSHUPDQHQW Rast-Eicher 2005; Vogt 1937). Other recent VWDFN\DUGV *ULIÀWKV  discoveries of prehistoric basketry in Scotland They could have entered the cist on mice that seem to belong to a more robust category burrowed through the soil covering the cist and of materials, usually described as wattle or made a nest in the cattle hide. However, there wickerwork (Duffy 2006: 12–14). was no other evidence for rodent disturbance in

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the cist. Alternatively, their host was the cow or Other carbonized plant remains recovered bull from which the hide came. They could have from the cist include single seeds of heath grass been picked up on the animal’s bedding and fed and ribwort plantain, indicative of local grassland, on blood from a cut or abrasion (Anne Baker pers ZKLOH FDUERQL]HG KHDWKHU W\SH ÁRZHUV DQG D FRPP  7KHLU SUHVHQFH LQ WKH KLGH ÀEUHV FRXOG single carbonized leaf of heath grass suggest a suggest that the hide was not processed before heathland component. They may have resulted being used in the burial rite, as tanning would from burning of local surface vegetation at some have removed them. point before the cist was built and sealed. Fragments of uncarbonized wood were :RRGDQGFKDUFRDOIURPWKHFLVW recovered from contexts 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15. Most were impossible to identify, Susan Ramsay HYHQ WHQWDWLYHO\ EHFDXVH RI VLJQLÀFDQW IXQJDO Macroplant remains from the cist and its environs contamination. Context 12, the disturbed upper were studied in order to facilitate interpretation burial matrix, contained hazel wood (including of the burial rite and the use of contemporary SF4), which appears to be the remains of the landscape resources and to identify material bark-bearing stick visible in pre-intervention suitable for radiocarbon dating. No attempt was photographs of the burial (illus 2). The hazel wood made to identify pollen in the samples because was heavily contaminated with fungal spores and of the likelihood of contamination from the cist’s hyphae, suggesting that it had been in the cist disturbance after its discovery. for a considerable period of time. The only other The 57 small soil and organic samples WHQWDWLYH LGHQWLÀFDWLRQV FDPH IURP FRQWH[W  recovered from the cist were hand-sieved using which contained conifer type wood, and context mesh diameters of 2mm and 500μm, and the 15, which contained non-conifer type wood. retents were sorted to separate all possible The carbonized remains found in the cist LGHQWLÀDEOH UHPDLQV LQWR VSHFLÀF FDWHJRULHV DQGLQWKHH[WHULRUEDFNÀOODUHVLPLODULQQDWXUH Fragments of charcoal, bone and white material There were no particular concentrations of were dried, while all other organic remains were carbonized remains in the cist, and charcoal kept wet and stored under refrigerated conditions. fragments appeared to be randomly distributed Three bulk soil samples were also taken and these DFURVVWKHÁRRU7KH\LQFOXGHGRQHVL]HDEOHOXPS ZHUH SURFHVVHG E\ ÁRWDWLRQ IRU WKH UHFRYHU\ RI (SF25), 2cm long, which may be residual from carbonized remains, using standard methods. charcoal relating to earlier activity on the site. The botanical remains were then examined $ FDUERQL]HG KHDWKHU IDPLO\ OHDI DQG ÁRZHUV microscopically. Many of the wood sections together with individual seeds of heath grass and were heavily contaminated with fungal spores ribwort plantain, provide further evidence for the and hyphae. These sections were treated with a burning of local vegetation. The uncarbonized solution of bleach to clear them and allow the wood fragments probably derive from the burial internal anatomy of the wood to be viewed under rite. PDJQLÀFDWLRQ All of the contexts from the cist interior 6RLOVDQGUHVLGXHV contained charcoal or other carbonized remains, most of it occurring as tiny fragments and A suite of analyses was carried out on samples including alder, birch, hazel, heather type and of disturbed deposits in the cist, taken on a 20cm Scots pine. These are all native to the area and grid, along with samples from undisturbed burial could have grown near the site at any time deposits taken according to body area. The from the mid-Holocene onwards. Context 4, the analyses are detailed in the following sections. EDFNÀOO DURXQG WKH FLVW H[WHULRU DOVR SURGXFHG Organic and bulk soils analyses of these samples charcoal fragments dominated by Scots pine type, sought to maximise information from the with some alder. These are likely to derive from sediments, to identify if possible any materials an earlier charcoal scatter. placed with or on the body and to clarify the

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post-depositional processes that had affected were reflected in the different contexts preservation of organic materials (see Keely et al, LGHQWLÀHG below; C Wilson, below). ‡ 7KHIUDJPHQWDU\UHPDLQVRIZKLWHPDWWHU In addition, hand-collected samples from from immediately around the body: Fine three particular types of sediment were examined white powdery material covered most of the using various methods: bones, particularly the long bones that were removed by the police; this was examined ‡ 6HGLPHQWVIURPWKHXSSHUEXULDOGHSRVLWV: by a palaeobotanist, Dr Jennifer Miller, who The photographs taken before police inter- established that it was not fungal (J Miller vention in the cist show concentrations of pers comm). Discrete deposits of whitish white material over the body’s head, chest material (context 23) were found lying and lower legs (illus 2). These were recovered directly on the pelvis and in the surrounding and retained according to the sampling grid. undisturbed burial matrix (context 19) (illus The photographs appear to show differences 7). However, not enough of this material in these deposits – for example, what appears survived from either context for organic to be thick – although patchy – material residue analysis. corresponding to the woven material over : the top of the head is noticeably more ‡ :KLWHFU\VWDOOLQHGHSRVLWIURPWKHFLVWZDOOV This deposit occurred as thin, undulating lines yellowish than that visible over the face, on the stone slabs forming the cist walls, and neck and chest. By the time excavation was sampled for analysis. took place, these clear differences were no longer discernible due to the deposits’ Six samples of white material from disturbed disturbance, although there were some burial deposits were subjected to organic residue differences in colour and texture that analysis (see Šoberl & Evershed, below), and

Table 5 Summary of the results of the organic residue analyses. FA refers to free fatty acids; MAG to monoacylglycerols; DAG to diacylglycerols; TAG to triacylglycerols; n.d. is none detected

Bristol Lipid Predominant sample concentration Lipids commodity no Context (μg/g–1) detected type Description

LNG 01 12 16.20 FA (16:0, 18:0), potential Light brown clumps and     0$*V FRQWDPLQDWLRQ" ÀQHGXVW

LNG 02 12 0.00 n.d. n/a Black/cream crumbs

LNG 03 14 306.57 FA (16:0, 18:0), potential Off-white clump and dust     7$*V FRQWDPLQDWLRQ"

LNG 04 14 0.00 n.d. n/a Yellowish lumps with structure

LNG 05 15 12.26 FA (16:0, 18:0), potential Creamy brown clumps and     7$*V FRQWDPLQDWLRQ" ÀEUHV

LNG 06 15 0.00 n.d. n/a Large off-white crumbs and clumps

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Illus 23 SEM-EDS backscatter images of the white, crumbly material from context 15: (a) shows FU\VWDOOLQHVWUXFWXUHRIPDWHULDO E VKRZVKDLUÀEUHVSUHVHQW

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ÀYHRIWKHVHGHSRVLWVZHUHDOVRH[DPLQHGXVLQJ the samples, together with a brief summary of SEM-EDS (C Wilson, below). A sample of the the types of lipids preserved and preliminary white crystalline deposit from the cist walls was interpretations. analysed using X-ray diffraction (L Wilson, The samples were provisionally interpreted below). as remains of adipocere due to their association The analyses sought to establish the nature and with the skeletal remains in the cist. Adipocere RULJLQ V RIWKHVHZKLWHPDWHULDOV²VSHFLÀFDOO\ represents a post-mortem arrest of tissue and whether they were by-products of decomposition, ERG\IDWGHFRPSRVLWLRQZLWKDÀQDOSURGXFWWKDW such as adipocere, or whether they derived from has a wax-like consistency and greyish-white substances that were added to the burial as part of colour. It is composed mainly of free saturated WKHULWHRUZKHWKHUVXSHUÀFLDOO\VLPLODUPDWHULDOV fatty acids and hydroxy-fatty acids. It can form in fact had different origins. in a variety of environments, both terrestrial and aquatic, but shows preferential formation at the Organic residue analysis presence of body fat, moisture, mildly alkaline pH, warm temperature, anaerobic conditions and Lucija Šoberl and Richard P Evershed presence of appropriate bacteria (Ubelaker & Lipid analysis was carried out on six samples Zarenko 2010). of white material – taken as discrete samples in The Langwell Farm samples show the WKHÀHOGDQGDOVRH[WUDFWHGIURPEXONVDPSOHV² almost complete absence of preserved organic to establish the presence or absence of organic PROHFXOHV 7KLV KDV EHHQ FRQÀUPHG E\ WZR residues that might derive from decomposition independent analytical techniques – elemental of the body or other materials. The analyses analysis and organic residue analysis. The were performed using established protocols samples display very poor lipid preservation, that are described in detail elsewhere (Evershed with half of the analysed samples yielding HWDO&KDUWHUVHWDO 7KHLGHQWLÀFD VLJQLÀFDQWOLSLGFRQFHQWUDWLRQV WKDWLV!PJJ  tion of individual compounds was based upon Lipid concentrations in samples LNG 01, LNG eluting order, comparing retention times to 03 and LNG 05 are very low and the present standards and comparing the mass spectra with compounds are uncharacteristic of archaeological known fragmentation patterns and NIST spectra lipid extracts. An almost complete absence of library. RUJDQLF PROHFXOHV ZDV IXUWKHU FRQÀUPHG ZLWK The six samples were held in vials and varied in the elemental analysis, which showed a very colour (from yellowish to white) and granulation low total carbon content ranging between (from powdered to smaller concretions). Table 0.443% and 1.438% of the samples’ weight (see 5 lists the concentration of lipids detected in Table 6).

Table 6 Summary of the CHN elemental analyses

Bristol sample no Context Total N [%] Total C [%] Total H [%]

LNG 01 12 0.128 0.508 0.004

LNG 03 14 0.249 1.438 2.113

LNG 04 14 0.114 0.443 2.684

LNG 05 15 0.156 0.837 2.623

LNG 06 15 0.187 1.034 2.690

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SEM-EDS analysis of white residues Clare Wilson As organic analysis of samples of the crumbly white residue from the cist had proven LQFRQFOXVLYH VHHäREHUO (YHUVKHGDERYH ÀYH of the same samples were analysed using SEM- EDS with the aim of determining their inorganic chemistry. The samples analysed were from context 12 (LNG 02), context 14 (LNG 03 and 04) and context 15 (LNG 05 and 06). As the analysis was performed on non-

0.72 polished samples, all results have been normalised to 100%. Four point analyses were taken from across the surface of each sample and the mean of the results calculated. 7KH ZKLWH UHVLGXH LQ DOO ÀYH VDPSOHV ZDV shown to be highly crystalline (illus 23a). The chemistry is shown in Table 7. 1.86 3.77 13.5 The C/O ratio of all samples suggests they are carbonates. The high concentrations of calcium, phosphate and sulphur indicate these carbonates originate from the decay of the body rather than being naturally occurring soil minerals. The white residue, therefore, appears to be the product of bone recrystallisation producing carbonates and phosphates derived from bone apatite. 8.37 6.03 16.65 ,Q VDPSOH /1*  FRQWH[W  ÀEUHV DUH visible running through some fragments of the white residue. Under the SEM these are

54.0 FOHDUO\LGHQWLÀDEOHDVKDLUÀEUHV LOOXVE ZLWK diameters ranging from 20–80μm. Although it is QRWSRVVLEOHWRJLYHDFRQÀGHQWLGHQWLÀFDWLRQRI

10.5 52.4 9.53 4.95 20.6 0.22 1.79 10.5 52.4 0.50 9.53 4.95 2.00 20.6 22.6 50.0 0.05 5.47 5.55 6.33 13.0 11.4 53.1 8.81 4.41 15.9 13.1 0.19 2.81 23.6 49.8 3.44 8.64 1.61 5.31 13.4 35.9 36.6 1.5 DQLPDO VSHFLHV IURP 6(0 LPDJHV WKHVH ÀEUHV are not inconsistent with cattle hide (P Walton Rogers pers comm).

Crystalline deposit from the cist wall Lyn Wilson An undulating, white crystalline deposit was

7 observed on the walls of the cist. A sample of this was subjected to X-ray diffraction analysis. LNG 03 LNG 14 04 LNG 14 05 LNG 15 05 LNG 15 Table SEM-EDS results Sample 02 Context LNG C 12 O Weight P % S Ca Al Si Fe N LNG 06 LNG 15  ÀEUHVKDLU The major mineral present in the sample was calcium carbonate (calcite), derived from bone. Minor amounts of quartz, feldspar and clay (illite) were also detected. These are normal components of rock weathering, commonly found in sediment.

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The deposit appears to consist of calcite that ‡ 9LVXDODVVHVVPHQWXVLQJDORZSRZHUELQRFXODU had leached out of the bones during periods of microscope to assess texture, colour, basic ZDWHUORJJLQJ DQG ÁRRGLQJ DQG UHPDLQHG DV D mineralogy and the presence of coatings and residue on the walls when water levels dropped. cements, and to establish the likely value of further analyses; Bulk soils analysis ‡ 6RLOS+WRDQVZHUTXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHQDWXUH Clare Wilson of preservation and loss of evidence; A suite of geochemical analysis was carried ‡ 7RWDOVRLOSKRVSKDWHWRWHVWIRUDVLJQDWXUHRI out on 16 soil samples from the disturbed and the decomposition of the body; undisturbed deposits in the cist, in search of ‡ /RVVRQLJQLWLRQWRPHDVXUHWKHSURSRUWLRQ information on processes of decomposition and of organic matter in the soil as a pointer to post-burial conditions in the cist. The analyses the possible presence of decomposed organic consisted of: residues from the body or other materials;

Table 8 Results of the laboratory analyses on the soils

pH % Loss % volume Total P Sample Magnetic on

ID Context Water CaCl2 susceptibility ignition Clay Silt Sand P mg/kg

09 15 5.80 5.22 0003 7.8 4.2 62.0 33.8 1247

12 14 5.41 5.01 0010 1.8 2.5 40.4 57.1 6438

14 13 4.80 4.44 0009 1.3 2.1 36.9 61.0 116

15 17 5.63 5.10 0009 4.1 3.1 51.7 45.2 649

16 12 6.21 5.22 0008 3.6 2.2 37.9 60.0 1872

17 12 5.75 5.63 0007 4.0 1.4 25.4 73.2 2147

26 11 5.36 5.45 0009 2.4 3.4 52.9 43.7 1449

35 18 5.21 4.88 0010 1.5 2.7 44.3 53.0 884

37 16 6.07 6.09 0001 7.0 1.7 36.8 61.5 1280

46 22 5.57 4.93 0003 1.8 1.6 35.4 62.9 1341

50 22 5.81 5.37 0006 1.6 1.6 28.4 70.0 3013

51 19 5.94 5.46 0009 8.3 1.2 24.8 74.1 6277

52 19 6.27 5.65 0007 6.6 2.6 46.6 50.8 2998

54 19 6.05 5.70 0005 5.7 1.8 22.7 75.6 2731

55 22 5.94 5.42 0006 2.3 1.3 17.0 81.7 2181

56 19 5.93 5.41 0008 5.8 1.3 88.8 9.9 1946

Lelong, O.indd 102 22/11/2015 13:29 WRAPPINGS OF POWER: A WOMAN’S BURIAL IN CATTLE HIDE AT STRATH OYKELS | 103 1.5 5.2 884 2.7 53 Material laid with burial

9 10 1.3 1.8 1 4.8 5.4 7.0 116 6438 6.1 2.1 2.5 1280 61 1.7 57.1 Material laid with burial 61.5 Material laid over burial on S Burial matrix with decayed bone

9 14 12 15 16 9 37 17 18 15 35 C C 3 R, C 9 7.8 5.8 4.1 1247 5.6 649 4.2 3.1 33.8 45.2 Burial matrix with decayed bone burial matrix Organic rich Table to context Bulk soil results according Context Mag Sample Roots/ numbers charcoal 11 sus. 12 26 13 % OM 16, 17 14 pH C R, C 8, 7 9 P mg/kg 3.6, 4 % clay 2.4 5.8, 6.2 1872, 2147 % sand 5.4 1.4, 2.2 1449 Context description 60, 73.2 3.4 Organic rich burial matrix 43.7 with burial Material laid 19 51, 52, 54, 22 R, C 56 9, 7, 5, 8 46, 50, 55 8.3, 6.6, R, C 5.9, 6.3, 3, 6, 6 2998, 6277, 1.2, 2.6, 1.8, 1.8, 1.6, 50.8, 74.1, 5.6, 5.8, 2.3 1341, 3013, Stained burial matrix 1.6, 1.6, 1.3 5.9 5.7, 5.8 62.9, 70, 81.7 2181 Stained subsoil 6.1, 5.9 2731, 1946 1.3 75.6, 9.9

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‡ 1RQGHVWUXFWLYHPLFURHOHPHQWDODQDO\VLV factors (Millard 1998; Smith et al 2007). Intrinsic (SEM-EDX) to establish the nature of factors include the nature of the bone itself (size, mineralised deposits, pigments and soil stains, porosity, composition), while extrinsic factors as well as identify the presence of organic include the burial environment, biological activity remains, and and chemical soil properties. Three potential ‡ 0DJQHWLFVXVFHSWLELOLW\DQDO\VLVWRWHVWIRU pathways of bone degradation are possible: (1) evidence of heating of the soil. chemical degradation of the organic fraction; (2) chemical degradation of the bone mineral, and The soils in and around Langwell Farm are (3) biodegradation (Kars et al 2004). Pathways 1 mapped by the Soil Survey of Scotland (1982) DQG  DOVR LQÁXHQFH WKH GHJUDGDWLRQ RI RUJDQLF as peaty gleys and peaty podzols belonging to materials. the Arkaig soil association. They are formed on Biological factors of decomposition are stony till deposits derived from schists, gneisses, perhaps the least well understood and the most granulites and quartzites, principally of the Moine GLIÀFXOW WR DVVHVV 7KH RQO\ IDFWRU FRQVLGHUHG Series. The natural pH of these soils today would in this report is the presence of plant roots be expected to be extremely acidic, and hence VXUYLYLQJLQWKHVRLOVDPSOHV5RRWVFDQLQÁXHQFH bone and organic matter preservation in such soils preservation through physical disturbance of could be expected to be poor. The location of the remains, the gradual opening of access routes cist on a low rise but close to the River Oykel into the grave for other organisms, the localised indicates that it may at times have been subject to secretion of plant acids and through priming JURXQGZDWHULQÁXHQFHV effects, whereby readily decomposable fresh Sub-samples taken from 16 samples from organic matter increases microbial activity – and 10 contexts were air-dried and sieved to 2mm. in turn increases the rate of turnover of older, less Visual assessment of the soils established they digestible organic molecules. The presence of were greyish brown and olive in colour. Samples rootlets was particularly noted in contexts 12, 18, that stood out as different were samples 46, 50 19 and 22, representing almost the full range of and 55 (context 22 from the stained sub-soil), contexts (burial matrices, material laid with the which were generally coarser in texture than the burial and stained subsoil) and suggesting there others, and sample 56 (context 19, the greasy was no preferential rooting into organic-rich deposit from beneath the bones), which contained contexts. Root-mediated degradation, therefore, many bone fragments. A number of samples also was likely to be highly localised and relate to contained white friable material. Evidence of rooting patterns and access points into the cist. biological disturbance was generally low, though Bone and organic matter survival is generally root fragments were noted in samples 16, 35, 55 promoted by poorly drained, neutral or alkaline and 56 from contexts 12, 18, 19 and 22. Magnetic and oxygen-poor soil conditions. The local soil susceptibility measurements (Table 8) of between conditions at Langwell Farm are likely to have 1 and 10 (unit less) made during the visual been highly acidic (pH 3.5–4.5). However, with examination indicated moderate enhancement the exception of sample 14, context 13, the soil at a level consistent with anthropogenically S+UHFRUGHGLQWKHFLVWZDVVLJQLÀFDQWO\KLJKHU PRGLÀHG VRLOV EXW QRW RI WKH RUGHU WKDW ZRXOG than pH 4.5. The local geology is dominated by EHH[SHFWHGIURPVLJQLÀFDQWEXUQWVRLOUHVLGXHV gneiss, schist and quartzite, which are acidic/ Magnetic susceptibility levels were also felsic or intermediate in their nature, and hence relatively consistent between samples, revealing soils formed on them under conditions of high no clear patterning according to the nature of the rainfall and free drainage tend also to be naturally deposit or the presence of charcoal (Table 9), so acidic. However, the very low pH of the soils in the decision was made not to proceed with more the area today is in part due to the accumulation detailed magnetic measurements. of peat, which releases organic acids. The onset of The preservation of bone and organic remains blanket peat development is linked to excessive is determined by both intrinsic and extrinsic soil wetness and/or soil acidity. A radiocarbon

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date from Area B at Langwell (see below) matter is unclear. It is possible the white or creamy indicates that peat did not begin to form locally crumbly material may in fact have been organic in until 2535 ± 30 bp (800–540 cal bc). The cist was nature and this was lost following combustion, a cut into a mineral soil (context 2) and capped by a possibility supported by the results of SEM-EDS mineral deposit (context 9). The depth of the cut analysis (see C Wilson, above). into less heavily leached soil also suggests that The formation of adipocere has been observed the soil pH at the time of burial may have been under a range of soil and burial conditions. Forbes higher than the modern surrounding soil acidity et al (2005b) suggest adipocere is most easily suggests. formed under moist, anaerobic soil conditions Soil pH adjusts relatively rapidly and the pH and is retarded in highly acidic or alkaline soils. of the subsoil at the time of burial is likely to However, adipocere can also form in free-draining have been between pH 4.5 and pH 6. The capping sandy soils if they are moist (Forbes et al 2005a), of the cist would have subsequently protected and adipocere deposits have been found to be the burial environment from further leaching VWDEOHXQGHUÁXFWXDWLQJJURXQGZDWHUFRQGLWLRQV DQG DFLGLÀFDWLRQ DQG GHSHQGLQJ RQ WKH ODWHUDO having formed in anaerobic saturated conditions movement of soil water locally, may have helped following burial (Fiedler et al 2009). WRSURWHFWDJDLQVWDFLGLÀFDWLRQIURPWKHRUJDQLF Phosphorous (P) occurs in soils in oxidised acids of the peat. The pH range of the soils from phosphatic forms; it is released from the body the cist was between 4.8 and 6.3, or moderately and bone via decomposition and is mineralised acid and neutral, the result of alteration of the by the actions of soil microbes. These inorganic burial environment and the buffering of the soil phosphates are predominantly immobilised acidity. In the relatively protected environment in the soil through sorption to clay, Fe and Al of the cist, this represents a movement towards minerals. The clay content of the soils from the quasi-equilibrium, more conducive to bone /DQJZHOO )DUP FLVW YDULHV EXW LV VXIÀFLHQW WR preservation than the local modern soils would ELQGZLWKDWOHDVWDVLJQLÀFDQWSURSRUWLRQRIWKH suggest. mineralised phosphate, and P concentrations The loss-on-ignition values of around 1.3– are consistent with those from other grave sites 2.4% in contexts not in direct contact with the (eg Crowther 1997). As would be expected, body (contexts 11, 13 and 14) give a background phosphorous concentrations were highest in value for organic matter in the soils derived largely those deposits (contexts 12, 15, 16 and 19) that from the root fragments. The organic content of were in direct contact with the body. Context 22 the subsoil (context 22) below the burial matrix (directly beneath the body) and context 14 (partly (context 19) was also low, suggesting limited overlying it) also show enhanced phosphorous vertical translocation of organic matter. The levels, indicating the vertical movement of contexts with the highest loss-on-ignition values phosphorus in both directions. As these contexts are those thought to contain quantities of decayed contained low organic matter levels, the inference bone (contexts 15 and 16). Low temperature is that this movement has occurred with the combustion was chosen for this analysis (400°C) phosphate in mineral form. However, the pattern because the mineral content of bone and bone does not suggest heavy leaching of the soils but recrystallisation products should be stable at such more localised redistribution, consistent with low temperatures (Person et al 1996). The loss in occasional waterlogging from groundwater. mass of these soil materials therefore suggests that An increase in soil pH associated with bone WKHVHFRQWH[WVGRFRQWDLQVLJQLÀFDQWTXDQWLWLHVRI decomposition – and inferred from the elevated organic remains, more than was found in those pH within the cist – could result in the release of P deposits that clearly contained humic or organic bound to Fe and Al minerals and its redistribution remains (contexts 12 and 17). As the bone in in the soil water before binding to clay minerals these deposits appears to be strongly degraded, it (Holliday & Gartner 2007). is likely the organic bone components had already Waterlogged conditions (particularly in been lost. The source of this additional organic deposits rich in organic matter) can rapidly become

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anoxic and inhibit microbial decay processes. suggesting more freely draining conditions However, alternating wet and dry conditions are predominate. The topographic position of the generally viewed as being particularly damaging, VLWHGRHVDOORZIRUWKLVDSSDUHQWFRQÁLFWWKURXJK as the equilibria between the grave materials WKH LQÁXHQFH RI JURXQGZDWHUV 2FFDVLRQDO and the burial materials is constantly shifting, periods of waterlogging and anaerobism could resulting in degradation (Hopkins 1998). KHOSH[SODLQWKHFRQÁLFWLQJVRLOFRORXUVDVZHOO Without examining the soils in situ, the as the movement of P into deposits above as well drainage conditions are harder to infer; both as below the body. If waterlogging occurred gley (poorly drained) and podzol (freely soon after burial, it would also have provided drained) soils are found locally. The soils conditions conducive to adipocere formation. ORFDOO\FRQWDLQDVLJQLÀFDQWSURSRUWLRQRIFRDUVH 1R VLJQLÀFDQW VWDWLVWLFDO FRUUHODWLRQV (> 0.06mm) grain sizes and the soil samples were found between the soil properties of pH, tend to have a greyish colouration, indicating clay and loss-on-ignition – which relate to anoxic or waterlogged conditions. However, the preservation conditions – and phosphate and surrounding local soils into which the cist was magnetic susceptibility – which are indicators cut were yellow and orange sands and gravels, RI DQWKURSRJHQLF LQÁXHQFH DQG GHFRPSRVLWLRQ

Table 10 Samples analysed and discussed in the report

Sample Original ID Context sample no Description and location

01 16 37 Yellow-white crumbly deposit in chest area

02 12 16 Reddish-brown crumbly deposit across centre of cist

03 19 52 Undisturbed greasy black sediment under in situ bones,     VSHFLÀFDOO\DEGRPLQDODUHD

04 15 9 Creamy white crumbly deposit in head area

05 17 15 Dark brown crumbly deposit west of head

Table 11 Elemental abundances in < 200 mm soil fraction from Langwell Farm

Sample no Context %N %C %H %S %O

01 16 0.54 5.29 2.05 0.08 4.25

02 12 0.29 3.05 0.94 0.00 2.92

03 19 0.68 6.15 1.27 0.07 4.47

04 15 0.26 3.28 1.88 0.05 2.09

05 17 0.21 2.60 0.85 0.00 2.03

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Table 12 Atomic elemental abundances and elemental ratios in < 200μmm soil fraction from Langwell Farm

Sample Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic no Context N C H O H/C O/C H/N N/C

01 16 3.88 44.04 203.30 26.55 4.62 0.60 52.39 0.088

02 12 2.07 25.44 93.00 18.25 3.66 0.72 44.91 0.081

03 19 4.84 51.21 125.55 27.94 2.45 0.55 25.92 0.095

04 15 1.87 27.36 186.24 13.09 6.81 0.48 99.80 0.068

05 17 1.48 21.71 84.39 12.70 3.89 0.59 56.99 0.068

7KLV VXJJHVWV WKH DQWKURSRJHQLF LQÁXHQFH mineral subsoils into which the cist was cut is and decomposition were independent of original likely to have been weakly acid to neutral and, soil conditions and that the burial environment in although the sandy subsoils are relatively free- the cist, and subsequent pattern of preservation, GUDLQLQJJURXQGZDWHULQÁXHQFHVDVDUHVXOWRIWKH was a function of the equilibria approached topographic position of the site may have resulted between the soil conditions and the decaying in anaerobic conditions during at least part of body. its history. Occasional episodes of waterlogging In conclusion, the interpretation of burial and anaerobism are indicated by the vertical conditions from those that exist today is always movement of phosphate and the grey colouration GLIÀFXOW DV PDQ\ RI WKH NH\ HQYLURQPHQWDO of the soils. The high loss-on-ignition values factors can be highly dynamic. However, based for contexts 15 and 16 suggest these contain on examination of the deposits and what we know VLJQLÀFDQWTXDQWLWLHVRIDQRUJDQLFPDWHULDOUDWKHU about soils and soil development in the area, we than mineral bone deposits. can suggest that the burial environment is likely to have been a little less detrimental to bone and organic matter preservation than the modern local soils in the area would indicate. Soil pH in the Table 14 Several R groups present in triacylglycerols

Carbon number: degree of Table 13 R = Abbreviation unsaturation Relative responses for pyrolysis GC analysis of Langwell Farm soils Myristic M C14:0 Palmitic P C16:0 Sample ID Context Peak area/mV normalised to TOC Palmitoleic Po C16:1

01 16 568 Margaric Ma C17:0

02 12 229 Heptadecenoic Mo C17:1

03 19 488 Stearic S C18:0

04 15 609 Oleic O C18:1

05 17 77 Linoleic L C18:2

Lelong, O.indd 107 22/11/2015 13:29 108 | SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, 2014 a ) P* 8 OH 10 4.1 × Total ( response * OH * SPS * PPS* PMa * PPS*

OH OH 71.4 75.5 3.4 4.6 10.8 7.2 188.17 7.2 4.6 10.8 0.9 8.4 0.9 * SPO* SPS SPO

*+ OH OH P* PSP OH 3.1 8.0 3.1 * OMP* PPP PPP PMaP* PPMa* 9.7 134.33 9.7 OH 5.2 1.3 1.3 5.2 1.4

16 19 14.9 3.1 2.6 7.6 0.5 0.9 10.5 17 0.5 1.0 1.7 SPMa* SMaP* SMaP* PS Context PMMa* MPP Context PMMa*

15 5.8 2.0 5.8 PPS 11.0 63.22 SMaP* 16.8 0.9 5.3 05 Table and total response for 09 and 11 Percentage TAG composition Sample 01 03

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Table 16 Bulk percentage fatty acid composition of the TAGs

Sample Context M P Po Ma Mo S O L P/S ratio

01 16 1.7 58.7 0 4.1 0 30 5.4 0 2

05 17 0.5 61.6 0 4.5 0 29.8 3.7 0 2.1

03 19 3.6 48.5 1.9 18.4 1.4 16.4 6.3 3.6 3

Analysis of soil organic matter ‡ 3\URO\VLVJDVFKURPDWRJUDSK\WRDVVHVVWKH nature of the non-extractable organic matter in B J Keely, M D Pickering and A P Pinder the soil, complementing the GC- and LC-based A suite of analyses was carried out on soil organic applications. PDWWHULQÀYHRIWKHVDPSOHVIURPWKHFLVWLQWHULRU that were also subjected to inorganic soils analysis Elemental analysis established that the total (C Wilson, above), from deposits that lay around organic carbon (TOC) contents (%C) of the and beneath the body (see Table 10). Langwell Farm samples indicate an organic-rich The analyses were carried out to test for soil, with three of the samples having very similar signatures of the body and of any materials that levels and two having appreciably higher TOC (01 were placed with it. They consisted of: and 03) (see Table 11). Percentage abundances were converted to atomic abundances for the ‡ 0HDVXUHPHQWRIHOHPHQWV FDUERQK\GURJHQ computation of key element ratios (Table 12). oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur) and of total The results of the other analyses are presented in organic carbon (TOC) content in order to Tables 13–17. differentiate types of organic matter and The sediments sampled from inside the identify the presence of proteinaceous organic cist contain appreciable levels of organic PDWWHUDQGFRQFHQWUDWLRQVRIVSHFLÀFRUJDQLF matter comprising a range of natural product- residues; derived organic residues, including complex ‡ *DVFKURPDWRJUDSK\ *&  WRVFUHHQVDPSOHV  structures. The distributions provide evidence and gas chromatography mass spectrometry of background signatures from vegetation, (GC-MS) (for more detailed analysis and together with material that is likely to originate LGHQWLÀFDWLRQ WRVHSDUDWHDQGLGHQWLI\H[WUDFW from a decomposing body. The more complex able organic residues, which can provide components, including triacylglycerols (TAGs, important indicators of the origins and or fats which comprise a glycerol moiety bonded preservation status of organic matter in the soil, to three fatty acid molecules) and most likely including signatures from the body, material peptides, indicate the preservation of signatures added to the body and materials placed in the that relate to the body and/or organic matter grave; placed in the soil at the time of burial. The ‡ /LTXLGFKURPDWRJUDSK\ /&  WRVFUHHQ variations in the distributions indicate that these samples), liquid chromatography mass signatures, though challenging to interpret, may spectrometry (LC-MS) and high perform- provide clues as to the nature of the remains ance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (for which were placed in the burial environment. The more detailed analysis and identification) PRVW VLJQLÀFDQW GLIIHUHQFHV LQ RUJDQLF PDWWHU to separate and identify different extractable content are apparent for sample 05 (context 17, organic residues than those determined in the upper head area), which shows higher by GC-MS, including lipids and amino lipid-derived contributions to the organic matter, acids. and sample 03 (context 19, below the abdomen),

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which shows the most marked difference in TAG distribution accompanied by considerably higher signatures of fatty acids, likely to be 12.0 539.6 derived from the body decomposition.

Discussion of the soils and organic residue analyses

Analysis of sediments and residues from the cist returned varying results (see Table 18). n (TOC). Asp = aspartic The bulk soils analysis established that resolved complex mixture

, Ala = alanine, Pro proline, anaerobic conditions had prevailed at least periodically, with episodes of waterlogging evident; this explains the preservation of some 1.2 5.1 5.2 40.6 0.6 0.1 1.2 1.8 0.9 4.6 5.7 35.9 2.1 0.5 2.4 3.1 26.5 1.5 RUJDQLFPDWHULDOV &:LOVRQDERYH ,WLGHQWLÀHG high organic content in disturbed deposits from 14.3 42.9 3.6 42.9 14.3 the head and thoracic areas that derived from something other than bone, and high phosphorous

but low organic content in those contexts that were in direct contact with the body. Rising and falling water levels in the cist are also evident in the white crystalline deposit on the cist walls, which

0.6 X-ray diffraction established represent calcite that leached from the bones (L Wilson, above). 7KHDQDO\VLVRIRUJDQLFPDWWHULQÀYHVDPSOHV (also subjected to inorganic soils analysis) from disturbed and undisturbed burial matrices found signatures deriving from plant matter 2.2 2.0 1.7 0.9 2.2 2.0 1.5 0.9 0.4 3.2 1.5 in all contexts, and degradation products from animal fats or plant oils in deposits associated ZLWK WKH KHDG DQG DEGRPHQ ,W DOVR LGHQWLÀHG

signatures from the decomposition of the body, especially in the undisturbed burial matrix below the abdomen (Keely et al, above). However, organic residue analysis and elemental analysis of six separate samples returned quite different UHVXOWV ÀQGLQJ DQ DOPRVW FRPSOHWH DEVHQFH RI /g TOC) TOC) /g

μg preserved organic molecules (Šoberl & Evershed, DERYH  ([DPLQDWLRQ WKURXJK 6(0('6 RI ÀYH of these samples found that the white material in contexts 12, 14 and 15 was the product of bone UHFU\VWDOOLVDWLRQRUERQHDSDWLWHDQGWKDWÀEUHV were present around the head area (context 15). Small, discrete deposits of greasy white material 48.8 (UCM) 2.7 5.9 3.7 0.9 2.5 3.5 0.5 2.2 3.1 1.7 0.5 1.3 0.2 2.2 2.3 0.2 0.8 0.6 0.1 1.0 0.5 0.4 1.9 4.6 4.0 0.8 1.2 1.7 1.3 3.5 3.0 0.3 2.0 1.5 Asp Glu Hpro Ser His Gly Thr Arg Ala Pro Tyr Val Met Pro Ile Phe Lys Leu Ala Tyr Thr Arg Gly His Ser Hpro Totals Glu Asp found lying directly on and beside the in situ pelvis (context 23) could not be analysed, as the quantities were too small.

17 In conclusion, the periodic waterlogging of the cist created conditions conducive to the survival Tyr = tyrosine, Val valine, Met methionine, Ile isoleucine, Leu leucine, Phe phenylalanine, Lys lysine. UCM an un encompassing the components shaded in grey. A sum was taken of abundances coeluting species Amino acid abundance ( abundance Table acid Amino Abundances of amino acids released on hydrolysis soil samples from Langwell Farm, normalised to grams total organic carbo acid, Glu = glutamic Hpro hydroxyproline, Ser serine, His histidine, Gly glycine, Thr threonine, Arg arginine Sample 01 02 03 04 05 RIZRRGERQHDQGÀEUHVDQGSRVVLEO\DOVRWRWKH

Lelong, O.indd 110 22/11/2015 13:29 WRAPPINGS OF POWER: A WOMAN’S BURIAL IN CATTLE HIDE AT STRATH OYKELS | 111 DOVRFRQWDLQHGKDLUÀEUHV QGIURPVRXUFHRWKHUWKDQ Almost complete absence of organic molecules Almost complete absence and TAGs possibly due to contamination Higher abundance of MAGs 1RVLJQLÀFDQWEXUQWVRLOUHVLGXHVRUPDJQHWLFSDWWHUQLQJ Rootlets in most contexts Moderately acid to neutral pHs 6LJQLÀFDQWDPRXQWVRIRUJDQLFPDWHULDOLQGLFDWHGE\/2,LQD bone contexts 12, 15, 16, 19 High phosphorous but low organic matter in and decaying body through periodic Preservation due to equilibria between soil conditions waterlogging especially in context 17 (upper head area) High lipid-derived contributions to organic matter 15, 16, 19 Plant-derived matter in all contexts, especially fats or plant oils in contexts 17 and 19 Degradation products of TAGs from animal Vegetal input evident in contexts 12, 17, 19 abdomen), possibly from degradation of body Increased bacterial activity evident in 19 (below tissues in all contexts, especially 15 (lower head area) Amino acids from proteinaceous organic matter FDUERQDWHVDQGSKRVSKDWHVGHULYHGIURPERQHDSDWLWHFRQWH[W Organic residue amounts of lipids Only trace Bulk soilsdisturbance Little evidence of biological Organic soils Organic-rich soils X-ray diffraction bones by waterlogging 6B was calcium carbonate, leached from Context SEM-EDS of bone recrystallisation producing contexts 12, 14 and 15 was product White material in 18 Contexts analysed cist wall 6B: white concretion on of cist 12: disturbed matrix, centre 13: disturbed matrix, SE corner 14: disturbed upper deposit, area 15: disturbed matrix, head area 16: disturbed matrix, chest of head area 17: disturbed matrix west Analysis18: grey clay silt, SE corner burial matrix 19: undisturbed lower 22: stained subsoil beneath burial Results Table analyses soils and organic residue of the results of the Comparison

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formation of adipocere, although none could be about 5m to the south, which was investigated in GHÀQLWLYHO\LGHQWLÀHGDPRQJWKHUHVLGXHV0RUH a small trench (Area B, illus 1 and 4). Removing VSHFLÀFELRFKHPLFDOLQIRUPDWLRQDSSHDUVWRKDYH the overlying peat revealed a curvilinear stone been lost to complex post-depositional processes feature (25) that extended north-eastward for and events, including waterlogging, desiccation 1.4m from the south edge of the trench, then and disturbance. turned to run north for a farther 1.3m before disappearing into the north baulk (illus 24). Along most of its length it was built of large, THE STONE FEATURE IN AREA B subangular stones up to 0.4m across, lying in a diffuse line along the southern portion, but The peat stripping operation that revealed the side by side along the northern stretch. The cist also dislodged four large slabs in an area northernmost 0.5m of the feature comprised

Illus 24 Plan of the stone feature in Area B

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Illus 25 Section across the stone feature in Area B

much smaller, angular stones. It is not clear &DUERQL]HGSODQWUHPDLQV whether the slabs that the mechanical excavator displaced originally formed part of it and, if so, Susan Ramsay LQZKDWFRQÀJXUDWLRQ A bulk sample from the old ground surface The stone feature had been constructed on (context 27) that pre-dated the stone feature D JURXQG VXUIDFH UHSUHVHQWHG E\ ÀUP OLJKW was analysed for the presence of any carbonized brown, stony sandy silt (context 27), the base of remains. Birch and heather-type charcoal, present which was iron-panned above the sandy gravel in small quantities, may derive from the surface subsoil (illus 25). On the east, the feature rested vegetation that existed before the feature was on sticky black clay (context 29), the base of built. The charcoal evidence suggests that the which was even more heavily iron-panned above local vegetation had been burned at least once, if the subsoil. The stone feature curved around not many times. the eastern end of the slight ridge that the cist occupies, and the early ground surface (27) 3HDWSURÀOH beneath it sloped down to the east, towards an In August 2009, a bulk sample was taken from area that is now marshy. the basal peat overlying the natural clay in the A radiocarbon date from birch charcoal vicinity of the cist (see illus 4 for location). Small sealed beneath the stone feature shows that fragments of birch charcoal were recovered from it was constructed after 1680–1510 cal bc this sample, which probably derive from the 68(5& DW  FRQÀGHQFH  7KH burning of local vegetation either before or during presence of the peat and heavy iron pan to initial peat formation. the east suggests that when it was built, it marked the transition from boggy to better-drained ground. RADIOCARBON DATES Where the feature was investigated in section, it proved originally to have stood two The source samples for the 10 carbon14 dates were courses high. The upper course had slipped off selected to provide a chronology for activity at WRUHVWRQDODWHUFKDUFRDOÁHFNHGVLOW\JURXQG the site and for the sequence and duration of the surface (context 26) that formed after it was burial. In order to ensure a large enough sample of built (illus 25). Several patches of yellow- the cattle hide for AMS dating, all of the available orange coarse sand (context 30), interpreted ÀEUHV ZHUH VHQW WR WKH 6FRWWLVK 8QLYHUVLWLHV as redeposited subsoil, lay on this later ground Environmental Research Centre in East Kilbride; surface, sealed beneath the peat that began specialist analysis of the material had established WR IRUP LQ WKH PLG ÀUVW PLOOHQQLXP bc (see ZLWKFRQÀGHQFHWKDWWKHÀEUHVDOOGHULYHGIURPD below). single animal (Walton Rogers, above).

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Illus 26 Strath Oykel and the location of the cist, from the north

Illus 27 The cist during excavation, after removal of the contents

Lelong, O.indd 114 22/11/2015 13:29 WRAPPINGS OF POWER: A WOMAN’S BURIAL IN CATTLE HIDE AT STRATH OYKELS | 115 13 C δ –27.8‰ –27.1‰ –26.3‰ –25.7‰ –21.1‰ –21.4‰ –25.0‰ –27.4‰ –25.4‰ –26.7‰ bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc ad Calibrated 800–540 380–540 1680–1510 2470–2230 2200–1960 2130–1880 2130–1890 2030–1880 2040–1880 2470–2200 2 sigma (95.4%) bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc bc ad 800–590 400–540 1625–1530 2460–2300 2140–2030 2030–1930 2030–1945 2020–1900 2025–1925 2460–2240 1 sigma (68.2%) Uncal Calibrated 2535 ± 30 1615 ± 30 3310 ± 30 3880 ± 30 3860 ± 30 Depositional context URXJKSHDW$OOZHUHFDOLEUDWHGXVLQJ2[FDOY From 90–91cm in peat monolith, test pit 2 From 50–51cm in peat monolith, test pit 2 beneath stone feature 25 LQEDFNÀOOGXULQJEXULDO in cist during burial 4 Residual charcoal incorporated 12 with burial Contemporary 30 ± 3625 27 From ground surface sealed 12 with burial Contemporary 30 ± 3595 19 Residual charcoal incorporated Sk1 The burialSk1 The burial 3690 ± 35 3615 ± 35 Peat monolith monolith leaves ÀEXODUVKDIW Human right ulna shaft Corylus Betula Corylus sylvestris sylvestris SUERC-32861 Monocot stems/ SUERC-32860 Eriophorum Peat SUERC-32859 Charcoal: SUERC-24680 Bone: Human right SUERC-33918 Bone: SUERC-32865 Wood: SUERC-32348 Hair: Cattle hide 12+ Contemporary with burial30 ± 3610 SUERC-32866 Wood: SUERC-32858 Charcoal: Pinus SUERC-32857 Charcoal: Pinus 19 Site Sample Material Context Description of Oykel Langwell Farm, Strath Table $06GDWHVIURPWKH/DQJZHOO)DUPFLVW$UHD%DQGWKHSURÀOHWK

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Two differing radiocarbon dates were sustained activity relating to settlement in the obtained from the human bone (SUERC-24680 vicinity, it could equally derive from a single event and SUERC-33918 above). Although there are VXFKDVDÀUHWKDWZDVWKHIRFXVRIDFDPSRURQH discrepancies of 70 and 80 years at the earlier and set to clear vegetation. Carbonized heathland and later ends of the calibrated ranges respectively, the JUDVVODQGSODQWUHPDLQVLQWKHFLVWÀOOVGRVXJJHVW two dates overlap by 170 years and the difference that vegetation was cleared by burning, sometime EHWZHHQWKHPLVQRWVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLÀFDQW7KH before the cist was built, but the large, unrolled later date corresponds closely to the dates obtained SLHFH RI FKDUFRDO SRLQWV WR D FRQWDLQHG ÀUH WKDW from cattle hide and wood that were placed with burned more substantial pieces of wood. the body, so the animal and woman both appear to Between 200 and 500 years later, in the late have died around the same time that the wood was third or early second millennium bc, people chose IHOOHG +RZHYHU WKLQ VHFWLRQ DQDO\VLV GLG ÀQG this spot for a burial. They began by digging a evidence for arrested microbial attack on the bone large, oval pit and hauling slabs to it which had (Booth, above). While this could be due to the been quarried from an outcrop or river bed; waterlogged conditions in the cist, it could also the visible surfaces were weathered or water- suggest that the woman had been dead and her worn. They excavated the sides of the pit to body prevented from decaying for a time before DFFRPPRGDWHVODEVRIGLIIHUHQWKHLJKWVDQGÀWWHG she was buried. If she had been dead for several them together to make a large box with a level months when burial took place, this would not be top, pinning the corners with angular stones, apparent in the calibrated ranges. FUDIWLQJDVROLGDQGZHOOÀQLVKHGVWUXFWXUH LOOXV  7KH\EDFNÀOOHGWKHSLWDURXQGLWZLWKVRPH of the subsoil they had dug out. In digging the DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS OF THE pit, they disturbed the spread of charcoal from EXCAVATION AND POST-EXCAVATION WKHHDUOLHUÀUH V VRPHRILWIHOOLQWRWKHFLVWDQG INVESTIGATIONS VRPHEHFDPHPL[HGZLWKWKHEDFNÀOO They took the body of a woman who had Olivia Lelong died in her late 20s, at some point between 2200 and 1880 cal bc, and wrapped it in the hide of The sequence of events a brown cow or bull, with the long edges of the The disturbance of the cist at Langwell Farm by hide together at her back so that it enclosed her police and the removal of some of its contents like an envelope. She had been of gracile build, limit comprehension of the burial rite to some and a period of physiological stress during extent. However, the excavation of what remained childhood, such as malnutrition or anaemia, had in situ and the specialist analyses of the contents OHIWÀQHOLQHVLQKHUWHHWK6WDEOHLVRWRSHVLQKHU have illuminated considerably what took place bones and teeth indicate that she probably grew there in the third and second millennia bc, as well up in eastern Sutherland and that she ate abundant as conditions inside the cist and around it after the animal protein (meat, eggs and dairy products) burial took place. DQGSHUKDSVVRPHIUHVKZDWHUÀVKEXWOLWWOHRUQR 7KHÀUVWGDWHGHYLGHQFHGHULYHVIURPDFWLYLW\ RFHDQÀVKRUVKHOOÀVK during the mid- to late third millennium bc, when She was placed in the cist on her left side DWOHDVWRQHÀUHEXUQHGRQRUQHDUWKLVVOLJKWULVH LQDÁH[HGSRVLWLRQZLWKKHUKHDGWRWKHQRUWK on low-lying ground by the River Oykel (illus west (illus 28). They may have bound her limbs  7KH6FRWVSLQHXVHGIRUWKHÀUHZDVIHOOHG to keep them in place inside the hide wrapping at some point between 2470 and 2200 cal bc. and, given the depth of the cist, they probably The large size of one of the dated pieces (SF25 ORZHUHGKHULQWRLWIURPDERYHKHUÁH[HGERG\ from context 19) suggests that it burned close to ZRXOG KDYH ÀWWHG VQXJO\ LQVLGH 7KH\ VHW VPDOO the spot where the cist was later built and that the stones along the edges of the hide at her feet and charcoal was not heavily trampled and dispersed back. A bark-bearing hazel stick at her knees in the intervening time. While it could indicate may have been placed there as part of the burial

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Illus 28 Reconstruction of the burial taking place, by David Hogg

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Illus 29 Reconstruction of the burial, showing two possible interpretations of the woven material (based on Harris, this report). By David Hogg

assemblage, or perhaps it was the remains of a could suggest they covered it with a cairn or bier on which she was carried. They put one or composite barrow-cairn of soil and stones, which more woven objects on or over the body. Two was eventually spread by ploughing and further possible interpretations of the woven material that truncated during peat stripping. The 9cm thick is visible in the photographs taken before police layer of sand and gravel recorded clinging to intervention (illus 2) are shown in illus 29; either the cap slab had been scraped by the mechanical version is plausible. excavator, and it may originally have been much Thin-section analysis of the bone found thicker. The ground was ploughed occasionally evidence for arrested microbial attack. This could during the late 20th century (Mr J Hampton pers be due to subsequent waterlogged conditions in comm), although rarely, due to its stoniness, and the cist, but the evidence is ambiguous and the the auger survey found a concentration of cobbles possibility remains that the body was curated immediately around the cist (Becket & Miller for a period after death, before burial. The mites 2009). Other barrows are known in the area, found in the cattle hide may have been feeding on including one in a small, linked river valley at the beast when it was slaughtered, or they may Corriemulzie Lodge (NMRS NH39NW 1), about have entered the cist on the bodies of burrowing 10km to the south-west, and another at Knock rodents such as wood mice, although there was no Dhu near Lairg, about 20km to the ENE (NMRS direct evidence for rodent disturbance. NC50NE 35). About 25 others are recorded The people conducting the burial dragged a DURXQGWKHÀUWKVRI0RUD\%HDXO\&URPDUW\DQG massive slab in place to cover the cist. It did not Dornoch to the south-east and south of Langwell DSSHDU WR KDYH EHHQ WULPPHG WR ÀW WKH FLVW DQG (information from NMRS). indeed was much larger than necessary to cover The ground around the cist was poorly drained it. They sealed the cist with sand and gravel DQG RFFDVLRQDOO\ ÁRRGHG ZKHQ WKH ULYHU ZDV LQ dug out from the alluvial subsoil; the evidence spate. Within a few months, before much decay

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could set into the contents, the ground water recent times. The rising and falling water leached level rose and saturated them, inhibiting bacterial calcium carbonate out of the bones and left it as activity. Flooding was probably a regular a crystalline residue on the cist walls, and also occurrence during the following four millennia, leached minerals from the sediments in the cist. until the land beside the river was improved and The distinctive white powdery substances, ÁRRGGHIHQFHVEXLOWGXULQJWKHODWHUWKFHQWXU\ visible in pre-disturbance photographs (illus 2), A few hundred years after the body was occurred in the disturbed burial matrix and were sealed inside the cist, there was more activity in IRXQGDGKHULQJWRERQHVZHUHDWÀUVWLQWHUSUHWHG WKHLPPHGLDWHYLFLQLW\LQYROYLQJÀUHDQGDEXLOW as products of decomposition of the body. Some feature. Charcoal that was scattered over the differences are apparent in the photographs; for ground a few metres to the south derived from example, the white material over the putative birch trees that were felled between 1680–1510 woven cap looks distinctly more yellowish cal bc. At some point afterwards, someone built than that over the face. As reported above, a curving stone feature around the south-east analysis of the bulk soils indicated high organic edge of the rise. It may originally have been a content in those sediments in which it was more substantial structure, which ploughing and most concentrated. The analysis of soil organic peat-stripping would later disperse. It seemed matter also found background signatures from to demarcate the higher, better drained ground vegetation, along with material that is likely to the west from low-lying ground to the east, to originate from the body, including higher where standing water eventually left minerals signatures of fatty acids in the undisturbed FRQFUHWHGRQWRWKHVXEVRLOVXUIDFH7KHÀUHDQG burial matrix, although some of these may derive the structure could relate to vegetation clearance from organic material placed with it. Organic and enclosure for agriculture and settlement, or residue analysis of a separate set of samples of to the later elaboration of a venerated site. By the some of the same sediments returned a result mid-second millennium bc, the cist and putative of low organic content. However, SEM-EDX barrow-cairn may have sat within a thoroughly analysis established that the same samples were managed and settled agricultural landscape – like recrystallised bone apatite, and the sample from the contemporary one revealed near Lairg, to FRQWH[WLQWKHKHDGDUHDFRQWDLQHGKDLUÀEUHV the north-east (McCullagh & Tipping 1998; see which could be bovine or human. Although this below). sample showed only minute traces of organic ,Q WKH HDUO\ WR PLGÀUVW PLOOHQQLXP bc, the material in the organic residue analysis, it local climate became wetter and cooler, and PD\ EH WKDW WKH ÀEUHV ZHUH QRW SUHVHQW LQ WKH between 800–540 cal bc peat began to form on very small sub-samples used in that method WKH ÁRRU RI WKH ULYHU YDOOH\ 7KHVH FRQGLWLRQV (C Wilson pers comm). These varying results FRQWLQXHGDWOHDVWXQWLOWKHPLGÀUVWPLOOHQQLXP could also mean that two or more materials of ad; a radiocarbon date shows that peat was still quite different character were so transformed forming in ad 380–540. As the peat above this and de-natured by post-depositional processes level was truncated, it is not clear how long it that they could no longer be differentiated, continued to accumulate after that. and the disturbance of the contents may have further blurred biochemical distinctions between deposits in different parts of the cist. 3RVWGHSRVLWLRQDOIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVHV Apparently similar white material was found During the centuries and millennia after the in a large cist inside a henge monument at cist was sealed, although water levels evidently Forteviot in Strathearn (Noble & Brophy 2011), ÁXFWXDWHG LQVLGH LW FRQGLWLRQV UHPDLQHG ZHW but analysis has demonstrated different origins enough that bacteria were prohibited from entirely for it. The person buried in the Forteviot cist died consuming the organic materials. The wood was between 2199–1977 cal bc, but almost nothing subjected to severe fungal attack, but this may survived of the body, probably due to the acidity have taken place after the land was drained in of the soils. He or she lay on a birch-bark mat

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or bier and was accompanied by a large bunch of 38% were not accompanied by anything that had meadowsweet, animal hide, wooden vessels, a survived the processes of decay (ibid: 175). It leather bag, a small knife or knife-dagger and a may be that people were routinely buried with large bronze dagger with a gold pommel mount, organic objects – or at least clothed – while some perhaps in a sheepskin sheath (ibid). A hard white were also buried with more lasting objects like concretion found adhering to the lower walls of pots or ornaments. the cist proved to be calcium carbonate (Hall et $QLPDOKLGHVKDYHEHHQLGHQWLÀHG GHÀQLWHO\ al, in press), as at Langwell (L Wilson, above). or tentatively) accompanying inhumations in at What were described as greasy lumps of whitish least 11 cists in Scotland (see McAdam 1982); material, apparently similar to material from Wilkin (2012) and Walton Rogers (above) discuss Langwell, have been shown to be aggregates of several other examples in Britain and Ireland. ÀQH J\SVXP FU\VWDOV +DOO HW DO LQ SUHS  7KH Those in Scotland have been found mainly in the origin of the gypsum at Forteviot has not yet east – four in Aberdeenshire, three in Fife, one been established, but it is thought to derive from each in Angus, Clackmannanshire and Moray, decomposition of the body rather than an external and now Langwell in Easter Ross – with a single source (A Hall pers comm). example known from Argyll. Where age could be A cist excavated at Spinningdale, about 28km established, all were found with adults except for WRWKH(6(RI/DQJZHOOKHOGWKHÁH[HGLQKXPDWLRQ one cist at Broomend near Inverurie, where what of a woman aged 35–50, who died 2051–1911 was thought to be animal hide covered an adult cal bc (Arabaolaza 2013). She was buried with and an infant together (Chalmers 1868). Most of a Food Vessel by her head, and she appeared to WKHKLGHVWKDWFRXOGEHLGHQWLÀHGDUHWKRXJKWWR have lain on or been wrapped in sheepskin. White be bovine. The hide was interpreted as covering powdery material was noted on parts of her head, the body in all the Aberdeenshire burials, as well but it has not at the time of writing been subjected as in an Early Bronze Age inhumation at Ingleby WRVFLHQWLÀFDQDO\VLV Barwick on Teesside (Walton Rogers, above). In two cases, the hide was placed like a pillow: at Barns Farm in Fife, the head of a young :UDSSLQJVRISRZHU" man rested on animal hide (Watkins 1982: 49), The cattle hide in which the woman’s body was and at Cuninghar in Clackmannanshire, a hairy wrapped and the woven and wooden materials substance (possibly stoat fur (MacAdam 1982: placed with her seem to evoke a special,  OD\EHQHDWKWKHKHDGRIDÁH[HGLQKXPDWLRQ exceptional burial. But it is worth asking: was along with a matted substance thought to be it indeed unusual for its place and time, or is it ‘felted or unwoven cloth’ (Robertson 1895: VLPSO\DUDUHH[DPSOHRIH[FHOOHQWSUHVHUYDWLRQ" ² 7KHZRROÀEUHVLGHQWLÀHGIURPWKHFLVWDW If organic materials had not been preserved, it Spinningdale in eastern Sutherland lay beneath the would have been an unremarkable cist containing left arm (Walton Rogers 2013). Organic materials a skeleton, of which many have been found across such as leather, wood and meadowsweet have Scotland. Were burials with organic components also been found in association with metal objects – like the examples at Forteviot and Spinningdale in elaborate graves, such as in the cist at Forteviot mentioned above – in fact relatively common, noted above (Noble & Brophy 2011). HYHQLIWKHHYLGHQFHUDUHO\VXUYLYHV" Three other examples, all from Fife, combined Hunter’s (2000) social interpretation of animal skins with rare objects. A cist at Ashgrove the presence and character of artefacts in Early contained a crouched inhumation accompanied by Bronze Age burials highlights the complexity and D%HDNHUDÁDWEURQ]HGDJJHULQDQDQLPDOVNLQ variety in burial practices and the likelihood that sheath and a large piece of possible sphagnum many contained organic components of which no moss (Henshall 1964). Another at Masterton trace remained. Of 192 burials on the Scottish contained almost no trace of the body but remnants mainland (a sample comprising about a quarter of European bison or aurochs hide covered the of the known burials at the time of publication), ÁRRU DORQJ ZLWK D MHW QHFNODFH EURQ]H DUPOHWV

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and a bronze dagger (Henshall 1963), and a cist a bronze object. Those decisions must have been at Rameldry Farm held the crouched inhumation laden with meaning. They would have arisen of an old, arthritic man with a bronze dagger in a from the relationships between place and people, hide-lined scabbard, wearing a garment with six and the objects they placed with her may have jet and lizardite buttons (Baker et al 2003). Woven been metaphors for the dead woman and her coverings and other components have been found connections in life (see Brück 2004). in Bronze Age Scottish burial contexts in the The cattle hide in which her body was wrapped south-west (Dumfries and Galloway, Glasgow may have symbolized the material resources that and Lanarkshire) and Orkney, as reviewed by were vital to the community’s survival (cf Jones Harris (above). 1998), or it may have evoked much more. The Another example worth noting from farther rearing and tending of cattle would have shaped south, in Yorkshire, is that of Gristhorpe Man the rhythms of people’s days and seasons and the (Melton et al 2010; 2013). A man of prominent ways they moved around the valley or onto the stature, who had eaten plenty of meat during his hills. The slaughtering of cattle for meat, hide and lifetime, was wrapped in animal hide that was horns would have released a range of resources À[HGDWWKHFKHVWZLWKDSROLVKHGERQHSLQDQG for meals and objects such as garments, shoes, EXULHGLQDORJFRIÀQDORQJZLWKDEURQ]HGDJJHU bags and tools, as well as wrappings for the dead. and pommel, basketry and other artefacts. He Wilkin (2012) has considered the contextual and died at some point between 2200–2020 cal bc historical relevance of animal remains in Late DWFRQÀGHQFH  %DWW 7KHDXWKRUV Neolithic and Early Bronze Age burials, noting interpret the presence of the hide wrapping, that the ways they were treated in broader rituals GDJJHU DQG RWKHU ÀQH REMHFWV DV LQGLFDWLQJ KLV extended beyond their value as economic assets, high status, suggesting he was a ‘paramount chief food for funeral feasts or simple symbols of the born locally’ (Melton et al 2010: 811). They also natural world. Placing animal remains with the VXJJHVW WKDW EXULDOV LQ ORJFRIÀQV RI ZKLFK  dead may have evoked one of many references to Bronze Age examples are recorded in the United particular events, agricultural practices, seasonal Kingdom) may have been reserved for people routines, myths and cosmological beliefs. with symbolic associations with woodland or In pre-industrial societies, animals are often boats (ibid: 799). seen as embodying the powers of the natural As Walton Rogers (above) observes, the world, and spirits of the dead are thought to take practice of burying Early Bronze Age bodies on the identities and powers of particular animals. with animal hides (and other organic materials) Ritual specialists or shamans can call up these was probably more common than the few known powers by wearing animal masks or wrapping examples in Britain, Ireland and across northern themselves in animal skins, thereby taking on Europe attest. People were using timber, hides, the identity of an animal (also see Morris 1998: bone, horn and wool in everyday life, and it 221–2). The more durable elements of animals, may not have seemed extraordinary to employ such as skin, hooves and claws, can represent the them in rituals relating to the dead. Taking into ongoing, regenerative nature of life, and Wilkin consideration the considerable evidence for (2012) argues that their inclusion with burials was variety in the composition of burials and the D PHDQV RI SODFLQJ WKH GHDG ÀUPO\ ZLWKLQ WKHLU likelihood that organic materials were included own lineages. much more often than their survival would suggest, the Langwell burial may not have been particularly unusual. ,QWHUSUHWLQJWKHEXULDOULWHDW/DQJZHOO That said, this burial was composed with Even though cist burials are relatively common, care, and those who created it chose to include the corpus of known burials can hardly contain certain things and leave out others that were the scales of Bronze Age populations in Scotland sometimes being placed with the dead at the that settlement patterns and environmental time, such as a decorated pot, a jet ornament or impacts imply. The cist is also an unusual form

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of building; square and rectangular structures are clear signal of the regeneration that her powerful almost unknown in Bronze Age contexts other costume may have evoked. than burial. So starting from the proposal that a Wrapping her body in cattle hide may have cist burial is itself laden with unusual meaning, seemed a way of linking her spirit to the animal’s what more can be proposed about the Langwell and its inherent powers of regeneration, with EXULDO":KHWKHULWZDVXQXVXDOIRULWVWLPHDQG which the life of the community would have place or is simply unusual in our time and place, been thoroughly entwined. The woven material the remarkable survival of its organic components around her head may have been a kind of mask or opens a rare window onto the funerary rite. head-dress that, with the cattle hide, constituted a The statements we can make with reasonable spiritually charged costume. This might indicate FRQÀGHQFH DERXW WKH VHTXHQFH RI HYHQWV UDLVH that she held a special role in the community, questions about other aspects of the rite which are SHUKDSV DV D VKDPDQLF ÀJXUH RQH ZKRVH VSLULW PRUHGLIÀFXOWWRDQVZHUQRWOHDVWEHFDXVHRIWKH could rightly assume the powers of the natural disturbance done before formal archaeological world. excavation could take place. Was the woman There are other ways of interpreting the KHUVHOIXQXVXDOLQOLIHRUGHDWK":DVVKHSDUWRI components of the burial, beginning with the an elite group, or was she selected from the wider cattle hide. It is easy, even intuitive, to imagine population to perform some special purpose her body wrapped in a clean, sleek, tanned brown LQOLIHDQGRULQGHDWK",IVKHZDVDPHPEHURI hide – a prized possession, the use of which the elite, does the evidence for her occasional would have conveyed her power or the wealth malnutrition point to a different kind of elite than and status of those who interred her remains. RQHZLWKZKLFKZHDUHIDPLOLDU",IKHUH[SHULHQFH Where evidence is available, it suggests that RIIRRGVKRUWDJHLQKHUFKLOGKRRGUHÁHFWVDPRUH animal hides placed with Bronze Age burials had humble origin, then does her apparently unusual usually been processed. (I am grateful to Alison burial indicate that she acquired a higher status Sheridan for outlining the arguments and several GHVSLWHDQLPSRYHULVKHGFKLOGKRRG" examples in support of this, as set out below.) It The preservation of organics means that, not has been suggested that the animal hide wrapped long after the cist was sealed and before bacteria around Gristhorpe Man survived because it had had time to consume the contents, they were been treated before burial (Melton et al 2010; saturated with rising ground water. This might 2013). Fragments of hide from cists at Forteviot indicate that the burial took place in late winter (Noble & Brophy 2011) and Broomend of Crichie or early spring, when the ground may have been (Chalmers 1868) appear to have been processed PRUHSURQHWRÁRRGLQJDVPRXQWDLQVQRZVPHOWHG or at least scraped. Where hides have been found and the river level rose. The bone histology in cists and graves, there is no evidence for their evidence suggests – but cannot prove – that the having left traces of fat or blood (although in woman’s body was curated for a time before many cases sampling strategies and analytical burial; the evidence could support a scenario techniques were not employed to test for this, LQ ZKLFK ERWK LQWHQWLRQDO PXPPLÀFDWLRQ DQG especially in early excavations). preservation through waterlogging took place. In terms of symbolism, a processed hide would In that case, the people who buried her may also seem more in keeping with other metaphors have waited for a particular time to do it. This often employed in Bronze Age burial rites. Body might have been for practical reasons: if she died positions evoke sleep, and processed hides may during the winter, they may have waited for the have been used as high-status bed coverings in ground to thaw and for daylight to lengthen for OLIHDQGWUDQVIHUUHGWRWKHJUDYHWRIXOÀOWKHVDPH the considerable task of building the cist. It might purpose. The addition to some graves of joints also have been for cosmological ones: they may RIPHDWÀUHPDNLQJHTXLSPHQWDQGYHVVHOVWKDW have waited for the cusp of spring, the equinox could have held food and drink further supports – an auspicious point at which formally to the idea that burials were often seen as facilitating incorporate her spirit among the ancestors and a transitions to the afterlife.

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The burial at Langwell, however, may have slightly to the east of the watershed between been different. The presence of mites in the hide east and west coasts. Strath Oykel runs from the ÀEUHVVHHPVWRSUHFOXGHLWVKDYLQJEHHQSURFHVVHG Dornoch Firth on the east coast to join several if the hide had been stripped from the animal and smaller valleys that lead to the deeply indented cleaned, they would have dropped off (Anne west coast; the modern Highland roads follow Baker pers comm). If, however, the woman’s these same corridors. The distribution of early body was wrapped in the warm, raw, bloody skin prehistoric monuments at either end suggests RI D IUHVKO\ NLOOHG EHDVW WKDW ZDV VDFULÀFHG IRU that this was an important cross-country route the purpose – with the rest of the animal perhaps throughout earlier prehistory. eaten in a funerary feast – this would explain their There is a striking concentration of 17 presence. It does remain possible that the mites chambered cairns around the valley’s western entered the cist on burrowing rodents, but there end and another cluster at the eastern end of the was no evidence for this (such as rodent bones valley, around the Dornoch Firth (illus 5). Noble or fur) and to put much weight on that possibility (2007: 66) highlights the way that Neolithic would seem like special pleading. If the hide were monument complexes in Scotland often sit along in a raw state, this may have conveyed a different ‘trans-peninsular routes’ – natural corridors along kind of symbolic power that drew on the animal’s river valleys that would have let travellers avoid life force. risky sea journeys – with particular reference To explore another possibility, rather than to complexes such as Kilmartin in Argyll and expressing privilege, the cist may have been Stenness-Brodgar in Orkney. The clusters of designed to contain something: the decomposing chambered cairns at either end of Strath Oykel can body, losing its integrity in spite of attempts at be interpreted in a similar way. In linking the east curation; something more dangerous, such as and west coasts, the valley provided an alternative a disease, or the remains of someone who had route to the long and dangerous circumnavigation violated taboos and was contaminated socially or of the northern end of the land mass, through spiritually. The leaving of a body (or parts and the Pentland Firth and around Cape Wrath. It combinations of different bodies together) in would have been a well-known and well-travelled solid stone boxes may at certain times have been route for several thousand years by the time of an attempt to seal away something considered WKHEXULDODW/DQJZHOORQHXVHGÀUVWE\KHUGVRI dangerous to society (MacGregor 2007: 234), migratory animals and the groups of hunters that even if at other times it conveyed high status and followed them. respect. When the ceremonial monuments at either end of the valley began to be built, from around the middle of the fourth millennium bc, they would /DQJZHOOLQFRQWH[W KDYHPDUNHGLWVHQWUDQFHVDVVLJQLÀFDQWMXQFWLRQV 7KH 5LYHU 2\NHO ÁRZV HDVWZDUG WKURXJK D in the landscape. As Noble argues, complexes narrow glen until it enters a small gorge that cuts like these were not simply built for and by local through the Torr a’ Chorcain, the east/west ridge groups for their own purposes; instead, they overlooking the burial site. The gorge opens onto were ‘created through the evolving and growing ÁDWODQGEHVLGHWKHFLVWWKDWLVRIWHQÁRRGHGE\ interaction between regional communities’ (2007: the Oykel in spate. The slight rise in which the 71–2). The clusters of chambered cairns would cist was built does not now offer much protection have been both products and symbols of the IURPÁRRGZDWHUEXWLQWKHSDVWZKHQWKHULYHU relationships between dispersed groups of people burst its banks, it may have been one of the few living along Strath Oykel, in adjacent valleys and PRUHUHOLDEO\GULHUSODFHVRQWKHYDOOH\ÁRRU on nearby coasts (also see Edmonds 1999: 81). The burial’s geographical position may be People would have sometimes made journeys UHOHYDQW WR XQGHUVWDQGLQJ LWV VLJQLÀFDQFH WR WKH to the cairn complexes for ceremonial purposes, community that composed it. It sits in the middle but often too as part of their seasonal or annual of the northern part of the Scottish land mass, routines – to move stock to summer grazings, for

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example, or to trade animals or objects, or for and also rare or imported materials like bronze social contact and arranging matches. and jet or cannel coal, crafted with specialist skill The river valleys continued to be vital arteries into daggers and ornaments. This was especially through the land mass, and up to 1,500 years the case in the Moray Firth region, where there are later, when the cist was built at Langwell, farming 18 known burials with jet or jet-like ornaments communities were living in clusters around and eight with bronze daggers (Needham 2004; the chambered cairns in northern Scotland; Wilkin 2010: 9). their remains are known especially near Lairg These more eclectic approaches to burial and at the eastern end of Strath Oykel (illus 5). took hold as tin-bronze metalworking was being The extensive programme of pollen and soil adopted. The Moray Firth region lies at the end of analysis carried out along with archaeological a key cross-country route along the Great Glen, investigation near Lairg (McCullagh & Tipping which links the east and west coasts of Scotland. 1998) established that by about 2500 bc the It may have been a conduit for copper imported landscape there was thoroughly settled and given from Ireland for use in bronze metalworking, for over to farming, with agriculture on the fragile special artefacts and also for less tangible things soils viable through a carefully maintained like beliefs and stories (Bray & Pollard 2012). The regime of deep ploughing and intensive manuring Migdale hoard, found about 25km to the south- (McCullagh 2011: 153–4). Communities living east of Langwell on the north side of the Dornoch in Strath Oykel would have sustained themselves )LUWK LOOXVWUDWHV WKLV ÁRZ RI REMHFWV DQG LGHDV within a similar environment. through the area (Sheridan 2002). It contained Evidence from chambered cairns such as an axehead, jewellery and dress accessories that The Ord North at Lairg (Sharples 1981) and the UHÁHFW IDVKLRQV LQ FHQWUDO DQG QRUWKHUQ (XURSH Clava Cairns to the south-east (Bradley 2000), on between 2250 and 1950 bc, the same calibrated the far side of the Moray Firth, shows that these time span as the Langwell burial. Objects like monuments played an active role in the lives of these may have been worn as talismans and been people in the Early Bronze Age with, for example, thought to have magical properties inherent in the insertion of burials and material culture into the their materials; to touch, wear or be buried with cairns. This is not to suggest there was continuity them may have been to assume the protection and of meaning or use from their original construction; power of the objects (ibid). rather, later generations reworked the meanings of The woman buried at Langwell was the ancient monuments for their own needs, and accompanied by no decorated pot, ornaments, continued to treat them as special focal points in weapons or tools that had required hard-won the landscape and on their journeys through it. The materials or special skills to make – at least, distribution of cist burials in the east of the region none made of non-organic materials – but (illus 6) further suggests that certain areas of the the constituents of her burial may have been ODQGVFDSHFRQWLQXHGWRKROGVLJQLÀFDQFH considered just as powerful. With respect to the Changes in burial practice suggest that different corpus of burials in the Moray Firth region, she belief systems were taking hold in different areas was in the minority in terms of her sex and slightly in the Early Bronze Age too. From about 2400 bc, older than the average; about 30% of the Early those living around the Moray Firth began placing Bronze Age burials in the region were of women the dead in short cists, usually accompanied by and about 70% of these were in their early to mid- Beakers, and they may have shared certain belief 20s when they died (Wilkin 2010, based on data systems and cultural practices with other groups in from a recent assessment by Dr Meg Hutchison eastern Scotland, England and Continental Europe for the Beakers and Bodies Project, University of (Wilkin 2010; Wilkin et al 2009). From about Aberdeen). The position on her left side with her 2200 bc, people living over a wider area, including head to the north-west diverged from conventions northern Scotland, began to adopt a broader and in Beaker burials in north-east Scotland, where more mixed range of funerary practices. They women were usually laid on their right sides with sometimes placed food vessels in cists with bodies their heads to the west or south-west and a line

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of sight to the south (Shepherd 1989; 2012: 263). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Comparing Langwell with contemporary burials to the west and north is more problematic, as the The project was funded and monitored by Historic dataset here is less well studied. Scotland. The excavation was carried out with As noted above, the burial at Langwell was the assistance and osteological expertise of Iraia positioned midway along a valley linking east Arabaolaza. The principal author is especially grateful and west coasts, but its constituents and body to Jonathan and Sarah Hampton, owners of Langwell position do not particularly resonate with funerary Farm, for providing on-site shelter for the February practices that were current to the east and south- 2009 excavation team, assistance on site and general east. Perhaps the people who created the burial support and encouragement then and since, and to were looking in another direction, sharing ideas Dr Alan Leslie of Northlight Heritage and Roderick and beliefs with communities in valleys to the McCullagh of Historic Scotland for their support north, along the west coast or in the Hebrides. and advice. Dr Anne Baker of the Natural History Maybe their views were local concoctions. 0XVHXPNLQGO\LGHQWLÀHGWKHPLWHVDQG3DXO%XFNODQG provided further information on their habitats and habits. Dr John Clark, consultant forensic pathologist at the School of Medicine, and Dr Stuart Macdonald, CONCLUSION senior lecturer in the School of Life Sciences, both at the University of Glasgow, generously lent their 7KHVOLJKWNQROORQWKHYDOOH\ÁRRUDW/DQJZHOO time and knowledge of decomposition processes in would have been a spot well known to people forensic contexts. Kenneth Brophy, Gordon Noble for one reason or another as they moved along and Alan Hall shared useful information about the Strath Oykel. It may have been known as an old Forteviot cist, and Neil Wilkin was generous with his KXQWLQJVWDQFHDVDGU\ÀUPVWRSRYHUIRUWKRVH own research and background information. Earlier driving cattle along the valley or to the uplands; drafts of this paper were much improved by comments as a point at which homage should be made to from Alan Leslie, Roderick McCullagh, Gavin ancestral spirits during journeys to ancient MacGregor, Gordon Noble, Alison Sheridan and Neil ceremonial complexes, or as lying close to an Wilkin. Ingrid Shearer prepared the illustrations for H[FHOOHQWVDOPRQÀVKLQJVSRW DVLWGRHVWRGD\  publication; David Hogg created the reconstruction It may have held several layers of meaning that drawings (illus 28 and 29), and the photographs in had accumulated over generations of events, illus 2, 20 and 21 were taken by John White. Thanks relationships and shared myths; it may have been also to Anne Coombs, Lynn Fraser, Cait McCullagh, a focus for occasional ceremonies that involved Allan Mackenzie and John and Trina Wombell of ÀUHV North of Scotland Archaeology Society for their When it was chosen around the end of the DVVLVWDQFHGXULQJWKH$XJXVWÀHOGZRUN second millennium bc for the burial of a woman in a substantial stone cist, dressed in symbolically charged materials drawn from animals and forests BIBLIOGRAPHY and perhaps sealed under a cairn or barrow- cairn, this implanted the place with yet another Adovasio, J M 2010 Basketry Technology: A meaning. As far as we know, the materials used *XLGHWR,GHQWLÀFDWLRQDQG$QDO\VLV8SGDWHG were entirely local, as was the woman: the cow Edition. Walnut Creek, Calif: Left Coast Press. one of the community’s herds, the wood cut from Allen, M J, Gardiner, J & Sheridan, A (eds) 2012 a nearby forest. The rites used were a way of Is there a British Chalcolithic? People, place expressing a particular identity for her. They may and polity in the later 3rd millennium. Oxford KDYHFRQÀUPHGKHUOLQNVWRWKHDQFHVWUDOSDVWWR & Oakville: Oxbow Books, Prehistoric Society the valley and its river and the powers inherent in Research Paper No 4. the natural world, things that would give rise to Appleyard, H M 1978 *XLGHWRWKH,GHQWLÀFDWLRQRI the community’s ongoing renewal. Animal Fibres. Leeds: WIRA.

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