ÉKWÉ JỌNAL NKE NDỊ IGBO SCHOLARS FORUM, NIGERIA Volume 14 No 2, May, 2021 ISSN: 2476-8448

Published by ©Igbo Scholars Forum, Nigeria 2021

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Editor: Onukwube Alex Alfred Anedo, PhD +2348037859249; +2348149225739

Ọkwa ideta akwụkwọ (Call for Paper)

Ékwe Jọnal nke ndị IGBO SCHOLARS FORUM, Nigeria na-akpọku ndị odee nwere ederede e nyochere ma dezie nke ọma n’ihe gbasara Igbo na ndị ya, ka ha wete ha ka e bipụtara ha n’Ekwe Jọnal.. Anyị na-anabata ederede na atụmaatụ ọ bụla metutere ọdịmma ndị mmadụ, asụsụ, ekpemekpe, agụmakwụkwọ, mgbọrọgwụ na mkpakwụkwọ, Akụkọntọala, Akụnaụba, Mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya, Omenaala, Nkanaụzụ, Mmekọrịta azụmahịa, Ọchịchị, Gburugburu, dgz. Zite akwụkwọ gị dịka akpaozi ntado nke ikuku site n’akara ozi ikuku a: [email protected] ma ọ bụ i bipụta ya n’akwụkwọ ụzọ abụọ ma zigara ya otu onye n’ime ndị nhazi Jọnal a. Ụdị nrụakaebe ihe ndị e legere anya n’ide ederede anyị ga-anabata bụ MLA agba nke asaa. Jọnal a bu n’obi ịdị na-ewepụta akaọrụ ya ugboro atọ ma ọ bụ karịa n’afọ ọ bụla

Onukwube Alex. A. Anedo Onye nhazi Igbo Scholars Forum Nigeria, Department of African & Asian Studies, Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka Anambra State – Nigeria Phone: +2348037859249, +2348149225739 e-mail: [email protected] web: http://wwwigboscholarsforum.com.ng https://www.biafuluigboscholarsforum-com-ng.com

Volume 14 No 2, May, 2021 ISSN: 2476-8448

NSIRI N’OCHE NHAZI (FROM EDITORIAL DESK)

Ekwe Jọnal bụ otu n’akaọrụ ndị Igbo Scholars Forum nke malitere site n’obi ịnụ ọkụ iji chịkọlata ụmụaka Igbo gụrụ akwụkwọ ka ha wee nwee ike ịmalite chewe echichi dịka ndị Igbo site n’idepụta akwụkwọ, na-ezukọ ma na-enwe ọgbakọ. N’eziokwu, ọ bụ Dr. Onukwube Alexander Alfred Anedo malitere Igbo Scholars Forum nke bidoro mgbe ha wepụtere akwụkwọ ha dere maka nna ọkpụtọrọọkpụ nke otu a bụ Prof. Obed Muojekwu Anizoba (Ozonwa), ka ọnwa Disemba nke afọ 2013 dị mkpụrụ ụbọchị iri na ise iji kwanyere ya ugwu. N’afọ ọma ya, Prof O. M. Anizoba kweere ha ọnya ikuku, http://www.igboscholarsforum.com ebe ha ga-esi na-agwa ụwa ndị ndị Igbo bụ, ihe gbasara ndụ ha na ihe ha kwenyere na ya. E mesikwa, ha ekwetekwa ọnya ikuku ọzọ nke bụ https://www.biafuluigboscholarsforum-com-ng.cm Jọnal ndị ọzọ nke ndị otu a chọrọ isi na ha na-eche Igbo n’ihu ndị ụwa bụ Ideal International Journal na Igboscholars International Journal.

Onukwube A. A. Anedo, Ph.D.

Ndị Ndụmọdụ (Consulting Editors)

1. Dr. Mrs. Lizzy Anizoba Department of English and Litrature, Paul University, Awka – Nigeria

2. Prof. Sam Uzochukwu Department of Linguistics, African & Asian Studies, University of Lagos

3. Prof Sheng Jia Department of Chinese Culture & Anthropology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian Province, P. R. China

4. Prof Yuhua Ji Department of English language & Linguistics, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian Province, P. R. China

5. Prof B. Okolo Department of Languages & Linguistics, University of Benin, Edo State, Nigeria

6. Prof. Gamini Ranasinghe Department of Archeology & Anthropology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences University of Sri- Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka

7. Prof. Paul Ikechukwu Oguguo Department of Philosophy, faculty of Arts, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka, Nigeria

8. Dr Babette Zoumara Bank for Seeds and Solar Energy, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of Am

9.Prof. Mrs. Evelyn Ezinwanne Mbah Department of Linguistics, Igbo & Other Nigerian languages,

Faculty of Arts, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

10. Dr. Lucy Mgbemgasha Apakama Department of Nigerian Languages, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Edu cation, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

11. Prof. Nnamdi Obika Department of Englis language and Literature Madonna University Okija Campus Anambra State

12. Dr. Donatus Epuchie Department of Linguistics, Igbo and Other Nigerian Languages, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education Owerri Imo State Nigeria

Ndị Nsonotu Nhazi (Members of Editorial Board)

1. Onukwube Alex Alfred Anedo (Editor-in-Chief) Ph.D. (African Culture & Civilization); M. A. (African Culture & Civilization); M.Phil. (Chinese Culture & Anthropology); B.A.Ed. (Ed/Igbo/Linguistics); N.C.E. (Igbo/Religion); Diploma in Chinese Studies. Senior Lecturer, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka; Visiting Senior Lecturer, Department of Linguistics, Igbo & Other Nigerian languages, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

2. Rev. Bro. Charles Ogbuchukwu Okeke Ph.D; M.A. (ATR), B.D (Theo); B.Phil, PGDE, Dipl (Italian & French), Head of Department, Relious Studies, Nwafor Orizu College of Education, Nsugbe, Anambra State, Nigeria,

3. Prof. Enyinnia Samuel Ikokwu Ph.D, M.A; B.A. PGDE.(JOS). Specialist in Igbo Literature & Stylistics Department of Linguistics, Igbo & Other Nigerian languages, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

4. Friday Ifeanyichukwu Ogbuehi Ph.D; M.A. B.A Department of Religion, Trinity Theological College, Umuahia, Abia State, Nigeria.

5. Deacon Ndubuisi Ogbonna Ahamefula B. A. Linguistics M. A. Linguistics, Department of Linguistics, Igbo & Other Nigerian languages, University of Nigeria Nsukka

6. Chinenye Viola Udeze Ph.D; (African Culture & Civilization), M.A.; B.A.Ed/Igbo/Lin Department of Nigerian Languages, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

7. Chimezie Okoye B.A. (English) Secretary, Igboscholars Forum, Nigeria. Besing Books, No. 9 Wisdom Avenue, Suleja, Niger State.

8. Ben Nkemdirim Igbokwe B.A. M.A. Ph.D. (NAU) African Culture & Civilization School of General Studies, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

9. Prof. Obiora Eke B. A. M.A.; Ph.D. English Department of English Language & Literature, Madonna University, Okija Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria

10 . Nneka Justina Eze B.A. Ed/Igbo/Ling; M.A.; PhD Ebonyi State University Abakiliki Ebonyi State Nigeria

Disclaimer of Warranties

In no event shall Journals of Igbo Scholars Forum, Nigeria be liable for any special, incidental, indirect, or consequential damages of any kind arising out of or in connection with the use of the articles or other material derived from the JISFN, whether or not advised of the possibility of damage, and on any theory of liability. This publication is provided "as is" without warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, or non-infringement. Descriptions of, or references to, products or publications does not imply endorsement of that product or publication. While every effort is made by Journals of Igbo Scholars Forum, Nigeria to see that no inaccurate or misleading data, opinion or statements appear in this publication, they wish to make it clear that the data and opinions appearing in the articles and advertisements herein are the responsibility of the contributor or advertiser concerned. Journals of Igbo Scholars Forum, Nigeria make no warranty of any kind, either express or implied, regarding the quality, accuracy, availability, or validity of the data or information in this publication or of any other publication to which it may be linked.

©Igbo Scholars Forum, Nigeria 2021

NDỊNAYA (CONTENTS) Ihu (Page)

1. Gsm Innovation: A Faculty for Teaching Igbo Literary Appreciation Dr. Oluchi Eugenia Nebolisa Dr. Chioma Blessing Onwubie

2. Uru Asụsụ Ọdịnaala (Igbo) bara n’Ịkụziri ndị Okenye nọ n’Ime Eobodo maka Ọrụ Ugbo na Steeti Ebonyi, Nigeria. N. Nwigwe na Eze, J. N .

3. Technology in Traditional Igbo Society with the Manifestation in the Modern Global Development Gregory Madu Okparaeke Ph.D,

4. Ndị Igbo na Nkwalite Asụsụ Igbo Ndubuisi Ahamefula Chinwe Nwaudu. Udechukwu

5. Mkpọbi ụkwụ dị n’Imejupụta Atụmatụ Kurikulum Asụsụ Igbo n’Ogo Agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik Na Steeti Ebonyi, Nigeria N. Nwigwe na Eze, J. N.

6. Sexism and the Woman’s Culpability in Africa Literature: a Reading of Chika Unigwe’s on Black Sisters’ Street Dr. Chinyere T. Ojiakor Grace I. Ikechukwu

7. Influence of Social Media on Students’ Cultural Diversity and Academic Achievement Onuora, Ngozi Theresa

8. Mpụtara Ụbara Echiche N’ụtọasụsụ Igbo Ọlachi Florence Okere

9. The pathology of church growth in Igbo land, Nigeria: an antidote to the symptoms Nmah, P.E. Otubah, Grace Ifeoma

10. The Beginning of Human Life, Early Termination and Right to Life: A Discuss From Ethical Perspective Anikpe Anthony Mbah

11. Culture: The Identity and History of Every Tribe Esther Ogochukwu Akpulu

Gsm Innovation: A Faculty for Teaching Igbo Literary Appreciation

Dr. Oluchi Eugenia Nebolisa Department of Linguistics Alvan Ikoku Federal College ff Education Owerri 08067998641

and

Dr. Chioma Blessing Onwubie Department of Linguistics Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education Owerri 08032676115

Abstract Education system in Nigeria is struggling to meet the education target around the globe but academic achievement is still going down in some area of learning like Igbo literature. Igbo literature is one of the areas that need urgent attention. Literature is an aesthetics works of arts which reflect the life of men and the society. Igbo literature is those creative and non-creative literary works that its medium of expression is in Igbo. Literary appreciation or criticism is the act of interpreting literature. It analyses, interprets and evaluates the works of literature. There are usually deficiencies in academic performance of students in Igbo literature in external examination. This is what draws the attention of the researcher in choosing this topic because, literature, of the Igbo people may go into extinction. The survey research method was adopted. It was realized that the mass failure of Igbo literature students was inability of the student to go through the recommended texts in

an academic year before commencing of the exam. Introducing GSM in learning of Igbo literature will go a long way in helping the students to go through the recommended text before the exam. This can be achieved when the teacher divides the class into groups. The teacher will work as a coach or mentor to the students. The book will be analyzed based on the following; introductory level, expository level and evaluation level, which they will send their message to each other. Through proper understanding of GSM learning style, more works of literature can be achieved in a very short period of time. Teachers can exploit pupil's strength and build their capacity to learn. Also multitude layers of support will not be required, because teacher can focus and get on with what their job should be, that is helping the students to learn.

Introduction Literature is global and plays great role in globalizing humanities. In every part of the world, literature is being studied as a subject and writers are the makers of literature. Literary writers will exist to sustain literature. Literature mirrors the society and brings about change through the conception and imaginative creation of literary writers. The role literary writers nationwide demands subjectivity, if the writer will write the truth. As writers see and understand what is happening in the society, they create aesthetic devices through language and express to humanity globally, the trend of such event. The concept of literature is very wide. Many definition have been given to literature, Nwadike (1992:1 1) explains that literature are of two types. (1) Any written piece of material to be learnt. For instance mathematics, history, chemistry, physics etc. These subjects have their written materials to be learnt (2) Literature is an aesthetic work of arts which reflects the life of man and society. In this explanation literature is seen as a subject and a work of arts. It instructs & informs morals through stories and songs and also motivate people into acting positively.

Egudu (1975) defines literature "as a mode or method of expression". From this view, literature is more than a subject because mood or method is the way, manner in which something is said or written. Though the way and manner, many not just suffice for the description of literature, because literature surely must involve human elements; on which such way and manner will react on. Welleck et al, (1994:29) defines literature "as all that is printed". If literature is regarded as all that is written down, it means that scribbling of little children which is written, is literature. Literature in the context of discourse is seen as body of aesthetic work of arts which includes poetry, drama, prose fiction, oral or written, with a mode of expression or presentation (language), which reflects the life style of society and no human endeavours will be left out in its treatment. That is to say that literature will involve history, Culture, life style, norms and more of any society expressed aesthetically with a language. No definition of literature will express it all but all the above definitions are attempts to explain what literature is like.

Literature according to Umegbolu (2009:2) "is the studying branches of knowledge, a discipline meant for studying and practicing". Literature includes all the written compositions in prose, drama and poetry. Literature talks about life, it shows different faces of human life with the aim of making people happy. It teaches one to know what is good or bad. It is about man and his environment. According to Egudu (1975:1) literature is "a mode of expression. This mode of can be in an oral or written form". The oral or written form which operates at the level of language and has consistently remained one of the greatest tools in representation of reality. Oral or written literature comprises three genres prose, poetry and drama. It mirrows society and checks the excesses of the people, it is the duty of a literary artist or narrator to reflect and react to his society. The use of language is very important in literature. It is through language, that information is passed across to express feelings, emotions and interpret

information. Without the use of language, literature cannot be possible.

Igbo Literature Igbo literature is the creative and non-creative literary works of all size that are available in Igbo language. Emenanjo (1975:2) says that "some books cannot justifiably be called Igbo literature, because their medium of expression is not in Igbo language". This means that it is not all the literary works are Igbo literature, even though it was written by an Igbo person. The use of Igbo language in writing Igbo literature is necessary because literature of people help its language to grow. Meludu (2013: 17) says "Literature nurtures the language of the people and helps in the development of such language".

This means that Igbo literature can be used to transmit Igbo culture to the young ones. Igbo literature books got their experiences from Igbo oral literature which portrays cultural works of the Igbo people. Schools are the important place where Igbo literature should be learnt. Ignorance of Igbo literature in schools will deny a child the opportunities of creating ideas and thoughts that are based on Igbo culture. Obi (2009: 65-66) says that teaching Igbo literature as a schools subject '-'has its potential of building up future leaders with good consciences, who will care about the welfare of the ruled majority, and not such leaders who will see their position as an opportunity of imposing confusion and unimaginable poverty on the ruled masses".

This means that Igbo literature portrays Igbo world views and it best suited for Igbo children, because through it culture of the Igbo people are being handed over from one generation to another.

Classification of Igbo Literature This classification is made based on the knowledge of

classification of literary works in other literature. This means that this classification is made based on the genres of literature as it is seen in other literature especially in English literature. Here are some of the works in Igbo literature. There are as follows: Poetry Author's name Date of publication AkpaUche Ekechukwu, R 1975 Utara Nti Emenanjo, N 1978 AkobuNdu Chukwuezi, A.B 1988

Novel Author's name Date of publication Omenuko Pita Nwana 1933 Nkoli Nzeakor, J.U.T 1973 Ogwu Kris Agbado 2008

Dm ma Author's name Date of publication L'doka Mm a Chukuezi, A. B 1974 Ekwutosị Anedo, A. O 2001 Ajuruchi Mbegbu 2009

Functions of Igbo Literature: Certainly, one of the functions of literature is that nourishes our emotional lives. According to Meyer (1997:3), "… the effective literature work or narration seems to speak directly to us, especially if it is well written. The inner life that good writers reveal in their characters often gives one the glimpses of oneself. One can laugh, cry, tremble et cetera".

Literature broadens our perspectives in the world. Most of the people one meets are much like oneself and one can see the world. Literature allows one to move beyond the inevitable boundaries of our culture because it introduces 16

to us people different from ourselves. Literature enables one to deal with uncertainties, value judgments and emotions. These are unavoidable aspects of life.

The range and differentiation of life that Igbo literature offers can help one to interpret one’s own experiences and the world in which one lives. Literature enhances and sharpens ones perceptions. What could be more practical as well as satisfying? Igbo literature educates, through it, Nigerian youth can be disciplined. Igbo literature is crucial to every society not because of its entertainment purposes but due to its usefulness, an instrument of education.

Literature teaches the truth, the retributive justice in literature, folk tales for instance is the truth and not the contrary. Telling the truth with courage can lead to national development. Igbo literature is the literature of Igbo people, where by Igbo man is; the narrator or artist using Igbo language as a medium of expression, and has Igbo people and animal that are found in Igbo land as characters. Fighting corruption in Nigeria through folktales will be achieved by telling stories of crimes and punishment suffered by the offenders-On the other hand, the disciplined characters are shown and are useful for teaching and learning good behavior.

Literary Appreciation or Criticism In the early 20 Century scholars felt that literary criticism was barren, being highly subjective, mechanistic and external. There was no close analysis of the work of art itself, in order to have a thorough understanding and interpretation of the text. Interest was mainly on the historical background of the text, like the socio-economic conditions of the time and biographical details of the writer. Critics felt these issues were unnecessary in appreciating a work of art and this discontent led to new methods of style-study to be evolved, this was aimed at achieving a close acquaintance with the literary

art never known before in literary criticism, with the equipment of the descriptive methods of the professional linguist and the tastes of a literary artist, attention was now paid on the words of the text and theorganization of the writer, this shift of emphasis, interest was now in the texture of the writers language seen as a symptom of the quality of the creative process.

What is Literary Criticism Literary appreciation or criticism is the act of interpreting literature. It analyzes, interprets, and evaluates works of literature. Most often, one may find criticism in the form of an essay. Criticism may also examine an author's body of work. Besides, in depth book review may also be considered as criticism.

Cuddon (2014:170) says that literary criticism "has traditionally been regarded as, the analysis, interpretation and evaluation of literary works. It does not mean finding fault with". Criticism as an academic activity, expresses reader's sense of what a text is all about. In addition, literary criticism is the assessment and interpretation of literary works. It is a discipline concerned with philosophical, descriptive and evaluative inquiries about literature, including what literature is, the importance and what is expected from a writer. It also pays special attention to intrinsic matter in a literary work. It is a discussion about literature. It includes description, analysis, interpretation and evaluation of literary work. It is often informed by literary theory which is the philosophical discussion of its aim and goal. Similarly, Abcarian and Klotz (1975:5). Says that literary criticism, has to do with the, value of literature, Its goodness or badness, not with the history of literature. This is because value judgments tend to be highly subjective, lively and sometimes even acrimonious, debates among literary critics

accompany their diverse responses and judgments of the same work. The Judgments literary critics make about a story or poem are bound to reflect their own cherished values. The truth of a artist obviously, very different from the truth of a mathematical formula. Certainly ones attitudes towards religion, social and politics are irrelevant to the truth of a formula, but quite relevant to one's judgment of a literary work. Yet any examination of the broad range of literary criticism reveals that all share assumptions govern the way that critics approach a work, the elements they tend to look for and emphasizes, the details they significant or insignificant, and finally, their overall judgment of the value of the work. Again, Rice and Waugh (1984:4) opine that, "Literary criticism has always been a hybrid mix of practices literary history, literary biography, myth analysis, psychoanalysis and moral aesthetic criticism." Sometimes, authors present readers with work that can have many meanings, expecting them to analyze and interpret it.

Writers -and critics build on each others' understanding of a work of literature in a kind of dialogue. Noted authors, often have a body of criticism attached to their work. Critics evaluate and debate the ideas of fellow critics obviously; good criticism can help readers to develop a better understanding of a work.

Rules to Avoid when Analyzing a Text: 1. It is much better to write simple and direct sentence, avoid the use of slang, contradiction. Use only the words one is familiar with. Never include a statement from a literary work that one does not understand. Also do not hesitate to go on for a sentence or two after a supporting quote, to explain it in your own words 2. Remember that literary criticism has its own term. Proper

terminology should be used instead of homemade substitutes. 3. As far as the content of your paper is concerned, try to avoid some personal responses for which one can find no critical support. 4. In using biographical approach in criticizing a text, one should be careful not to make close connections between an author's works and the events of his or her life, which the author does not featured in his or her work, because the critic may encounter difficulty in finding support for the conclusion. Gwynn (2002:104) support this when he says that "in using biographical approach in criticizing a text, limit your remark to the text you are analyzing". Note that these rules holds for all genres of literature. Analyzing a text has a lot of advantages According to Olaniyan and Quayson (2007:450-454) says that criticizing a literary text has the following merit. 1. Examination of a literary text helped to establish literary standard of the text. 2. It helped in the aesthetics conception of literature. 3. It helped one to take the image of Igbo literature and of African literature in general, and then praise it for its "truth" and at the same time show case the traditional African way of life. 4. Literary criticism makes one to take literature seriously enough to comment one's total intelligence. 5. Knowledge one acquired from reading a text can be apply to the natural business of life. Benefit of close study of the text, led too easily to the assumption of the text from its social and historical setting.

The Procedure for Literary Criticism The procedure involves examination and assessment of plot, character, characterization, theme, language, setting, etc, based, on the following levels: Introductory level, Expository 20

level and Evaluation level

1. Introductory Level Here the literary critic is required to introduce and give background information ofthe work in the following orders A. The title of the work: This is the name of the book b. The name of the author: this is the name of the person that writes the literary work. c. The publisher: this means the company that publishes the literary work. D. Place of publication: this includes the country, State, Town where the literary work was published. E. Year of publication: this is the year that a particular literary work was published F The nature or kind of the work: Igbo literary work may be poetry, novel or drama , g. Theme: this is the central idea in a literary work.

2. Expository Level: This is the thrust of practical criticism. The following are required to be examined at this level; a. Theme b. Plot c. Setting d. Character and Characterization e. Language and Tone f. Narrator

Theme : The central meaning or dominant idea in a literary work. A theme provides a unifying point around which the plot, characters, setting, point of view, symbols and e:her elements of a work are organized. It is important not to mistake the theme for the actual subject of the work; the theme refers to the abstract concept that is made concrete through the images, characterization, and action of the text. In nonfiction, ever, the theme generally refers to the main topic of the discourse.

Plot : An author's selection and arrangement of incidents in a story to shape the action and give the story a particular focus. Discussions of plot include not just what happens, but also how and why things happen the way they do. Stories that are written in a pyramidal pattern divide the plot into three essential parts. The first part is the rising action, in which complication creates some sort of conflict for the protagonist. The second part is the climax, the moment of greatest emotional tension in a narrative, usually marking a turning point in the plot at which the rising action reverses to become the falling action. The third part, the falling action (or resolution) is characterized by diminishing tensions and the resolution of theplot’s conflicts and complications.

Setting : The physical and social context in which the action of story occurs.The major elements of settings are the time, the place, and the social environment that frames the characters.

Character and characterization: Character is a person presented in a dramatic or narrative work, and characterization is the process by which a writer makes that character seem real to the reader. A hero or heroine, often called the PROTAGONST, is the central character who engages the reader's interest and empathy. The ANTAGONIST is the character, force, or collection offices that stands directly opposed to the protagonist and gives rise to the conflict of the story. A static character does not change throughout the work, and the reader's knowledge of that character does not grow, whereas a dynamic character undergoes some kind of change because of the action in the plot. A flat character embodies one or two qualities, ideas, or traits that can be readily described in a brief summary. They are not psychologically complex characters and therefore are readily accessible to readers.

Language and Tone : The author's implicit attitude toward the reader, people, places and events in a work as revealed by the

elements of the author's style. Tone may be characterized as serious or ironic, sad or happy, private or public, angry or affectionate, bitter or nostalgic, or any other attitudes and feelings that human beings experienced.

Narrator : Refers to who tells us a story and how it is told. What we know and how we feel about the events in a work are shaped by the author's choice of point of view. The teller of the story, the narrator, inevitably affects our understanding of the events in a work, are shaped by the author's choice of point of view. The teller of the story, the narrator, inevitably affects our understanding of the characters' actions, by filtering what is told through his or her own perspectives. The various points of view that writers draw upon can be grouped into two broad categories. 1. The third person narrator uses him, she or they to tell the story and does not participate in the action. 2. The first person narrator uses I and is a major or minor participant inthe action.

Evolutional Level: In practical criticism of prose and poetry, evaluative level is the concluding level. Here, the critic is required to make assessment of the work and also to make one's contributions where necessary. The critic is expected to find out whether the writer has been able to achieve his aim in his work. One should also find out whether the title of the work is related to the story presented in the work:

They become types rather than individuals. Round characters are more complex than flat or stock characters, and often display the inconsistencies and internal conflicts found in most real people. They are more fully developed and therefore are harder to summarize.

GSM (Mobile phone)

Nowadays, text messages are mostly used GSM mobile data services with 80% of all GSM users worldwide, or 3.2 billion out of 4.4 billion subscribers at the end of 2008, are active users of the messages services. In countries like New York, Irvine, Hong Kong, Paris, Sweden, and China, over 85% of the population use GSM.

In China the average is about 80% and New York is entering up with the over 60% active users of SMS by the end of 2009. According to Odinge (2015:135) says, the first SMS was sent on 3th December 1992 by a 22 year old engineer at Same Group. He sent Merry Christmas to Richar-Jarvis via Vodafone network. Matti Makkason was regarded as the first to send SMS.

SMS is commonly used between personal or private mobile users, instead of voice calls, where voice communication is not available, and can be used for many ions such as, Learning, banking, business, Advertising and polities etc.

One must stress that GSM communication will dramatically change the nature of learning and will therefore have a broad impact on Education. Bender et al (1996:36) says "bringing mobile phone in learning will enhance productivity, cooperation and save time". GSM gives people asses to each other, and to information and services they want and need anytime, anywhere.

Human beings are social by nature, they need and desire to learn more about the other, their counterparts and to engage in dialogue from this need and desire as bore public opinion, which is certain to be healthier as more people are empowered participate in the life of society, through better means of communication and an exchange of ideas.

The introduction of technology into the Igbo literature is a welcome development. GSM is nowadays very popular

with students. A lot of students have GSM, while other have access to it. A part from making calls, they usually sent letter to their friends through their e-mail in their phones.

In Nigeria, not all the students can afford to buy phone because of poverty. It is the dun of the federal government to provide GSM free of charge to the students because of its benefit in learning. There are benefits of technology on Education. According to Prashing (2006:3) The benefits are as follows: 1. It facilitate dialogue among students 2. It brings adequate protection to the right to information and freedom of expression among students. 3. GSM makes learning easy and efficient to the students. 4. With the use of GSM, learning is fast and fun, 5. Using GSM in learning could be considerable less stressful and a lot of more professionally satisfying, 6. Through understanding of GSM "learning styles, teachers can exploit pupils’ strengths and build their capacity to learn. 7. Through technological learning, students learn to become more tolerant of each other and practice more self discipline. 8. It improves concentration of the students 9. Enhances their abilities to listen and remember.

Procedure for teaching literary Appreciation using Mobile phones Facilities This section attempts to give specific examples of planned lessons in the use of mobile phones to teach literary appreciation. According to Oladunjoye (2016:206) says, these are the first slop to be taken when teaching with GSM.

Example 1 Step l Teacher : Scroll your phone to Massage (There are options - Picture, message, Text message, MMS postcard, etc)

Choose the Text message) write a short summary of the chapter of the literary work that is assigned to your group.

Teacher's Motivational Tip: We will read at least ten of the messages together and give prizes for the best three.

Pupils' Activities: In pairs, and small groups of seven, pupils write their text messages.

Step 2 Teacher's Activities: He moves round, encouraging students to work within the limit of specified time, say 10 minutes. Me allows them to discuss freely. Teacher : Now, SEND your text,

STEP 4 Teacher : REPLY your text messages Pupil's Activities: Pupils set at work again.

STEP 5 Teacher : Compare your text messages across groups write down your received texts in your notebooks.

STEP 6 Sample Text Message are chosen from the ten randomly selected messages and both the teacher and the pupils assess them to jointly choose the best three for prizes. The criteria for assessment may include: i. The meaningfulness of the message. ii. The length. iii. The grammar. iv. The expression. v. Other aspects of mechanical accuracy, vi. Organization.

STEP 7

Home work given Write down the message in your notebook and bring it to school tomorrow.

EXAMPLE 2 STEP 1 Teacher : We want to continue with the previous lesson. Return to your group. Eachgroup will have seven students in a group. Then, appoint a group leader for your group.

Pupil's Activities 1: Students respond to the teacher's instruction bypairing up into grouping. Each group is formed with the teacher as their mentor orcoach.

Note: Teacher's suggestions are meant to mentor pupil's choices that guide againstdiscriminations, not to destroy the fun connected with the grouping and theanticipated fun of using the mobile phones.

STEP 2 Teacher: Now, in your groups, what are the introductory parts of the literary workyou are analyzing. Your group leader is to moderate.

Pupil's Activities 2: Discussion begins in group. Teacher's Activities: Teachers moves from group one to another. He spendssome minute in some groups where he contributes totheir Analysis.

STEP 3 Teacher: As a follow-up to your discussion, text introductory of literary appreciation to your friend across the group, individually, as follows: the name 01 the author, the title of his work, year of publication, etc.

From Group A To Group B 1 7 27

2 6 3 5 4 4 5 3 6 2 7 1 There are groups of students each, making the total number of students in the class to be 28 Note : This is the time for the mention and discourse of the setting; it is a free discourse time with the teacher as the 'super moderator' where each group leader effectively takes charge.

STEPS Teacher: Now, it is time to write in your exercise books. He speaks and writes on the board at the same time.

Instruction: i. Write down the introductory part of literary analysis ii. Write down the story title, setting, point of view, character and theme. iii. Write as two-paragraph outline on the story title. iv. Write an essay on your story title.

Pupil's Activities: Write lesson begin. Pupils are deliberately guided to use their GSM sets to scroll out the two titles on which they will work on. Group leaders can do this. Teacher only supervise and should ensure that the writing is personalize and not duplicated.

Conclusion The aim of this research had been to explain possibility of improving students reading and appreciating literature through the use of mobile phone in Nigerian secondary schools. The researcher opposes strongly the ideas of teachers relying so much on the traditional method of teaching and learning. It is certain that with GSM 28

technology, the multitude layers of support will not be required; teachers can focus and get on with what their job should be, that is helping the students to learn. This GSM learning style would be considerably less stressful and a lot of more professionally, satisfying. It is recommended that government should moves towards purchasing GSM, especially for school use.

References

Abcarian and Klotz, (1975). Literature: The Human Experience. New York: St. Martin's press. Bender, D. et al (1996).The Information High way. USA: Greenhaven Press. Cuddon, J.A. (2014). Dictionary of Literary terms and literary theory. Britain: Penguin press. Egudu R.N. (1975). The study of poetry.Ibadan: University press. Igiligi et al (2002). Literature for enjoyment, Enugu: Computer Age. Landeg, W. (1980).Literature and History in Africa. Journal of African History. Vol. 21 Meludu, N.I (2013). Teaching Igbo literature in schools; A condition for fostering creativity in children. Kpakpando Journal of Art & Humanities.An International journal of Igbo studies. Pag. 111. Meyer, M (1997). Introduction to literature.USA: St. Martin's press. Nwadike I.U. (1992). Ntọala Agumagu, Nigeria: Ifunanya publishers. Nwatu, P (1933). Omenuko. London: Longman Press. Obi, N (2009).The Role of literature in National Development in African literature and development in the twenty-first century .Eyisi, J. et al. Akwa: Faculty Arts, NAU. Odinye, S.F. (2015). SMS languages in use by the Nigerian

students.A festscript in Honour of late Professor Ezeuko. Department of Linguistics Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka. Page 135. Oladunjoye, D (2016). Teaching the upper Basic students to write better: The GSM innovation. USA: Reading Association of Nigeria press. Olaniyan, T. And Quayson, A (2007). African Literature.An Anthologyof Criticism and Theory. USA: Blackwell Press. Prashing, N (2006). Learning styles in Action. London: Network continue Education Press. Rice, P. and laugh P. (1989). Modern literary Theory. New York: Oxford University Press. Umegbolu, M (2009). Literature Explain. Obosi: Pacific press Uzoho F. & Amano L. (2009)."Literature as a functional instrument in democracy" in the humanities and Nigeria's democratic experience p. 425, A.B.C. Chiegboka, Nwadigwe C. Umezinwa (Eds.).Nimo: Rex Charles and Patrick. Wellek and Warren A. (1949).Theory of Literature, New York: Pengium book.

Uru Asụsụ Ọdịnaala (Igbo) bara n’Ịkụziri ndị Okenye nọ n’Ime Eobodo maka Ọrụ Ugbo na Steeti Ebonyi, Nigeria.

N. Nwigwe na Eze, J. N. Department of Arts and Social Science Education Faculty of Education, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki .

Ụmịedemede Nchọcha a lebara anya n’uru asụsụ ọdịinala bara n’ịkụziri ndị okenye nọ n’ime obodo maka ọrụ ugbo na Steeti Ebonyi. Onye nchọcha gbasoro usoro sọvee kenkowa wee mee nchọcha a. Ajụjụ nchọcha abụọ ka e ji wee mee nchọcha a. Onye nchọcha ji usoro nsere ebumnuche wee họpụta ndị okenye dị otu narị na iri atọ (130) bụ ndị e ji mee nchọcha a, Ngwa nchocha bu njumaza nke ihe e depụtara n’ime ya di iri na asaa (17), bukwa nke onye nchọcha jiri aka ya depụta. E jiri pacenti (%) na miin ( ̅) wee zaa ajụjụ nchọcha. A chọpụtara na iji asụsụ ọdinala akụziri ndị okenye nọ n’ime obodo maka ọrụ ugbo na-eweta ọtụtụ uru ndị gụnyere: Ọ na- ewulite nkuzi na mmụta mee ka ọ dị ire; Ọ na-eme ka nkuzi na omụmụ ihe dị mfe na nghọta, Ọ na-eme ka ha na-enwe ọnụ oge ha na-amụ ihe n’ihi na ọ bụ asụsụ ha na-aghọta ka e ji akụziri ha. Ọzọ kwa, ọ na-eme ka a mata obodo onye si na ya, na-echekwara ha omenaala na nkwenye ha. Ọ na-eme ka udo na ịdịnotu na-achị n’etiti ndị ọrụ ugbo na ndị na-akụziri ha ihe. Ọ na-ebelata ọnọdụ itịbọrịbọ n’etiti ndị okenye ahụ bị n’ime obodo arụ ọrụ ugbo, dgz. Site n’ihe ndị a a chọpụtara onye nchọcha tụtara alọ ndị a; ka ndị na-akụziri ndị okenye maka ọrụ ugbo ga-abụ naanị ndị maara asụ ma na-ede asụsụ ọdịnaala ndị ha na-akụziri. Ọzọ kwa, ọ bụ naanị asụsụ ọdịnaala (Igbo) ka a ga-eji enye ọkwa di mkpa na mgbasa ozi ndị ọzọ maka ọrụ ugbo n’igwe okwu na nke onyonyo (redio na televishion). A ga-edepụta akwụkwọ jọnalụ maka ọrụ ugbo n’asụsụ ọdịnaala ma n’olundi ndị okenye ahụ a na-akuziri ihe, nke a ga-eme ka ha na-aghọta ihe a na-akọ banyere usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ n’ikọpụta na ichekwa ihe oriri. Nke a ga-enye

aka belata ụkọ ihe oriri na ụbịam na Steeti Ebonyi ma na gburugburu Naịjirịa niile.

Ọkpụrụkpụ Okwu: Asụsụ, Ọdinala, Ọrụ Ugbo, Ndị Okenye, Nkuzi na Mmụta.

Mkpọlite Asụsụ bụ ngwa mmadụ na ibe ya ji na-ezikọrita ozi ma na-akpakọrịta ụkà. Asụsụ bara ezigbo uru na mmekọrịta mmadụ na ibe ya. Ọ nweghi ọganiihu ọ bụla nwere ike ịbata n’etiti mmadụ na ibe ya, ma ọ bụ obodo na ibe ya ma ọ bụrụ na asụsụ adịghị. Ya mere m ji asị na asụsụ bụ “Ọdụmghaliakwụ” n’ịhụ na ndị mmadụ na-ebikọrịta n’udo n’obodo ha. E nwere ụdịdị asụsụ dị iche iche nke gụnyere asụsụ ọdịnaala na Asụsụ ndị mba ọzọ (asụsụ bekee, French, China na ndị ọzọ). Asụsụ ọdịnaala bụ njirimara ndị ọ bụla na agbụrụ ha si na ya. Obodo Naịjirịa nwere ọtụtụ asụsụ ọdịnaala karịrị narị ise (500) n’ọnụ ọgụgụ (Blench, 2012). Ha gụnyere asụsụ Igbo, Hausa, Yoruba bụ nke ndị na-achị achị họpụtara ka e jiri eme ihe. Ndị ọzọ gụnyere Efik, Ibibio, Kanuri, Echie, Ikwere, Fulfude, Tiv, Ijaw, Edo Annang. Asụsụ ndị a nwere ike ịbụ asụsụ mbụ mmadụ mụtara asụ n’oge ọ dị na nwata. E nwekwara ike ịkpọ ha asụsụ epum (mother tongue, L1). Asụsụ ọdịnaala bara nnukwu uru na nkuzi na mmụta, ọ kachasị n’iji akụziri ndị okenye bị n’ime obodo maka ọrụ ugbo ma ọ bụ ọrụ ubi na Steeti Ebonyi. Ọrụ ugbo/ubi bụ naanị ihe ọtụtụ ndị mmadụ na-arụ n’obodo Naịjirịa, ọ kachasị na Steeti Ebonyi. Ọ bụkwa site n’ọrụ ugbo ahụ ka ha si enweta ego, ihe oriri na ihe ha ji azụ ezinaụlọ ha. Mana kemgbe a chọpụtara akụ dị n’ime ala (mmanụ) n’afọ iri ise gara aga, ọtụtụ ndị mmadụ leghara ọrụ ugbo anya na-achọzi naanị ọrụ bekee n’obodo mepere emepe. Ọnọdụ ahụ wetara ụkọ ihe oriri n’ihi na ọ bụzi naanị ndị okenye bị i’ime obodo ka a hapụrù ọrụ ugbo, ndị amaghị agụ ma ọ bụ ede n’usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ n’ịkọpụta ọrụ ugbo.

Inwe nka aguede a na-ekwu maka ya bụ n’asụsụ ọdịnaala. Bamgbose (1998) kwụrụ na ọ bụ site n’iji asụsụ Ọdịnaala eme ihe ka Naịjirịa ga-eji gbanahụ ụkọ, agụụ na ụbịam. N’olu nke ya: inwe nka agụede n’asụsụ ọdịnaala ga-enyere ndị ọrụ ugbo bị n’ime obodo aka ịmata usoro ka mma itinye nri ala (fetiliza), mekwa ka ha hapụ usoro ochie ma nabata usoro ọhụrụ, si na ndị enweghi nka pụọ bụrụzie ndị nwere nka n’usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ n ịkọpụta ihe oriri. N’ụzọ di otu a ka ha ga- esi na-amụbawanye ihe ha na-akọpụta n’ọrụ ugbo. Site n’ihe ọkammụta a kwuru, o were ewu na ọkụkọ anya na iji asụsụ ọdịnaala akụziri ndị okenye maka ọrụ ugbo ga-eme ka ha na-aghọta ozi dị mkpa dịkà usoro e si etinye nri ala; ọrịa na ụmụ arụrụ na-emekpa ihe a kụrụ n’ugbo ahụ nakwa ụzọ a ga-esi ekpochapụ ha, mkpụrụ osisi ọgbara ọhụrụ ndị na-amị mkpụrụ nke ọma nakwa usoro e si akọpụta ha, oge ka mma iji akọnye ihe ọ bụla n’ala nakwa usoro e si echekwa ihe a kọpụtàrà n’ugbo ka ọ ghara imebi. Okonkwo (2006) na-akọwa na asụsụ ọdịnaala bara uru n’agụmakwụkwọ nakwa n’usoro nkịtị e ji amụ ihe na- abụghị n’ogige ụlọakwụkwọ. Ileghara asụsụ ọdịnaala anya bụ otu n’ime ihe na-adọlara Naịjirịa na ọtụtụ obodo ndị ọzọ na mba Afrika aka elekere azụ n’ihe gbasara nkanụzụ na usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ n’ikọpụta ihe oriri. Mana ọtụtụ obodo na mba ụwa dịkà China, Japan, Germany, South Korea na-enwekarị agamnihu n’ihe gbasara nkanụzụ na usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ e ji akọpụta ihe oriri n’ihi na ha nabatara ma na-ejikwa asụsụ ọdịnaala eme ihe n’ụzọ ọ bụla. Iji hụ na ndị okenye na-arụ ọrụ ugbo n’ime obodo na- aghọta maka nkanụzụ na usoro ọhụrụ n’ịkọpụta ọrụ ugbo gbadoro ukwu n’iji asụsụ ọdịnaala nke ọ na-asụ kemgbe ọ dị na nwata, asụsụ nne na nna ya jị zụlite ya, asụsụ ya na ndị ezinaụlọ ya, ụmụnne ya, ndị enyi na ndị agbata obi ya na- asụkọrịta. Ọ bụ asụsụ ọdịnaala ahụ ka o ji eche echiche,

akọwapụta onwe ya nke ọma n’etiti ndị mmadụ, na- egosịpụtakwa mmetụta obi ya. Ọ bụrụ na e leghara asụsụ ọdịnaala ahụ anya, jirizie asụsụ bekee n’ịkụziri ndị okenye ihe gbasara ọrụ ugbo, ọ ga-ewetara ya ọgbatauhie n’ihe a na- akọrọ ya. Ọ ga-adị ya ka e si n’ụlọ dupu ya n’ama ebe o nweghi onye ọ ma n’ihi na ọ gaghị aghọta ihe a na-ekwu banyere usoro ka mma n’ịkọpụta ihe oriri. Iji asụsụ ọdịnaala akụziri ndị okenye ọrụ ugbo na-eme ka mmụta dị ire. Ụfọdụ usoro nkuzi ndị na-adịikarị ire n’ịkụziri ndị okenye ọrụ ugbo bụ usoro ngosịputa. Fafunwa (1991) kwuru na usoro nkuzi a na-eme ka onye a na-akụziri na-ahu ihe a na-ekwu maka ya na-emekwa ihe a siri ya mee. N’ụzọ dị ọtụ a ka ha si na-amụta ihe a na-akụziri ha site n’iji asụsụ ọdịnaala. Maduka (2007) na-akọwa na asụsụ ọdịnaala na-enye aka na mwulite onwe nakwa idi na-eche echiche nke ọma n’ụzọ ga-enyere ha aka ịrụ ọrụ ugbo n’ụzọ o kwesiri. Ọ na- enyekwa aka n’ime ka ndị okenye ahụ nandị na-akụziri ha ihe na-enwe ezi mkparịta ụka banyere usoro ọhụrụ n’ịrụ ọrụ ugbo. Okafor (2008) kowara na usoro agụmakwụkwọ ma ọ bụ ọmụmụ ihe ọ bụla ga-agbanye mgbọrọgwụ n’asụsụ dabara adaba. O kwuru na o bụ site n’iji asụsụ dabara adaba ka agụmakwụkwo ma ọ bụ ọmụmụ ihe ahụ ga-esi weta amamihe, nka na ụkpụrụ di mma nke mmadụ ga-eji webata mgbanwo na ndụ ya nakwa n’oha obodo. Ọ bụ nke a mere na asụsụ ọdịnaala ji dị mkpa n’ikụziri ndị okenye maka ọrụ ugbo. Ugbo (2008) na-akọwa na asụsụ ọdịnaala na-enye aka n’iwulite nkuzi na ọmụmụ ihe maka ọru ugbo/ubi, na-emekwa ka ndị okenye nọ n’ime obodo na-aghota ihe a na-akụziri ha, na-ewulitekwa usoro ha jibu na-akọ ọrụ ugbo. N’aka nke ya, Onyemenam (2009) kwuru ka a na-eji asụsụ ọdịnaala akụziri ndị okenye maka ọrụ ugbo n’ihi na ọ ga-enyere ha aka ịmata nkanụzụ dị ire n’ikọpụta ihe oriri n’oge ugbu a;

Nsogbu Nchọcha E nwere ike iji ụdịdị asụsụ dị iche iche kuziere ndị okenye maka ọrụ ugbo. Asụsụ ọdịnaala bụ otu n’ime asụsụ e

nwere ike iji kụziere ndị okenye bi n’ime obodo maka usoro ọhụrụ n’ịrụ ọrụ ugbo. Ọtụtụ ndi okenye a bị n’ime obodo arụ ọrụ ugbo anaghị aghọta ihe a na-akụziri ha maka usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ n’ịkọpụta ihe oriri dị iche iche n’ihi na ọ bụ asụsụ bekee ka e ji edepụta ma na-agụpụta ihe ntụzi aka ọ bụla a na- enye ha. Iji maa atụ, ọ na-enye ha nsogbu ịmata mkpuru osisi nke ọgbara ọhụrụ ndị na-amịta mkpụrụ nke ọma, inwe nka n’usoro e si etinye nri ala, imata ọria na ụmụ arụrụ ndi na- emekpa ihe a kọrọ n’ugbo ahụ nakwa otu a ga-esi ekpochapụ ha, inwe nka otu e si ekpochapụ ahịhịa n’usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ, oge ka mma e ji akọnye ụdịrị nri ọ bụla nakwa usoro e si echekwa ihe a kọpụtara n’ugbo ka ọ ghara imebi. Ndị a na-akụziri bụ ndị okenye bi n’ime obodo. Ha amaghị agụ ma ọ bụ ede asụsụ bekee, naanị asụsụ ọdịnaala ka ha mara asụ, ya mere na a ga-asị na e ji asụsụ bekee akụziri ha maka ọrụ ugbo, mana ndị okenye ahụ ji asụsụ ọdịnaala na- akọpụta ọrụ ugbo. Ọnọdụ a na-ebute ọgbatauhie n’etiti ndi okenye ahụ na ndi na-akụziri ha ihe, nke mere na ha anaghi aghọta usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ n’irụ ọrụ ugbo. Nke a mere na ukọ ihe oriri na ubiam na-eti ndi mmadụ isi n’ala n’obodo Naịjirịa ọ kachasi na Steeti Ebonyi. Nchọcha a na-eleba anya ichọpụta ụrụ a ga-enweta site n’iji asụsụ ọdịnaala akụziri ndi okenye bi n’ime obodo maka ọrụ ugbo na Steeti Ebonyi.

Ebumnuche Nchọcha Ebụmnụche nchọcha a na-eleba anya 1. Ịchọputa njirimara ndi okenye na-arụ ọrụ ugbo na Steeti Ebonyi 2. Ịchọpụta uru asụsụ ọdịnaala bara n’ikụziri ndi okenye maka ọrụ ugbo. Ajụjụ Nchọcha 1. Kedu njirimara ndị okenye na-arụ ọrụ ugbo n’Ebonyi Steet? 2. Kedu uru asụsụ ọdịnaala bara n’ịkụziri ndị okenye maka ọrụ ugbo? Usoro A gbasoro Mee Nchọcha 35

Ụdịdị nchọcha e ji mee nchọcha bụ usoro sọvee kenkowa. Nworgu (2015) hụtara usoro sọvee kenkowa dịkà usoro na-akọwa otu ihe ma ọ bụ ọnọdụ dị n’etinyeghi ma ọ bu wepụ ihe ọ bụla n’ihe a na-ahụta anya n’oge ahụ. Usoro nchọcha a dabara n’isiokwu nchọcha n’ihi na ọ na-eleba anya ịchọpụta uru asụsụ ọdịnaala bara n’ikụziri ndị okenye maka ọrụ ugbo na Steeti Ebonyi. Ebe nchọcha gụnyere okpuru ọchịchị ime obodo iri na atọ (13 L.G.A) e nwere na Steeti Ebonyi. E ji usoro nsere ebumnuche họpụta ndị nchọcha gụnyere ndị okenye iri (10) n’okpuru ọchịchị nke ọ bụla. Ya mere na ọnụọgụ ndị okenye na-arụ ọrụ ugbo e jiri mee nchocha a di otu narị na iri ato (130 adult farmers). Ngwa e jiri mee nchọcha a bụ njụmaza. E jiri pacenti (%) hazie data e nwetara n’ajụjụ nchọcha nke mbụ, mana ajụjụ nchọcha nke abụọ ka e jiri miin (x) hazie ma tụchaa data e nwetara na ya. Akara miin bidoro na 2.50 gbagowe ka a nabatara dịkà azịza dabara n’ihe a na-achọ, ebe akara miin pekariri 2.50 bụ ndị a nabataghị na nchọcha a.

Ihe a chọpụtara Ajụjụ Nchọcha I Kedu njirimara ndị okenye na-arụ ọrụ ugbo na Steeti Ebonyi?

Table I: Ọsịsa banyere njirimara ndị na-arụ ọrụ ugbo na Steeti Ebonyi. N = 130 Njirimara Ha Ọnụọgụ zara Pacenti % A Afọ ha gbara 30 – 39 15 11.5% 40 – 49 40 30.8% 50 – 59 55 42.5% 6o karịa 20 15.4% B Oke/Nwunye Nwoke 80 61.5% Nwaànyị 50 38.5% 36

C Ogo Agụmakwụkwọ 60 46.2% ha 40 30.8% Agụghị akwụkwọ 20 15.4% Ogo praịmarị 10 7.6% Ogo sekọndiri Ogo N.C.E na OND D Alụmdi na Nwunye 110 84.6% Luru di/nwunye 20 15.4% Alụbeghị di/nwunye

Na tebulu nke mbụ, onye nchọcha jiri ụzọ ihe anọ wee gosịpụta njirimara ndị okenye na-arụ ọrụ ugbo n’ime obodo na Steeti Ebonyi. Ihe ndị a gụnyere; ileba anya n’afọ ole ha gbara, ọ bụ nwoke ka ọ bụ nwaànyị; ogo agụmakwụkwọ ha, na ịmata ma ha alụọla di/nwunye. Ahụtara na ọtụtụ ndị okenye ahụnọ na aghata afọ iri anọ ruo na iri ise na itoolu (40 – 59 yrs). Ndịụmụ nwoke di iri asatọ (80; 61.5%), ebe ụmụ nwaànyị dị iri ise (50; 38.5%). 60; 46.2% n’ime ha bu ndị agụghị akwụkwọ ma ncha, ebe 40; 30.8% bụndị gara nnanị ogo prịamarị ebe naanị 20; 15.4% gara ogo sekọndiri. Na tebụlụahụ, o gosịrị na ọtụtụ n’ime ndị okenye ahụalụọla di na nwunye, 110; 84.6%.

Ajụjụ Nchọcha II Kedu uru asụsụ ọdịnaala bara n‘ịkụziri ndị okenye maka ọrụ ugbo?

Tebulu II: Ọsịsa banyere uru asụsụ ọdịnaala bara n’ịkụziri ndị okenye maka ọrụ ugbo na Steeti Ebonyi. Ọnụ Ihe e depụtara () Sd Mkpebi ọgụ maka nchọcha 1. Ọ na-ewulite nkuzi 3.21 0.93 Nabata na mmụta, mee ka ọ 37

dị ire. 2 Ọ na-eme ka nkuzi na 3.29 0.86 Nabata ọmụmụihē dị mfe na nghọta 3 Ọ na-eme ka ha ghọta 3.20 0.82 Nabata ọtụtụ mkpụrụ okwu nke ha anaghị aghọta n’olu bekee 4. Ọ na-eme ka ha na- 3.18 0.78 Nabata etinye ihe a na- akụziri ha n’ ọrụ ozugbo. 5. Ọ na-eme ka ha na- 3.24 0.82 Nabata enwe ọnụ oge ha na- amụ ihe ọmụmụ 6. Ha na-agbaso usoro 3.42 0.71 Nabata ọnatarachi n’ịmụ nka di iche iche nakwa usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ n’ịrụ ọrụ ugbo. 7. Ọ na-echekwara ha 3.25 0.82 Nabata omenaala na nkwenye ha, amata obodo onye si na ya. 8. Ọ na-eme ka udo na 3.43 0.68 Nabata ịdịnotu na-achị n’etiti ndị ọrụ ugbo na ndị na-akuziri ha ihe. 9. Ọ na-ewulite 3.50 0.77 Nabata omenaala na nkanụzụ nke ọdịnaala 10. Ọ na-eme ka ndị 3.60 0.82 Nabata okenye ahụ na-aghọta ihe a na-akụziri ha nke ọma 11. Ọ na-ebelata ọnọdụ 3.46 0.78 Nabata ịtibọrịbọ n’etiti ndị 38

okenye bị n’ime obodo arụ ọrụ ugbo 12. Ọ na-eme ka ha na- 3.33 0.75 Nabata enwe agụụ ịmụta ihe na ịjụ ajụjụ 13. Ọ na-eme ka 3.13 0.78 Nabata ekereuche ha na- ewulite, ha na-eche echiche n’onwe ha.

Tebulu nke abụọ gosịrị ọsịsa miin ( ̅) dị iche iche a na-enweta n’iji asụsụ ọdịnaala akụziri ndị okenye bị n’ime obodo maka ọrụ ugbo. Data na-egosi na ndị nyere ọsịsa nabatara ihe niile e depụtara maka nchọcha site na nke mbụ ruo na nke iri na atọ (1 – 13), ndị akara miin ha bụ; 3.21, 3.29, 3.20, 3.18, 3.24, 3.42, 3.25, 3.43, 3.50, 3.60, 3.46, 3.33 na 3.13 n’otu n’otu. Nke a pụtara na ihe e depụtara maka nchọcha bụcha uru a na-enweta n’iji asụsụ ọdịnaala akụziri ndị okenye maka ọrụ ugbo na Steeti Ebonyi.

Mkparịta Ụkà n’ihe a Chọpụtara Ihe a chọpụtara gosịrị na ndị okenye a bi n’ime obodo arụ ọrụ ugbo, ọtụtụ n’ime ha nọ na agbata afọ iri anọ rue na iri ise na itoolu (40 – 59), nke na-egosị na ha a pụọla na ndị ntorobia. Ndị ọkammụta Onokerhoraye na Okafor (2011) kọwara na etiti ọnụọgụ afọ ole (average age) ndị okenye na- arụ ọrụ ugbo n’ime obodo na-agba arịgowela elu, site n’afọ iri atọ na ise rue n’afọ iri anọ (35–40 yrs). Ha kwuru na ihe na- ebute nke a bụ na ndị ntorobia na-apụsị n’ime obodo aga n’obodo mepere emepe ịchọ ọrụ bekee. Ọpụpụ ndị ntorobia n’ọrụ ugbo mere na ụkọ ihe oriri na-adịzi. Ọtụtụ n’ime ndị okenye ahụ bụ ndị nwoke, tinyekwara ndị nwaànyị. Ọtụtụ n’ime ha enweghị agụmakwụkwọ ọ bụla, ebe ọtụtụ ndị ọzọ gara naanị ogo praimarị. Ụdịrị ọnọdụ a bụ ihe a na-ahụtakarị n’ime obodo, agụghị akwụkwọ na-eme ka ndị mmadụ ghara inweta ọrụ nke ga-enyere ha aka ibi ndụ n’ụzọ o kwesịrị. Ọ bụkwa ya mere na agụụ na ubiam na-adịkarị n’ime obodo nke 39

mere na ndị mmadụ na-esi ebe ahụ eje n’obodo mepere emepe ịchọ ọrụ (Ijere, 2009). Ọzọ kwa, n’ihi na ọtụtụ ndị okenye ahụ alụọla di na nwunye, ọ gaghị adịrị ha mfe ịhapụ ezinaụlọ ha n’ime obodo jewe obodo mepere emepe. Nke a mere ha bị n’ime obodo arụ ọrụ ugbo nke bụ naanị ọrụ ha nwere ike ịrụ n’enweghị agụmakwụkwọ. Na tebụlụ nke abụọ, a chọpụtara na uru asụsụ ọdịnaala bara n’ịkụziri ndị okenye maka ọrụ ugbo gụnyere ihe ndị a; ọ na-ewulite nkụzi na mmụta mee ka ọ dị ire. Ọ na- emekwa ka nkụzi na ọmụmụ ihe dị mfe na nghọta. Ọ na-enye aka n’ighọta ọtụtụ mkpụrụ okwu bụ ndị ha enweghi ike ịghọta n’asụsụ bekee. Ọ na-eme ka ha na-etinye uche n’ihe a na- akụziri ha n’ọrụ ozugbo. Ọ na-eme ka ha na-enwe ọnụ oge ha na-amụ ihe omụmụ n’ihi na ha maara asụsụ e ji akuziri ha ihe. Ọ na-emekwa ka a mata obodo mmadụ si na ya, echekwara ha omenaala na nkwenye ha. Ọ na-eme ka udo na ịdịnotu na-achị n’etiti ndị ọrụ ugbo na ndị na-akụziri ha ihe. Ọ na-emekwa ka ọnọdụ itibọrịbọ belata n’etiti ndị ọrụ ugbo bị n’ime obodo. Ha na-enwe agụụ ịmụta ihe na ịjụ ajụjụ n’onwe ha n’ihi na e ji asụsụ ha maara akụziri ha. N’ikpeazụ, ọ na- ewụlite nka ekereuche ha, na-eme ka ha na-eche echiche nke ọma banyere otu ha ga-esi rụọ ọrụ ugbo nke ọma. Nchọcha a yitere nchọcha Ugbo (2010) na Bamgbose (2009) bụ ndị gbadoro ụkwụ n’uru dịgasị iche iche a na-enweta n’iji asụsụ ọdịnaala akụzi ihe, bụkwa ndị gụnyere ihe a chọpụtara na nchọcha a.

Mmechi na Nt ụta Alo Iji hụ na e mejupụtara ebumnuche n’ihe gbasara ịkụziri ndị okenye bi n’ime obodo maka ọrụ ugbo na Steeti Ebonyi, asụsụ ọdịnaala bara ezigbo uru n’ime nke ahụ. Site n’iji asụsụ ọdịnaala (Igbo), a ga-emejupụta ebumnuche; ihe mmụta nke ụbụrụ isi, ihe mmụta nke mmetụta obi na ihe mmụta nke omume. N’ụzọ dị otu a ka a ga-eji hụ na a chụrụ agụụ na ụbịam ọsọ ụkwụ eru ala na Steeti Ebonyi. N’ihi nke a, onye nchọcha tụtara alo ndị a;

1. A ga-ahụ na ndị na-akụziri ndị okenye bi n’ime obodo maka ọrụ ugbo bụ naanị ndị maara asụ ma na-ede n’asụsụ ọdịnaala ndị ha na-akụziri. 2. Jonalu maka ọrụ ugbo ka e kwesịrị ka e depụta n’asụsụ ọdịnaala na olundị ha, nke ga-eme ka ndị okenye ahụ na- aghọta ihe a na-akọ. 3. E kwesịrị izụpụta ọtụtụ ndị nkụzi maka ọrụ ugbo, ndị maara nke ekwe na-akụ n’ihe gbasara asụsụ ọdịnaala ndị ọ na- akụziri. 4. Mgbasa ozi ọ bụla n’igwe okwu na (radio na televishon) maka ọrụ ugbo ga-abụrịrị n’asụsụ ọdịnaala ka a ga-eji zie ozi ahụ. Nke a ga-enye aka hụ na ndị okenye na-arụ ọrụ ugbo na- aghọta maka ntụziaka ọ bụla a na-enye ha banyere usoro ọgbara ọhụrụ n’ịkọpụta ihe oriri na ichekwa ya. Nke a ga-eme ka ụkọ ihe oriri na ụbịam belata na Steeti Ebonyi ma na gburugburu obodo Naịjirịa.

Edensibia Bamgbose, A. (1998). Mother tongue Education U.S.A. Hemming way Press. Blench, R. (2012). An atlas of Nigerian Languages (3rd ed.) Cambridge UK Kay Williamson Education Foundation. Fafunwa, A. B. (1991). History of Education in Nigeria. NSP Educational Publishers Ltd. Ijere, M. O. (2009). Leading Issues in rural development. Enugu: Acena Ventures Ltd. Maduka, O. (2007). Citing a Lingua Franca for Nigeria new. Daily Times. P. 26. Nworgu, B. G. (2015). Educational Research: Basic Issues and Methodology. Nsukka University Trust Publishers. Okafor, M. I. (2008). Functional Mass Literacy Education through Indigenous languages a prerequisite for national development in Nigeria. Central Book Ltd 41

Agbor. Okonkwo, C. E. (2006). Mother tongue Education: A Reminder of some forgotten views to Nigerian Education. Journal of Research in Curriculum. 6,4(3) 69 – 80 Onokerhoraye, A. G. Na Okafor, F. C. (2011). Rural development and planning for Africa. Bening City. The Benin Social Sciences for Africa. Onyemenam, O. (2009). The Nigerian Languages and the teaching of English Language. London, longman. Ugbo, O. (2010). Benefits of indigenous languages on teaching and learning of adult farmers. Journal of Agriculture and Social Research 4(2) 60 - 69

Technology in Traditional Igbo Society with the Manifestation in the Modern Global Development

Gregory Madu Okparaeke Ph.D, Department of Industrial Technical Education College of Education Michael Okpara University of Agriculture Umudike Abia State 08063977328 [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract This paper examined Technology in the Traditional Igbo Society and the Manifestation in the Modern Global Society. The write up showed that the Igbo people from the cradle of her emergence as a society had been technologically oriented and prominent since they had always produced all their needs independent of external influences. Technology had enabled the Igbo people to be economically/socially viable with such indicators as prominence in metal works (smelting and black smiting), wood works (harvesting, processing and calving), pottery (moulding and firing), building (construction and dwelling), textile (spinning and weaving), agriculture (planting, harvesting, processing consumption) and many others. Archeological findings had shown that the Igbo had through all the ages of human civilization got involved in all stages of technology from the primitive to the modern eras. The technological ingenuity of the Igbo people had manifested glaringly during the Nigeria and Biafra war during which the made discoveries and produced military devices and equipment, exploit crude oil and built refinery,

constructed air ports and survived//resisted total annihilations for three decades without external assistants. The above achievements of the Igbo people were subjected to wastages since there was no development and continuity of their technological breakthrough after the war. The technological ingenuities of the Igbo which had been hindered by marginalization had helped the Igbo people for their post war survival and their economic progress/successes. The Igbo people had contributed immensely in the technological development of Nigeria in particular and the world in general. Certain challenges such as non enabling environment, political/social factors and under development had hindered the optimal development of the technology of the Igbo people. To overcome these hindrances that had prevented the development of the technology of the Igbo people, recommendations among which include: the Igbo people should encourage technological development through vocational training (apprenticeship), research; practical oriented technical, vocational, technological/engineering education/trainings are here by proffered.

Introduction Material culture had remained the bases for human existence on earth. This is evidenced by the fact that mankind can hardly survive without the supports of material resources such as food, water, clothes, shelter and air. These are material resources which had made live meaningful and worthwhile for humanity. In the quest for the betterment of living conditions of the people on earth efforts had been devoted to the development of material resources which had advanced human civilization through various stages of development. (Peil 1977) These stages of human development and civilization include: stone age, bone age, human settlement from wandering, domestication of animals, farming, Iron Age, copper age to mechanization, high tech electronics, computer and mechatronics stages. These stages were made possible by

the human resourcefulness in the development of instruments and methods called technology that facilitated the production of goods and services to ensure survival within the immediate environment of mankind. According to Izuegbu (2015) from the concept of nature, people have to work for their achievement of their common goals. People struggle to create for themselves what they think is good that will provide their basic needs that will ensure their survival and sustainability. To overcome the obstacles to the above challenges, man therefore developed tools and methods called technology. Technology had from ages to ages served as instrument to overcome the harsh effects of nature and to the development of the environment to make life bearable for humanity. The human race as rational and dynamic being had right from ages made giant strides towards the improvement of lives, overcoming natural and artificial challenges and transformation of his social and biological environments. The total sum of human activities that had imparted positively on the mother earth which had transcended from darkness to lightness and steady upgrade from one stage to another is called civilization. World Bank (No Date) explained civilization as a way of living in which people possess many tools to help them produce food and make the goods they need. World Bank added that to be civilized, a people must have a system of writing, know how to make metal implements, be able to transport goods over the land and the sea and have a government that protects property, punish evil doers and defend the people from unfriendly neighbors. Wallbank concluded that in order to attain civilization, and this meant the rise of works and cities made possible by technology and science. The above portrays technology as the prime mover of human progress, producer of human needs and creator of organized society. Therefore technology as the engine room of human development is propelled by education, research,

culture, science, tradition, values and other fields of human endeavors. Elekwa, Bamiro, Oluyide, Ladoye Nurudeen, Akuru and Olopade in Okparaeke (2010) defined technology as cultural tradition developed in human communities for dealing with their physical and biological environment. These cultural traditions include body of knowledge, skills and the procedures for making, using and doing things. Elekwa etal in Okparaeke further stressed that technology involves the methods and processes by which people produce and process, what they eat, drink and wear; provide shelters for themselves, communicate with one another and outsiders, defend themselves, tap their resources and ensure healthy living for the people. The above elaborate explanations showed that technology covers every aspects of human existence on earth. And that it had functioned from age to age in all the cultures. Right from time immemorial, technology had remained part and parcel of universal existence and therefore the prime mover or engine room of human existence. All the stages of human civilization have had subsisting technology which had guaranteed human survival, development and the sustainability of environment for mankind. All the stage of human development such as stone age, bone age, iron age, mechanization age, jet age, computer age and the present mechatronics age (application of mechanical to high tech electronics) technology had remain the bastion of productivity. Technology is as old as the universe, every community had always devised means of solving her problems and supplying her needs. Technology in one form or another whether in the primitive or modern societies had existed as need provider, problem solver and instrument for human survival. The discovery of agriculture marked the beginning of technology for mankind. This started with human settlement from hunting, wandering and collection of food from the wild. Food production gave room for the development of skills to

get implements for planting, harvesting, processing and consumption which had involved technological processes to mankind. Inevitably technology had influenced all methods of production of goods, providing all our needs and the totality of people’s lives and survivals in every society. Agreeably, technology had universally served as the engine rooms or back bones of all human productivities, developments and civilizations. Therefore all societies that had advanced their technologies are said to be developed countries while countries that have their technologies still backward are third world or developing countries. The levels of technological developments are determined by such indices like means or the methods of productivities such mechanizations or industrializations, products output, standard of living, life expectancies (life span) and per capital incomes.

Technology in Traditional Igbo Society The Igbo people had remained part and parcel of technological development of the globe. The Igbo people had undergone all stages and ages of human development and had produced/provided her needs as means of survival in her environment independent of external influences. Therefore Igbo people had been technologically oriented right from the initial moment of their emergence as a society. Ejiofor (2002) wrote that there are indication that the lgbo people had undergone various stages of civilization and technological development through the contacts made with other cultures in the long distant past as shown by lgbo Ukwu archeological findings and the antecedents of the people of Nri and Aguleri in more than four hundred years before the white men penetrated the west coast of Africa in their drive for imperial expansion. As evidenced by oral history, the lgbo people were said to be very rich in culture, tradition, economy, technology, crafts, creativity and civilization. The above attributes had been subjected to development and transformation.

Fafunwa (1974) classified the area where technology/crafts are prominent in traditional Africa societies which the traditional Igbo society is inclusive as: Agriculture which includes crops farming, fishing and ventinary (animal care and production).. Trades and crafts involving weaving (baskets and cloths), smelting (iron, silver, gold etc), hunting, carving (wood and bronze) sculpturing, painting/decoration, carpentry, building construction, barbing, drumming, dancing/acrobatic, hair plaiting, dress making, boat building, leather working, soap making, wine tapping and trading in all kind of merchandises. Others are professions involving herbal medication, priesthood, shrine keeping, hunting and leadership. The traditional lgbo society concentrated with yam production and according to research findings most yam and cocoa yam originated in West Africa. The lgbo people had very few food crops such as yams, okro, egwusi, oil palms, variety of rice and kolanut. Later banana, coco yam and plantain came from Asia. While tomatoes, cassava, maize and pepper came from America and later other food crops like guavas, cashew nuts and coconut emerged from Europe. The implement for the above crops production came from stone, bone, wood, while bushes were cleared by fire. Iron working started in lgbo land during the Christian eras from Nok from Northern Nigeria. And the Nok people acquired the technology of lron working from North Africa. lgbo people adopted the implement from iron working for clearing the bush, tilling the ground, planting, weeding, harvesting and food processing. (Isichie 1976) The above is the account of lgbo man’s initial technology for transition from wanderers and food gatherers to settler and agriculture. However the implements from stone, bone, wood and iron were equally employed for hunting, shelter provision and self deference. Njoku (2001) writing on technology in lgbo land wrote that in Africa according to western historians stated that trades, currencies, markets, net works, crafts men and crafts women of various

hues had been in operations in lgbo land before the advent of the Europeans in the area. That is to say that positive development in the realms of the economy and technology had been in progress before the advent of the Europeans and the sub sequent evolution of the trans- Atlantic trade. It is clear that slave trade derailed economic and technological development in lgbo land since able bodied, intelligent, skilled and gifted men and women were taken away forcefully which resulted to brain drain. Njoku (2001) classified technology and the industrial based production systems in Igbo land which are second in importance to agriculture as soil based – iron, salt, pottery; plant based as textile, mat/ allied weaving, wood working – wooden crafts, calabash, animal based crafts, - leather crafts and ivory crafts. Each of these areas served / sustained the lgbo communities and facilitated both internal and external trades. In another detailed presentation, Njoku (2001) stated that iron and the workings remained the foremost important technological system of the lgbo people that impacts on all aspects of lgbo economy/ society. Recently dated archaeological recoveries show Nsukka area as the oldest iron working centre in Nigeria that was followed by Nok. Iron industry formed the technological foundation of lgbo society. For instance, when building or destructing of kingdoms and empire iron weapons will be critically very important. Njoku (2001) added that iron production in the traditional lgbo society emerged as technological tools for production processes such as smelting which is the system of extracting iron from the ore in the furnaces through high intensive fire or heat with hard fire wood and the smelting which involves further processes of working on pig iron by the black smith to produce valuable items. Njoku identified lgbo areas where iron smelting took place based on historical evidences to include: Abriba, Okigwe, udi, Nsukka, Aku, Lejja, Opi and Orba. Iron smelting which is the craft of iron working had

been of great antiquity in lgbo land as noted from iron swords and razor found in lgbo Ukwu dating back to ninth century and from Ezira, dating back to fifteen century. These areas were more and very prominent in the mass iron working; Awka which got the raw iron smelted by Agbaja of Udi, Nkwere was another famous town which the smith skills in gun manufacture gave them the name Nkwere Opia Egbe. Abriba was another wealthy community of smiths which got her working raw iron from the mines of the Okigwe- Arochukwu ridge. Other areas where iron working took place in lgbo land include: Agulu- Umunna, Umukabia, Okpuala and some other area such as Ihitte and Uboma involved in low scale iron smiting. Both smelting and iron working were widely diffused in the Nsukka area (Isichei 1976). In a further presentation, Njoku (2001) wrote on the byproducts of iron working by saying that from the smith forge in lgbo land came title staff, ritual and ceremonial bells, pendants and anklets. Farmers relied on smiths for the production of such tools as diggers, machetes and hoes. Hunters needed traps, hunting bells, iron arrow tips and guns. Wood workers needed axes, cutlasses and carving knives, for such domestic utensils as door hinges, staples, nails, kitchen knives and tripod stands were produced by black smiths. Iron smiting impacted on all segment of traditional lgbo society Njoku added. Surprisingly, through the process of trial and error and self teaching, lgbo smiths replicated the worn-out parts of a gun. Over time, they were able to produce a whole gun and converted an inferior gun to a high caliber type within short instance Nkwere, Awaka and Udi smiths very easily converted flint lock guns to percussion cap guns. Surprisingly the local guns produced locally could scarcely be distinguished from the English made gun (/lsichie 1976 and Njoku 2001). Interestingly the lgbo were not left out in the technical assurance and inventiveness in lgboukwu true bronze made of copper, tin and lead abducted. The high class portrait demonstrated intricate craftsmanship. Other lgbo

artistic knowledge of metallurgy showed in objects like copper was jewelry/bracelets and anklets) and calabash handles made by beating and drawing pure copper for numerous purposes (lseichie 1976). Other soil based technological and crafts based products of the lgbo were:- Salt was one of the chief minerals in lgbo land used for domestic, industrial and medical purposes such as edible, promotion of fertility in women, treatment of dandruff and stomach ailments. Salt was equally used as additives for textile dyeing and soap making. In lgbo land salt was produced among the Ohaozara villages of Uburu, Okposi and Oshiri. The salt which was made from saline water from the salt lake was processed for use. The salt production at Ohaozara was done during dry season and the technology was based on heating furnaces, filtration and evaporation. The salt was a serious source of income that projected the Uburu as a prominent town in traditional lgbo hinter land (Njoku 2001)

Pottery: Pottery was one of the most traditional craft in lgbo land made from clay which predated the Neolithic Revolution. Potters produced pots, plates, bowls and other containers used for cooking, eating, boiling, storing, frying and drinking water. Other uses were religious purposes, storing agricultural products, marketing of salt and palm oil. The areas of lgbo land that was prominent for pottery were Afikpo, Nsukka, lnyi, lshiagu and lbeku. The technology/craft involved in pottery include: digging/exaction of pith or tunnels to extract clay, weathering/washing, mixing, moulding, drying, glazing and firing in the open (lsichie, 1976 and Njoku, 2001).

Plant based: Plant based technology/crafts forest resources were harnessed in lgbo land for various purposes, the plant based technology areas include:

Textile: Textile is one of the most manufactured and traded commodities in lgbo land made of cotton and fabric such as aji and raffia cloth. Cotton cloths produced mainly by women had these areas as production clusters of lgbo land: Ndoki especially Akwete, Anioma (Onitsha and Asaba), and Nsukka – Udi (Elugu). These women were spinning and weaving cotton dyed and made into garments. Anịọma women produce snowy white cloths from cotton with elaborate design and perforations use at ceremonies. Akwete in Ndoki was very renowned in the production of cotton cloth and the use of vertical loom in Nigeria. In Akwete the instructions on the technique of cloth production start early in life for girls which made every woman to know how to weave cotton cloth. The technology of textile production include: production of cotton yarn which was in five integrated stages of ginning, carding, spinning, dyeing and weaving. Ginning involves extraction of material from cotton by hand, selection of unwanted matter or placing the cotton on wooden block and rolling with metal bar. Carding is a method of disentangling the cotton fiber with carding bow made of salient wood of half into with the end attached to a string. Spinning was done on a wooden spindle about 150 to 200 mm long. To spin, a piece of cotton should be pulled out from the mass with the end attached to the spindle and as more cotton was drawn out thread of fluff will be obtained. Hand spinning takes time but the traditional lgbo women spinners were experts, flexible and faster. Dyeing was very specialized stage of textile production. The dye was obtained by burning green fire resistant wood. The ash was put in filtering device over earthen pot. The filter ash water had chemical constituent use to extract dye from the balls of indigo. The filtered ash water when mixed with indigo at a given proportion will result to the desire colour. And the dyeing take place when the cloth was dipped in the dye water. Weaving was done on vertical loom that produce

cloth in length of 1800 to 2700mm and width of 3600 to 6600mm. The horizontal looms produced much narrower stripe of cloths. Textile technological or industrial processes were very prominent among the pre-colonial lgbo in the production of cloths in such areas like Akwete in Ndoki, Nsukka and Abriba.

Mats and allied weaving in lgbo land Mats were weaved from the leaves of pandamus plants cut and dried in the sun. These plants were grown in swampy and saline areas such as Uturu. The leaves which were split into mats without the use of looms but with principles of inter-lacing wefts and wafts applied. The edges were rimmed with special ropes to secure the mats. In lgbo land mats were used for sitting, sleeping, screens and ceilings in homes. Mats are also used for carrying, storing and seasoning of various agricultural products. Equally the lgbo made mats from rafria palm. The byproducts of palm trees were put into such uses like beds for sitting and sleeping, brooms for sweeping, palm leaves and stems for roofing, baskets for collection and processing food. Palm products could equally serve as walls and doors of building. The palm fibers serve as energy for cooking and lighting, palm oil served as delicacy to the people. Historically, palm produces from Igbo land served as lubricants in Europe which facilitated the success of industrial revolution of 17 th century. What crude oil is to Nigeria today was what palm produce was to the Igbo then.

Wood working: Wood working had remained very prominent traditional art and craft in the traditional lgbo society due to the abundance of trees as forest resources. Igbo land as forest area grows a lot of trees which supports wood work occupation. Wood working, calving and art work produced products of utilitarian values and socio-cultural significance. Domestic utensils and house hold furniture, such as mortars

and pestles were made from hard wood. Other utensils were ladles, spoons, plates, saucers trays and bowls were produced from wood. The lgbo wood makers produced musical instrument like wooden drum: - ekwe and the lkoro which is giant ekwe like that stood as symbol of greatness and identity of each community. The Ikoro was used during emergency to gather the people to the village square, herading the starting of war, announcement of the return of heroes from war and broad casting about the death of great people. The lgbo wood workers produced doors with animal carvings and the above products. Also produced from wood are stools of one, three or four legs for the Nze, Ọzọ and other title holders. The lgbo people of the riversides were involved in boat building for water transportation and celebration of festivals. Therefore‚ wood working arts and crafts caught across the length and breath of all the lgbo people. The technology of wood working spanned through all the stages of human civilization- the stone, bone, fire, iron etc. The implement of the above ages were used for wood processing. For instance‚ fire was used to fell big trees, while holes were bored on logs with fire.

Use of calabash in lgbo land Calabash which grew from creeping plants produced fruits or gourds which were harnessed, cut open and the internal content removed. Calabash served the same purposes which earthen wares served such as storing and fetching water, traveling with or storing agricultural produce, drinking water or wine. Large calabashes were used for cloth washing. Some calabashes were carved upon to make them decorative and Pleasants. Therefore calabash technology and uses were very prominent in lgbo land.

Animal based crafts The technology of production of animal products such as hide and skins was prominent in lgbo land. These products

of animals were sourced from wild animal such as elephants, lions, tigers, antelopes, leopards, snakes and many others. The skins of the above animals were used as mats for sitting and sleeping and equally as cloths. They were equally used as decorative furnitures at homes and heroic display by hunters who answered lion or tiger killers.

Ivory craft Another product of animal use in lgbo land was ivory. The elephants were hunted for meat and ivory. The elephants were available from Cross river basin, Anambra and from Niger flood plains. The lgbo people used elephant tusks and ivory for religious and social purposes of display of wealth. Till this day‚ it serves as important items in the regalia of Ọzọ, Eze, Nze and other title holders in lgbo land. These items are used as symbols of wealth and staff of offices of important dignitaries of reputes in Igbo land as artifacts of technological developments and productivities. The above technological systems which had existed with people from one generation to another had been as old as mankind. These technologies had been transferred from one generation to the other through training, apprenticeship, and teaching, coaching, and mentoring. These had enabled the emergence of craftsmen and entrepreneurs, cultural transformations and each generation bequiting the system of production to the coming generation to ensure continuity. (Bokini 2005, National Teachers Institute 2000 and Obiegbu 2002)

Manifestation of lgbo technology in modern global era: Technology and craft in lgbo land demonstrated dynamism, diversification, self reliant, sense of industry and broad based productivity systems. The lgbo people in the traditional time had an inclusive technology and craftsmanship which demonstrated hard work, creativity, innovation and self sufficiency which have manifested in the present global technological period with the lgbo people

playing both active and participatory roles nationally and internationally. These were demonstrated during the Nigeria- Biafran war when the lgbo people produced technological breakthrough such as construction of airports, building of oil refinery, flying bombs and others. (Madiebo 1980 and Emefiena 2013) Making presentation on Biafran Technology‚ Onwuhanze (2008) made extensive written works that in the three years of war, necessity gave birth to invention, we built bombs, rockets and our own delivery system. Blockaded without hope of importation, we maintained engines, machines and technical equipment with our Igbo technological ingenuity and creativities. The lgbo people extracted and refined petrol from crude oil, built and maintained airport, spoke to the world through telecommunication system engineered by local ingenuity. Onwuhanze added that the lgbo people built armored cars, tanks, modified aircraft from trainer air crafts to fighters, from passengers air crafts to bombers and had therefore broken the technological barrier of the black race. Onwuhanze concluded that the technological fits and ingenuity of the Igbo people manifested during the war. However these technological break throughs were not harnessed by the Nigerian Federal government. The entire achievements were wasted just like that. Nnamocha (2019) stressed that every citizen of the country no matter which geographical section of origin should be trained to develop the nation through technical education being given topmost priorities since it encourages the aspirants to come up with their initiatives and develop their potentials. These build high levels of confidence and sense of self respects in individuals and nations. If a country have enough skilled man powers, there will not be extensive or over dependence on other nations nor rely on compulsory collaboration with advanced countries of the world to harness and develop their human and material resources. Nnamocha questioned that one should have to imagine why most of our

construction, manufacturing, extractive and many other industries die when the technical partners leave? Have we asked the question why we can not run or maintain our refineries rather we get involved in the importation of petroleum products? Why we have continued to import arms and ammunitions in spite of the progress made during the Nigerian and Biafran war. Nnamocha lamented that the Biafrans constructed air ports, tunnels, Ojukwu bunkers, built refineries that refined their petroleum products and yet all our industries are subjected to foreign dominance. Nnamocha concluded that ogbunigwe technology invented during the Nigeria and Biafra war had been allowed to die. Many other discoveries made during the war with the potentials of Aba, Nnewi and Onitsha technologies have not been harnessed for the benefits of the nation by the successive government of the federation on the ground that could be said to be devoid of national development interests. Writing further on the manifestation of lgbo traditional technological background on the modern global development, Ejiofor (2002) wrote that lgbo people had produced great personalities in all field of human endeavour among who are one of the first and greatest Nigerian engineers as Prof. Gordian Ezekwe. Ejiofor added that lgbo people had equally produced some of the world’s best known power and computer scientists like Prof. Barth Nnaji and Dr Philip Emeagwali the internet genius among others. Writing further on the technological ingenuity of the lgbo in the modern era, Oluwole in Enefiena (2013) stated that had the lgbo people closed their eyes to the antics of politics of the Nigerian state and harnessed their God given talents in the areas of commerce and technology, their story would have been different. If this had been done, it would not have taken them up to 20 years to be dictating the commercial and technological pace of the whole Africa. All other things including political powers of which they had been a poor player would have been added at last. The Igbo lack cohesion

as well as the governance to actualize their ideas technologically, politically and economically, Oluwole in Emefiena concluded. All the above are on how the traditional lgbo technological identities had manifested in the modern global era. The lgbo people as gifted/talented society had always demonstrated creativity, innovation and hard work technologically in the modern global eras. Igbo sons and daughters are involved in the production and maintenance in all aspects of engineering and technological devices, plants and equipment internally and in all the advanced countries of the world. Within Nigeria and other African countries, Igbo sons and daughters dominate electrical, electronics, computer, auto mobile, GSM and many other works. The fix motor vehicles and competent drivers of the emerging technologies, computers, handsets, tricycles. These are indicators that the technologies of the traditional Igbo society manifested in the modern global eras. This is because when an Igbo man watches the manipulation of technological process or knows how the observation will be replicated with perfections.

Obstacles hindering positive development of technology of the Igbo people in the modern global society The lgbo people could not realize their technological and industrial potentials because according to Ogu (2015), the greatest problem of the lgbo nation is the relegation and marginalization in Nigeria since 95 percent of Nigerian economic superstructures and political power is dominated by the rest of Nigerians other than the lgbo people. Consequently, the South Eastern citizens are alienated from the national common wealth and discriminated against in the employment market. Ogu added that, the lgbo are denied refinery, rail way lines, major industries, political appointments and politicization of second Niger Bridge. This had necessitated a provocative question, where is the country? Ogu lamented. Achebe (1983) lamented against the creation of lesser number of states and local government

areas in South East by successive Federal governments aimed at the reduction of revenues from the federation accounts. Achebe added that the above deprivations against the South East were made since the federating units served as fiscal arrangement that determines the shares of the revenue allocation from the federation accounts. Presently, South East zone have five states while other zones had six or seven states. And out of the 774 local governments in Nigeria, South East had only 94 while Kano state alone had 44 local government areas. And revenue allocation from the Federation accounts to the zones are based on created states and local government areas Achebe (1983) equally spoke against the deprivation against the Igbo people from the sitting of major federal industries, huge irrigation schemes and agricultural projects of revolutionary dimensions. Achebe also condemned the exclusion of the South East in the establishment of five steel industries and rolling mills worth 4.5 billions of naira with estimated employment capacity of 100,000 only in the North and West of the country. Besides, the technological breakthrough and achievements made by the Igbo people during the war were not developed rather they were abandoned to wastage. This is contrary to the post Second World War situations during which advanced countries harnessed and developed the technological achievement of the Adolphus Hitler of Germany and those of Japan for the benefits of mankind. Externally imposed marginalization had no doubt hindered technological development of the Igbo people, the Igbo people are equally the problem to their development, many most of the state governors of Igbo states had left many industries and agricultural project built by the past governments to be defunct and dead without reactivations to make them functional. Igbo states’ governments and other political office holders at levels of governances are not establishing or encouraging the people through enabling environment to invest in new industries or agricultural projects like live stock production. The present day Igbo had turned to generation of

consumers of imported goods instead producers/exporters of goods to other lands. We import practically everything we use. This development is contrary to the technological culture of the traditional Igbo society that was inward looking and self sufficient.

The attitudes of Igbo sons and daughters who are working in federal agencies that use their positions against the progress of their people had remained disturbing. How can one justify situations whereby goods imported by Igbo businessmen will be cleared at the sea ports and transported across more than five states of the West only to be seized in the South East by Nigerian Customs and Exercise dominated by Igbo sons and daughters in the East? Of more concerns are the activities of the Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC) members in Igbo land who instead of the use of corrective measures as safety re-engineering to motorist penalize them with large sum of money when FRSC members in the other parts of the country hardly fine road offenders thereby, causing capital flight from Igbo land. During the ban on rice importation sagas, a bag of rice sent home to relative from the North or West will be seized by the security operative in the South-East or South-South after crossing so many states in the North and West as country bound. The above is not implying that these agencies should not do their work; there should be the need for human face. Beside, the above high handedness is not applicable in the Northern and Western parts of the country. The act of confiscating imported goods in the markets in only in certain part of the country instead of at the boarder posts stood condemned. Other factors that had militated against industrializations and technological developments in the modern Igbo land include fraud, arm robbery, embezzlement, stealing, insecurity, internet fraud, kidnapping and others. The non availability of such infrastructures like electricity, water, gas, good road network rail transportation system and internet

services had increased the cost of establishing business in South East. Many of the state governments in Igbo land are over taxing and extorting businesses and industries in their states. This had discouraged prospective investors from establishing industries and business ventures in Igbo land. The above non equitable distribution of the national resources and the non location of federal industries, agricultural projects with denial of the supposed numbers of states and local government in the South East with some short comings of the Igbo people themselves had continued to deter the technological development of the Igbo people. Many Igbo entrepreneurs prefer to establish their factories, industrial complexes and businesses outside Igbo enclave both within the country and abroad, the think home philosophy not with standing. These core Igbo investors had refused to learn from the ugly experience of the abandoned properties syndromes. Should all these sons and daughters of the Igbo decide to invest in their home land, there will be faster industrialization, technological advancement and micro and macro economic development. This is because the availability of industrial and technological infrastructures and production systems facilitate practices and experiences that support technological development that will in return, lead to production of skilled manpower that will institutionalize economic growth and technological development to have manifested in these global technological eras. Equally, provision of conducive/enabling crime free environments to enhance industrialization and technological advancements to globally acclaimed standards are lacking in the present Igbo society. However, this is more so because the nation adopted Federal character and quota system in the selection of candidates for placement in her educational system and employment which have not accorded merits and competitiveness and competence top priorities. In Nigeria placement in educational institutions, or recruitment or

employment are not offered to the best candidates rather to those from a section of the country especially those from Northern Nigeria more than those from the southern Nigeria. Known technological advanced countries of the world do promote merit in the selection of candidate into their institution and manpower for their workforces to institutionalize creativity, innovation and technological breakthrough. The technological advanced countries do not discriminate against their citizens or even foreigners who are talented to achieve their technological or industrial goals in the quest for their economic development. According Onwuka (2005), the Federal government created educational disadvantaged and educationally advantaged states, certain amount of money have always been set aside and allocated to the educationally disadvantaged only. Onwuka added that the federal government invests huge sums of money to sponsor universities in the educationally disadvantage areas while those in advantaged areas are underfunded. Study by Gravenir (1983) showed that the federal government unit cost of maintaining a student in Southern Nigeria to be #2678 while that for maintaining a student in Northern Nigeria is #8717. The money located for maintaining one student of the universities in Northern Nigeria will be enough for the maintenance of 3 students in Southern Nigeria. The above funding policy was designed to close the educational gap between the North and the South. The above discriminatory funding policy cannot transform or promote the technological development of the nation and those of ethnic nationality like the Igbo in this modern global era. Above all, technological development will always elude a nation which her educational system is characterized with resume falsification, plagiarism, cheating, examination malfeasance, sexual harassment, contract kick back, and obligatory purchase by students lecture notes. Parts of this type of country involved in the above practices can hardly

progress socially, economically, technological or politically. (Saint, Hartnet and Stressner 2003). Okebukola (2010) decried that the nation had been subjected to growing menace of students’ gansterism, cult practice, armed robbery, kidnapping and other forms of violence and destructive behaviours. This Okebukola concluded that can hardly facilitate technological advancement to the known international standards of developed countries of world.

Conclusion The traditional Igbo society as a people had demonstrated age long affinity to technological development in line with all stages of human civilization. The traditional Igbo industries produced goods and services based on the subsisting technology that were prevalent in those eras with the use of materials and human resources available then which symbolized inward looking and self sufficiency. The above technological achievement had manifested in the global technological development that have been evidenced by the Igbo people taking the center stages of Nigerian and indeed global technological development. During the Nigerian- Biafran war the people made a lot of technological discoveries, innovations and developments of military harwares, crude oil exploration/refining and other areas. These benefits were not encouraged and developed further after the war which could be said to be set backs to the quest for technological development to Africa and the Black Race. In the post war eras the Igbo people have contributed immensely to the technological development of Nigeria in all the fields such as manufacturing, construction, aviation, marine, transportations, information communication technology and many others. However, the slow rate of investment due to so many factors has affected industrialization and technological developments in Igbo land in this modern global systems. If the technological talents and ingenuities of the Igbo could be harnessed and encouraged

and developed the Igbo people have the capacities and capabilities of becoming a world technological power like China, Japan, USA, Britain, France, Russia, Germany and others.

Recommendations  The Igbo people should encourage technological development through vocational training (apprenticeship), research, practical oriented technical, vocational, technological engineering education/ trainings.  Igbo people should encourage their sons and daughters to study overseas in such areas like aeronautic engineering, marine engineering, space technology, automotive production, computer engineering to acquire the necessary production skills and competencies with which to transform Igbo people to higher technological production nationality instead of being consumer oriented and dumping ground for local goods outside Igbo enclaves and foreign industrial goods.  Government of Igbo states should reactivate factories and industries such as breweries, Niger cement, Niger steel, Avutu poultry and many others through consationing to core investors to encourage technological development and employment of the teaming unemployed.  State governments in Igbo land should encourage industrialization through the provision of amenities/infrastructures like assess road, water supply, electricity and telecommunication facilities to encourage investors to develop Igbo land.  State governments in Igbo land should prevent over taxation of business establishments, factories, industries and agricultural companies. The above agencies should be offered tax incentives/ rebates to encourage more investments in Igbo land. 64

 Igbo sons and daughters working overseas who possess competencies or are experts in technological/engineering fields should come home to develop Igbo land technologically.  Igbo entrepreneurs all over the world should minimize their rate of investment outside Igbo land. They should return home to do their investment to secure their investment and help to develop their father land.  Governments and security agencies in Igbo states should ensure safety and security of lives, properties, establishments and investment, to encourage continuity of existing businesses and new investment being made.  Igbo people should be united as to speak with one voice to discourage marginalization to facilitate the establishment of federal industries and agriculture in Igbo land.  All technological discoveries, innovations, creativities, findings or changes such as those developed by the Biafrans during the war should not be allowed to get wasted, the part of the country that did the discovery or development notwithstanding. Such break through should be developed for the good of mankind just as the developed countries utilized the breakthrough of the Germans after the Second World War .

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Ndị Igbo na Nkwalite Asụsụ Igbo

Nke si n’aka

Ndubuisi Ahamefula Ngalaba Lingwistiks, Igbo na Asụsụ Naijiria ndị ọzọ, Mahadum Naijiria, Nsụka [email protected] , 08060835212

Chinwe Nwaudu. Udechukwu Ngalaba Ọmụmụ Izugbe, Mahadum Naijiria, Alaka dị n’E nugwu Ngalaba Lingwistiks, Igbo na Asụsụ Naijiria ndị ọzọ, Mahadum Naijiria, Nsụka [email protected]

Umịedemede Nsogbu asụsụ Igbo na-enwe si n’aka ndi Igbo n’onwe ha. Anyị ga-asa ajụjụ ọ bụla gbasara ihe mere asụsụ Igbo. Akwụkwọ a na-atụle ihe na-ebute ọdịda ma ọ bụ ọnwụ asụsụ Igbo. Ọ na-atụlekwa ihe ndị anyị kwesiri ime ka asụsụ Igbo nweta ọnọdụ kwesiri ya na Naịjirịa nakwa na mba ụwa niile n’ihi na ndị Igbo anaghi eti mmanwụ a na-akwa aka. Nkụ dị na mba na-eghere mba nri. Anyị kwesịrị ime asụsụ Igbo anyị a ka ọ bụrụ a kwaa a kwụrụ. Nke a ga-ebido n’ ezinaụlọ na ogbe ndị Igbo niile, gawa n’ụlọụka, ọmaahịa, ụlọakwụkwọ, ụlọikpe, ụlọ mbipụta akwụkwọ, ụlọ ndị omeiwu, ụlọọrụ ga nke gụnyere ụlọ mgbasa ozi dị iche iche na ụlọọrụ gọọmentị dị iche iche: O doro anya na anyị kwesịrị ịgba mbọ mee ka asụsụ Igbo kwụrụ chịm. Akwụkwọ a ga-atụlekwa ọnọdụ Igbo n’ebe ọ gbasara igwe kọmputa, ekwentị mkpanaaka na ọwaikuku nntanetị. Nkebi ndị dị n’akwụkwọ a gụnyere ndubata, asụsụ Igbo n'ụlọ akwụkwọ dị iche iche, asụsụ Igbo

n'ezinaụlọ ndị Igbo, asụsụ Igbo n'aha ndị Igbo, asụsụ Igbo n'edemede, asụsụ Igbo n'usoro odide Igbo, asụsụ Igbo na mgbasa akụkọ, asụsụ Igbo n'ekwentị mkpanaaka na nchịkọta.

Ndubata Tupu anyị ekwuwe okwu gbasara ọnọdụ ndị Igbo nyere asụsu Igbo, anyị ga-ebu ụzọ jụọ onwe anyị ajụjụ n’otu n’otu, kedụ asụsụ anyị na-asụ n’ezinaụlọ anyị ya bụ nke anyị na nwunye anyị ụmụ amyị ma ọ bụ ndị ikwu na ibe na-asụ ya bụ nke anyị ji akparịta ụka. Ajụjụ ndị ọzọ bụ: Kedụ ebe mmasị anyị dị mgbe anyị na-atụle ihe ụmụ anyị ma ọ bụ ndị ikwu na ibe anyị na ha bi n’ụlọ metere n’ụlọ akwụkwọ ha dị iche iche? Mgbe anyị na-ekpe ekere, kedụ asụsụ anyị ji ekpe ya? Kedụ asụsụ anyị ji edere enyi anyị ma ọ bụ nwanne anyị ozi mgbe anyị bịara nleta ya bụrụ na ha anọghị ya? Kedụ asụsụ anyị ji ede ihe n’ọwa ikuku dị ka mgbe anyị na-akparịta ụka n’ọ wa facebook ma ọ bụ ọwa ndị ọzọ dị iche iche. N’ịga n’ihu n’ajụjụ anyị, kedụ asụsụ amyị na-asụ ma anyị bịa ọgbakọ mmụta asụsụ Igbo ma ọ bụ mgbe anyị na- eme ọgbakọ ndị obodo anyị dị iche iche? ọ zọ , onye ọ bụla jụọ onwe ya asụsụ o ji eche echiche ma ọ bụ nke o ji arọ nrọ Kedụ ụdị egwu ị na-egerewe? Mgbe ị na-achọ ibupụta akwụkwọ dị iche iche, kedụ asụsụ na-amasịkarị gị iji mee nke a? Ọ bụ Bekee, Fụrench ka ọ bụ Igbo? Ị zachaa ajụjụ ndị a, zaa ajụjụ ihe gbasara oche ndị Igbo nyere asụsụ ha. Eziokwu dị ya bụ na asụsụ Igbo na-anwụ anwụ. Ọ na- anwụ n’ike n’ike. Ọtụtụ ụmụaka Igbo anaghị asụzi asụsụ Igbo. Na mgbe adịghị anya, ọ bụrụ na anyị akwalịteghị Igbo, o nwere ike ịnwụ pịị. Dị ka o si dị ugbu a, ọtụtụ na-eche na Igbo anwụọla. Ọnụkawa (2011:2) tara ụkwa jaa eze ma bekwa akwa arịrị banyere ọnwụ asụsụ Igbo na-achọ inwụ ma kwuo sị na e mee ngwa ngwa e meghara ọdachi.

Asụsụ Igbo n’ụlọ Akwụkwọ dị iche iche. Otu a ka ọ dịkwa na nke ndị ọtaakara. Ọ bụghị ụbọchị niile ka a na-akụzi asụsụ Igbo ma a na-akụzi Asụsụ Bekee kwa ụbọchị ọ bụladị n’ala Igbo, ala ndị nwe asụsụ a. ọ dịghị

anya mgbe e bidoro manyewe ụmụ akwụkwọ ndị sekọndịrị niile n’ala Igbo ka ha mụwa Asụsụ Igbo ma lekwaa ya n’ule WASKỊ. Na mbụ naanị Asụsụ Bekee bụ nke onye ọ bụla ga- emerịrị. Otu ihe kwesiri ka e leba ya anya bụ ịchọ Asụsụ Bekee n’aka ụmụ akwụkwọ ndị na-achọ ịba mahadum ka ha mụta Asụsụ Igbo. O kweghị nghọta ka Asụsụ Bekee si bụrụ otu ihe a chọrọ n’aka ụmụ akwụkwọ chọrọ ịmụ Igbo. Ihe ọzọ na-agba anya mmiri banyere agwa anyị bụ ndị Igbo na- akpaso asụsụ anyị bụ na a bia n’ụlọ akwụkwọ ụfọdụ anaghị ekwe ụmụaka sụọ Igbo na klaasi ha. Ihe ọzọ ekweghị nghọta bụ na anyị enweghị ụlọ ọpụrụ iche maka Asụsụ na Omenaala Igbo na Mahadum ụfọdụ dị n’ala Igbo nke Mahadum Nsụka bụ otu n’ime ha n’abụghị na e bidoro n’afọ 2011 kpebie na a ga-ehiwe otu na Nsụka. Kedụ ihe ha na-eme kamgbe? Ọnọdụ ọzọ dị mwute anyị nyere Igbo bụ na a gbabeghị mbọ tinye asụsụ Igbo n’ime otu ihe ọmụmụ ozuru mahadum ọnụ, ya bụ General Studies. Ọ dị mkpa ka nwa akwụkwọ ọ bụla batara mahadum ọ bụla dị n’ala Igbo nwe ohere pụrụ iche ịmụ Asụsụ Igbo na Omenaala. Tupu anyị esi na nkebi akwụkwọ a pụọ, ọ dị ihe na- ewute m nke ukwuu m chọrọ irụtụ aka. Na mgbe adịbeghị anya, ahụrụ m otu akwụkwọ akpọmoku nke si n’aka ndi Fullbright Scholarship Programme dị n’Amerika ndị na-ahụ maka mgbanwerịta ndị nkụzi n’etiti ndị Naịjirịa na ndị Amerịka. N’akwụkwọ a, ha nyere ndị nkụzi mahadum niile dị na Naịjirịa ohere ọma ịga Amerịka kuzie asụsụ Naịjirịa ma werekwa ohere ahụ mụọ ka e si akụzi asụsụ Bekee. Ma otu ihe dị m oke mwute bụ na Igbo esoghị n’asụsụ ndị e depụtara ebe ahụ. Naanị asụsụ dị ya bụ Awụsa na Yoruba. N’Oẋford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 7th edition, a kọwara Igbo dị ka asụsụ a na-asụ na mpaghara ọwụwa anyanwụ Naịjirịa, kọwaa Awụsa dị ka asụsụ ndị Awụsa nọ n’Afrịka, nke a na- asụzi bụrụ ugbu a na Naịjirịa na mba Africa ndị ọzọ dị ka asụsụ mmekọrị ta nye ọtụtụ ndị mmadụ si mba dị iche iche. Ha kọwara Yoruba dị ka asụsụ ndị Yoruba bi n’Afrịka, nke buzi asụsụ gọọmenti họpụtara (official language). Ọ di mwute etu e si bulie asụsụ ndị ọzọ elu ma budaa asụsụ Igbo ala site

n’ụdị nkọwa e nyere ya ebe a. E wee na-ajụ, kedụ mgbe ọ bụ Naanị asụsụ Yoruba ka ndị gọọmenti họpụtara? Kedụ ka nke a si feba ha na ntị? E leghị anya, ọ bụrụ o sitere ka ndị Yoruba si ebuli asụsụ ha elu.

Asụsụ Igbo na Ezinaụlọ ndị Igbo. Ọ dị ezigbo mwute na ndị nne na nna anaghị asụrụ ụmụ ha asụsụ Igbo ma ọ bụ nabata ka ụmụ ha na-eji asụsụ Igbo akparịta ụka n’etiti ibe ha. Ha na-eche na nke a ga- agbarụ nghọta ha nwere n’Asụsụ Igbo. Naanị ekele Bekee ka ụmụaka maazi bụrụ ugbu a. Mgbe ụfọdụ, ihe a na-ahụta bụ ịsụọrọ ụmụaka Igbo ha ewere Bekee zaghachi gị. Ndị nne na nna na-anọrọ n’akụkụ na-asị, “ụmụ m na-anụ Igbo ma ha anaghị asụ asụ”

Asụsụ Igbo na Aha ndị Igbo Ihe anyị na-ahụ bụrụ ugbu a bụ ndị Igbo iji aka ha emebisi ezi aha ha ebe ha na-achọ ka aha ha dị ka nke ndị Bekee. Onye na-aza Ikechukwu ga-asị ka a kpọwazie ya IK ma ọ bụ Iyke. Otu a ka ọ dịkwa n’otụtụ aha Igbo ndị ọzọ dị ka e si depụta ha ebe a. Ezi Aha Igbo Ngwakọrịta Aha Igbo na Bekee Chukwuemeka Chuks, Emmy, Mekus Obinna Obaino, Akachukwu Aka God Chiọma Chayọ ma, ChyChy Chinyere, Chiọma ChyChy Uchenna UC, Ucheson Ndụ bụ isi ND Ngọ zi NG Tochukwu To God Ucheọ ma Uchefine Nweke Ekeson Izuchukwu Izu God

Asụsụ Igbo na Edemede Anyị nwere ọtụtụ ụmụafọ Igbo a na-anụ aha ha n’ihe

gbasara edemede, ndị gụnyere Chinua Achebe, Cyprian Ekwensi, Ọnụọra Nzekwu w.d.g. Ha dere akwụkwọ ha n’Asụsụ Bekee. Na mgbe gara aga, ọ dị mgbe echiche anyị bụ na ndị Igbo enweghị ike iji asụsụ ha depụta akwụkwọ dị iche iche n’ọkacha mma iji asụsụ ndị ọcha dị ka Bekee, Furenchị na ndị ọzọ depụta akwụkwọ. Bodomo (2011:2), ụgụrụ (2007:103), Agbedo (2007) na-ekwu na nke a abụghi eziokwu n’ihi na anyị nwere ike iji asụsụ anyị mee ihe ọ bụla anyị chọrọ. ọ dị mma ikwu ebe a, n’ebe akwụkwọ ndị ahụ ndị be anyị dere na Bekee bụ ọtụtụ ihe dị mkpa nye anyị dị ka ndị isi ojii na ọ ga-adị mkpa ịtụgharị ha n’Igbo. Nke a bụ ịmaaka nye ndị ọkammụta n’asụsụ Igbo. Ọhaegbu (2010:4) na- akpọku ndị ọkammụta Igbo ka ha leba anya n’ihe gbasara usoro odide a na-ahụta n’edemede Igbo maka inweta otu ụzọ mmadụ niile kwekọrịtara e ji ede Igbo.

Asụsụ Igbo na Usoro Odide Igbo E wezuga ngwakọrịta nkwurunọnụ, n’ebe ọ gbasara odide Igbo, anyị nwere ngwakọrịta ndị si n’aka ndị Bekee bịara anyị nke ndị anyị enwebeghị ike gbanwe ruo taa. Eze (2011) na-ekwu na ọ bụ mgbe ọ rara ndị Bekee ahụ ide ma ọ bụ ịkpọpụta ụfọdụ okwu ka ha ji gbanwe ha. Nke kachasị njọ bụrụ aha anyị, Igbo, ha gbanwere dewe ya Ibo. Oẋford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary 7th edition dere ‘Ibo’ dekwa ‘Igbo’ na nkowa ha. Ndehie ndị ọzọ bụ ndị a:

Ọka Awka Enugwu Enugu Owere Owerri Ọkụzụ Awkuzu Ọkụnanọ Awkunawnaw Amaọbịa Amawbia Ọnịcha Onitsha Ọgwụ Awgu Ohaegbu (2010:4) rụtụkwara aka na ndehie ụfọdụ a na- ahụta n’odide Igbo. Ujatonu kama ide Ụjọatụọnụ

Okwor kama ide Ọkwọ Chimah kama ide Chima Uzamaka kama ide Ụzọamaka Recommendation nke si n’aka Otu Ikwalite Asụsụ na Omenaala. Igbo (OIAOI) sị ka e de ndị a iche iche: Ọsọ ọsọ (quickly) Ngwa ngwa (hurriedly) Mma mma (very well) Ewu ewu (foolishly) Ma dekọta ndị a ọnụ: Ngwongwo (all sorts of things) Nganga (tiny) ọsịịsọ (quickly)

Asusu Igbo na Mgbasa Akuko Ọ dị oke mwute na e nwere BBC Hausa, BBC Yoruba,VOA Hausa ma ọ dịghị nke ndị Igbo chịtara. Ma BBC ma VOA ọ dịghị nke anyị nwere. Ejiọfọ (2011) na-eme ka anyị ghọta na redio ndị Chaịna na nke Fransi nwere mgbasa ozi n’asụsụ Awụsa na Yoruba ma ha enweghị n’Igbo. Ọzọ, oge a na-enye asụsụ Igbo n’ụlọ mgbasa ozi n’ala anyị ejuchazighị afọ. Ohere a na-enye Bekee karịrị nke a na-enye Igbo. Ntụgharị akụkọ ụwa n’Igbo erijughi afọ n’ihi na ọ bụghị ihe niile a gụrụ na Bekee ka a na-agụpụta n’Igbo. Ihe ọzọ dị oke mkpa bụ inwe akwụkwọ mgbasa ozi (Newspaper) nke ga na-apụtakwa mgbe dị ka ndị e dere n’asụsụ Bekee si apụta.

Asụsụ Igbo na Ekwentị Mkpanaka (GSM) Anyị ga-eweliiri ndị Nokịa aka elu, nye ha ekele pụrụ iche maka itinye mkpụrụ edemede Igbo na ekwentị aka ha. Onye gote ekwentị ha, o were aka ya họrọ Asụsụ Igbo dị ka nke o ga na-eji eziga ozi ederede n’owa telefon. Ndị Starcom bụkwa ndị tinyere okwu Igbo n’ekwentị mkpanaka ha. Ha mere ya ka a na-egere ngụpụta Baịbụlụ n’Igbo maka onye chọrọ ya. Ọtụtụ ndị ụlọọrụ GSM dị ka MTN na-enyekwa onye ọ bụla chọrọ ohere ịhọrọ Igbo dị ka Asụsụ ya karịcha mgbe ị

na-acho ịmata ihe ụfọdụ gbasara ekwentị mkpanaka. A bịa n’ebe ọ gbasara ọwa ntaneti, anyị na-enye ndị Google ekele ebe ha nwere ike itinye Igbo dị ka otu asụsụ mmadụ nwere ike iji mee nchọcha na ọwa ntaneti ha.

Nchịkọta Ịchekwa Asụsụ Igbo dị oke mkpa. Ihe dị mkpa bụ ka onye ọ bụla sụwa Igbo, ma dewe Igbo. Onye hụ nwanne ya, ya jụọ ya, “Ị na-asụkwa Igbo”. N’otu ihe ngụpụta n’ọgbakọ ndị Mahadum Uyo mere na-ekwu sị:

Egbula asụsụ nna gị. Sụwa asụsụ nna gị nyere onye ọ bụla nọ gị n’obi. Mee ka ọ bụrụ asụsụ mbụ nye ndị ọgbọ na-abịa n’ihu. Ị bụrụ di, sụwara nwunye gị na ụmụ gị. Inyefe asụsụ gị n’aka ọgbọ ndị na-abịa n’ihu ọ ga-abụ asụsụ ga-adịgịde. ọkụ ya si n’aka gị nyụọ asụsụ gị abụrụ ihe ga-anwụ anwụ site n’aka gị. Ekwela ka asụsụ Igbo site n’aka gị nwụọ. Kama chọọ ihe ị ga-eme ka e wulite asụsụ Igbo. Oku iwulite Asụsụ Igbo na-agakwara ndị nkuzi, ndị okammụta Igbo, Ndị ụlọọrụ mgbasa ozi, ndị ụlọọrụ mbipụta akwụkwọ na ndị gọọmenti. Anyị na-enye ndị ọba ego CBN ozi ekele maka echiche ọma ha ide ọnụ ego n’asụsụ dị iche iche nke gụnyere Igbo. Akwụkwọ ego ndị a gụnyere Naịra Ise, Naịra Iri,Naịra Iri Abụọ na Naịra Iri Ise. Ekele na agbamume ga-adịrị ndị Igbo Scholars Forum Forum maka mbọ ha n’ịkwalite odidde Igbo sjte na jọnal ha dị iche iche. Aka ọrụ ndị Igboanwụ, Ụwandịigbo, na PILA kwesiri nṅomi.

Edensibịa Agbedo, C.U. (2007). Problems of Multilingual Nations: The Nigerian Perspective. Nsukka: ACE Resources Konsults. Bodomo, A.B. (2011). “On Language and Development in Africa: The Case of Ghana”.From http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/features /artikel.php?ID=19656 on 21/03/11. Ejiọ fọ , P. (2011). “Oche Ndị Igbo Bunyere Asụsụ Igbo”.

A Lead Paper Presented At Oche Ndị Igbo Bunyere Asụsụ Igbo Conference Organized by the Institute of African Studies, University of Nigeria, Nsukka from May 17 – May 24 ,2011. Eze, M.A. (2011). “Indigenous Knowledge and Igbo Linguistic Formation: Review of Igbo Writing Systems”. A Paper Presented at Writing in Nigerian Languages Workshop organized by the Institute of Nigerian Languages,University of Nigeria, Aba Campus from 2 nd to 5 th May. Fullbright U.S. Government Sponsored Scholarship Programs Handbook (2011). Department of State, United States of America. Ohaegbu, A. U. (2010). “Language and Issues in Igbo Language Development”. A keynote Address delivered at the 5 th Annual Conference of Igbo Studies Association (ISA), 12 th – 15 th October, 2010. Ọnụkawa, M.C. (2011). “Writing in the Igbo Language: Standards and Trends”. A Paper Presented at Writing in Nigerian Languages Workshop organized by the Institute of Nigerian Languages, University of Nigeria, Aba Campus from 2 nd to 5 th May. Society for the Promotion of Igbo Language and Culture (n.d.). Recommendations of the Igbo Standardization Committee of the Society for the Promotion of Igbo Language and Culture.(SPILC). Ụgụrụ, J.O (2007). “Scientific Study of Language for National Development”. In Anasiudu, B.N. et al. (eds.) Language and Literature in Developing Countries. Pp103-113. Onitsha: Africana- First Publishers Ltd.

Mkpọbi ụkwụ dị n’Imejupụta Atụmatụ Kurikulum Asụsụ Igbo n’Ogo Agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik Na Steeti Ebonyi, Nigeria

N. Nwigwe na Eze, J. N. Department of Arts and Social Science Education Faculty of Education, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki

Ụmịedemede Nchọcha a lebara anya n’ịchọpụta ihe mkpọbi ụkwụ a na- ahụta n’imejụpụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik na Steeti Ebonyi. Onye nchọcha gbasoro usoro sovee ke nkọwa wee mee nchọcha a, ebe ọnụọgụ ndị e jiri mee nchọcha dị otu narị na iri atọ (130) ndị isi ụlọakwụkwọ na ndi nkuzi n’ogo Bezik 1–3, bụkwa ndị onye nchọcha jiri usoro nsere ke ebumnuche wee họpụta. Ngwa nchọcha bụ njụmaza nke ihe e depụtara n’ime ya dị iri na asatọ (18), bụkwa nke onye nchọcha jiri aka ya dee. Data a kpakọtara ka e jiri miin ( ̅) na pacenti (%) wee hazie. A chọpụtara na enweghị akwụkwọ ọgụgụ Igbo, enweghị ndị nkuzi tozuru etozu, ọtụtụ ọnụọgụ ụmụ akwụkwọ nọ n’otu klaàsị na ejighị asụsụ epum nwata akụziri ya ihe tinyere ihe ndị ọzọ bụcha ihe mkpọbi ụkwụ a na-enweta n’imejupụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik na Steeti Ebonyi. Site n’ihe ndị a a chọpụtara onye nchọcha tụtara alo; ka ndị nkuzi na-erube isi n’ihe polici ke agụmakwụkwọ kwuru maka iji asụsụ epum akuziri ụmụaka nọ n’ogo Bezik 1 – 3 ihe; ime ka akwụkwọ ọgụgụ Igbo ghara ịbụ ihe dịụkọ na izụpụtandị nkụzi tozuru etozu na ihe ndị ọzọ. Ihe ndia ga-enye aka n’imejụpụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik na Steeti Ebonyi.

Ọkpụrụkpụ Okwu: Mkpọbiụkwụ, atụmatụ agụmakwụkwọ,

kurikulum, asụsụ Igbo, Bezik 1 – 3.

Mkp ọlite Kurikulum bụ mkpụrụobī ogo agụmakwụkwọ niile n’agbanyeghi otu ọ ha, ụdị ma ọ bụ nsiribido ya. Ruth (2007) Kọwara kurikulum dịkà akpa amamihe, nka na agwa dị iche iche bụ nke mba na-esite n’ụlọakwụkwọ ha enyefe ndị amala ya. Kurikulum bụkwa ụgbọ nke ụlọakwụkwọ dị iche iche na- esite na ya enweta mbunuuche agụmakwụkwọ obodo, steeti ma ọ bụ nke okpuru ọchịchị ime obodo. Nke a mere na kurikulum bụ ihe a haziri ahazi tinyere amamihe a hazịghị ahazi bụ nke ndị omụmụ na-anata n’ụlọakwụkwọ ma ọ bụ ebe ọ bụla a na-eme ihe ọmụmụ iji bụrụ mmadụ zuru oke, ga-aba uru n’ịkwalite obodo na mba ụwa. Ihe ọmụmụ ma ọ bụ sọbjekiti ọ bụla a na-akụzi n’ụlọakwụkwọ nwere kurikulum nke ya dị ka, Igbo, Yoruba na Hausa kurikulum. Igbo bụ otu asụsụ Naịjirịa a ga-amụrịrị n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ di iche iche tụmadị n’ogo nke Bezik. Ndị Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) mebere kurikulum nke afọ itoolu maka Bezik edukeshon iji wepụta agụmakwụkwọ, ntọala ga-eweta ohere iji mee ka ụmụafọ Naịjirịa nweta ezigbo ọzụzụ n’ihe gbasara inweta amamihe, nka mmekọrịta,ịgụ na ide ihe, akparamagwa ndị dabara adaba, mbàmuru nakwa nka ndị e ji ebi ndụ, mmụta gbasara sayensi, nkanụzụ, nwee ezi agwa n’ihe gbasara ibi n’udo, ikpe nkwụmọtọ, emegbughi mmadụ na ọchịchị dabara adaba. N’agbanyeghi nhazigharị a ndị NERDC mere maka agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik, ọtụtụ ndị nchọcha akwaala arịrị na ọtụtụ ihe mkpọbiụkwụ dakwasara kurikulum ahụ (Igbo kurikulum) nke mere na imejụpụta ebumuche e jiri guzobe ya bụzi ihe tara akpụ (Ojo, 2015; Enaigbe, 2009; Abdul-Raheem, 2014). Ọ dị mkpa ka a mata na tupu e nwee nkuzi na mmụta tọrọ atọ n’ihe ọ bụla a na-akụzi, kurikulum na akwụkwọ mkpariaka ndị nkuzi ga-adịrịrị. Ọ bụ kurikulum na akwụkwọ mkpanaka ahụ ga-eduzi ndị nkuzi ụzọ n’ịkụzipụta ihe omụmụ otu o kwesịrị. Ọ bụrụ na akwụkwọ abụọ ahụ adịghị,

onyenkuzi ga-anọzị n’ọchịchịrị n’ịkụzipụta ihe a chọrọ. Igwe (2014) kọwara na kurikulum dị nnukwu mkpa n’iguzobe usoro agụmakwụkwọ ọhụrụ. N’aka nke ya, kurikulum na- akọwa ihe a tụrụ anya n’aka onyenkuzi nakwa ihe dị iche iche onyenkuzi ga-eme iji kụzipụta ebumnuche ahụ a tụrụ anya n’ebe ụmụ akwụkwọ ya nọ. Mana ọ bụrụ na onyenkuzi enweghi kurikulum na akwụkwọ mkpanaka o ji akụzi ihe, ọ nọzị n’ọchịchịrị. Ọtụtụ nchọcha na njem nleta e mere n’ụlọakwụkwọ dị iche iche (nke ndị gooment na nke ndị nnọọrọ onwe ha) egosila na e nweghị kurikulum Igbo na akwụkwọ mkpanaka ndị nkuzi maka asụsụ Igbo n’ụlọakwụkwọ ha (Nwigwe, 2018). N’ihi nke a, onye nchọcha chọrọ ịchọpụta ihe mkpọbiụkwụ n’imejupụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik (1–3) na Steeti Ebonyi, Naịjirịa.

Ebumnuche Nchọcha E guzobere ebumnuche abụọ maka nchọcha; 1. Ịchọpụta ihe mkpọbiụkwụ n’imejupụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik na Steeti Ebonyi. 2. Ịchọpụta ụzọ a ga-esi gbochie ihe mkpọbiụkwụ ndị ahụ n’imejupụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik na Steeti Ebonyi. Ajụjụ Nchọcha E wepụtara ajụjụ abụọ maka nchọcha a: 1. Kedu ihe mkpọbiụkwụ di n’imejupụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik na Steeti Ebonyi? 2. Kedu ụzọ a ga-esi gbochie ihe mkpọbiụkwụ ndị ahụ n’imejụpụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik n’Ebonyi Steet? Usoro Nchọcha Ụdị nchọcha e jiri mee nchọcha bụ sọvee kenkọwa. Nworgu (2015) kọwara sọvee kenkọwa dịkà ihe ọmụmụ na- akọwa otu ihe ma ọ bụ ọnọdụ dị n’etinyeghi ma ọ bụ wepụ ihe 79

ọ bụla n’ihe a na-ahụta anya oge ahụ. Usoro nchọcha a dabara n’isiokwu nchọcha a nke bu ịchọpụta mkpọbiụkwụ dị n’imejupụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik na Steeti Ebonyi. Ebe e mere nchọcha a bụ n’okpuru ọchịchị ime obodo iri na atọ (13 L.G.A) e nwere na Steeti Ebonyi. E jiri nhọpụta ebumnobi họpụta ụlọakwụkwọ iri na atọ ebe a na-akụzi asụsụ Igbo. Ọnụọgụ ndị isi ụlọakwụkwọ na ndị nkụzi a họpụtara maka otu ụlọakwụkwọ dị iri (10). N’izugbe, ọnụọgụ ndị isi ụlọakwụkwọ na ndị nkụzi e jiri mee nchọcha dị otu narị na iri atọ (130), ndị nọ n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ Bezik 1 – 3. Ngwa e jiri mee nchọcha bụ njụmaza nke onye nchọcha jiri aka ya mepụta, ebe ndị ọkammụta nọ na ngalaba Edukeshọn (Measurement and Evaluation) na Mahadum Steeti Ebonyi tulere ya. Ajụjụ dị iri na asatọ (18) na njụmaza ahụ. E jiri miin (x) hazie ma tụchaa data e nwetara na ajụjụ nchọcha nke mbụ. Akara miin bidoro na 2.50 gbagowe bụ nke a nabatara dịkà azịza dabara n’ihe a na-achọ, ebe akara miin pekariri 2.50 bụ nke a nabataghị na nchọcha a. Ajụjụ nchọcha nke abụọ ka e jiri pasenti (%) hazie data e nwetara na ya.

Ihe a chọpụtara Ajụjụ Nchọcha Kedu ihe mkpọbiụkwụ dị n’imejupụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik, na Steeti Ebonyi?

Tebulu I: Ọsịsa banyere ihe mkpọbiụkwụ n’imejupụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik (Bezik 1 – 3) Ọnụ Ihe e depụtara Miin Mkpebi Rank ọgụ maka nchọcha () (ogo) 1. E nweghị kurikulum 2.66 Nabata 6th asụsụ Igbo nke Bezik Edukashọn 2. E nweghị akwụkwọ 2.70 Nabata 5th mkpanaka ndi nkuzi 80

maka kurikulum asụsụ Igbo nke Bezik Edukeshọn 3. E nweghị akwụkwọ 2.75 Nabata 4th mkpanaka ndị nkuzi nke a tụgharịrị n’asụsụ Igbo 4. E nweghị ndị nkuzi 2.80 Nabata 1st tozuru etozu n’ịkuzị asụsụ Igbo 5. E nweghị ngwa na 2.58 Nabata 8th akọrọ ngwa maka ị ịkuzị asụsụ na omenaala Igbo 6. Ọnụọgụ ụmụ 2.79 Nabata 2nd akwụkwọ nọ n’otu klaàsị karịrị akarị 7. E nweghị akwụkwọ 2.62 Nabata 7th ọgụgụ n’ asụsụ Igbo 8. Ndi nkuzi anaghị eji 2.77 Nabata 3rd asụsụ epum ụmụaka akụziri ha ihe ọmụmụ 9. Oge anaghị ezu iji 2.55 Nabata 9th kuzipụta ihe a chọrọ ikuzi. 10. E nweghị ngwa 2.51 Nabata 10th kọmpụta n’ụlọakwụkwọ

Tebụlụ nke mbụ na-egosịọsịsa miin ( ̅) na ogo ya (rank) maka mkpọbiụkwụ di n’imejupụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik (Bezik 1–3) n’ Ebonyi Steeti. Tebụlụ na-egosi na, enweghị ndị nkụzị tozuru etozu n’ịkụziasụsụ Igbo; ọtụtụ ọnụọgụ ụmụ akwụkwọnọ n’otu klaàsị; ndị nkuzi anaghị eji asụsụ epum ụmụ akwụkwọ akụziri ha ihe; e nweghị akwụkwọ ọgụgụ Igbo (4, 6, 8, 7 na 3) ndị 81

nwere akara miin 2.80, 2.79, 2.77, 2.75, na 2.62 kachasị bụrụ ihe mkpọbiụkwụ a na-ahụta, ebe enweghị akwụkwọ mkpanaka ndị nkuzi maka kurikulum, enweghi kurikulum asusu Igbo nke Bezik, enweghi ngwa nkuzi maka ịkụzi asụsụ na omenaala Igbo, oge e nyere anaghị ezu iji kụzipụta ihe a chọrọ na enweghi ngwa kọmpụta ndị nwere akara miin 2.70, 2.66, 2.58, 2.55 na 2.51 bụcha ihe mkpọbiụkwụ ndị ọzọ na- esote n’imejụpụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik na Steeti Ebonyi.

Ajụjụ Nchọcha II Kedu ụzọ e nwere ike iji gbochie ihe mkpọbiụkwụ ndị ahụ n’imejụpụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik na Steeti Ebonyi?

Tebulu II: Ọsịsa banyere ụzọ e nwere ike iji gbochie ihe mkpọbiụkwụ maka imejụpụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik na Steeti Ebonyi. Ọnụ Ihe e depụtara maka Ọnụọgụ % ọgụ nchọcha zara 1. Ibipụta ma kesaara 110 84.6% ụlọakwụkwọ niile kurikulum nke ogo Bezik 2. Ịhụna a tụgharịrị akwụkwọ 100 76.9% mkpanaka ndị nkuzi n’asụsụ Igbo 3. Ihu na azụpụtarandị nkuzi 102 78.5% maara nke ekwe na- akụn’asụsụ Igbo. Naanị ha ka a aga-ewe n’ọrụ nkuzi n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ Bezik 1-3 4. Ịhụ na ọnụọgụ ụmụ 106 81.5% akwụkwọnọ n’otu klaàsị ghara ịkarị otu onye nkuzi maka ịchịkọta na ikuzi nke ọma. 82

5. Ịhụ na e nwere akwụkwọ 109 83.8% Igbo n’ụlọakwụkwọ Bezik 1 – 3. 6. Ịhụ na ndị nkuzi na-erubere 115 88.5% isi n’ihe pọlisi agụmakwụkwọ kwuru ka ha na-eji asụsụ epum nwata akụziri ya ihe n’ogo Bezik 1 – 3. 7. Ịhụ na a na-akwụndị nkuzi 120 92.3% ụgwọ ọnwa n’oge na inye ha ihe orubeere ha ndị ọzọ. 8. Ịhụ na ndị nlekọta 113 86.9% ụlọakwụkwọ na agụmakwụkwọ na-aga elere otu ihe si aga na nkuzi na omụmụ ihe.

Tebụlụ II na-egosịọsịsa ndị isi ụlọakwụkwọ na ndị nkuzi Bezik 1 – 3 banyere ụzọ a ga-esi gbochie ihe mkpọbiụkwụ maka imejụpụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik (1 – 3) na Steeti Ebonyi.

Mkparịtaụka n’ihe a chọpụtara Ihe a chọpụtara gosiri na e nwere ọtụtụ ihe mkpọbiụkwụ n’imejupụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik (1–3). Ihe ndị a gụnyere: enweghi akwụkwọ ọgụgụ asụsụ Igbo na enweghi akwụkwọ mkpanaka ndị nkuzi nke a tụgharịrị n’asụsụ Igbo bụcha ihe mkpọbiụkwụ kacha agba elu n’ imejụpụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo Bezk 1–3. Nchọcha a kwadoro nchọpụta nke Enaigbe (2017) mere, na-akọwa na ụkọ ngwa nkuzi dị iche iche bụ ihe a na-ahụta n’ọtụtụ ụlọakwụkwọ, ebe Akanti (2016) na-akọwa na ụkọ ngwa nkuzi ndị a bụcha ihe na-eme ka ụmụ akwụkwọ ghara ime nke ọma n’ule. A chọpụtakwara na enweghi akwụkwọ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo na akwụkwọ mkpanaka ndị nkuzi bụcha ihe 83

mkpọbiụkwụ ndị ọzọ kacha gbaa elu n’imejupụta atụmatụ kurrikulum asụsụ Igbo. Nke ahụ enweghị mgbagwoju anya ọ bụla dị ya n’ihi na njem nleta ka ọrụ si aga nke ndị ụlọọrụ NERDC (2017) gara gosịrị na a gbanyeghị na e kesaala akwụkwọ kurikulum ndị a na steeti ọ bụla na Naịjirịa, ndị ụlọọrụ ministri kedukshon na-ekekọ ha mà ọ bụ wụsa ha n’otu ebe. Ha agaghị eme ka kurikulum ndi a rute ndị ńkụzị aka, ndị ga-akụzipụta ihe dị na kurikulum. Ọzọ dị ka ibe ya bụna ndị nkuzi anaghị eji asụsụ Igbo akụziri ụmụ akwụkwọ. Ndị nkuzi kwesịrị ịdị na-erubere iwu dị n’atụmatụ agụmakwụkwọ (FRN, 2014), nke sị na ọ bụ naanị asụsụ epum/asụsụ ọdịnaala ka a ga-eji na-akụziri ụmụaka nọ n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ Bezik 1–3. Nchọcha a kwadoro ihe ọkammụta Okediadi (2013) nke na- akọwa na ndị nkụzi niile na-akuzi n’ụlọakwụkwọ ndị ọchịchị (public school) na nke ndị nọrọ onwe ha (private schools) na- eji asụsụ bekee akụziri ụmụ akwụkwọ ihe n’ogo Bezik 1-3. O nweghị otu onye n’ime ha ji asụsụ Igbo akụzi dịkà iwu atụmatụ agụmakwụkwọ FRN (2014) siri kwuo. N’ihe gbasara ụzọ a ga-esi gbochie ihe mkpọbiụkwụ ndị a, a chọpụtara na ndị nyere ọsịsa di 110 n’ọnụọgụ (84.6%) siri na ọ bụ site n’ibipụta ma kesaa ọtụtụ akwụkwọ kurikulum n’ụlọakwụkwọ dị iche iche (Bezik 1–3). 100 n’ ọnụọgụ (76.9%) siri na ọ bụ site n’itụgharị akwụkwọ mkpanaka ndị nkuzi n’asụsụ Igbo, 102 n’ọnụọgụ (78.5%) siri na ọ bụ site n’izupụta ndị nkuzi asụsụ Igbo, ndị maara nke ekwe na-akụ. Ọ bụkwa naanị ha ka a ga-ewe n’ọrụ nkụzi asụsụ na omenaala Igbo. 106 n’ọnụọgụ (81.5%) siri na ọ bụ site n’ibelata ọnụọgụ ụmụ akwụkwọ n’otu klasi. Nke a ga- eme ka onyenkuzi nwe ike chịkọta ma na-akụzikwa nke ọma. FRN (2014) siri na ọnụọgụ ụmụ akwụkwọ maka otu onyenkuzi na klasi n’ogo Bezik 1–3, ga-abụ 1:30. Nke a ga- eme ka ha na-enwe nkụzi na ọmụmụ ihe tọrọ atọ. Nke a kwadoro nchọcha nke Aliyu (2016) kọwara na inwe ọtụtụ ọnụọgụ ụmụ akwụkwọ n’otu klaasị bụ ihe na-ebute mgbakasị ahụ nyere onyenkuzi na ụmụ akwụkwọ. Nke a na-emetụta nkụzi na mmụta n’ụzọ dị ọjọọ. 115 n’ọnụọgụ (88.5%) siri na ndị nkụzị ga na-erube

isi n’ihe polici agụakwụkwọ kwuru (FRN, 2014), ka e jiri naanị asụsụ epum nwata akụziri ya ihe n’ogo Bezik 1–3. Anwụka (2016) chọpụtara na ndị nkuzi jikwa asụsụ bekee akụzi ihe ọmụmụ niile n’ogo Bezik 1 – 3. Ọzọ kwa, 120 n’ ọnụọgụ (92.3%) kọwara na ọ bụ site n’ịkwụ ndị nkụzi ụgwọ ọnwa na orubeere ha ndị ọzọ n’oge. Nke a dabara n’ihe Nwigwe (2017) kwuru na e kwesịrị ileba anya n’ịkwụ ndị nkụzi ụgwọ ọnwa ha n’oge, enye ha ihe nrite Ndị ọzọ dị iche iche. Nke a ga-eme ka ha na-enwe mmasị na- arụ ọrụ ha nke ọma. 113 n’ọnụọgụ (86.9%) kwuru ka ndị nlekọta agụmakwụkwọ ga na-agazu n’ụlọakwụkwọ dị iche iche elere otu ngwa nkuzi na ọmụmụ ihe si aga. Ha ga-ahụ na ngwa nkuzi di iche iche rutere ndị nkuzi aka maka iji rụọ ọrụ ha. Nke a kwadoro ihe Nakpodia (2014) kwuru na e nweghị ndị nlekọta na-abụkarị ihe ndọlazụ nyere ntolite ma ọ bụ mwulite ọ bụla maka agụmakwụkwọ na Naịjirịa. N’ikpeazụ, 109 n’ ọnụọgụ (83.8%) kwuru ka a na- ebutere ụlọakwụkwọ ndị a akwụkwọ ọgụgụ Igbo. Nke a ga- eme ka nkuzi na omụmụ ihe na-aga nke ọma. Nke a dabakwara n’ihe Nwigwe chọpụtara oge o mere njem nleta n’ụfọdụ ụlọakwụkwọ. Ọ hụtara na e nwere ụkọakwụkwọ ọgụgụ Igbo nke na-ebute na ụmụ akwụkwọ anaghị eme nke ọma n’agụmakwụkwọ ha n’ ụlọakwụkwọ ndị ahụ.

Mmechi na Nt ụta alo Na nchọcha a , a chọpụtara na tupu e nwe ike nweta uru dị na kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ nke Bezik na Steeti Ebonyi, na e kwesiri ibugodụ ụzọ leba anya n’ihe ndị ahụ na-eweta mkpọbiụkwụ n’imejuputa atụmatụ kurikulum. Out o sila adị, a tụpụtara ọtụtụ ihe ndị ga-enye aka gbochie ihe mkpọbiụkwụ ndị ahụ, mee ka e nwee ike imejupụta atụmatụ kurikulum asụsụ Igbo n’ụzọokwesịrị. Site n’ihe ndị a chọpụtara, onye nchọcha tụtara alo ndị a na-eso nụ: 1. A ga-ahụ na e bipụtara ọtụtụ akwụkwọ kurikulum na akwụkwọ mkpanaka ndị nkuzi, nke a ga-atụgharị

n’asụsụ Igbo kesaara ụlọakwụkwọ dị iche iche (Bezik 1-3) 2. A ga-ahụ na ndị nkuzi na-eji asụsụ epum/asụsụ ọdinaala akuziri ụmụ akwụkwọ Bezik 1–3 ihe dịkà atụmatụ agụmakwụkwọ siri kwue (FRN, 2014). Nke a ga-eme ka ndị nkuzi ghara iji asụsụ bekee akụziri ụmụaka ihe n’ogo agụmakwụkwọ ahụ (Bezik 1–3). 3. A ga-ahụ na e tinyere ya n’oru, ihe polici keagụmakwụkwọ kwuru, nke bụ na otu onye nkuzi ga-enwe ụmụ akwụkwọ iri atọ na klasị ya, (1:30). Nke a ga-egbochi nsogbu nke inwe ọtụtụ ụmụ akwụkwọ n’otu klasi na-ebute. 4. A ga-ahụ na a na-akwụ ndị nkuzi ụgwọ ọrụ ha na orubeere ha ndị ọzọ mgbe o kwesịrị. Nke a ga na- akpalite mmụọ ha n’ịrụ ọrụ ha otu o kwesịrị, e mekwa ka ha na-enwe mmasị n’ọrụ ha. 5. A ga-ahụ na akọrọngwā na akwụkwọ ọgụgụ zuru oke maka nkuzi na omụmụ ihe tọrọ atọ. 6. Ndị nlekọta agụmakwụkwọ ga na-agazu n’ụlọakwụkwọ niile elere otu nkuzi na omụmụ ihe si aga.

Edensibịa

Akanti, O. B. (2016). Improvisation of Instructional Materials for teaching and learning. NigerianJournal of Social Studies. 26(3) 131 – 143. Aliyu, U. D. (2016). Issues and Insight in the Universal Basic Education. A paper presented at the 10th National Conference of NAFAK, Benin City. Enaigbe, A. P. (2017). Strategies for Improving Supervisory Skills for Effective Primary Education in Nigeria. Edo Journal of Counselling, 2(2): 235 – 244. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2014). National Policy on Education. (6th Edition). NERDC Press, Lagos Nigeria. Igwe, R. O. (2014). Fundamentals of Curriculum and 86

Instruction. Vitaman Educational Books, Lagos, Nigeria. Nakpodia, E. D. (2014). Integrating Funding and effective implementation of Universal Basic Education Programme in Central Senatorial District of Delta State. Nigerian Journal of Economics and International Finance 3(3) 157 – 167. NERDC (2017). Monitoring Report on the Status of the Implementation of the 9-year Basic Education Curriculum in Nigeria. In Print. Nwigwe, N. (2017). Revisiting Issues in Teacher Education for Enhanced Productivity and Sustainable Development. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies. 24 (1) 268 – 277. Nworgu, B. G. (2015. Educational Research: Basic Issues and Methodology, Nsukka: University Trust Publishers. Ojo, A. L. (2015). Teachers’ Perception on New Restructured 9 – year Basic Education Curriculum (BEC) in Ekiti State, Nigeria. JOSR Journal of Research and Method in Education. Issue iv, 21 – 26. (www.josrjournals.org ).

Sexism and the Woman’s Culpability in Africa Literature: a Reading of Chika Unigwe’s on Black Sisters’ Street

Dr. Chinyere T. Ojiakor Department of English Madonna University-Nigeria [email protected]

And

Grace I. Ikechukwu Department of English Madonna University-Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract Historically and culturally, women have always been represented as submissive creatures. Majority of African society is built on a gender hierarchy that gives birth to what is known as patriarchy. Feminist writers have over the years, portrayed patriarchy as the major and real source of female exploitation and subjugation and have highlighted the concept in their creative works. The aim of this paper is to describe through narrative and characterization in Unigwe’s On Black Sisters’Street that patriarchy, as generally accepted, is not the sole source of female oppression because women seem to suffer oppression in the hands of fellow women especially in the African cultural milieu. Certain practices in the various cultural milieus, which not only demean women but also debar them from having a say in the daily affairs of the society are also exposed. The researcher interrogated some oppressive forces that marginalize women to determine if the factors are only inter-gender. The paper revealed that truly women are subjected to discrimination, oppression and

humiliation all through their lives and that these are both inter-gender and intra-gender. In other words, the need to highlight these issues is what motivates this study. The study is anchored on the post-colonial perspective making the difference between the conditions of women before and after colonialism. To make adequate judgements, critical opinions of some scholars were reviewed. The study recommends love and empathy amongst women. It concludes that the oppression of women by the male gender will greatly be countered by women's collective activism, which can only be possible when they close ranks and unite.

Keywords : Patriarchy, Culpability, Women, Intra Gender, Narrative

Introduction Subjects of authority, class, gender, and race in literature are, in most cases, so inextricably intertwined that we need to understand all to understand one, hence the need to think inclusively. Now Sexism may be defined as an ideology based on belief that one sex is superior to another. It is discrimination, prejudice or stereotyping based on gender. Gender is derived from the Latin word genns, meaning kind. Most Indo-European Languages, namely German, Russian and Latin, always use three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter. This is the reason the Germans, for example, have der Mann for the man and die Frau for the woman. For the girl (neuter), the Germans say das Madchen . In some other languages, like French, Italian, and Spanish we have only two genders. Even though gender is present in every language, it may not be correct to conclude that it is universal. In literature, as it is in this paper, the concern is with gender roles/ relations, oppressions and equity, when talking about gender. These emphases are laid on the pattern of behaviour and expectation that are considered appropriate or inappropriate in the society, in terms of discussing either the male or female sex. It is at this point that the subject of gender

begins to link up with feminist criticism/study. Simone de Beauvoir, the existentialist philosopher, known primarily for her treatise Le Deuxième Sexe, ( The Second Sex 1949), asserted in Ian Buchanan that “women are as capable of choice as men, and thus can choose to elevate themselves, moving beyond the "immanence" to which they were previously resigned and reaching "transcendence", a position in which one takes responsibility for oneself and the world, where one chooses one's freedom”(197). She also states quoted in Buchanan that “gender is an identity one adopts or creates” ( 198). It must be stated here that sex cannot be used interchangeably with gender. For purposes of clarification, sex is biological while gender is ideological. Gender is more about ideas that humans create for themselves. It has become the norm now to divide the history of feminism into three phases namely, First, Second, and Third Wave. In all the phases what usually emerges in the words of Buchanan is “the signalling of a different era in the struggle to attain equality between sexes” (166). Feminist writers have over the years portrayed patriarchy as the major and real source of female exploitation and subjugation and have highlighted the concept in their creative works. Men are portrayed as perpetrators of female-oppression and discrimination in a society which is viewed as male-dominated. According to Ibekwe Chinweizu:

Feminist propaganda has sought to persuade the world that women are powerless in society, and that men are natural oppressors of women. It claims that wives are subordinate to their husbands in the home and that outside the home, men have excluded women from political, economic and cultural power (9). Inasmuch as this paper discusses some oppressive forces that reduce women to second class status, it argues that men are not the major source of female exploitation and subjugation. The researcher examines the relationship that exists among the oppressed (women) and highlights

particularly how African women dominate, abuse, humiliate and oppress other women in some selected literary texts. It observes that gender warfare on women is as exploitative as male domination.

Scholarship: Female Oppression in Selected Texts Although Unigwe’s On Black Sisters’ Street has not received enough critical attention along the line of female on female exploitation one can still make some connections. Feminist novels react to female subjugation and maltreatment in marriage and ultimately project female assertion. And Feminist critics have been in the words of Abrams trying to “reconstitute the manner we read literature so as to do justice to female points of views, interest, worth and value” (95). Literature on violence against women and children suggests according to Watts and Zimmerman that, “it occurs principally because of the subordinated positions of the victims” (1232). Literary critics/theorists trace the origin of feminism to the 16th century, although Josephine Donovan, a feminist theorist, contends according to Chioma Opara that there was an earlier feminist wave in the 15th century (12). Opara also argues that, feminism “sought to resolve issues like rape, sexual harassment and violence against women” (12-13). These are issues that have always been there since the origin of man. The rise of feminist movements/campaigns in Africa can be traced more to protests on issues of violence against women. It is pertinent to note that although the word feminism has its roots in the Latin word femina (which means woman), it did not make it to the lexicon of feminist critics and writers until the late 1880s.

The most preferred terms/phrase before the term feminist became popular has been “women’s rights” according to Buchanan (166). Unfortunately the role of African women however seems to reinforce the walls of patriarchy the female writers aim to pull down. The researcher intends to study, the roles and reactions of women, (the 91

oppressed) on their fellow women on issues concerning childlessness, marriage related issues and female circumcision, using some selected African literary texts.

There seems to be a type of solidarity in adversity towards that which causes them so much pain. Taking the issue of childlessness for instance, childless marriage is according to M. A. Anagbogu “a source of grievous disappointment and a major determinant of marital conflict, broken home, divorce and incentive for adding more marriages by the aggrieved husband (7). It is very worrisome that despite people’s exposure to Western civilization and education, attitude towards infertility still remains hostile. Infertility in any African marriage is the woman’s fault and a childless mother is regarded as a failure .Quoting Benjamin Spock “A woman is nobody, a wife is everything and a mother is next to God” (39). Ideally, in a traditional African society, Orabueze has it that a barren woman is:

… expected to marry another wife or wives for her husband. It is preferable that she does that because if she wastes time, two consequences may follow from that. He may either marry another woman with or without her consent or get a concubine who will bear children for him, he has to take one of these measures to restore his ego and prove his manhood. (144)

Apart from this, many unsavoury names like he-woman and witch are attached to a barren woman. Thousands of innocent women are tagged barren in Africa without proof. Efuru in Flora Nwapa’s Efuru confides in Ajanupu without any medical examination, “I want my husband to have children, I am barren” (180). Amaka in Flora Nwapa’s One is Enough , Awowa in Ama Ata Aidoo’s Anowa , Agnes in Nwapa’s This is Lagos and Other Stories, Ije in Ifeoma Okoye’s Behind the Clouds, Nnuego in Emecheta’s The Joys of Motherhood among others are victims of that circumstance. African traditional society has in many forms encouraged humiliation 92

of childless mothers, “forcing them to consult various medicine-men”, opines Nnolim, “doctors, prophets or leaving their marital homes in frustration” (140). The greatest problem is that the African female writers seem to be silent in the way and manner women maltreat their fellow women over this issue. Women, who ought to understand the condition of their fellow women better, seem to encourage and contribute to the destruction of women. Women seem to be their own enemies. Some are agents of destabilization, violence and humiliation on fellow women. The agony of a barren woman in African society is indescribable. Ernest Emenyonu in his Tales of our Motherhood laments:

Speak me to all barren women, she admonished as I strained my ears to hear her faint and dwindling voice. Speak me to all mothers who have only one child in a land and among a people where the value of a woman depends upon her capacity to fill her husband’s house with children. Speak me to all who have a daughter as an only child … speak me to all women who forfeited the love and respect of their husbands because they could not fill the dreams of multiple sons to inherit the men when they have joined the ancestors. (1)

The quotation depicts emphasis on discrimination, gender inequalities, injustice, degradation, humiliation and dehumanization that women experience in an African society. The attitude of mothers-in-law, sisters in-law, girl friends, concubines remain a source tension and stress and inflict so much pain on barren women. Dozie’s mother and Virginia in Behind the Clouds are true examples. Dozie’s mother’s case attracts more concern and worry because Dozie is her only son. Virginia, the loose girl, captivated by Dozie’s financial fortunes and prospects, sets a trap for him with her body, with intention of tricking him into a marriage that would guarantee her access to his wealth. After seducing him, she presents herself with a purported pregnancy and accuses him of being 93

responsible. The greedy Virginia aims to displace Ije Appiah from her matrimonial home. This attitude is even more exploitative than male domination. African feminists overlook some of these negative roles played by some women. It is very obvious that women encourage men to humiliate their wives. Omirima in Nwapa‟s Efuru is another backstabbing and evil schemer who destroys other women in the novel. She instigates Gilbert’s mother to find another wife for his son, citing Efuru’s childlessness as the reason, “He cannot remain childless, and his fathers were not childless. So it is not in the family. Your daughter-in-law is good but childless” (163). Neighbours (including women) could not see any reason why her husband should not marry another woman since according to them two men do not live together. Barrenness is a serious issue in African society and the barren woman expects sympathy not scorn and humiliation. Any woman who despises a barren colleague has in the words of Benjamin Awua “… given a voice to the male’s maltreatment of childless woman” (143).

The African woman carries a double yoke: to have plenty of children and to have male children in the majority. The woman also bears the blame of not bearing male children since the African society, despite Western civilization still holds on to a fallacy that has been debunked by science that a woman determines the sex of a baby (Orabueze). M.A.Y Lewu equally highlights that:

due to the preference for boys in most cultures, a woman without a male child is almost regarded as barren. This is borne out of belief in male physical, psychological and social superiority. Only the male child is regarded as capable of perpetrating the lineage, while the female gets married into another family. Consequently, girls are treated as temporary members of their families, sometimes denied equal access to education, feeding and inheritance (564).

The rights of a woman in her husband’s home depend on the number of male children she has. Unfortunately, this outright humiliation is also aided by woman. Adaku in Flora Nwapa‟s Wives at War and Other Stories laments:

I have seen girls brought into my home by my mother-in-law for my husband. When I objected, she reminded me that she had four sons, and said that if I did not like what she was doing, I should go back to my parents with my band of girls (45).

According to Nawal El Saadawi in her Women at Point Zero , marriage was a system built on the most cruel suffering for women” (87). Wifehood is portrayed as the worst status of a woman. The women are subjected to physical violence and emotional turbulence. Yet a girl’s training from the onset is geared towards marriage. Emphasis is laid more on good behaviour, cleanliness, obedience and hard work. Some women humiliate other women more in marriage. Mariama Ba recounts in So Long a Letter, with agony that there is nothing as humiliating as when a younger woman displaces an older woman from her matrimonial home. Binetou’s mother pressurizes her daughter to destroy the happiness of another woman. She encourages her to marry an already married man because of materialism. The sisters- in-law are not left out. They consider their brother’s homes as theirs and the wives of their brothers as slaves or strangers. In So Long a Letter , Ramaloulaye’s sisters-in-law leave their marital homes and live in their brother’s home.

These women subvert the legitimate roles of the wife and refuse to respect and obey their brother’s wife in her own marital home. Modou, in So Long a Letter remains faithful to his wife until another woman lures him into another marriage. He then abandons his wife for a younger one. Polygamy would have phased out if women could respect the feeling and integrity of their fellow women and as such refuse to accept any marriage offer from an already married man. Ibiyemi 95

Mojola sums it,“… every woman who gets married to another married man and every woman who accepts the advances of a married man stands condemned as an oppressor of another, a usurper”(133).

Female circumcision is another type of injustice perpetrated on the woman. Nawal El Saadawi records, how Firdaus’ thighs were pulled wide apart, and that each of her lower limbs was being held by steel fingers that never relinquished their pressure till a piece of her flesh was cut off from her body. Tradition has made the women to believe that to become a woman, one must accept the knife. Indeed, the clitoris severed from the body is a telling symbol of female status in phallocratic culture. What is the attitude of women, the depressed, oppressed and massacred in these societies? Their attitudes seem to confirm full support and endorsement of the act. The circumcision is performed by women in the presence of other women. According to El Saadawi, “I did not know what they had cut off from my body… I just wept, and called out to my mother for help. But the worst shock of all was when I looked around and found her standing by my side” (8).

According to El Saadawi, female circumcision is part of the patriarchal package that involves cutting the sexual organs of female children, especially the clitoris to guarantee their virginity before marriage and their fidelity after marriage. As a medical doctor and a psychiatrist, she emphasizes that female circumcision has nothing to do with the morality of women; it does not make them more monogamous or more faithful to their husbands. On the contrary, cutting the clitoris increases women’s sexual desires,

for two reasons, because the brain is the main site of sexual desires and because circumcised women have difficulty reaching sexual satisfaction with their husbands, they look for this satisfaction outside marriage (194). Having reviewed a few works on this area of scholarship, it is stating the obvious that none of these eminent critics have subjected Unigwe’s On Black Sisters’ Street to an investigation of the woman’s culpability in the oppression, objectification and suppression of the African woman in African literature

The Woman: a Factor in the Fate of Women

On Black Sisters’ Street tells a story of four black women (Sisi, Efe, Ama and Joyce), African prostitutes working in Antwerp, Belgium in order to survive and irk out a living for themselves, and fulfil their wish to satisfy their own aspirations which relates to the expression of their subjectivity. The women in the novel, are brainwashed to believe that there is a better chance of making it as a prostitute abroad, than living in poverty in Nigeria, where they were faced with a high rate of unemployment and hardship, a system of nepotism and godfatherism. Unigwe’s works deals with thematic concern similar to other African female writers. Their works are predominantly on women’s issues and experiences. Her characters are also described in stereotypical roles alongside their revolutionary features. She particularly views women in On Black Sisters’ Street as the perfect symbol for sexuality. The novel is studied from a post- colonial perspective making the difference between the condition of women before and after colonialism. The post- colonial debate works to decipher cultural ideology still influenced by colonial politics. Although societies modernize and establish independence according to Ashcroft, “post- colonial societies are still subject in one way or another to … subtle forms of neo-colonial domination” (1-2).

What characterizes a sexist society is the dominance of its men over its women. It is not surprising to find abundant examples in On Black Sisters’ Street s of subjugation and even suppression of women in the male dominated Nigerian society. One aspect that indicts the woman that is illustrated in Unigwe’s novel is the lack of sisterhood. Women are enemies to each other in a society, where pleasing a man is an obligation to survive peacefully. It is one common reason that we find among the four protagonists of the novel that push them to flee their home country.

The first story to which readers are exposed is Efe’s. She is a girl who loves fancy things; however she is poor and needs money, so she becomes a ‘sugar baby’. Titus is old enough to be her father, but most importantly, he is rich (49). However, after the man puts his offspring in her, he leaves her; “I’m pregnant Titus’ was all it took to get him out of the bed” (59). He is a man with a big reputation. Afraid to be humiliated and misperceived, he chooses to flee the responsibility in a society where men are the leaders leaving Efe feeling like damaged goods (75). So, when she appears to be pregnant, Efe’s neighbours (women especially) despise her, “the women especially who pointed at Efe and laughed out loud whenever they passed her” (64). They even forbid their daughters to talk to her. Instead of being there for her and support her since she has no mother and is young, they marginalize her and ignore her.

In addition to the neighbours, Titus’s wife participates in the loss of sisterhood.The way she chases Efe out of her home instead of yelling at her husband shows it all. She treats Efe as “useless girl. Ashawo ”(70). Eisenstein says that “in a bourgeois class position, family relations are reduced to a mere money relation” (10). This is the case for Titus and his wife. She accepts her husband’s infidelity as long as he has enough money to provide her with what she needs. This is according to Zillah Eisenstein a form of oppression, she

says:“women’s oppression is her exploitation in a class society through bourgeois marriage” (11).

Ama’s mother who is a traditional woman enslaved to a traditional world view about religion and marriage betrays her daughter. She trafficks her to her pedophilic husband, and sends her away unceremoniously “… before I am thrown out of my husband’s house because of you” (150). The narrator shows that the worst type of sex-slavery is trafficking in very young girls. Hypocritical Brother Cyril who wears white clothes all the time as a symbol of his holiness is a ruthless pedophile, who defiles his step-daughter for three years. It is obvious that he does not have any sexual contact with his wife, but with Ama, whom he rapes from the day she is eight years until she starts seeing her menstruation at eleven years. Ama’s mother’s silence in her daughter’s defilement makes her a conspirator to Brother Cyril’s offence, because:

When she got older and wiser, she would think that her mother walked around in a deliberate state of blindness. Otherwise she would have seen into her heart and asked her, ‘Nwa m, my daughter, what is the matter? She wished her mother would ask her, so that she could tell her, but she never did, choosing instead to complain about Ama’s hair being as tough as sisal (133 – 134).

The silence of the women encourages domestic sex- slavery, and they turn around to blame the minors, who are victims. One of Ama’s mother’s friends tells the others that a housemaid “… seduced and slept with the husband of the woman who had employed her” (125). However, from Ama’s experience with the step-father, the minors are like lambs being led to the abattoirs, as seen in:

Over the next days the walls heard how he ignored her when she said that he was hurting her inside. They heard of how she tried to push him away when he lay 99

on top of her, but he was a mountain and she did not have the strength in her to move a mountain (13).

The study believes that sexism is the reason for loss of sisterhood; Martha Gimenez explains that in patriarchal societies, even social groups are themselves divided into classes (27-28). In the narrative, when Ama goes to Mama Eko’s, she receives the love and affection she needs because the woman is independent. Contrary to her mother who “walked in a deliberate state of blindness” (133) and is a silent extension to her husband (145) as Ama desperately realizes later. The story of Ama demonstrates not only the tyranny of her step-father, but also the prevailing sexist ideology in African society, notably with the man in the Eggzecutive bus. Patriarchal/male violence against women and dominance are institutionalized, and this can be seen through power relationships between male and female characters in private as well as public spheres. When Ama is in her way to Mama Eko in Lagos, a woman with a baby in her hands begs for money in the bus station. The conductor cries “ga, go and tell the man that got you pregnant to look after you. Anu ofia. wild animal. If you spread easily like butter, you get what you deserve” (139). The man treats the woman as a wild animal, for them, if awoman is not married and has a child, she is an animal. The woman sitting next to Ama makes a fibble attempt to defend her, but the majority of the passengers, women inclusive contradict her saying that it is in man’s nature to desire a woman, and it is up to the woman to control herself (139). By saying this, Unigwe means that in a society where men rule, women are the only victims, and only few know that should the women have the backs of their fellows they will seize to be the dominated gender.Guyatri Spivak says that “the ideological construction of gender keeps the male dominant” (82). In the sense that, women’s subordination is an ideology indoctrinated in men and society as awhole. It is a

100

part of their culture. She also adds that in the context of colonialism and postcolonialism, the subaltern (as the proletariat) has no history and cannot speak, the subaltern as female, for her, is more deeply in shadow (83). This means that if the colonizers have silenced their colonies, the ideology in these colonies have silenced women even more. And this is, in fact, what we see through Unigwe’s novel. What is sad in the story is that many women are unconscious and passive like the woman sitting across the aisle from Ama. She confirms the ideology by telling a story of her neighbor’s daughter who is raped. She says proudly: “why would she not be raped? . . . Dresses that showed her thighs. Blouses that stuck to her” (139). Instead of being supportive to the girl and blame men who are perverts, the woman puts the blame on the girl who shows some skin. The woman beside Ama simply replies that men are the ones to blame, but the majority is against her. Her reply reproduces misogynist stereotypes. Here, in the talk of the women beside Ama, we feel like it is Unigwe’s voice that defends the dignity of women that is despised for years in a society of men transforming women into silent properties that take the blame for what irresponsible men do. Everyone is against the woman, just as the majority of writings about women by men who portray them as dolls of the house and sex objects. There is also the example of the woman who sits next to Ama in the bus on her way to Lagos who thinks that her son should have a boy because “it was his duty to perpetuate the family line, to live up to his name” (142). The importance of boys in the family is crucial because women have no voice, no identity, and no existence in the eyes of their parents and men in general. In fact, they are not praised for their personalities even. Being a good domestic housewife is what imports more than having a personality as Mama Eko tells Ama about her maid: “any girl who cooked the way she did was sure to end up with a good man. That was how the world worked’ ” (159). Women are praised for their domestic chores

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and skills or in bed for giving boys to their husbands; they are not liked because of their qualities as human beings. Loss of sisterhood can also be felt through the character of Alek (Joyce) when she arrives at the refugee camp after being savagely gang-raped by soldiers. She tells that a United Nations female worker “did not blink as she listened to [her] story” (194). Alek is also disappointed because she thinks that someone would pity her, but she finds out that in the refugee camp everyone is victim and prisoner of her/his own story. It is not only the UN worker who despises Alek, but also her boyfriend’s mother. Polycarp’s mother represents the traditional woman who strongly believes in social hierarchy and supremacy of one race over another. She does not love Alek because she wants a local wife for her son. The greed in the women fires their imagination to dream of making it in Europe. Sisi rejects Peter’s marriage proposal because she abhors the type of life he lives. As she accepts Dele’s unilateral contract of sex- slavery in Antwerp, on her way to the airport, she crumples Peter’s letter unread, and “…reached behind her and stuffed it into the wedge between the backrest and the seat” (48) of the taxi. She also dumps the pumpkin her mother insists she carries with her in the huge airport dustbin. In her imagination, “Lagos was a city of death and she was escaping it” (98). She believes sex-slavery abroad is a vista to her dream of opening a boutique, a car export business and internet café in Lagos and wearing gold rings on all her fingers like Madam. Madam who sells the girls to customers at Antwerp has an air of affluence around her. She is described thus, “Her fingers sparkled with the glitter of rings. She even wore a ring on her thumb: a thick coil of metal with a broad tip that rested on her nail” (104). However, the sex- slaves who generate the wealth cannot afford to buy rings as the “gold earrings and necklaces on the Pelikanstraat were still beyond her [Sisi’s] reach, yet she was one of the hardest workers in the industry” (274). The other sex-slaves also have their dreams. Joyce has the dream of opening a boutique or a

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“huge supermarket in Lagos” (243), and Efe dreams of owning her own sex-slavery cartel.

Sex-Trafficking as a Consequence of Sexism in Male Dominated Society Mano Avekadavie defines sex trafficking as a business oriented activity that has the intention to“secure maximum monetary rewards through the exploitation of vulnerable people” (40). Many committed Nigerian women of the twenty first century are writing about the conditions of women in Diaspora, especially women who are hoodwinked by traffickers and live the ordeal abroad. This is, in fact, what Chika Unigwe represents in her novel On Black Sisters’ Street through the stories of Sisi, Ema, Efe, and Joyce. The narrator says: “Before Efe came to Belgium, she imagined castles and clean streets . . . but now . . . she describes it as a botched dream” (24). Efe knows the nature of her work in Belgium; however, she does not really know what is waiting for her until she arrives there. Sisi too is disappointed when she discovers how the “Zwartezusterstraat wore a look of a much maligned childless wife in a polygamous house . . . the house itself was not much to look at either. Truth be told, it was a disappointment” (99). She tells herself that“she had no choice but to leave” (118). Nothing good is left for her to do in her home country. If we take it that the three girls (Sis, Efe and Ama), out of greed and naivety accept to prostitute themselves, the question remains who pimps them: Madam! On one occasion, she tells Sisi “not nervous are we? You can’t afford to be. Not in our business . . . ah, hand over your passport. From now until your debt is paid I am in charge of it” (118-19). We get to know the fate of the four room-mates through Sisi when Madam tells her: “all you need to know is that you’re persona non grata in this country. You do not exist. Not here”. This is what Madam tells Sisi when she comes back from the Ministry of External Affairs where she tells a fake story to an agent about her being in Belgium. Madam continues her insults towards Sisi by looking at her

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like a commodity, “now you belong to me. It cost us a lot of money to organize all this for you” (182). By the “you” I think she addresses not only Sisi, but also Efe, Ama, and Joyce. She later adds: “Now, until you have paid up every single kobo’. ‘Every single cent of what you owe us, you will not have your passport back” (182-83). Another important reason that fosters sex trafficking is the greed for money. The four protagonists in On Black Sisters’ Street are weak; their liability and excitement for a better life lead them astray. As a consequence of their poverty, lack of alternatives, and values, they are trafficked by Dele to work as forced prostitutes in Belgium for a huge sum of money. Dele tells the four women: “so it go cost you tatyt’ousand euro it go cost you o” (34), and he continues saying that “No when you get there, begin work, you go begin dey pay me. Installment payment we dey call am! Mont by mont’ you go dey pay me” (35). Bishop explains that prostitutes live in fear of their pimps which helps explain why these girls do not try to escape (128). And this is what we can really find in Unigwe’s novel. When Sisi falls in love with her Belgian boyfriend, Luc, he asks her to quit her job telling her: “we could go tell the police. This man has no right to make you work for him. It is against the law even. He has broken rules. He got you a false passport” (269). However, Sisi is afraid because “she heard Dele’s ‘no try cross me o. nobody dey cross Senghor Dele!” (271), so she gives up the idea of denouncing him to the police. She remembers his threat and she is afraid. This situation makes the girls prisoners who can do nothing that can contradict their trafficker’s words and will because they are in constant observation as Sisi notices. Mano further explains the reasons why girls are easy victims for the traffickers; he writes that “poverty, lack of income-earning opportunities, having dependents, being single mothers” (49-50). This is the situation to which Unigwe answers through Sisi’s lack of job opportunities, and having her parents depending on her. Efe, too, is a single

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mother and also having her child and siblings depending on her. In Nigeria and the Guinea countries, Modupe Adeleye explains that most of the victims of trafficking are attracted by the luxurious image that traffickers draw to them to convince them accept their offer (30) as Dele does with Sisi, Efe, Joyce, and Ama by attracting them just by names of celebrities or European cities. Okolie O. James adds into this, patriarchy, gender inequality, and sexual assault as reasons opening the gates for sex trafficking (102). Devin Brewer in “Globalization and Human Trafficking” suggests that the traffickers build their fortunes over the backs of vulnerable victims. Their bodies are exploited and they are not considered as human beings who have rights. Unigwe gives voice to her protagonists to express this injustice. Ama says “somebody has just died, a human being…”(38). The narrator writes: “nobody says it but they are all aware that the fact that Madam is going about her normal business is upsetting them” (39). Unigwe gives voice to Joyce to say: “we’re human beings! Why should we take it? Sisi is dead and all Madam can think of is business. Doesn’t Sisi deserve respect from her?” (283). Then she adds, “Madam has no right to our bodies, and neither does Dele” (290). They state openly that they do not want to do this anymore but they have no other choice but to stay because they know no one will help them. Not only this, but the girls are afraid to even give their opinions to Madam and express themselves. The narrator writes, “Here, their grief has to be contained within the four walls of their flat. No matter how much it becomes for them they must not let it swell and crack the walls” (95). They do not have any right to speak, even mourn the death of Sisi like the death of Efe’s grandma. Efe decides to have a party for her grandma’s death but Madam is really upset, “Madam’s anger manifested itself in laughter that was dry . . . ‘Ah, so you’ve earned enough money now to waltz into work whenever you want?’ for a week she refused to let Efe use her booth. Instead, Efe had been forced to work

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in bars” (8). In fact, “Madam is not one to be contradicted” (110). Housemaids are procured by the women as domestic slaves, but their husbands use them as sex-slaves. Both domestic and transnational sex-salves are regarded as inferior beings by their traffickers. There is no difference between the treatment Madam gives to the trafficked in Antwerp and Ama’s mother’s friend’s treatment of her housemaid. Joyce complains severally that “Madam treats us like animals” (290), just as the woman talks about her ward, “that girl is very foolish. Atulu. She’s a sheep” (124). These domestic slaves are not paid unlike the ones abroad. In conclusion, this paper demonstrates one thing; it is that patriarchy and the attendant women’s inaction are analogous and even entwined. Both degrade and oppress women by reducing them into objects. The researcher, aimed at demonstrating the various social and economic constraints African women face in their societies especially by fellow women despite the contemporariness of time. Feminists aim at fighting the sexist societies that indulge women in complete ignorance and passivity. Their ultimate end is to achieve equality between the two sexes. Nevertheless, they ignore other forms of oppression of women that we can find in the On Black Sisters’ Street, mainly the economic one. By relying on this genre, we have attempted to prove that Chika Unigwe is an activist with excellence. Even if she did not suggest solutions in her novel, she successfully succeeded in introducing a new theme to the world of literature. Girls are seen as objects for commercial benefit. Indeed, Spivak explains the oppression that women suffer from. She says: “the question of ‘woman’ seems more problematic in this context [to agree with Unigwe’s view], clearly, if you are poor, black, and female you get it in three ways” (90). This is to mean that a woman is not oppressed through her race only, but also through her class. Hence, for Spivak as hard as may a woman try to speak herself in the realm of imperialism or patriarchy, they need more efforts from feminists, thus, “the subaltern woman will be as mute as

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ever” (90). This is why the author esteems it necessary to eradicate these harmful practices as soon as possible because the creation of prostitution culture is harmful to the health and happiness of girls and young women. Fortunately, as she assumes, “many countries have introduced legislations penalizing male buyers such as Norway, Sweden, South Korea and others” (319). The present study further proffers that Women should employ their God-given outrageous, audacious, courageous or wilful behaviours as well as love for one another and team up to achieve a desired gender justice. Women have the capacity to become architects according to Tracie Utoh-Ezeajugh of their own destinies and decide whether to be included or excluded in the scheme of things (150). A woman has all it takes opines Chinweizu to run her world “by running the man who runs the world for her” (75). Women exercise the most effective sanction against misrule in some African traditional societies. For instance, when a king becomes intolerable to his subjects, a procession of grandmothers will march naked to his palace. The Lagos women’s protest of 1909 was against the introduction of water rate; the Aba Women’s Riot of 1929 was basically a fight against the colonial authority, these women rejected the idea of being counted because they give birth to children. In recent times, there have been other protests like the ones mentioned above. It is only when women stop persecuting one another that they can redress the very many prejudices that have reduced them to second-class status.

Works Cited

Awua, Benjamin Ityoakaa. “Women on Women Violence: A Survey of Women Characters in Mariama Ba’s So Long A Letter and Flora Nwapa’s Efuru ”. Fender Studies: A Reader.

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Okoli, F.C. et al (eds). Nsukka: Great AP Express Publishers, 2010. 139 – 145.

Anagbogu, M.A. “A handbook on Problems of the Youth: A Psychological Approach to Behavioural Change”. Benin: Olivet Publishing Company. 1995.

Abrams M. H. and Geoffrey Galt Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 8th ed. Boston: Wadsworth, 2005.

Buchanan, Ian. A Dictionary of Critical Theory. Oxford: OUP, 2010.

Benjamin Spock. Baby and Children. London: Routledge, 1992.

Brewer, Devin. “Globalization and Human Trafficking.” Human Rights and Human Trafficking (n.d.): 46-56. PDF. Chioma Opara. Her Mother’s Daughter: The African Writer as Woman. Port Harcourt: UPPL, 2004.

Charles Nnolim. Approaches to African Novel: Essay in Analysis. Port Harcourt: International Publisher,1990.

Chika Unigwe. On Black Sisters’ Street. New York: Random House, 2009.

Ernest Emenyionu,. Tales of our Motherland. Ibadan: Heinemann, 1980.

Eisenstein, R. Zillah, ed. Capitalist Patriarchy and the Case for Socialist Feminism. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979. PDF. Florence Orabueze. “The Feminist Crusade against Violations of Women’s Fundamental Human Rights: Mariama Ba’s So Long a Letter and Buchi Emecheta’s Second Class Citizen”, in Women in the Academy Festschrift for Professor Helen Chukwuma. Eds 108

Seiyifa Karoye, Noel C. Anyadike. Port Harcourt: Pearl Publishers, 2004.

Ibekwe Chinweizu Anatomy of Female Power: A Masculinist Dissertation of Matriachy. Lagos : Lagos Pero, 1990.

Kelsey Bishop. “Human Trafficking: A Thematic Analysis of New York Times Coverage.” Scientia et Humanitas: A Journal of Student Research (spring, 2016): 115-137. PDF. Lewu, M.A.Y. “Discrimination against Women in Nigeria: An Overview”. In Gender

Discourse in African Theatre, Literature and Visual Arts. A Festchrist in Honour of

Professor Mabel Evwierhoma. Eds. Tracie Utoh-Ezeajugh Barcclays Foubiri

Ayakoroma. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited, 2015. 563-573.

Martha Gimenez. “Capitalism and the Oppression of Women: Marx Revisited.” Science and Society 69.1 (2005): 11-32. PDF. Mojola, Ibiyemi. “The Onus of Womanhood: Mariama Ba and Zaynab Alkali”. In Writing African Women: Gender, Power, Culture and Literature in West Africa. Ed. Stephanie Newell. London: Zed Books, 1977.

Mano Avekadavie. “An Innovative Approach to Sex Trafficking Research: The Methodological Advancement of Attride-Strirling’s Thematic Network Analysis.” International Annals of Criminology 55 (2017): 40-59. PDF. Nawal El Saadawi. Woman at Point Zero. London: Zed Books, 1983.

Spivak, C. Gayatri. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial 109

Theory: A Reader. Eds. Patrick William and Laura Chrisman. London: Routledge, 1994. 66-111. PDF. Tracie Utoh-Ezeajugh. “Nigerian Female Playwrights and the Evolution of a Literary Style:

Gendered Discourse in the Plays of Tess Onwueme, Irene Salami-Agunloye and Tracie

Uto-Ezeajugh”, in Gender Discourse in African Theatre, Literature and Visual Arts. A

Festschriftin Honour of Professor Mabel Evwierhoma. Eds. Tracie Chima Utoh-

Ezeajugh, Barclays Foubiri Ayakoroma. Ibadan: Kraft Books Limited, 2015. 133-154.

Watts, Charlotte & Cathy Zimmerman. “Violence Against Women: Global scope and magnitude.” The Lancet vol. 359, no. 9313, 2002, pp. 1232–37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08221-1.

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Influence of Social Media on Students’ Cultural Diversity and Academic Achievement

Onuora, Ngozi Theresa Alex Ekwueme Federal University Ndufu-Alike, Ebonyi State, Nigeria.

Abstract This paper examined the influence of Social media on students’ cultural diversity and academic achievement. Social media are web applications which generally refer to the social environment in which everybody has the potential to become a creator of content or applications. Social media allow users to organize, create and share their own media their own way. This is possible with the special qualities of platforms. Today, social media has been accepted by several institutions of learning, making it a platform where students connect with their instructors, fellow students and other higher authorities across the board. This therefore called for the study to explore how social media has impacted on students’ cultural diversity and academic achievement. The study adopted survey research method, while data was collected using a 15-item structured questionnaire. The population of study comprised students of Alex Ekwueme Federal University. A sample size of 180 respondents was drawn, out of which 162 responded effectively. The findings revealed that 96% of the respondents use social media and they access them regularly. Also, 69% of the respondents stated that social media have supported their academic life positively, while 67% agreed that social media contributes to their socio-cultural awareness. In line with the findings of the study, the paper recommended among others, that social media platforms should be used to promote cultural diversity in Nigeria especially in these times when the country is bedeviled by a lot of divisive tendencies, while caution must be exercised to avoid the malicious use of social media platforms by students.

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Keywords: Social Media, Culture, Cultural Diversity, Influence, Students Academic Achievement

Introduction Social media has progressively become a very popular part of our everyday life in today’s globalizing society (Sawyer & Chen, 2012). With the emergence of the Internet, boundaries of time and space have begun to disappear in communication while it has become easier and faster for citizens to access information. With the introduction of various social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, among others, in the 2000s, interaction-based and multi-faceted communication has become possible. Compared to other Internet-based applications, the difference with social media is that it can create social networks and offer users the chance to create, share and consume content and/or ideas (Dekker & Engbersen, 2014, cited in Çömlekçi, 2020). Boateng & Amankwaa (2016) observe that social media such as Facebook, Twitter, Google Plus, and Flickr, are being used in learning for the purpose of convenient communication with other students and potentially with others outside the class such as students of the same topic and subject experts. Similarly, social media applications can strengthen class material and positively influence discussions, collaborative work, and authoring. Following this development, educators and researchers are also constantly experimenting with social media technologies hoping to stimulate critical thinking skills, collaboration, and knowledge construction. According to Sawyer & Chen (2012), social media has social, physical and cultural effects in terms of cultural adaptation. Students for example are able to socialize via social networks when they migrate to other societies, increase their social and cultural capital (Brekke, 2008) and easily have access to some information on cultural codes of the host society that might be crucial for the daily life. Hence, while cultures around the world value their individual traditions,

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beliefs, and norms that make them unique, social media links people around the world regardless of differences and geographical boundaries. According to Chen and Zhang (2010), “the compression of time and space, due to the convergence of new media and globalization, has shrunk the world into a much smaller interactive field.” People across the globe can interact with each other within seconds of sending and receiving messages. This study is therefore an attempt to find out the influence of social media on students’ cultural diversity and academic achievement.

Objectives of the study

i. To find out the level of usage of social media among students. ii. To determine the impact of social media on students academic achievement. iii. To ascertain the influence of social media on students’ cultural diversity.

Research Questions

i. What is the level of usage of social media among students? ii. What is the impact of social media on students’ academic achievement? iii. What is the influence of social media on students’ cultural diversity?

Conceptual Clarification Social Media Social media are web applications which generally refer to the social environment in which everybody has the potential to become a creator of content or applications and to reshape the relationship between user and media as well (DiMicco & Millen, 2007). Selwyn (2012) cited in Boateng & Amankwaa (2016) describes the social media as application that allows users to converse and interact with each other; to 113

create, edit and share new forms of textual, visual and audio content, and to categorize, label and recommend existing forms of content. The social media became a major tool used by audiences to source for information and to express their mind as it grew older. Social media have empowered people globally, serving as a platform for the expression of views on both personal and global issues. Ozuru & Ekeanyanwu (2013), also agree with the notion that “social media networks have spiced up ways in which information are disseminated.” Social media platforms have also increased the capacity of societies and people to tell their own stories, generate their own stories and disseminate same without the traditional gate keeping managed by the traditional media.

Impact of Social Media on Student Academic life Social media according to Gurcan (2015) provides students a new mechanism for a familiar exercise. It provides students a direct medium by which to publicly evaluate and comment on their campus environments, institutional policies, classes, professors, and administration and fellow students in real-time. Today’s students communicate via technology by means of a variety of tools such as Skype, text, email, Facebook and twitter. Dewing (2010) notes that social media opens up new ways for collaboration and discussion in the sense that, it offers a great deal of content posting, coping, sharing and search ability by easily using online search tools. Students today use social media anywhere and at any time where internet connection is available in order to meet their educational needs. Students use social media to communicate with their teachers as a group outside of class and to plan school events as well as other academic activities; social media also allow students to get help on school work from teachers and fellow students during the evening, weekends, and holidays so that they do not lag behind. Although, El- Badawy and Hashem (2015) showed that there is no correlation between the students’ academic performance and social media but from some earlier works, it is evident that

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there are significant effects of communication technology and social networking sites on students’ academic performances (Lomi et. al., 2011; Junco, 2015, cited in Obadiora, 2013). According to Abousaber & Oueder (2018) social media play a crucial role on communication between faculty students, which help in circulating correct information and leads to clear understanding and the development of ideas. Social media has a great influence on learning method and relationship among people (Butler & Matook, 2015). It can be used positively in sharing and generating ideas and concepts related to studies. Also, Boateng & Amankwaa (2016) note that many universities now maintain profiles and groups on social networking sites such as Facebook, where students and faculty can interact, share resources and express learner voice. Social media poses a liberal environment for students to discuss and share their views and opinions easily and freely on issues that otherwise would not have been done in a normal traditional classroom, thus, Mason and Rennie (2007) reasoned that, shared community spaces and inter group communications are a massive measure of what excites young people and therefore should contribute to their persistence and motivation to learn. Mingle and Adams (2015) however suggested for proper monitoring and counseling of students, so that social media can be used by them for educational purposes only.

Culture/Cultural Diversity

Generally, culture is seen as ways of living of a particular people. According to Lederach (1995), culture is the shared knowledge and scheme created by a set of people for perceiving, interpreting expressing and responding to the social realities around them. Filo (2008) defines culture as shared values and beliefs in a given group, while Carla (2009) further adds that culture is the shared patterns of behaviours and interactions, cognitive constructs and effective understanding that are learned through a process of

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socialization. Culture has two main components: the material and non-material components. The material component of culture include food, dresses, shelter, equipments and tools, while the non-material component are language, attitude, beliefs and religion, music and dance as well as norms and values of a society (New World Encyclopedia, 2007). Nigeria is a nation of numerous ethnic groups with rich customs and traditions. This could be the reason for the complexity of the existing cultural diversity of the nation. By definition, Cultural diversity is used to describe a society with people of different ethnic groups and traditions (Filo, 2008). According to Obaro (1999), there are more than 200 ethnic groups in Nigeria with their distinctive customs, traditions and languages; these groups include the Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Jukun, Edo, Itshekiri, Ibibio, Efik, Urhobo, Isoko, Idoma, Tiv, Birom, Angas, Kanem, Fulani, Nupe, Igala, Ijaw, Aguleri, Kagoro Moro'a, Jaba, Fantsuan, Baju, Gbagi, Kagoma, Mada, Ninzam, Attaka Attukar Koro, Eko, Kutebq, Kataf, Egbira, Ikwerre, Kanuri, among numerous others. In addition, there are more than four hundred language groups in Nigeria (Omolewa 1986). Osaghae and Suberu (2005) affirm that the exact number of ethnic groups in Nigerian is not known. In accordance with Emuze & James (2013), diversity is important in a social environment because it can help to create an environment that offers mutual respect and support, appreciation of different and unique individuals and the non- reliance on biases that can exist due to lack of education, information and knowledge. Thiederman (2003) observes that viewing biases logically would afford the opportunity to accurately perceive others and gain better exposure to, and knowledge of a diverse group. The new knowledge and perspectives brought by diversity can become a resource for innovation and adaptability (Ely & Thomas 2001). Fredrickson (2003) opines that experiencing greater creativity and innovation can breed positive intergroup relations and commitment to change, if members of an organization understand the strategic resource potential of diversity. Also,

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those who believe that diversity is a source of creativity and learning are more likely to show behavioural support and facilitate its implementation with greater focus, persistence, and effort. Positive attitudes and emotions can counter dysfunctional reactions and create upward spirals through contagion.

Influence of Social Media on Cultural Diversity

Cultural differences influence communication, behavior, and values. As Rosen, Stefanone, and Lackaff (2010) pointed out, there are differences among cultures, and these differences affect the way people communicate within social networking sites. During intercultural adaptation to a host country environment, people use social media to learn about their host countries, establish and maintain relationships, and stay informed with events in their home countries. Sawyer & Chen (2012) put it this way; ‘social media is an important part of our life because it promotes the interconnectedness and interdependence of our culturally diverse world.’ The communication that occurs in these online contexts promotes interactive dialogues that build understanding of different points of view.

Methodology

The method adopted for this study is survey. The population of the study comprises students of Alex Ekwueme Federal University (AE-FUNAI), Ndufu-Alike, located in Ikwo Local Government Area of Ebonyi State. The university has a population of over 10,000 students. The university was picked because the population comprises of a large number of students from different ethnic background in Nigeria, and a few overseas students, hence, it will afford the researcher the ability to get diverse opinion about the topic of study. The sampling techniques adopted were the multi-stage and cluster sampling technique. These techniques were chosen because the population was large and it was necessary to cluster them 117

and select them in stages to administer the questionnaire with ease. The researcher first clustered the population into faculties. There are 10 Faculties in AE-FUNAI; however four Faculties were randomly selected. They are: Faculty of Agriculture, Faculty of Sciences, Faculty of Education and Faculty of Humanities. Departments were randomly picked from the faculties. The sample size of the study is 180.45 respondents were randomly selected from the department, making a total of 180 respondents; however only 162 copies of the questionnaire were correctly filled and returned. Data was analyzed quantitatively using frequency tables and percentages.

Results It is important to note that only 162 copies of the questionnaire were effectively filled and used for analysis. From the demographic data, the study had more male respondents (53.7%) than female respondents (46.3). Similarly , more respondents were between the ages of 20-24 (47.5%) followed by respondents between ages 15-19 (25.3%). Few respondents fell between the age ranges of 25- 29 (19.8%), and 30 and above (7.4%). Results also indicated that more respondents were in their third (31.5%), fourth (26.5%) or final years (19.1%) of their study, followed by those who were in their first (16%) or second year (6.8%) since the average minimum entry age into the university is age 16 and most courses on an average last for a maximum of four to five years. This result can be said to represent the contemporary Nigerian society where most university students are young adults with fewer teenagers and older citizens. Findings in table 1 indicate that majority of the students (96.9%) use social media. This is a clear indication that social media has permeated deeply into the student community.

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Table 1: General Information on Respondents’ use of Social media

Response Do you make use of social media? (%) Yes 96.9% No 3.1% Total 100 n = 162

Results in table two shows that more respondents use more than one social media platforms. Facebook (96.9%), WhatsApp (96.9%), YouTube (88.3%), Twitter (76.5%), and LinkedIn (68.5%) were more commonly used platforms among the students.

Table 2: Social media platforms used by respondents

Response Which of these social media platform do (%) you use the most?

Facebook 96.9

WhatsApp 96.9

Twitter 76.5

Instagram 59.9

YouTube 88.3

Telegram 36.4

Skype 34.6

LinkedIn 68.5

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In table three, result show that more respondents (72.2%) were constantly logged in, followed by those who logged in daily (67.3%), those who visit more than five times a day (63.6%), and less than five times a day (29.6). Respondents who only logged in to social media on weekly (19.6%) and monthly (8%) basis were the fewest represented by the data. This result clearly expresses the fact that online activities are continuously becoming a part of the daily routine of an individual.

Table 3: Frequency of Usage

Response How often do you log into social (%) media in a day? More than five times a day 63.6 Less than five times a day 29.6 Daily 67.3 Weekly 19.6 Monthly 8 I am constantly logged in I am never logged in 3.1 As shown in Table Four, most respondents use social media to get information (87%), followed by the use of social media for communication (84%). The use of social media to acquire knowledge received 73.5% affirmation, while entertainment (59.3%), and meeting new people (64.2%), had considerable representation. Social media platforms provide constant information and updates to its users and also enable constant interconnectivity at a somewhat inexpensive rate.

Table 4: Reason for the use of Social media

Response Why do you use social media? (%) Communication 84 Information 87 Meeting new people 64.2 Entertainment 59.3

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Acquire knowledge 73.5 None of the above 3.1 According to the data in Table 5, 91% of the respondents agreed that they use social media for academic purposes.

Table 5: Use of Social media for academic purposes

Response Do you use social media in your (% academic life? Yes 91.4) No 8.6 Total 100

In table 6, data revealed that social media is highly (77.2%) used by students for academic purposes, and majority (69.1%) of them agree that social media contribute positively to their academic life.

Table 6: Extent of use of social media for academic purposes

Response To what extent do you use ((%) social media for academic purposes? To what extent has social media supported your (%) academic life? High extent 77.2 69.1

Neutral 12.9 20.4

Low extent 9.9 10.5

In table 7, majority of the respondents affirmed that they belong to academic (74%) and cultural forums (58%) on social media. Most students are members of departmental and faculty-wide whatsApp groups, and some are members of

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different groups on Facebook where academic activities or socio-cultural issues are discussed.

Table 7: Group membership on social media

Response Do you belong to academic group(s) (%) on social media? Do you belong to cultural forum(s) on Social media? Yes 74 58

No 25.9 41.9

Total

Table 8 shows that 82% of the respondents rated the influence of social media on their academic life as good.

Table 8: influence of social media on students’ academic life

Response How would you rate the social media in terms of influence on your academic life? Good 82

Neutral 14.8

Bad 3.1

In table 9, 67% of the students acknowledged the fact that social media contributes to their socio-cultural awareness. This could be partly responsible for the reason why 77% affirmed that the social media do not hamper a people’s culture.

Table 9: Impact of social media on culture

Response Does social media contribute to your (%) Socio-cultural awareness? Does social media hamper your

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culture? (%) Yes 67.3 7.4

Not sure 9.3 15.4

No 23.5 77.2

Discussion of Findings

Generally, findings indicate that students use of social media is not only high (96.9%), but social media offer them platforms to discuss academic activities like their assignment and course work, class schedules, class venues; they also receive and send information among their peers, explore issues related to students welfare, payments of different kinds, among others. This finding is in line with the opinion of Boyd & Ellison (2007) who assert that social media allow people identify other users with whom they have a connection, read and react to postings made by them on the site, and send and receive messages either privately or publicly. Thus, this study corroborates the position that social media provides students a new mechanism for a familiar exercise. It provides students a direct medium by which to publicly evaluate and comment on their campus environments, institutional policies, classes, professors, and administration and fellow students in real time.

In the same vein, the respondents’ responses to ways in which membership of cultural groups has affected their socio- cultural orientation indicates that through shared experiences on social media via videos, images, texts, audio clips, links, among others, students (87.7%) are able to get insight about other people’s culture, and this helps them to understand and appreciate such cultures. Similarly, some other respondents (79.6%) explained that social media helps them to connect with people from their part of the country and others. Others (83.3%) observed that social media gives them the opportunity to nurture social bonds, as well the opportunity

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for cultural expressions and promotion of their individual cultures. The responses clearly support the observation of Boyd & Ellison (2007) that social networking sites allow individuals to create profiles within the system, view others’ profiles with which they share a connection, and interact with others in the system. Accordingly, Georgetown University (2010) opines that turmoil and violence would exist unless people actively promote intercultural dialogue and communication competence to achieve harmony and understanding. Social media provides a place where people across the world can stay in touch and feel closer and more connected regardless of the distance that separates them. While providing a common way of linking people together through knowledge, behavior, and attitudes, a sense of belonging to a greater social network other than one’s own local community is effectively created; hence, the Internet exemplifies such a significant means in connecting to a diversity of people, places, ideas, and cultures.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this study investigated the influence of social media on students’ cultural diversity and academic achievement. The found that with the arrival and popularization of social media, the society has undergone a revolutionary change, hence the high level of usage among students. Also, the study has been able to establish that social media tend to have a positive influence on students academic achievement cultural diversity. Specifically, social media create a new line of thought that enable a lot of people from different cultures to connect with each other, accept each other, and express each other culture in different forms.

Recommendation

In line with findings of this study, this paper recommends the use of social media platforms to promote cultural diversity in Nigeria especially in these times when the country is 124

bedeviled by a lot of divisive tendencies. It is a good development that the students are beginning to realize the importance of social media in both their academic and socio- cultural lives. Hence, it is imperative to encourage the use of social media to foster peaceful co-existence among the different ethnic groups, while caution must be exercised to avoid the malicious use of social media platforms by students.

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Butler, B. S. & Matook, S. (2015). Social Media and Relationships. In. P. H. Ang & R. Mansell (Eds.), The International Encyclopedia of Digital Communication and Society. Retrieved fromhttps://doi.org/10.1002/9781118767771.wbiedcs 097

Chen, Guo-Ming & Zhang, Kai. (2010). New media and cultural identity in the global society. In Taiwo, Rotimi (Ed.), Handbook of research on discourse behavior and digital communication: Language

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Çömlekçi, M. F. (2020). Social Media Use among International Students: Cultural Adaptation and Socialization. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344014844

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El-Badawy T. A. & Hashem, Y. (2015). The Impact of Social Media on the Academic Development of School Students. International Journal of Business Administration, 6(46),

Boyd, D. M. & Ellison, N. (2007). Social network sites: Definition, history, and scholarship. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13, 210−230.

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Gurcan, H. I. (2015). Contribution of Social Media to the Students’ Academic Development. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 5(12), 965.

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Mpụtara Ụbara Echiche N’ụtọasụsụ Igbo

Ọlachi Florence Okere

Ngalaba Amụmamụ Asụsụ Ala Naịjirịa na Lingwistiks Alvan Ikoku Fedral Kọleeji Keedukeshọn, Owere Naịjirịa 08038002552 olaedo1976@gmail

Ụmịedemede

Okwu ọ bụla mmadụ kwuru na-enwe mpụtara site n’ihe onye kwuru ya bù n’obi na ka o siri hụta ya. Edemede a nke isiokwu ya bụ “Mpụtara ụbara echiche n’ụtọasụsụ Igbo” lebara anya na mpụtara okwu ụfọdụ ndị e nwere n’asụsụ Igbo kpọm kwem. E lebakwara anya n’ụzọ dị iche iche otu okwu si enwe mpụtara dị iche iche. Nchọcha a bù n’uche izipụta ụdị mpụtara dị iche iche e nwere n’ụtọasụsụ Igbo tinyere ịkọwapụta echiche dị iche iche ụfọdụ okwu Igbo nwegasịrị. Nchọcha a bụ nke ọba akwụkwọ ebe nwa nchọcha si nwete ụfọdụ akwụkwọ ọgụgụ na edemede nchọcha ndị odee ụfọdụ derela ihe yitere isiokwu nke a na ha. Ndị nchọcha a ga-abara uru karịsịa bụ ụmụakwụkwọ, ndị nkụzi ndị nchọcha, wdg. N’ikpeazụ, a tụrụ aro ka ndị nchọcha n’ọdịniihu lebazie anya n’isiokwu a ma chọpụta ebe o nwere oghere mejuo ya. Ka e mesịrị nchọcha a, a chọpụtara na mpụtara bụ ejewe aghaghị n’ihe gbasara asụsụ ọ bụla, ọ kachasị n’asụsụ Igbo ebe bụ mgbakwasị ụkwụ edemede a.

Ndubata Asụsụ bụ otu ụzọ doro anya mmadụ na ibe ya ji akparịta, kwupụte mbunuuche ma gbokwaa mkpa dịịrị ha. Asụsụ e nwere gburugburu ụwa karịrị akarị n’ọnụọgụ nke hịara ahụ ikwu kpọmkwem ole ha dị. E nwere asụsụ Igbo, Bekee, Tiv, Urohbo, Awụsa, Yoruba na ndị ọzọ ga. Mana n’ime asụsụ ndị a, e nwere atọ ndị gọọmentị kwadoro karịa ndị ọzọ ka ha bụrụ asụsụ a ga-eji akụziri ụmụakwụkwọ ihe

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n’ụlọakwụkwọ praịmarị na sekọndịrị. Asụsụ atọ ndị a bụ Igbo, Awụsa na Yoruba, mana asụsụ Igbo ka edemede a gbadoro ụkwụ na ya. A bịa n’ihe banyere asụsụ, e nwere ụdị ya dị iche iche dị ka ekwurunọnụ, ederede, mmegharị ahụ, wdg. A sụọ asụsụ, ọ ga-enwe mpụtara. Ya ka o ji dị mkpa na okwu ọ bụla e kwuru na-enwe mpụtara. ọ bụ mpụtara okwu nwere ga-eme ka asụsụ a sụrụ nwee nghọta zuru òkè. Ihe nke a pụtara bụ na asụsụ na mpụtara na-agakọrịta ọnụ iji mezue mbunuuche okwuu na ọnụụ.

Ntụlegharị Agụmagụ E nwere ike ile mpụtara anya dị ka echiche okwu nwere dị ka ihe onye kwuru okwu bu n’uche kwue ya. E nwekwara ike ịkpọ mpụtara nghọtaokwu n’ụzọ mkpirisi. ọ bụ otu n’ime ngalaba amụmamụ asụsụ nọ na lingwistiks nke na- amụ maka nghọta mkpụrụokwu na ahịrịokwu n’asụsụ. Mpụtara dị ezi mkpa n’ihi na ọ bụ site na ya ka e si amata mpụtara okwu ma ọ bụkwanụ ahịrịokwu ọ bụla n’asụsụ. N’otu aka ahụ, mgbe ọ bụla a na-ekwu maka mpụtara, ihe a na-ebu n’uche na-abụ ụzọ dị iche iche e si ghọta okwu e kwuru ma ọ bụ mpụtara e nyere ya bụ okwu. N’agbanyeghị nkọwa ndị a, Anyanwu (2008) kọwara mpụtara dị ka amụmamụ gbasara nghọta mkpụrụokwu nke sonyere na ngalaba amụmamụ asụsụ sayensị lingwistiks. ọ gbakwụnyekwara na mpụtara okwu ọ bụla nwere na- agbadokarị ụkwụ n’ụzọ mkpụrụokwu, nkebiokwu na ahịrịokwu siri nwee nghọta. N’uche Ndimele (1997:1) mpụtara so n’otu n’ime ngalaba lingwistiks na-ahụ maka nghọta mkpụrụokwu nwegasịrị n’asụsụ. Lyons (1977) dere na nghọtaokwu bụ amụmamụ gbasara mmekọrịta dị n’etiti mkpụrụokwu, na etu e si emepụta nghọta na-akọwapụta etu nsirihụ mmadụ n’ụwa si dị, tinyere etu anyị si aghọta onwe anyị na ndị ọzọ. Kempson (1977) n’otu aka ahụ kwupụtara na nghọtaokwu bụ ọmụmụ gbasara mpụtara n’asụsụ, nhazi asụsụ, imezi okwu e kwuru n’ọnụ na akara. ọ na-akọwakwa maka mmekọrịta na-adị

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n’etiti ihe na-akọwa ihe dị ka mkpụrụokwu, akara, na ihe ha nọchitere anya ha n’ụwa. Mpụtara ma ọ bụ nkọwa e nyere mkpụrụokwu ma ọ bụkwanụ akara ndị ahụ na-ezipụta nghọta ha gasị n’otu n’otu. Udemmadụ (2018:1) kọwara nghọtaokwu dị ka mkpụrụokwu e ji akọwa ngalaba amụmamụ na-ahụ maka mpụtara, nghọta ma ọ bụ echiche dị n’okwu. Ejele (2003) mere ka a mata na nghọtaokwu dị ka ngalaba sayensị asụsụ na-eleba anya na nghọta dịgasị n’okwu. ọ gbakwụnyere na okwu ọ bụla mmadụ kwuru nwere nghọta na-esochi ya azụ.

Myiwere Myiwere dị ka Anagbogu, Mbah na Eme (2010:227) dere na e nwere ike ile ya anya ụzọ abụọ. Nke mbụ bụ otu mkpụrụokwu nwere karịa otu mpụtara ma ọ bụ iwere ya dị ka nghọta dịgasị iche iche n’onwe ha n’otu usoro. Ihe nke a na- akọwa bụ na otu okwu nwere ike nwee otu nsupe na usoro mkpọpụta n’agbanyeghị na nghọta onwere nwere ike karịa otu, abụọ ma ọ bụ karịa. Crystal (1997:185) n’ime Ndimele (1995:50) na- akọwa na ọ rara ahụ ịmata ndịiche n’etiti ụbara echiche na myiwere. N’okwu ya, myiwere bụ okwu gbara ọkpụrụkpụ n’amụmamụ nghọtaokwu nke nwere otu usoro ma nwee nghọta dị iche iche. N’aka nke ọzọ, myiwere dị ka Udemmadụ (2018) si kọwaa bụ mgbe mkpụrụokwu dị iche iche bịara yie onwe ha n’ụdịdị na mkpọpụta mana nghọta ha abịazie dịrị iche iche. ọmụmaatụ ndị o nyere na Bekee bụ ndị a; ‘ bank ’ nke mpụtara ya nwere ike ịbụ ụlọakụ ma ọ bụ akụkụ ikpere mmiri. ‘Bachelor ’ nke mpụtara ya nwekwara ike ịbụ okokporo ma ọ bụ nzere mmụta. SPILC (1985) n’ime Udemmadụ (2012) dere na myiwere bụ mkpụrụokwu dị iche iche nwere otu nsupe, ótù ụda, ótù mkpọpụta ma sitekwa n’ ótù nkejiasụsụ, mana ntọala na nghọta okwu ha dị iche iche.

Ọkpụrụkpụ Okwu ndị Metụtara Isiokwu

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Mpụtara ọkpụrụkpụ okwu/Echiche Nkịtị: ụdị mpụtara a na-akọwa na etu echiche otu mkpụrụokwu dị na-abụkarị etu nghọta ya si dị. Nke a pụtara na ọ bụ etu echiche ahụ a kpọpụtara ma ọ bụ e kwupụtara aha ya bụ ihe na-akpọlite mmụọ onye na-ege ntị. Iji maa atụ; ‘ewu’ bụ anụ ụlọ nwere ụkwụ anọ a maara amara na-ata ahịhịa na-eje ije nwayọ nwayọ. ọzọkwa, echiche ‘ onye nne’ bụ nwaanyị tozuru òkè n’ihe e ji mmadụ eme, wdg. Ndimele (2007:40) dere na mpụtara ọkpụrụkpụ okwu oge ụfọdụ na-abụ mkpụrụokwu nwere echiche nkịtị, ihe a mabu ama na kwa ozuru agbụrụ ọnụ. ọ gbakwụnyekwara na mpụtara okwu ọ bụla n’akwụkwọ ọkọwaokwu anaghị agbanwe agbanwe. O nweghịkwa ike ime ka a hapụ ịmata ihe okwu ahụ bụ site n’ụda ya n’ebe onye na-ekwu okwu ma ọ bụ n’ebe onye na-ege nọ. ọ gara n’ihu kwue na, agbụrụ ọ bụla na- asụ ma na-anụ otu asụsụ na-aghọta mpụtara okwu ọ bụla e kwuru. Iji maa atụ; ‘boy’ n’asụsụ Bekee. Na nkọwa ya, ụdị echcihe a n’ebe mkpụrụokwu a bụ ‘boy’ zuru ụwa ọnụ ma bụrụ ihe a ga-eji tụlee agwara echiche ha. Ịma atụ; e nwere ike iji mpụtara ‘boy’ tụlekọrịta mpụtara ‘girl’ dị ka:

boy girl + HUMAN + HUMAN + MALE + MALE - ADULT - ADULT Nsiri nwet e: Ndi mele (200 7)

Nkọwa Ndimele (2007) n’echiche ndị e gosipụtara n’elu ebe a na-akọwapụta echiche mkpụrụokwu ndị ahụ n’ihi na ọ bụrụ 131

na agwara echiche mkpụrụokwu ndị ahụ bụ (+), ọ gaghị abụzikwa (-). Ihe nke a pụtara bụ, okwu a na-atụle bụ ihe a na-elekwasịkarị anya n’ebe ndị na-asụ asụsụ ahụ nọ. N’otu aka ahụ, Leech (1980:11) mere ka a mata na ụdị mpụtara a na- enyetụ nsogbu nghọta ma bụrụkwa echiche dị oke mkpa n’ebe asụsụ dị, nke na o nweghị onye nwere ike ịkọwanwu ihe bụ asụsụ n’ejighị ya. ọzọkwa, o kwupụtara na. ụdị echiche a kacha dị mkpa na mkparịta ụka. O kwukwara na agbụrụ ọ bụla na-asụ otu asụsụ kwesịrị ịnabata mpụtara okwu ọ bụla ha kwuru, ebe ọ bụ na ha nabatara usorookwu asụsụ ahụ.

Mpụtara Nsinandịkọ (Collocative/Associative meaning) Echiche nsinandịkọ dị ka Anagbogụ, Mbah na Eme (2010) siri kọwaa bụ echiche na-elebakarị anya etu mkpụrụokwu na ibe ya si agakọrịta ọnụ. N’okwu ha, ha sịrị na ụdị echiche a na-agbakarị mkpị ma ọ bụ nke na-adị n’ụdị nkwukwugha mgbe ọ bụla a kpọrọ ótù aha, nke ọzọ abịa wepụtachaa echiche nke ọzọ. Mkpụrụokwu ndị ahụ na- agakọrịta ọnụ bụ ndị a: nne na nna oke na nne akị na ụkwa okwu na ụka ọka na ube ọgụ na mgba ọnwa na kpakpando

Mpụtara Nsina (Connotative meaning) Nke a na-abụkarịechiche e sitere na mgbaatị echiche ma ọ bụ mgbanwe sitere na nghọta dịbu adị e siri n’ụfọdụ mkpụrụokwu nwete (Anyanwụ 2008). ọ gbakwụnyere na ụdị echiche a na-agbanwe agbanwe site n’aka otu onye rue onye ọzọ, agbụrụ na agbụrụ, wdg. ọzọ bụ na ụdị echiche nwekwara ike dị n’ụdị atụmaatụokwu dị ka echiche nsina ‘ ezi’ bụ iru oke unyi, ‘ mbe’ bụ ịghọ oke aghụghọ, ‘ nwata akwụkwọ nwaanyị‘ bụ ime ihere, ‘ mkpi’ bụ akwamiko, wdg.

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Mpụtara Mmetụta (Affective meaning) ụdị echiche a bụ nke a kọwapụtara site n’echiche onwe, ya bụ, aha e nyere ihe dị ka e siri hụta ya n’ọnọdụ a hụtara ya bụ ihe. Aha ịhụnanya sonyere n’echiche mmetụta na nghọtaokwu. Ịma atụ, di na nwunye nwere ike ịzarịta aha ịhụnanya ndị a; ọdịmnobi, onye nke m, ịhụnanya m, ụtọ m, wdg. iji gosi ịhụnanya ha nwere n’ime onwe ha (Anyanwụ 2008). Nwa nwekwara ike ịza nna ya ‘Sir’ iji gosi mmetụta o nwere n’ebe nna ya nọ, nakwa nkwanyere ùgwù so ya, wdg.

Echiche Eziokwu Nke a bụ ụdị echiche mkpụrụokwu nke na-eleba anya n’ụzọ dị iche iche e si ezipụta ma ọ bụ gosipụta mkpụrụokwu n’ozuzu òkè. Echiche mkpụrụokwu ndị a na-adịkarị n’ogo dị icheiche na gburugburu ala anyị. Iji maa atụ: ọkụ na mmiri elu na ala di na nwunye ọsa na uze nnụnụ na akwụ ụtụtụ na atụ achịcha na mmanya mma na ọgụ eluigwe na ala ọsọ na ije, wdg. ọzọkwa, e nwere ike ịhụta mpụtara nsinandịkọ dị ka echiche otu mkpụrụokwu na-ewepụta karịa ihe e bù n’uche. ọ na- agbanwe agbanwe dị ka chi ya siri kee ya. Ha gbakwụnyere na ụdị echiche a na-emetụta okwu a bụ ‘seụ’ n’asụsụ Bekee. Ihe onye na-ekwu okwu ma ọ bụ onye na-ege ege bu n’uche ma ha nụ ya ma ọ bụ kwue ya na-abụkarị mpụtara agbụrụ ahụ ma ọ bụkwanụ omenala ahụ site n’ụdị nkwekọrịta ha nwere. Oge ụfọdụ, mmadụ nwere ike kwue okwu iji mee ka agụrụ nke onwe gụọ onye ọ na-agwa okwu ndị na-amụ ma na- anụkwa otu asụsụ (Barnwell 1980). Mpụtara nsinandịkọ dị ka Crystal (1997:69) siri kọwaa bụ echiche na-ekwu maka mkpụrụokwu ndị ahụ na-agakọrịta ọnụ oge ọ bụla. N’okwu

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ya, ọ sịrị na ụdị echiche a bụ ụdị echiche mkpụrụokwu na- ezipụta ihe a tụrụ anya ya n’okwu site n’iwu ọ na-edobe. ọ gbakwụnyere na okwu ndị ahụ na-agakọ ọnụ ka a na-akpọ ntụgwa ya na ibe ya, ịma atụ: oke na ngwere, esekere na edima, ara na obi, wdg.

Nsogbu Nchọcha ọ bụ eziokwu na ndị Igbo n’onwe ha na-asụ asụsụ Igbo amachaghị na okwu ụfọdụ ha na-ekwu nwere ike dịrị n’otu ụdị, nwee otu ụda nakwa otu mkpọpụta dị ka ọ dị ugbu a. Mgbe e nwere nghọta dị iche iche banyere otu okwu ndị ahụ na-ezipụtaghị ya ma ọ bụ tinye akara ụda n’okwu ndị ahụ, nke a nwere ike iwete mgbagwoju anya n’ebe mmadụ na ibe ya nọ. Ya mere o ji dị mkpa na onye ọ bụla ga-agba mbọ zipụta nghọta okwu dị iche iche nwere iji mee ka o doo mmadụ anya, ọ kachasị n’okwu ndị ahụ nwere otu ụda na mkpọpụta. Site na nzipụta nghọta okwu ndị ahụ nwere ga- enye aka ka asụsụ Igbo na-eto ma kwụrụ chịm, tinyere ịmụbanye akpaokwu ya, nke ga-abara ndị na-ede akwụkwọ akpa okwu nnukwu uru. ọtụtụ ndị odee emeela nchọcha gbasara myiwere, mana enwebeghị onye megoro nchọcha gbasara myiwere ndị metụtara akụkụ ahụ na ndị metụtara mkparịtaụka ọha. ọ bụ ụdị ọnọdụ a kpaliri nwa nchọcha imekwu nchọcha n’isiokwu a iji hụ na e mechiri oghere a ndị nchọcha ndị ọzọ hapụrụ, ka e nwee ike belata oke mgbagwoju anya a na-enwe n’okwu ndị nwere echiche abụọ ma ọ bụ karịa n’asụsụ Igbo.

Mbunuuche Nchọcha Nchọcha nke isiokwu ya bụ “Mpụtara ụbara Echiche n’ụtọasụsụ Igbo” bù n’uche ihe ole na ole ndị a: iv. Ịmata ihe bụ myiwere, v. Ịchọpụta myiwere ndị metụtara akụkụ ahụ na ndị metụtara mkparịtaụka ọha, vi. Ịkọwapụta mpụtara myiwere dị iche iche.

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Uru Nchọcha Ndị nchọcha a ga-abara uru bụ ndị a: - ụmụafọ Igbo: Nchọcha a ga-abara onye ọ bụla bụ onye Igbo uru n’ihi na ọ ga-eme ka ha hapụ ị na-enwe mgbagwoju anya na mpụtara okwu, ọ kachasị ndị nwere otu ụda n’ebughị akara ụdaolu. - Ndị nkuzi ọmụmụ asụsụ Igbo: Nchọcha a ga-abụ ezi uru nye ndị niile na-akụzi ọmụmụ asụsụ Igbo n’ihi na, ọ ga-eme ka ha mata mkpa ọ dị n’ikuzi akara ụdaolu. - Ndị ọchọcha: Nchọcha a ga-abara ndị ọzọ na-eme nchọcha yitere isiokwu a uru n’ihi ọ ga-abụ ihe nlere anya na nchọcha ha na-eme. ọ ga-emekwa ka ha mata mpaghara ọzọ ha ga-eleba anya malite n’ebe nke a kwụsịrị.

- Ụmụakwụkwọ: Nchọcha a ga-abara ụmụakwụkwọ uru n’ihi na ọtụtụ n’ime ha amaghị na otu okwu nwere ike nwee karịa otu mpụtara. ọ ga-emekwa ka echiche ha gbatịkwue n’ihe banyere ụtọasụsụ Igbo. - Ndị na-amụ asụsụ Igbo dị ka asụsụ nke abụọ (L 2): Nchọcha a ga-abakwara ndị na-amụ asụsụ Igbo dị ka asụsụ nke abụọ ha uru. ọ ga-emepekwu anya ha n’ịmata na asụsụ Igbo tozuru òkè n’ihe e ji asụsụ eme. ọ ga-eme ka amamiihe ha bawanye n’ihe gbasara asụsụ Igbo. ọ ga-enyere ha aka ịmụta ya bụ asụsụ Igbo nke ọma.

Myiwere ndị Metụtara Akụkụ ahụ U/N Mkpụrụokwu Mpụtara ‘a’ Mpụtara ‘b’ 1. Akpịrị Ịrịọ ihe Nke e ji elo nri 2. Anya Oghere na Ihe e ji ahụ ụzọ ndudu 3. Ara Isi mgbaka Nke e ji azụlite nwa 4. Àzú ̣ Ịgbanwe ego Nke e ji akwọ na ihe nwa/akụkụ ahụ 135

mmadụ 5. Íkè Ikeri ihe Ihe e ji anọ ọdụ 6. Isi ọkwa dị elu Ihe na-ebu ahụ mmadụ, 7. Obi Ebe obibi Ihe ji mmadụ ndụ ọhụrụ 8. Olu Nke e ji abụ Ihe jidere isi abụ mmadụ 9. ọdụ Njedebe ihe Ihe ikpeazụ 10. ọnụ Oghere Ihe e ji ekwu okwu egwuru egwu

Myiwere ndị Metụtara Mkparịtaụka ọha U/N Mkpụrụokwu Mpụtara ‘a’ Mpụtara ‘b’ 11. Akwụkwọ Nke a na-agụ agụ Akwụkwọ nri 12. Àkú ̣ Ihe e ji egbu anụ Ịma ụra/ịkụ ihe 13. Achịcha Oriri nsọ Nke e ji aṅụ tii / agba akwụkwọ. 14. Àkwà Ihe ndina Ihe e ji agafe ebe mmiri dị 15. Ala Mmụọ Azụokwu elu 16. Akpati Ihe e ji akwaju Ihe e ji eli onye efe nwụrụ anwụ 17. Eriri Ihe na-ejikọ nne Nke e ji agbasa na nwa ákwà 18. Ekpo Osisi apịrị apị Ikpochasị ihe 19. Ezi Mbara ama Ngosi 20. Èké Ike ngwungwu Aha ahịa 21. Ígwè Ihe e ji arụ ụlọ Nke e ji enyere ndụ aka a na- agba agba 22. Ìkpé ọgbakọ mkpezi Aha mmadụ esemokwu 23. Ígbạ́ Ịkụnyere mmadụ Ịgba ọgwụ bọọl 24. Mgbọ Nke e ji eme mpụ Ihe nchekwa

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ule onwe 25. Ozu Ihe adịghị ndụ Inwe nnukwu ego 26. Onye ike Ngwa e ji ebi Ime ihe siri ike n’ụlọ 27. Oyi Adịghị ókụ ́ ̣ E jighị ahụ / ahụ ọkụ 28. Ogu Aha mmadụ Mmụọ ndị Igbo 29. Onyinye Aha mmadụ Igosi afọ ọma 30. Uru Ihe na-enweghị Nke a na-enwete ọkpụkpụ n’azụmahịa 31. ọgwụ Mgbọrọgwụ Nke e ji agwọ ọrịa 32. Ó lạ̀ Ahaaka Mgba aka 33. ọbara Nke dị mmadụ Nke e ji n’ahụ egosipụta agụghị ọcha 34. ọmụ Ihe osisi nkwụ Ihe e ji amụchasị na-amịpụta mma, ọgụ, wdg. 35. Uche Aha mmadụ Echiche 36. Úgwú Ndagwurugwu Aha mmadụ 37. ụzọ Ama bekee Nke e ji emechi ebe obibi 38. Tebụụl Ihe e ji adọsa ihe Nke e ji arụ mgbakọ na mwepụ

Nchịkọta Site na nchọcha e mere, nwa nchọcha zipụtara mpụtara myiwere okwu ndị e nwetere n’ụzọ pụrụ iche. A chọpụtara na e nwere myiwerendị metụtara akụkụ ahụ mmadụ nandị e ji akparịta ụka ọha. Ndị metụtara akụkụ ahụ gụnyere isi, obi, anya, ara, wdg. Ebe ndị metụtara mkparịtaụka ọha gụnyere: okwu, akwụkwọ, ozu, wdg. A chọpụtakwara ụdị mpụtara dị iche iche e nwegasịrị na ka ha si metụta okwu a na-ekwu ekwu site n’ọnọdụ e jiri kwue ya. 137

Aro Nwa nchọcha na-atụ aro ka ndị nkuzi ọmụmụ asụsụ Igbo na mahadum dị iche iche jisie ike na-akụzi ụtọasụsụ Igbo, ka e site na ya rụtụ aka na mpụtara na myiwere n’ụzọ pụrụ iche. Ụmụ akwụkwọ n’onwe ha gbaa mbọ na-eleba anya n’ụfọdụ akwụkwọ ndị a na-ebipụta, ọ kachasị n’oge a maka ụfọdụ ihe ndị ga-enyere ha aka juru eju bara abara. Ndị ome nchọcha kwesịrị ileba anya na mpaghara myiwere ndị ọzọ dị ka ndị metụtara osisi, mmiri, wdg, site n’ime etu a, ọ ga- enyere ndị nchọcha ndị ọzọ aka n’ọdịniihu inwete ihe nlere anya ga-enyere ha aka na nchọcha ha na-eme. Aro ọzọ bụ ka ndị na-ebipụta akwụkwọ jisie ike na- ebipụta akwụkwọ ndị a n’asụsụ Igbo na Bekee. Nke a ga-eme ka ihe nlere anya ụdị nchọcha a hapụ ịbụ nsogbu.

Edensibịa

Anagbogu, P.N., Mbah, B.M., & Eme, C.A. (2010).Introduction to linguistics (2 nd ed). Awka: Amaka dreams. Anyanwu, O. (2008). “Essentials of semantics naMbah na Mbah (ọhz). History of linguistics and communication: A festschrift in honour of Professor P.A. Nwachukwu. Enugu: Paschal communications. Ihu 186-201. Anyanwu, O. (2008). “Essentials of semantics” na Mbah na Mbah. History of linguistics and communication: A festschrift in Honour of Professor P.A. Nwachukwu. Enugu: Paschal communications. Ihu 186-201. Barnwell, K. (1980). Introduction to semantics and translation. New York: Crowell. Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge encyclopedia of language (2 nd ed). Cambridge: Cambridge University press. Ejele, P.E. (2003). Semantics, leụical structure and leụical relations. Aba: National Institute for Nigerian Languages.

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Kempson, R.M. (1977). Semantic theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University press. Leech, G. (1980). Semantics. London: Penguin books. Lyons, J. (1977). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University press. Ndimele, O.M. (1997). Semantics and the frontiers of communication. Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt press. Ndimele, O.M. (2007). Semantics & the frontiers of communication (2 nd ed). Port Harcourt: University of Port Harcourt press. Udemmadụ, T.N. (2012). “Mpụtaraokwu n’asụsụ Igbo” n’Ò́ jà. An International Journal of Igbo, African and Asia studies, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka: Apple Books press. Ihu 126-135. Udemmadụ, T.N. (2018). Ọmụmụ nghọtaokwu (semantics). Onitsha: Durability prints.

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The pathology of church growth in Igbo land, Nigeria: an antidote to the symptoms

Nmah, P.E. Department of Religion and Human Relations Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka Anambra State-Nigeria [email protected]

And

Otubah, Grace Ifeoma. Department of Religion and Human Relations NnamdiAzikiwe University, Awka Anambra State – Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract Our efforts in this research work have been geared towards examining the pathology of church growth in Igbo land: an antidote to the symptoms. The study revealed that the church’s lack of adequate evangelistic strategic is mostly responsible for the stagnation of church growth in Igbo land. The objective of this research work is to present a way forward for the church growth. This study is designed to introduce a movement which is now permeating among churches virtually everywhere. The work recommended that leaders at all levels of church organizational structure should engage in study and diagnosing the pathology of church growth in Igbo land. This is to enable effective evangelism and making disciples. Methods of approach were historical, phenomenological and analytical methods coupled with the review of related extant material.

Keywords: pathology, church, ethnikitis, symptom, internal, external, growth

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Introduction This research work is not intended to be a full presentation on the topic of church growth. Rather, it is an introduction to the subject. It is intended to describe the church growth movement from the historical and biblical perspectives. The church growth happens in the local congregation. In this 21 st century, a new spirit of excitement is being felt among various Protestant denominations. Experience with the church growth movement is stimulating a renewed enthusiasm to “get back to the business of the church”. Goals for growth are being adopted. Strategic for outreach are being planned. Pastors are requesting more information. Lay people are beginning to learn about church growth and want to know more. A church growth movement can be used by God to help build his church, internally and externally. Therefore, the aim of this research work is to unravel the ritual surrounding evangelical setbacks in Igbo land. To achieve this, we shall be x-raying some causal factors that are involved in the issue.

Conceptual Framework To Hunter (1983), the church is a living organism. The church is a community of saints, a “communion sanctorum” (Uka, 1995). It is the holy presence of Christ in the world, whose fundamental task is to build communities of holy character. The church is not a building, steeple, resting place, but a people. The church is the called-out-people of God who constitute the holy presence of Christ in the world. Nowhere is the church referred to as building except as a metaphor, which denotes God’s people. The biblical roots are in two pairs of Hebrew and Greek words. Edah (Hebrew) and Kuriakon (Greek) refer to the institution as an assembly of people, any people. But qahal (Hebrew) and Ekklesia (Greek) covenant terms move beyond to the people of God who have assembled indeed “ecclesia” (in theological parlance refers to those who have being called

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out from among the people, out of the miry clay, out of Egypt, or out of the kosmos(world order) with her embellishments and allure (kosmetikos) into the kingdom of God (Ukah, 1995). Those are chosen, called and redeemed people, in the process of sanctification; a pilgrim people moving to the great banquet in the eschaton. Their warmest relationship with Christ is ultimate and constitutes the raison d’etre of their existence. To most of us, the church refers to our denomination or the congregation where we worship on Sundays. But the church universal is the vast invisible cloud of witnesses passing across the ages. It is universal since God calls men and women from all races, colours, cultures and corners of the globe. For this reason Christians, from the earliest creed have confessed being part of one, holy, catholic and apostolic church. This is the body of Christ in the world, body whose mission is to gather believers into confessing communities, to administer the sacraments, preach the word and make disciples (Mtt 28: 19-20; Eph 5: 23; Mtt 13: 47-50). The church growth movement recognizes that, like any other living organism, local congregations can be healthy, or they can get sick. Churches can be diseased, and they can die. Some diseases can be diagnosed and the people of God can take steps toward helping their congregation get well again. Sometimes churches die because diseases have weakened their life processes to the point where they can no longer function. Healthy churches grow. They mature in Christian faith and life to the point that they have offspring-a daughter church is planted. Recognizing that churches have a life cycle is a positive and helpful way to clear the roadblocks for God’s spirit to promote external growth. It is very imperative to often diagnose church health status. The study of church diseases never has to be concerned with the head of the body. The problems that hinder internal and external growth are problems that occur in the rest of the body. The members of the body can become

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diseased because the members of the church are still sinners. Though forgiven through the blood of Christ on the cross; washed in the waters of baptism, and delivered out of the bondage of sin, they are still sinners. They are still people who face the temptations of Satan, and sometimes they fall. Even though they are in communion with Christ in the forgiveness of the Lord’s Supper, Christians are still people who fall away from God in various ways every day. God’s people are saints. But at the same time they are sinners, too. External factors affect also the health of the church. The community context, the size of the church building and national trends in attitudes about religion all play a part in the health of Christ’s body. Furthermore, denominational trends can harm congregational health. Wrong theology, liturgy, doctrine, non-biblical priorities and poor programmes can cause illness in the church at local level. Unlike the biological structure of human beings and animals, the head of the church is eternal. The mark of healthy church is growth. When people get sick they call a physician. He diagnoses the problem and prescribes a medicine. He may also prescribe surgery. The idea is to help the patient get well. The whole process of diagnosing the disease and prescribing the proper treatment is very complex. Medical people call this area of study pathology. The pathology of church growth is the study of disease which affects the body of Christ. To Hunter (1983), it includes the proper diagnosis of the problems that infect the church. It deals also with methods to set the stage for growth. Like the human body, only God heals the body of Christ both internally and externally (Mtt 16:18). It is the Lord who controls and supplies the members (Eph 4:16). The church growth pathologist, like a physician, finds the cause of the problem and moves to provide the proper atmosphere in which the Holy Spirit can bring health to his body. Just as the diseases of the body are very complex, so also are the diseases of the church. It is interesting that some people see themselves as self-appointed experts about the

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church. Some might say that the church is growing because the pastor preaches good sermons; or that the church is declining because the former pastor retired. While there might be some accuracy in assessments like these, chances are that these “reasons” are way off base. It takes an understanding of church growth pathology to deal with the complex body of Christ. One of the important keys to effective pathology work is to begin with sound methods of diagnosis.

Research Objectives The objectives of the research work include:  To carefully x-ray the causal factors of church growth setbacks in Igbo land.  To investigate the effects of the setbacks in the spiritual, intellectual, moral, economic and social life of the Christians.  To galvanize the consciousness of the remedies to the pathology of the church growth.  To study the role of the church in ameliorating the church growth problems.  To examine the implications of church policies in proffering a solution to the stagnation of church growth in Igbo land.

Significance of the Study The importance of this research work basically stems from the fact that it addresses the factors that threatened the collective existence of Christianity in Igbo land and technically Nigeria, and offers a valid and insightful resource related extant material for further studies on foundation for church growth. It will also add academic values for future religious, sociological, and anthropological scholars especially church historiographers who can consult such documents in order to gain useful information on the topic.

Literature Review and Hypotheses iv. Signs of healthy churches 144

According to Wagner (1981), there are seven vital signs of healthy churches namely: (a) The pastoral leadership must be people who want the church to grow and be willing to pay the cost of church growth. They must be people who are equipped to effectively implement church growth principles in the congregation. (b) The lay people of a healthy church are people who are also willing to pay the price for church growth. They want their church to grow. They are active and involved in the work of the Lord, using their gifts for building the body of Christ and reaching out to expand his kingdom. (c) The healthy church must be large enough to conduct the various ministries needed by the community. The healthy church will discover the felt needs of the people around it and grow big enough to extend the gospel to people in a relevant way. (d) The church that is healthy must have a proper balance of small groups within the congregation. Opportunities must be given for fellowship groups and cell groups, where people can share their faith intimately. (e) A healthy church is one that has basically one kind of membership. People like to be with people like themselves. They share common things like styles, goals, foods and a common language. (f) A healthy church is one that uses an evangelistic method that works toward making disciples. (g) A healthy church follows biblical priorities. Evangelism is top priority. Social work is not neglected, but it is secondary to the goal of making disciples. v. Diagnosis

Diagnosing a disease in a church is a careful process of research and analysis. No one would want to call a

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physician who would prescribe surgery on the appendix on the basis of a complaint of abdominal pains expressed over a telephone. The physician wants to see the patient. Then he begins a series of tests. He checks a thermometer to see if there is a fever. He listens to the heart. He takes a urine sample. He pokes and prods, eliminating a whole variety of possibilities and narrowing the problem as he carefully analyzes the evidence. A thermometer never cured anybody. Yet it is a great way to begin diagnosis. The same procedure is followed in the church. There are many symptoms of sickness in the church in Igbo land. A plateau in membership may be a symptom. A crowded parking lot can be a symptom. Members are biblically illiterate, worship services that lack life, too many pot- luck suppers-these all could be symptoms of serious difficulties. The problem is that most congregations look for programmes to deal with the symptoms. The shallowness of this kind of thinking is similar to a physician who puts a bandage on all his patients whether they have a cut or bad gall bladder. When the church gets sick, it often needs a lot more than bandage response. Church growth pathology is not a series of programmes to cover the symptoms of illness. It is an approach that applies biblical principles to the root causes: the diseases that cause the symptoms. vi. Diseases in the Church

Of the eight diseases isolated by the church growth experts to date, two are terminal and six can be cured. Understanding the diseases and recognizing their symptoms is the first step in seeking ways to deal with them. 1. Old age- This is a terminal disease which is found in churches located primarily in rural areas. The disease of old age is best described as the condition of a church that runs out of people. In order for the church

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to be the church, it needs people. But in some communities, the population is decreasing. Nkalagu in Enugu state, Nigeria, is a small town made up of people who have had children, but the children grew up and moved to other locations. The reason the town was first built no longer exists. Nkalagu was a mining town, but the mines have long since been depleted. Eventually, the town is near extinction. So will the church that served it. The people remaining can still experience internal growth as they gather around the word and sacraments. Though opportunities for outreach and mission work may be found in their own town, they can still sponsor mission work with their prayers and finances in a neighbouring town, through their denomination or through an overseas mission agency. When the disease is properly diagnosed, a ministry of acceptance can lead church’s people to accept death with dignity. Old age does not designate the average age of the members of a congregation. It is a fallacy to say that a church with members who have an average age of 65, for example, cannot grow. That is not a diseased situation. It may be very healthy. Some churches serve retirement communities. Their members are elderly and actively evangelizing their friends and neighbours. Old age happens when the church runs out of people, not a certain kind of people. Old age takes place in churches located I dying communities. It is a terminal disease. It is an opportunity for internal growth, and eventually, death with dignity. 2. Ethnikitis- This is also a terminal disease. It is a disease that strikes a church in a changing community. People of one culture make up the community and the church. A new group of people representing a different culture begin to move into the community. The first group begins moving out. They

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begin to commute to their church from their new homes. When a congregation is regularly conducting research in its community, it becomes aware of cultural change very early in the process of community change. At the first sight of change, the congregation should begin plans to plant a new church that is made up of people like those of the new culture. This is the type of sensitivity for new culture will be highly rejected by the new people in the community. A new church can be planted nearby, or it can be started as a separate group in the same building as the original group. Each group has its own organization, its own pastor, its own music and worships in its own language with its own kind of people. These churches make the most powerful long- term churches (Mc Gavran, 1955). The key to understanding ethinikitis is the recognition of different cultural groups called homogenous units. The church must make opportunities available for people to become disciples of Jesus Christ without leaving their own cultures. If there continues to be less and less of the old culture in the original church, it will die of ethinikitis. The importance of planting a new church of the new culture is seen in the continual presence of God’s people in the community. 3. People blindness is not terminal, yet it is often associated with churches which later contract Ethinikitis. This disease occurs when Christians look at all other people as being the same. It is a failure to see the distinctiveness of various groups of people. It is a problem of failing to accept people as different. Until just recently, the church has been sensitive to singles. People who were unmarried, widowed or divorced were lumped into the rest of the congregation with little sensitivity to the fact that they may have special needs. The church was sometimes

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been blind to these people. This is a case of people blindness.

4. Hyper-cooperativism

This is a disease that comes from too much emphasis on ecumenical endeavours. It happens when cooperation becomes the goal rather a means to an end. Congregations may work together to promote a Christian crusade or rally. Perhaps churches will work together to conduct an evangelistic canvas of a large area. Cooperation is not bad as long as doctrinal integrity is observed. Great achievements have been made when Christians have joined forces to do the work of Christ in the world. However, cooperation for the church can be what the thyroid is for the human body. But hyper-thyroidism is too much a good thing. An asset becomes a liability. The same is cooperation. Cooperation can be good, but it should never be sought at the expense of the biblical priority of evangelism. Hyper-cooperativism can be avoided by having clearly articulated goals. It is also important that churches build strategies that directly meet the intended goals. 5. Koinonitis is a disease that gets its name from the biblical word “koinonia”, which means fellowshipis an important part of the Christian church. It is a community expression of the love of Christ, the caring concern for one another in the body. Arthritis is a condition in which the joints become inflamed. Koinonitis is a condition in which the church can be considered an inflammation of the fellowship. The church is so full of pot-lucks that the people become flat and lazy about mission and ministry.

When koinonitis strikes, the congregation becomes turned inward. The typical copout becomes, “The church is more interested in quality than quantity”. The church becomes 149

oblivious to the world outside and the purpose of the great commission. The people take on a corporate personality which psychologists called egocentric. It is self-centred, and it is not healthy-not for people or for the churches. 6. Sociological strangulation is a disease that strikes the church that runs out of room. It is strangulated by over-crowded conditions. There is not enough room in the church, the nursery is overcrowded, the parking lot is a mess-even the lavatories are inadequate to handle traffic. When churches suffer from sociological strangulation, the problem can be solved in several ways. The church can build. It can enlarge the sanctuary, extend the parking lot and add additional bathrooms or the church can spin of its members and start a daughter church in another area. Another alternative is the possibility of conducting more services at different times, or even on different days, depending on the needs and preferences of the people. 7. Arrested spiritual development is a disease of the church where members never grow up and mature spiritually. It happens when people consider confirmation a graduation from learning. The disease strikes churches where people are not involved in Bible study. People know all the right doctrine, but they are not trained to witness, visit the sick, be good stewards, study the Bible, and lead a prayer and so on. Instead of a school of life-long learning, the church is seen as an alumni club. The real key to curing the disease of Arrested Spirituality Development is getting people into the word of God.

8. St. John’s Syndrome

This type of disease is discussed in the book of Revelation of St. John. The church at Ephesus which only decades earlier was alive for Jesus Christ had lost its first

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love vitality. Here was no spark of enthusiasm. People had become apathetic. The church board and committees were to do business as usual. The answer for the church with St John’s syndrome is comprehensive evangelism. Each generation must be evangelized. In addition, coronavirus of 2019 is another modern disease that nearly brought church growth to its knees. It affected the church worship within the period under review (2019-2020). Church worship or service was virtually not held for some couple of months because of lockdown by state and federal governments respectively. This in turn affected the spiritual, moral, intellectual and social life of the people.

Research as an important tool Research is an important element in the pathology of church growth. It is essential to get the facts. Is the church declining? If so by how much; for how long? What kind of people are leaving? Why are they leaving? Questionnaires, personal interviews and phone surveys should not be something foreign to the church. Pastors and lay leaders constantly analyze and probe the health of the church. The problem is that the research is often based to a large extent on a few opinions and conjectures. Church growth is concerned with taking the guess work out of conclusions about the church. God’s work in the world is too important for mistakes based on inaccurate findings. When the church gets a health checkup, the results have to be measurable quantities which can be compared and analyzed. Most denominations are conducting research in communities where they want to plant new churches. Not only is it important to discover people’s felt needs, but it is essential to find out their receptivity. The denomination must know to what kind of church the people would best respond.Would they prefer a classroomtype of church where minister lectures, and the people take notes on the sermons? Or are they people who

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would respond to the formal traditional style of worship? Community research has helped shape a variety of ministries, ranging from those centredaround Christian rock music to store-front churches. Do churches grow in situations where neither the pastor nor the people know anything about church growth? It is possible to unintentionally do the right thing at the right time and in the right place. The church of Jesus Christ sometimes grows in spite of the people in it. Church growth emphasizes the need for research so that congregations can intelligently apply biblical principles for growth in the right places with the proper timing. The Lord expects his church to be healthy, and therefore growing-internally and externally. There is nothing unspiritual about using sound diagnostic methods of research and analysis. The church can diagnose various aspects of its spiritual health. The number of people attending worship, those involved in Bible classes, per capital percent of giving, attendance at communion, involvement in ministry-these are activities that can be measured and graphed. When the church conducts internal research, general patterns can be discovered about the overall health of the church. Sometimes, however, the congregation might want to conduct an in-depth study of itself and/ or its community. Professional consultants are available to the church. While this concept is not new in the business world, the use of consultants is a fairly recent development in the Christian church. These consultants are highly trained in theology, biblical principles of church growth and its techniques of diagnostic research as it is applied to the church and the community. The essential task of diagnostic research is to locate the disease and prescribe ways in which the church can be healed. To date, eight diseases have been isolated and are gaining acceptance among those who study church growth (Wagner, 1979).

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vii. Life cycle

Every living organism has a life cycle. The same is true of the church. Churches usually begin in a flourish of missionary zeal. There is excitement that parallels the arrival of a new baby in the family. The congregation is relatively unstructured-compared to an older church. People are involved, working toward specific goals. There are building committees. People are involved in publicity. Some members are working on a honeymood with the community, with each other, with their new building and their pastor. There are three basic stages of health in a church. First, the church is goal-oriented. The people know why they are there. They see God’s purpose for the church. They are unified and involved in strategies that are effective for making disciples. Second, the church can become task-oriented. The calendar gets full of activities. After two years, these activities becomecentred on trying to get through the activities. The people spend much of their time andeffort on trying to do what they have always done- trying to get through another year. The tone of this stage is one of self-serving. If this stage is unchecked, the church progresses to stage three. The third stage is terminal. The congregation becomes control-oriented. Most of the efforts and resources of the church are geared to the attempt to control the environment. The body of Christ becomes psychologically sick. The control efforts stem from a sense of instability due to the impending death. Churches, like dying people, can go through stages of death. Denial, withdrawal, rejection, anger-all of these emotions can be expressed in a dying church. As an effort to control the environment, the people resist change. viii. Sizing up the situation

Physicians, attorneys and banks keep records. The Red Cross keeps records. Many businesses and 153

organizations spend a lot of time and effort to store important information about those whom they serve. The church has, however, traditionally tried to avoid too much record keeping. There is sometimes and attitude that statistics and graphs are unspiritual. Consequently, when denominational report form come at the end of the year or during synods, conferences, many priests and lay leaders shake their heads and wonder, “What do they need all these information for, anyway”?The most unspiritual part of statistics is the poor attitudes which people have about them. Numbers, graphs, records and research aids are not any more evil than telephones or insurance companies. They can be used to serve man. In the work of the church, they can be used to serve God’s glory too. God has not placed his people into the world to be ineffective. He is infinitely interested in results so much so that he would send his own son into the world die on a cross. Record keeping, graphing and measurement are ways to discover whether or not the church is reaching its goals. Statistics are tools that can be used to God’s glory. If we cannot measure faith because it exists in another person’s heart and it is personal and private relationship with God. But the congregation’s corporate involvement in the means of grace can be measured. How often have people participated in the Lord’s Supper? Are more people attending worship regularly? Are people regularly involved in the world? These areas can be measured. ix. A philosophy of ministry (1) A philosophy of ministry gives the congregation a vision.It is a banner which reflects the image of the church. The people are unified in task and strategy, because they have a plan, a philosophy upon which they have agreed. Respective denominations, dioceses, local churches have their individual philosophy of ministries. In this way, a philosophy of ministry gives focus to the programmes and activities

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of the church. Priorities are considered in the light of the church’s philosophy of ministry. The church leaders, councils or boards and committees are able to zero in with their energies toward certain specified ministries with which they have agreed. There is no spirit of competition because their goals have been focused and unified. (2) Publicity is more important to a church than most people recognize. The image the church projects often encourages or discourages people from visiting the church. Publicity often gives different and sometimes conflicting signals, about the church. (3) Church growth philosophy of ministry will see the people of the congregation as ministers with gifts. People will be involved in ministry according to the spiritual gifts which the spirit gives to each. Pastors see their task as equippers of the saints. People work together for the common cause of bodily growth. (4) A church growth philosophy of ministry will be conservative. Conservative, in church growth terminology, reflects integrity. The body of Christ has to have a backbone. In recent years, churches have become liberal in their theology of purpose. Some Christians have become involved in every cause of labour disputes, politics, ethnicity, fighting coronavirus, to demonstrations against nuclear power plants, endsars protest, and religious bigotry. In fact, it is expected. When these areas of activitytake, however, precedence and become the main purpose, churches die. Kelley (1972) has noted that conservative churches are growing, precisely because they still see their purpose as a spiritual one. Conservative churches focus their attention on giving meaning to life. The world is a beautiful mosaic of cultural groups. Church growth people call these homogeneous units. A homogeneousunit is defined as a group of people who see themselves as alike and

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who view others as different. Identity in this case may or may not be along the lines of race or colour. Often they are in the basis of economics, worldview, education, like and dislikes.

The church is becoming very serious about the Lord’s command that disciples be made. Modern technology, recent discoveries in communication, axioms from sciences such as psychology, sociology and anthropology are being used in conjunction with God’s eternal principles. Planning goal setting and regular evaluation are efforts that reflect a new integrity of a church with a renewed vision.

Recommendations The spiritual, intellectual, moral, historical, political, sociological and anthropological presuppositions and realities of foundation for church growth setbacks normally provided the ground upon which scholars will research on. In view of or as regards the lessons leart from this, the following recommendations are put forward as the contributions of this research work. 1. Evangelism is the bedrock of real foundation for church growth. Churches in Igbo land should be serious with aggressive evangelism in order to bring the gospel to the unchurched ones. Every priest and lay person should also be interested in evangelism. 2. We are, as Christians in Igbo land vis-à-vis Nigeria, to stand up for the politics that unite us instead of engaging ourselves in religious bigotry. 3. The church should be goal-oriented. The people should know why they are in there. They should be united and involved in strategies that are effective for making disciples. 4. A church growth philosophy of ministers and laity should be conservative. Conservative in church growth taxonomy or terminology reflects integrity.

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5. The church should be serious for workers’ welfare and isnon negotiable. A hungry staff cannot be effective in evangelism. 6. In respect of church economy, the members should be honest in paying tithes and other contributions that will help for church growth. The church administration especially the ordained, should be prudent in using the generated funds for effective evangelism and church planting as did by the missionaries in the past.

Methodology This research work employed the use of primary and secondary sources to obtain data. The primary sources involved oral interviews while secondary sources entail books, journals, artifacts, diaries, private and public brochures, homilies, archives, archaeological data and so on. The research work is also based on historical, phenomenological and analytical approaches.

Conclusion In sum, this study presents, “The pathology of church growth in Igbo land: an antidote to the symptoms” on the level of church growth challenges, their effects on the spiritual, intellectual and moral life of the people. Furthermore, as pointed out in this paper, the churches have to enhance their strategies using modern techniques such as human-oriented policies, quality leadership, applying adequate publicity, seminar conferences, use of mass media, evangelism, revival programmes and among others.

References Hunter, K.R. (1983). Foundations for church growth. New Haven: Leader Pubishing Company. Kelley, D.M. (1972). Why conservative churches are growing. New York: Harper& Row.

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McGavran, D.A. (1955). The bridges of God. New York: Friendship Press. Uka, E.M. (1995). The church: Origin, power, problems and prospects. Calabar: Executive. Wagner, C.P. (1979). Your church can be healthy. Nashville: Abingdon. Wagner, C.P. (1981). Church growth and the whole gospel. San Francisco: Harper & Row.

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Covenant in Peace Building among Igbo Africans

Anthonia Chinyere Ephraim-Chukwu Department of Igbo, African and Asian Studies Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka [email protected] [email protected] 07030876604

Abstract

This work studies covenant in peace building among the Igbo people of Africa. Insecurity is a global pandemic that is ravaging the globe. It is the cankerworm that has eaten deep into the fabrics of the globe and has brought both health and economic hazards to humanity the world over. In order to bring insecurity to its barest minimum, there must be peace among the people. This peace will be possible if the rebel groups could earn the trust of the people in government. In Igbo culture area, when there is lack of trust among two warring communities, villages, towns or even two sworn enemies, covenant is employed in securing trust. This study is a survey research carried out in Igbo land. Data were collected through oral interviews and unobtrusive observation method from selected Igbo culture areas. Interviews were randomly done across titled men and women, youths, traditional religious adherents, Christians and elites. The essence was to ascertain why, how and when covenant is used in settling dispute in Igbo culture area. The work found out that covenant can be used to regain love lost between friends, spouses, siblings, villages, communities and towns. It also found out that it is used as a last resort in settling dispute and quelling insecurity in warring communities. This work recommends that covenant should be used in Nigeria to gain the trust of the aggrieved. When this is achieved, socio- political unrest like kidnapping, banditry, cultism that 159

engenders insecurity will be brought to barest level. Keyword: Covenant, peace building, Africa, Igbo and Culture.

Introduction

Before the Europeans set their foot on the African soil, they had their own ways of resolving any dispute that erupted between their citizens (intra-national resolution) and the rest of their neighbouring nations (international resolution). The Igbo people of eastern Nigeria had their own way of resolving their problems also. This was due to their belief in the use of their deities to help in unraveling of any suspicious occurrence, mistrust or mystery among them.

Man as a social being comes in contact with each other every day of his life in the family, clans, villages and community gatherings, farms, markets and worship centers. In these places, man encounters, relates, communicates and makes transactions with fellow human beings. When two or more people gather together, there is bound to be suspicion, hatred, and jealousy, malignancy arising from malice, envy or lack of trust. When this type of situation arises in the Igbo culture area, people have their ways of winning back the trust of the persons involved in suspicious malevolent acts: this is achieved through covenant arrangement

The Igbo People

The Igbo is one of the three major ethnic groups in Nigeria. They are found in the eastern part of the country mainly in the five eastern states of Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo states. They are also found in Delta and Rivers states. According to Alloysius Duru, the Igbo people are predominantly found in south eastern and parts of the south- south geo-political delineation of the present day Nigeria and they are very industrious, energetic and enterprising people 160

that speak the Igbo language. They are basically skilled in merchandising and they indulge in agricultural and other economic activities like trading of their agricultural products, fishing, palm-wine tapping, carving, and molding, potting and weaving. By the nature of their economic engagements and interactions, there is high level of socio-economic interaction among them and even beyond Igbo land, hence such interactions can and most times give room for mutual and peaceful co-existence as well as mistrust and conflict. Hence the need to institute an idea which can help sustain peaceful co-existence of a lasting time led to covenant (2009).

Covenant Explained

Covenant is a religious ritual which is used by the partakers of the rites to bind themselves together through the understanding and invoking of God or gods (deities/divinities) to deal with the defaulters of the covenant accordingly. In a lay man’s definition, covenant is an agreement between two people. It is a spiritual exercise engaged by two or more people to help in mutual understanding and help in the comportment of their behaviour towards one another. Elazar defined covenant as a morally informed agreement or pact based upon voluntary consent, established by mutual oaths or promises, involving or witnessed by some transcendent higher authority, between peoples or parties having independent status, equal in connection with the purposes of the pact, that provides for joint action or obligation to achieve defined ends (limited or comprehensive) under conditions of mutual respect, which protect the individual integrity of all the parties to it (1995). On the other hand, Fischer explains covenant as a means of “constitutionalizing” relationships within a political context, in that their “bonds are used principally to establish bodies political and social” (2017).

The term "covenant" is of Latin origin (con venire), meaning a coming together. It presupposes two or more parties who 161

come together to make a contract, agreeing on promises, stipulations, privileges, and responsibilities. In religious and theological circles, there has not been agreement on precisely what is to be understood by its biblical term. It is used variously in biblical contexts like the Noah covenant, Abrahamic covenant, Jacobic covenant, Mosaic covenant and Davidic covenant. Covenant is how God has chosen to communicate to us, to redeem us, and to guarantee us eternal life in Jesus . These truths, revealed in the Bible, are the basis of Christianity. The Bible is a covenant document. The Old and New Testaments are really Old and New Covenants. The word "testament" is Latin for Covenant. In political situations, it can be translated as treaty; in a social setting, it means a lifelong friendship agreement; or it can refer to a marriage.

The Igbo Meaning of Covenant

The Igbo term for covenant is ịgba ndu, and it is used as the last resort to settling disputes especially when one’s life is threatened by another person. When one is suspecting that one may be harmed by ones associate, ịgba ndu is used to mend the fence. Alloysius Duru explains covenant, which is ịgba ndu in Igbo to literarily mean to bond life, ịgba stands for bond or tie while ndụ means life in Igbo language. However the concept of Igba ndu is better understood as a covenant between individuals or groups. He says that this practice emanated not only out of fear of the unknown, especially with the knowledge that man is inherently wicked, hence to check on the wiles of men, covenants or ịgba ndụ is entered into to help safeguard the life and confidence of the parties that have entered into the agreement. Another reason for the Igba ndu is as a result of man's desire to maintain peace, orderliness and harmonious living among themselves, hence where such is existing; there is the need to consolidate such harmony among people (2009)

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Meaning of Peace-Building

Wikipaedia explains that Peace-building is an activity that aims to resolve injustice in nonviolent ways and to transform the cultural & structural conditions that generate deadly or destructive conflict. It revolves around developing constructive personal, group, and political relationships across ethnic, religious, class, national, and racial boundaries. This process includes violence prevention; conflict management, resolution, or transformation; and post-conflict reconciliation or trauma healing, i.e., before, during, and after any given case of violence. Murithi says that the African continent continues to be faced with the challenges of establishing peace and development. Numerous peace initiatives have been launched on the continent. Vast amounts of resources have been utilised to craft peace agreements which have often collapsed under the weight of competing interests. (2006)

Firchow & Anastasiou say that peace-building is a term that spans a wide array of activities influencing sustainable peace in different phases of conflict. It can be found at all points on the war to peace continuum, but it attends primarily to the requirements of conflict-affected communities. This includes concerns related to development, security, legal and institutional reform, peace education, and indigenous peacemaking efforts. (2006).

What is culture?

Culture in a lay man’s definition is the totality of a people’s way of life, their language, food, house pattern, dancing pattern and musical instrument, marriage styles and beliefs. Alfred Kroeber sees culture as the mass of learned and transmitted reactions, habits, techniques, ideas, values and the behaviour they induce (1953). Lending support to this, Humphery Nwosu and Ogbu Kalu aver: 163

Culture refers to the gamut of the knowledge, beliefs, customs, traditions and skills that are available to the members of a society. Cultural practices are man- made rather than God-given. They are designs, prescriptions and responses, which are deliberately fashioned to guide all aspects of a people’s life. (1978:3) The researcher accepts this definition because the Igbo culture prescribes that whenever conflict arises between siblings, clans, villages, business associates or friends, the best way to douse the tension and build trust again is through covenant. Uzodinma Nwala on culture, asserts that Omenala (culture) refers to Igbo attitude to life and their basic conceptions about nature, society and life. It embraces the whole system of civilization of the Igbo in both theory and practice. Indeed, it contains, within itself, the principles for propagating and protecting Igbo traditional civilization and way of life. Myths, rituals, traditional system of initiating, educating and socializing the young into the traditional way of life, and sanction, were the means of propagating and protecting Igbo traditional civilization. (1985:8), What this means is that every aspect of Igbo man’s life is embedded in his culture. And this makes covenant part and parcel of this culture. Corroborating Nwala, Bali Dev Raj says that culture of a society “… implies its general way of life. It implies a general behaviour pattern of a society. Thus, their customs, beliefs, language, ways of thinking, feeling and acting constitute the culture of a society. Culture refers to all that man has acquired as a member of society” (1997:120).

Types of covenant in Igbo land There are different types of covenant that exit in Igbo Culture. These covenants derive their names from the type of objects 164

or materials used in making them and some are based on those involved in the covenant making. Those that derive their names from the materials are the well-known and practiced among the individuals that engage in these covenant. From an interview conducted, we deduced that there are four types of covenant in Igbo culture and they includes: palm-wine covenant ( Ịgba Ndụ mmanya Nkwụ ọcha), blood covenant ( Ịgba Ndụ ọbara), kolanut covenant (Ịgba Ndụ ọjị) and eating cooked food together from this same pot/bowl. ( Ịgba Orikọ)

Palm-wine Covenant ( Ịgba Ndụ mmanya Nkwụ ọcha) This covenant exists between husband and wife. It is made during marriage ceremony in Igbo culture. According to a male respondent, many youths of today and those who are not well tutored in Igbo culture do not know the implication of the great “sipping of the palm-wine” in marriage. The respondent explained that a bride sipping palm-wine from a cup and handing the remnant of the wine over to the groom is a type of covenant in Igbo land. He said that before the bride sips from the cup, which normally is a wooden cup in Igbo culture called ‘iko’, prayers are made by both the elders of the families of the bride and the groom. They invite the ancestors of their families, the gods, deities and divinities being worshipped by both families to come and bear witness to the consummation of such union. What this means is that the wife is submitting herself wholly and entirely to her husband in the presence of the people gathered there and all the divinities, ancestors, deities and gods that were mentioned by the two elders of both families during their prayers- called “Ịgọ ọfọ’ in Igbo language. This interviewee called this covenant between the spouses. The man on the other hand is pledging that he will not in any way bring harm to his wife.

On the other hand, a female respondent explained that sipping of palm-wine in Igbo culture is a covenant between a bride and groom because it is this that makes a wife culturally the wife of her husband. The wife has agreed not to cheat on her

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husband: her body, wealth and children belong to her husband. The respondent said that sipping of wine by the bride means total surrender to the groom. The respondent went further to explained that this covenant is the reason many of the Igbo women go mad when they defy the covenant and defiles their body outside by engaging in extra-marital affairs. In many parts of Igbo land like Awgu in Enugu State, the husband of such a woman will start to develop oedema of the legs and stomach- ụkwụ ọzịza na ito afọ, if he goes into the wayward wife. When this happens, the wife will be questioned by her husband’s kinsmen about her sexual escapades. If she denies cheating on her husband, she will be mandated to eat ‘the earth goddess food’ called Nri Aniin Igbo. This food will be cooked by the kinswomen of the husband of the suspected wife. If she is guilty, she will run mad or die, and if she fails to succumb to any of these consequences of infidelity, she has proven her innocence.

However, if she disagrees to submit herself to the earth goddess food, her husband’s kinsmen will mandate her to go back to her father’s house. If her husband still desires her, he will pay another bride price on her head and the sipping of wine re-done to enact another covenant of faithfulness on the side of the woman and to avoid a gradual bloating fatality of the husband, as she has broken the first covenant by sleeping with another man other than her husband. This type of covenant made between husband and wife also exists in Yoruba culture, according to Ogunleye. He says that once a woman is married to a man, she becomes one with him. In order to retain their marriage agreement, both the wife and her husband will enter into this covenant. (2013).

Blood Covenant This type of covenant according to a respondent is enacted by using blood as the material bond. This covenant is usually engaged in by lovers who feel that one of them may leave the other person. It is also engaged by friends who have lost trust

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in each other, or business associates who feel that one of them may breach the term of their agreement. This is done by making the necessary pronouncements or saying some words read out by the priest of a deity or divinity contracted for the covenant. This can be done inside the shrine of the deity or outside of it. The priest of the deity will use a sharp object to pierce their hands and those involved in the covenant will say something like: “Today being afo in the sixth month of this year, I, Nwankwo Nwaekwe of Umuigwe Ezioha Ogboli Awgu is promising that I will not harm Nwangwu Ekpete of Umuoviete of Amaejirija Uhuegu Awgu, I will abide by our trading condition, sharing our profit equally without hiding anything from him.Any day I try to cheat or harm him Agbala please do not spare my life”. After these words, two of them will use kola nut or aṅara fruit to scoop blood from the pierced body of the other person and eat. This type of covenant is very effective and difficult to defuse, because, if tomorrow any of those involved in it want to opt out, it cannot be re-done.

That is why before going into blood covenant the chief priest will ask the (two) parties involved whether they are in stable mind to handle such covenant. They are made to go home and sleep over it for at least one month or two before it will be consummated. Blood covenant is never done in a hurry in Igbo land as the consequence upon those who defy its rule is death. Those who perform blood covenant see themselves as brothers or sisters and behave as such towards one another. John Mbiti explains that blood covenant makes two people who are not related become relatives when they undergo blood covenant because they go through a ritual which often involves exchanging small amounts of their blood by drinking or rubbing it into each other’s body (1969). What this means is that the blood of the two people involved in this covenant is now flowing through their veins. And that is why it is difficult to destroy blood covenant. Nowadays, lovers, brothers, siblings, neighbours, politicians, friends and business

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associates are making blood covenant without the knowledge of its implication only to come out and start crying when the head is already off.

Kolanut Covenant Kolanut is widely celebrated in Igbo land. It is one of the many Igbo customs that survived the onslaught of the Igbo culture by the Europeans. Whenever a guest arrives in an Igbo man’s house, the first gift the host offers to his guest is kolanut. A male respondent said that the rites and rituals that follow the kolanut presentation, sighting of the kolanut, praying over the kolanut, breaking of the kolanut, serving of the kolanut and eating of the kolanut are beautiful, fun filled and a great lesson to the Igbo people and non Igbo people who are privileged to witness it. Anytime kolanut is broken between relatives, friends, siblings, in-laws, host and guest, chief and his cabinet, it is enacting covenant. This is because, during the ‘ịgọ ọjị’ rite, prayers are offered for the wellbeing of the host, the guest, those present at that particular place and those who are not present, their loved ones at home and abroad, the living and the dead, the seen and unseen.

By calling on all the deities and gods of their land, their ancestors and the divinities of their various towns, they are enacting covenant between the host and the guests at that place.That is why the first invocation of kolanut in Igbo land is “whoever brings kolanut brings life”. Onye wetara ọjị wetara ndụ. A host who wants to harm his guest will not offer him a kolanut in order to avoid the rituals of ‘ịgọ ọjị’ rite. Also a guest that is harbouring a bad intention for his host cannot accept kolanut in Igbo culture. That is why when someone is sent on an errand and he refuses to accept kolanut, the matter with which he comes to deliver will be treated urgently in order to avoid casualty. In ChinuaAchebe’s Arrows of Godwhen Akukalia was sent to deliver a message of war or peace to Okperi people, he refused to accept kolanut offered to him by his mother’s kinsmen, the outcome of it was

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what led to the war between Umuaro and Okperi in which Umuaro was disgraced for the first time in war.(1964). So in Igbo land, kolanut rites and ritual performed between host and his guest is a covenant that none will harm each other.

Eating from the same bowl/ pot ‘ỊgbaOrikọ’ This covenant is often made by brothers, siblings and kinsmen who are quarrelling and have lost trust in one another. Parrinder avers that eating together means union in close relationship between equals. He says that when two Thonga brothers in Mozambique have quarreled and wish to make reconciliation they say ‘let us eat out of the same spoon, drink out of the same cup and be friends again. Sometimes an animal may be killed and the two men to be reconciled plunge their hands into the stomach of the animal after cooking and eat some of the flesh/offal (1962).

In Igbo land, Pita Nwanna describes how Omenụkọ made this type of covenant with his people after he sold his kinsmen who were his apprentices to slave traders, after the boat mishap that claimed all his goods. When Omenụkọ made it in life financially and was encountering challenges by his acquaintances, he longed for his dear native land. He sought from his friend Igwe what he would do to be able to be readmitted to and be incorporated in his home land again. He was requested by their king to make this type of covenant - Ịgba Orikọ. He was requested to bring one cow, eight eggs, one cock, eight big yams and eight small yams. The cow was slaughtered at the covenant site, cooked with the yams and eaten by all present including Omenụkọ who before the immolation of the cow pleaded with his people to forgive him of his wrong doings and promised not to do such in future. So by this eating together from the same bowl, Omenụkọ and his people became one once again, signaling the end of enmity between him and his people. He regained his people’s trust once again and they now believed that he would never harm them in future.(1963)

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How Covenant can be used to build peace in Africa From the foregoing, we have seen the different people that engage in covenant in Igbo land; how it is used to bring peace, amend relationship that was battered and how it is used to bind wife to her husband. So, in Nigeria in particular and Africa in general, covenant can be used to build peace in the Area of religion and politics – the two great institutions that are ruling the world.

Religion Religious fanaticism and bigotry has plunged the African continent into untold hardship. Many of the wars that have been fought in recent time were religious war: Rwanda, Iraqi, Kuwait, Zimbabwe, Central Africa Republic, Syria and Iran. All these wars were fought because the rebel groups of these countries were religious fanatics that view other religions as fake and their followers as infidel. They wanted their countries to be declared their particular religion as the national religion, thereby creating avoidable blood letting in their various countries.

Many of the terrorist groups that are ravaging the face of the continent and causing havoc to both human and material resources are religious fanatics, the Al-Qaeda, Boko-Haram, Islamic State of Syria and Iran (ISSI). They are all clamoring for the eradication of other religions especially Christianity which they see as a threat to their religion. They claim that Christians are infidels; these Muslim fundamentalists do not trust them because they are following the Western teachings. If Muslim faithful and other religions can enter into covenant to bind them together and make them trust each other, there will be relative peace and this will forestall many of these guerrilla wars being fought in countries like Nigeria, Cameroun, Chad and Niger. This can be done by the representatives of these religions by signing documents and abiding by the law that they will no longer from that day harm other people from another religious sects, that they will live

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together in peace and harmony and allow each and every one to practise their religion without fear or favour. When this is done and practised, by each religious sect, peace will be built in that country.

Politics Politicking is another area that is causing sleepless night to the people of Africa in general and Nigeria in particular as they never get it right whenever it comes to election time. The candidates for elections in Nigeria are those who want to eat from the ‘national cake’. Many of them do not have the interest of the masses at heart.The candidates and the electorates can enter into covenant in order to avoid embezzlement of the public funds that are supposed to be used in the development of the country, state, constituency, local government areas and wards.The candidate for any elective position into any public office like the councilors, L.G. A. chairman, governors, state or federal legislators or the president of a country should be made to sign a pact with his people that if he fails to perform his duty, he should be recalled. It should be made mandatory and written and passed into law. This will enable any money mapped out by a country for consistency project to be used for that project. The covenant that will be made with the candidates and electorates can be a paper one signed into law by the various organs responsible for this.

If this can be achieved, it will go a long way to making our politicians wake up from their slumber of non-performance to working politicians. Money mapped out for various project will be used for that particular project because an elected public officer is answerable to those that elected him as in Igbo culture where leaders and followers enter into covenant not to betray each other. The candidates of any political office will be mandated to sign pacts of good conduct and meaningful representation at various levels of the government. They will sign the pact that they will not be part of making

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obnoxious laws and that they will perform to the best of their abilities. They cannot betray the electorates by embezzling the money meant for the masses to enrich themselves. The councilor will know what to do in his ward, the local government area chairman will use the money meant for the development of his area to work to better the lives of those in that local government area. The state and federal legislatures will stop filling their garages with exotic cars, alienating them to the hungry citizens and engage themselves in constituency projects that will be of benefit to the electorate for the betterment of the every individuals: pipe borne water, good road network, electricity, good market structure and erecting of social institutions will be beneficial to the citizenry.

Governors on the other hand will use the security votes to secure the lives and properties of those living in the state that they are the chief security. The unending clashes of herdsmen and farmers will be a thing of the past if the governors will imitate the leaders in Igbo culture who, when going to war or hunting expedition would make covenant with his followers to lead them in good faith and all would come back as a body without trading them off to their enemy. This story of governors buying expensive mansions overseas with security votes money and looted treasures while the people such money is meant to secure are being slaughtered in scores by Boko Haram jihadists, herders, bandits, kidnappers and armed robbers does not speak well of our leaders. If governors are using the security votes to secure lives and properties, circuit camera televisions (cctv) would have been mounted at all nooks and crannies of each state like other countries of the world that value human lives. This will go a long way to reducing to barest minimum rampant assassination, rape and burglary that are the order of the day nowadays in this country, as the circuit camera televisions will capture and expose the culprit to be brought to book. The president will be made answerable to his people through covenant. Justifiable loans for even distribution of infrastructure will be procured.

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Conscious of covenant, he will avoid borrowing loans in order to siphon it through looting; instead the president should use available funds for the development of the country. He should build or revive industries and companies where the teeming youths of the country will be employed. When they engage themselves in gainful employment, social vices like prostitutions, kidnapping, drug addiction, rape and cultism will be at its lowest ebb as the youths will have less time for all these as they are busy with their jobs.

Conclusion From the foregoing, it is clear that the Igbo people have a way of resolving all manner of conflict in their culture. They know how to build peace among themselves and how to live in harmony and regain trust of one another whenever it is lost. All these are made possible through covenant – an agreement between two people to live a life of harmony and peace devoid of harming one another. If Nigeria in particular and African in general will adopt covenant as their way of taking oath of office, many of the atrocities that are committed by public office holders will be history as they will be wary of the terms of the covenant.

Reference Achebe, Chinua. Arrow of God. Ibadan: Heinemann.1964. Bali, Dev Raj.Introduction to philosophy. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers.1997. Duru, Alloysius. “Igbo ideas and socio- political thought.”Ohuzo,30 th March2009 www.blogger.com , Accessed on 15 th May, 2020. Elazar, Daniel. J. Covenant and polity in Biblical Israel: Biblical foundations and Jewish expressions. New Brunswick, Transaction Publishers. 1995. Fischer, Kahlib. “The power of the covenant idea for leadership, reform and ethical behavior. The Journal of Values-Based Leadershipvol. 10 no. 2,

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2017. www.scholars.valpo.edu . Accessed 20 th May,2020. Firchow, Pamina& Anastasiou Harry. (2006).Peace-building in theory and practice in practical approaches in peacebuilding. Retrieved from https://www.rienner.com on 10 th May 2020. Nwosu and Kalu Kroeber, Alfred. Anthropology Today. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1953. Mbiti, John.African religions and philosophy. London: Heinemann.1969. Murithi, Tim.“African approaches to building peace and social solidarity”.2006. www.africanapproachestobuildingpeace.accord.html . Accessed 10 th May 2020. Nwala, Uzodimma. Igbo Philosophy. Lagos: Lantern. 1985. Nwanna, Pita.Omenụkọ, Ibadan: Longman,1963. Nwosu, Humphery. & Kalu, Ogbu.“The study of African culture”. In O. U. Kalu (Ed.) Readings inAfrican Humanities: African Cultural Development, pp.3-14. Enugu: Fourth Dimension.1978. Ogunleye, A. Richard. “Covenant-keeping among the Yoruba people: A critique of socio political transformation in Nigeria.”International Journal of Humanities and Social Science,vol.3,no.9,2013,pp.81-85, www.semanticscholar.org.Accesed 3rd May 2020. Parrinder, E. Geoffery. African Traditional Religion. London: Sheldon.1962. Wikipaedia www.wikionline.com

Dr. Anthonia Chinyere Ephraim-Chukwu is a lecturer in the Department of Igbo, African and Asian Studies, Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka.

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The Beginning of Human Life, Early Termination and Right to Life: A Discuss From Ethical Perspective

Anikpe Anthony Mbah Department of Philosophy Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka [email protected]

Abstract Human life is said to be sacrosanct and the protection of that life is undoubtedly concern of everybody in the society. The series of argument and counter argument on the point of emanation of life and that of its acceptance raises the question of point of attaching value to human life. This paper employed analysis, it discovered that the war-in-camp admits the existence of human life that needs to be protected but disagrees on the point. The paper concludes that both camps have their merits; nonetheless their demerits are what undermine their suitability as ideal solutions to the controversy. It further presents the principle of identity and double effects as more suitable solutions to the problem of morality of termination of life either from point of conception of later stage of existence.

Keywords: Human Life, Termination, Right to Life, Ethical Perspective

Introduction Human life is said to be sacrosanct and the protection of that life is undoubtedly concern of everybody in the society. There has been series of argument and counter argument on the point of emanation of life and that of acceptance, but in the midst of the divergent views about when life begins, there seems to be undeniable facts among the war-in-camp that it must be protected, from history and

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legislation overview, From various sources, abortion and infanticide were practiced in the Ancient Mediterranean World. For example, the Spartans would dip the new-borns in the icy waters of the Styx to test their strength, for only the strongest did stand a chance in life. Plato, in the Republic, had no objections against the killing of not only of handicapped new-borns, but also of those who are the product of inferior parents or of individuals past the ideal childbearing age. 1 In the Politics, Aristotle holds that deformed infants should not be allowed to live. 2 In Peri psuchês, later translated in Latin under the title De anima, Aristotle’s theory of the distinction between living and non-living organisms was that the former did possess an animating principle; something that gives the ability to move - which he called psuchê, a principle of life. 3 In the Theory of Human Generation and Reproduction, Aristotle claimed that the male human foetus becomes animated (viz., starts moving) on day-40 after conception, and that it takes the female foetus 80 days to start moving. 4 In line with this view, before the foetus starts moving, it is not alive; therefore, abortion before 40 or 80 days is permissible. In the Eudaimian Ethics Aristotle wrote: Just as we do not think: a foetus, who lives a purely vegetative existence, without awareness, lives a full human life, so we are not going to be willing to praise and congratulate the life of this hopeless inactive adult. 5 The Stoics rejected Plato’s theory of Forms. They had their own views on the psuchê, also called pneuma, as the principle of specific animal life that allows poioun, action. The stoic soul is a corporeal entity; it penetrates the physical body, and leaves it after death. 6 their concepts on human reproduction and embryology were written down by Hierocles in Elementa ethica (circa 200 CE.), and by the Greek physician, anatomist and philosopher Galen of Pergamon (129- circa 199 C.E.) in De foetoformatione. On their view, throughout most of gestation, the conceptus was just a growing thing, not really different from a growing plant. Progressively, the pure phusis

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(growth) becomes inhabited by the pneuma, the fiery breath, the intelligent fire. Thus, it was only at the moment of birth that, through an instantly hardening by contact with the cold air outside, the pneuma became psuchê. The stoic psuchê was together with the rational component necessary for thought, language, and decision-making, as well as the instrument for sensation and movement. The psuchê was what allows us to lead an intelligent life within the boundaries of the body. 7 Like Aristotle; the Stoics saw the foetus as an almost purely vegetative entity. It is quite clear that the concept of psuchê in the classical Hellenic world had nothing in common with the later Christian concept of soul, which is the cornerstone of the Roman Catholic pro-life position. The misinterpretation of the Greek concept of psuchê is attributable to what is commonly called the problem of the tradutore traditore (the so-called treason committed by translators): psuchê was translated anima, and anima was mistranslated soul. 8 The roots of this interpretation are found in Augustine’s adoption of Plotinus’ theory of emanation that said that the Creation issues is from God’s thought, something like a composite of rationality and something celestial. On Plotinus’ view, contrary to Plato’s concept of the body as the dungeon of the soul, body and soul were supposed to live in harmony. 9 For Augustine, God created the human soul in His image. Our soul shares with the divine mind; our body is only a repository for the soul Aquinas shared Aristotle’s view on the spark of life, the principle of motion that makes a living being alive. 10 A foetus starts moving 40 days after conception - that is, when it starts to exhibit human features. 11 This became the official position of the Church at the Council of Vienna in 1312. 12 It remained as such until 1869 when Pope Pius IX repealed it. Early abortion was thus not morally forbidden until the second half of the nineteenth century neither by the Church nor by the common law. 13 It was not until the first half of the seventeenth- century that Aristotle's theory, formerly supported by Aquinas

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and confirmed by the Council of Vienna, became discredited by Flemish physician, Thomas Feyens, alias Fienus. As a professor on the faculty of medicine at the Catholic University of Louvain, he published, in 1620, a treatise entitled De formatione foetus in quo ostendituranimamrationaleminfunditertia die. Fienus’ thesis was that human semen needs only three days to “coagulate the menstrual blood” so that it can receive a rational soul that will take care of the further organisation of the embryo and fetus. 14 The credit of the claim, made in Rome in 1621, that ensoulment does occur at the time of conception is to be attributed to the Italian physician Paolo Zacchias. In 1644, Pope Innocent X rewarded him for this brilliant achievement bestowing on him the title of General Proto-Physician of the Whole Roman Ecclesiastic State. 15 However; this did not affect the well-established and traditional view on abortion before quickening. Abortion remained still rather a sin against marriage since, following Augustine’s teaching, sexual intercourse was only permissible in married couples and with the sole intention of procreating. 16 This remains the current official teaching of the Roman Catholic Church. During the seventeenth-century, European Common Law did not consider that abortion was an indictable offence. It was only in 1803 that an English statute made abortion of a quickened foetus a criminal offence. From the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries, American law followed the English Common Law. 17 . It was not until 1967 that abortion became decriminalised in Britain. 18 In fact, it took Britain 29 years after the Bourne case to reach this decision. On June 14th 1938, well-respected British gynaecologist Aleck William Bourne (1886-1974) aborted a fourteen-year old girl at St Mary’s Hospital in Paddington. She was six-weeks pregnant after having been gang-raped. On July 18, Bourne was indicted at the Old Bailey for “using an instrument to procure a miscarriage”, but was later acquitted by the jury. 19 The United States followed the British move on abortion in 1973

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with the famous or infamous Roe v Wade. The salient points in the Roe v Wade Supreme Court decision were: (1) a first trimester abortion is a woman’s right ;( 2) the unborn has no constitutionally recognised rights; and (3) the “viable” foetus has a “potential life” (potentiality being here interpreted as the ability to survive outside of the uterus). These points are important indicators of a paradigm shift. There is no mention of the intrinsic value of the unborn in any moral sense. There is strong emphasis on women’s rights with no right of any sort attributed to the unborn (hence, no conflict between the woman and the foetus). The State and the medical profession through the Court, however, retain the right of decision-making after the first trimester. This has been seen “as much a reaffirmation of the rights of physicians to practice as they see fit as it has been an affirmation of women’s right to control their reproduction.” 20 Roe v Wade, however, was not the end of the story of the abortion debate in the US. In 1989, Chief Justice William Rehnquist (the ‘loser’ in R v W) made a significant retreat from the abortion rights that had followed from R v W In Webster v Reproductive Health Services, he made it clear that the State has an interest in protecting life, not just after viability, but throughout pregnancy because, he claimed, life begins with conception. 21 This fuelled the debate about the beginning of life and the sanctity of life even outside of the courts. In 1992, Planned Parenthood v Casey reaffirmed the essential holding of R v Wan the affirmation has remained the dominant principle guiding abortion legislations in the United States. 22 Today, almost all developed countries have liberalized their abortion laws for reasons of human rights and safety. Restrictive abortion laws in some countries such as Nigeria are often due to old colonial laws and strong religious influence, especially of the Roman Catholic Church. Nevertheless, these countries with restrictive abortion laws are in recent years continually bulled and clubbed by the developed countries of the West to liberalize the abortion

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laws.

Pro-abortion Arguments Reasons given by abortion advocates on why abortion is moral and should be legalized are numerous and have continued to grow as the debate itself evolves. These notwithstanding, the arguments can be classified into three categories: 1) Reasons that bother on the status of the foetus, 2) reasons from the mother’s rights to autonomy and health and 3) utilitarian reasons. The discussion on this will incorporate this broad categorization.

Arguments from the Status of the Foetus As has been consistently argued in this paper, one of the central bones of contention in the abortion debate is the status of the foetus. The question is this: what is killed in abortion? Another way of formulating the question is, when does life begin? Now, almost all pro-abortion advocates agree with their anti-abortion opponents that the intentional killing of any human being is both immoral and unlawful, where they disagree with their anti-abortion opponents is that abortion amounts to such wilful killing. Their reasons for such denial usually come in two forms: first, an outright denial of the humanity of the foetus and the concomitant right to life that is the prerogative of every human being and second, a qualified concession that the foetus becomes a human being but much later in pregnancy not at the moment of conception. In recognition of these two positions, M. O. Izunwa explains that “Pro-choice (pro-abortion) advocates variously aver that life begins at viability, at birth, or until there is capacity for social interaction.” 23 A variant of the argument, according to McSweeny, is that the “human being does not begin to exist until the embryo is fully implanted in the uterus.”24 The contention of the scholars who support the first point is that a foetus is not a person or is still part of the mother and hence cannot be said to have a right to life quite apart from the mother’s. The strongest representation of this

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position is epitomised by Michael Tooley's extreme stance. Tooley states that abortion and infanticide are morally permissible. The main argument he is making to underpin this thesis is the lack of personhood not only of the unborn but also of the infant during the first months after birth. If rationality is what characterises a person, he says, and if to be a person is what ascribes moral standing and the right to life, then abortion and infanticide are morally permissible. What is morally impermissible, he claims, is to inflict pain even to an animal (but this does not mean that an animal has a right to life). At a later stage, Tooley 43 modified his argument by changing the link between rights and desires to a link between rights and interests. In other words, to have a right to life, one must have an interest in having one's life continued. That interest, however, should not be something momentary. In addition, to have a “nonmonetary interest” one needs a concept of a “continuing mental substance.” 25 This moral position has worn some remarkable legal recognition in Europe, particularly in the English law. For instance, in Paton v. British Pregnancy Advisory Service Trustees, the court affirmed that “the foetus cannot, in English law have a right of its own at least until it is born and has separate existence from its mother.” 26 This decision of the court in Paton’s case was brought before the European Commission on Human Rights. The Commission considered the decision vis-à-vis the provision of Article 2 of the European Commission of Human Rights which states that “Everyone’s” right to life shall be protected by law.” At the end of their considerations they felt that the term “Everyone” applied only to post-natal and that a pre-natal construction of the same will fail. 27 This view-point received another legal seal in Winnipeg Child and Family Services v. G 28 where the Supreme Court of Canada held that the law does not recognize the unborn child as a legal or judicial person possessing any rights but has always treated the mother and the unborn child as one legal entity.

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The second pro-choice argument for abortion based on the status of the foetus states that there is room for abortion in certain conditions. What scholars who advance this view basically claim is that early abortion is permissible, but that it is morally wrong to terminate an advanced pregnancy. Now, one may ask: what is the criterion of moral considerability that tips the balance? On answers to this question, two schools of thought can be identified. One follows the recommendations of the Warnock Commission and the concept of the pre-embryo (or pro-embryo) with Joseph Donceel’s position on delayed animation. Contrary to the official position of the Catholic Church (divine command theories) which holds that the soul is infused at the moment of conception, (immediate animation), Donceel, a progressive theologian supports the view of delayed animation. 29 Donceel’s argument rests on the relatively new concept of the pre-embryo (or pro-embryo). Advances in embryology have shown that during the first fourteen days of development a pre-embryo can split and produce identical twins; conversely (although very rarely) twin embryos can fuse (producing a chimera). In other words, before day fourteen the identity or the individuality of the pre- embryo is not definitely established; after the fourteenth day there is an individual. Donceel's point is that a soul cannot be infused before the individuality of the embryo is firmly established. In line with the embryological facts, he concludes that early abortion - that is, of a pre-embryo - is not immoral. On the whole, both Warnock and Donceel believe that abortion of a pre-embryo is morally neutral. It follows from this argument that contraceptive’ methods such as the intrauterine contraceptive device (IUD), the so-called morning after pill, and mifepristone are also morally neutral. The same argument would also allow the disposal of supernumerary embryos produced with in-vitro fertilization (IVF), as well as so-called embryo experimentation. Another pro-choice thesis defending this second position is the claim that the acquisition of sentienceis the criterion of

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moral considerability. The main advocate of sentience as the criterion of moral standing is L. Wayne Sumner 30 , who claims that a pre-sentient embryo/foetus has no right to life and can thus be aborted. The concept of sentience is also used by Peter Singer 31 as a criterion of moral standing of nonhuman animals. What this position basically claims is that early abortion is permissible, but that it is morally wrong to terminate an advanced pregnancy. This view-point received legal seal in Roe v. Wade where US Supreme Court ruled that: “the state could not forbid to have an abortion during the first three months of pregnancy” 32 The court thus legalized abortion-on-demand during the first trimester for the major reason that life does not begin at conception or rather that the foetus does not become a human being until much later in pregnancy. It is from this background that Justice Blackmun writes in Roe v. Wade: We need not resolve the difficult question of when life begins. When those trained in the respective disciplines of medicine, philosophy, and theology are unable to arrive at any consensus, the judiciary, at this point in the development of man’s knowledge, is not in a position to speculate. 33 The point here as Blackmun clarifies is that the state is not to take one theory of life (most likely, what he has in mind here is divine theory of immediate animation) and force those who do not agree with that theory to subscribe to it. This is also the reason why he again writes in Roe, “In view of all this, we do not agree that, by adopting one theory of life, Texas may override the rights of the pregnant woman that are at stake.” 34 Similarly, in his dissenting opinion in Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, Justice Stevens goes even further than Blackmun: The Missouri Legislature [which said that life begins at conception] may not inject its endorsement of a particular religious tradition in this debate, for ‘the Establishment Clause does not

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allow public bodies to foment such disagreement. 35 Thus, the pro-life proposal that pro-choice women be prohibited from having abortions on the basis that individual human life begins at conception is viewed, not only as a violation of their right to privacy, but as a violation of the separation of church and state as well. Such a separation is supposedly necessary to sustain tolerance in a pluralistic society. As pro-choice advocate Virginia Mollenkott argues, “Women who believe that abortion is murder may never justly be required to have an abortion. Put in the words of a recent bumper-sticker: ‘Don’t like abortion, don’t have one. 36 In approaching an evaluation of these pro-choice arguments on the status of the foetus, we need to recall the central conflicts in the abortion debate, when life begins or right to life. The conflicts as we articulated them consist in the disagreement over the status of the foetus and the question of how to resolve the conflict autonomy between the mother and the foetus. Recalling this very important point is necessary because we are not out here to examine all the arguments against the pro-choice positions on the status of the foetus. What we intend doing is to assess these arguments according to whether it answers these two questions which we consider central in the abortion impasse. Now, does the position of the pro-abortionists resolve the central conflicts in the abortion debate or when life begins as we articulated them? To answer this question, we need to remember that the first pro-choice position denies the personhood of the foetus together with the right to life that goes with. What this implies is that the position rejects the existence of any form of conflicts between the foetus and the mother. The only right that exists is the mother’s and she should be allowed to do whatever she likes with it. That people believe there is a conflict of rights between the foetus and the mother is the reason there is debate in the first place. Thus, an outright denial of this conflict makes the position an unworthy candidate in resolving the abortion debate.

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Another important reason, although less central to our discussion here, why the claim by pro-abortionists should be rejected is that it is counter intuitive and leads to absurd positions which no moral person would be ready to accept in practical life. Take for instance, the allowance that foetuses can be killed because they lack certain features observable in adults will by extension also legitimize the killing of infants since they too do not possess the said features (reasoning for example). As we have seen, this is actually the conclusion that scholars like Michael Tooley have come to and one begins to wonder what Tooley and his disciples think that society that makes law allowing mothers to kill their infants will look like. By and large, the position sounds repulsive and at odds with common-sense morality, The second pro-choice argument on the status of the foetus when considered from the standard of measurement already explained does not fair better either. For example, the position assumes two stages of intrauterine life: 1) pre- sentience or pre-individuality; and 2) post-sentience or individuality/personhood. During phase 1 abortion is permissible, whereas during phase 2, abortion is impermissible. During the gray area of dubious sentience the unborn is potentially sentient; after the pre-embryonic stage, the embryo/foetus is a potential person. It is not only true that this position fail to convincingly address the mother-foetus autonomy conflict it also failed woefully to address the question that concerns the status of the foetus. Now, the underlining question this position tries to address is this: when does pain or reasoning begin? We can ask in this regards: what do we really know about the ability of an embryo/foetus to feel pain or to reason? Paraphrasing Thomas Nagel’s famous “What is it like to be a bat?” (The difficulty if not the impossibility to know and to understand what other people really feel like), one may ask the question: “What is it like to be an embryo or a foetus?” Particularly, the morality of abortion based on sentience not only assumes that from a certain stage, the foetus is

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sentient, but also that early termination inflicts pain to the foetus. This might well be a mere assumption, in need of scientific backup. Who of us recalls how painful it was to be squeezed through our mother's birth canal? If birth were so painful for the foetus (we surely know that it is for women), and if infliction of pain is always morally wrong, would there not be a moral obligation to deliver all foetuses by Caesarean section? But that would sound not only impossible but also outrageous. Similarly, labour wards where pain relief is not administered systematically to all parturient would be staffed by immoral midwives and obstetricians. For utilitarians, pleasure has to be maximised and suffering has to be minimised; and, every one counts for one and the same in the hedonic calculus. One might wonder why, in the utilitarian morality of abortion, only the foetus’ pain (whatever that could be) seems to count in the hedonic calculus. The balance call for the avoidance of pain, women should be legally banned from having children until such a time that society finds means of delivery devoid of pain.

Arguments from the Mother’s Right to Self-determination and Health Beside the argument on the status of the foetus, another fundamental area pro-choicers anchor on to make their case for abortion is the mother’s right to autonomy. The argument as it is usually formulated is that even if it is eventually established that the foetus is a human being and thus has a right to life that still does not nullify the mother’s right of self-determination which allows her to do with her body whatever she wants. Seen in this light, abortion becomes an issue not of killing a human being but simply of not allowing a human being to make use of another’s property in this case the mother’s womb. Among scholars who subscribe to this argument, two trends can be identified. (1) Scholars who accord the right to life to the foetus but still insist that the mother’s rights to self-determination and health triumph such right (2) Scholars who hold that there is no conflict of rights

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because the right of the foetus is subsumed within the right of the mother An instance of the first case is a situation in which pregnancy threatens the mother’s life and abortion becomes an option in order to save the life of the mother. Pro- abortionists hold that even direct abortion is not only reasonable but necessary when the pregnant woman is very ill and her life is in a serious danger due to her pregnancy. In a situation like this according to pro-abortionists, the human conception in the womb is an unjust aggressor and it is therefore morally justified that the mother should in self- defence have the pregnancy terminated. 37 A second practical instantiation of the first argument see abortion as a sign of maturity. According to this argument, for woman to be a full adult in the moral sense, not only does she have a right to bodily integrity but also to make and keep commitments. She has to determine her own life because if she does not, she is not capable of keeping prior and present commitments, and of making future ones, particularly in the areas of family, work and education. A right to abortion is integral to a woman’s adult, mature responsibility and autonomy. 38 A third example often used by pro-abortionists to buttress this first position is rape or incest. Before anything, it has to be observed that woman who becomes pregnant due to an act of either rape or incest is the victim of a horribly violent and morally reprehensible crime. Bioethicist Andrew Varga summarizes the argument from rape and incest in the following way: It is argued that in these tragic cases the great value of the mental health of a woman who becomes pregnant as a result of rape or incest can best be safe-guarded by abortion. It is also said that a pregnancy caused by rape or incest is the result of a grave injustice and that the victim should not be obliged to carry the foetus to viability. This would keep reminding her for nine

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months of the violence committed against her and would just increase her mental anguish. It is reasoned that the value of the woman’s mental health is greater than the value of the foetus. In addition, it is maintained that the foetus is an aggressor against the woman’s integrity and personal life; it is only just and morally defensible to repel an aggressor even by killing him if that is the only way to defend personal and human values. It is concluded, then, that abortion is justified in these cases. 39

The argument here then is that no woman should be compelled to endure unwanted pregnancy resulting from rape. To carry the child of a man who raped her is not just a violation of a woman’s autonomy but also the greatest agony a woman can be made to go through. She is likely to live the rest of her life in fear of her sexual freedom being violated by an unwanted person. Thomson criticizes the common method of deducing a woman’s right to abort from the permissibility of a third party committing the abortion. In almost all instances, a woman’s right to abortion may hinge on the doctor’s willingness to perform it. If the doctor refuses, then the woman is denied her right. To base the woman’s right on the accordance or refusal of a doctor, she says, is to ignore the mother’s full personhood, and subsequently, her rights to her body. Thomson presents the hypothetical example of the ‘expanding child: Suppose you find yourself trapped in a tiny house with a growing child. I mean a very tiny house, and a rapidly growing child, you are already up against the wall of the house and in a few minutes you’ll be crushed to death. The child on the other hand won’t be crushed to death; if nothing is done to stop him from growing he’ll be hurt, but in the end he’ll simply burst open the house and walk out

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a free man. 40 Thomson concedes that a third party indeed cannot make the choice to kill either the person being crushed or the child. However, this does not mean that the person being crushed cannot act in self-defence and attack the child to save his or her own life. To liken this to pregnancy, the mother can be thought to be the house, the foetus the growing-child. In such a case, the mother’s life is being threatened, and the foetus is the one who threatens it. Because for no reason should the mother’s life be threatened, and also for no reason is the foetus threatening it, both are innocent, and thus no third party can intervene. But, Thomson says, the person threatened can intervene, by which justification a mother can rightfully abort. Continuing, Thomson returns to the ‘expanding child’ example and points out: For what we have to keep in mind is that the mother and the unborn child are not like two tenants in a small house, which has, by unfortunate mistake, been rented to both: the mother owns the house. The fact that she does adds to the offensiveness of deducing that the mother can do nothing from the supposition that third parties can do nothing. But it does more than this: it casts a bright light on the supposition that third parties can do nothing. 41 If we say that no one may help the mother obtain an abortion, we fail to acknowledge the mother’s right over her body (or property). Thomson says that we are not personally obligated to help the mother but this does not rule out the possibility that someone else may act. As Thomson reminds, the house belongs to the mother; similarly, the body which holds a foetus also belongs to the mother. 42 Similar version of Thompson’s argument has also been offered by Block’s in what he calls the theory of eviction. According to this theory, a foetus can be aborted only if it is not killed as a result (provided that it is a genuine medical possibility). Block claims to derive such a conclusion

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from the libertarian axiom of non-aggression, which prohibits harming other human beings (even those not yet conscious of their humanity), but allows for forcible removal of trespassers from one’s private property (in this case the woman’s womb). 43 In line with the contention of those scholars who insist that there is no conflict between the mother’s right to self-determination and the foetus right to life, Block denies that the voluntariness of the pregnancy obliges the woman to carry the foetus to term. According to him, such an obligation could stem only from being an implicit contract between the two, and Block denies the existence of any such contract on the ground that one cannot consent (even implicitly) to any decision made before one came into being. Thus, he contends that the only valid reason for obliging the mother to carry out the pregnancy could stem from the existence of a relevant positive right (e.g., foetus’s right to life), which is a notion incompatible with libertarian ethics. 44 Curiously enough, as indicated in the first paragraph, Block also asserts that lethally aborting the foetus counts as a murder only given the existence of non-lethal ways of performing abortion, but does not so count if no such methods are available. This in itself seems to undermine Block’s proposal, since it appears to introduce an arbitrary complication into the principle of non-aggression—after all, if evicting a trespasser is a right of every human being, and one should not be thought of as responsible for what happens to the trespasser after he is evicted, then why should the moral evaluation of the act of eviction depend on what eviction options are available and on which of them is applied to the trespasser? By and large, the case this second argument makes is that any attempts to force women into a legal corner concerning their decisions during pregnancy must be avoided. Arguing purely from autonomy-based rights, the woman and only the woman is a rights bearer in these situations. There is no other legal person in existence and nobody else who can

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consent on the competent woman’s behalf. She and she alone is custodian of her physical integrity. The woman has no autonomy-based obligation to the foetus because the foetus is not a person and cannot be thought to possess subjective interest. So if we do not concede that the foetus is a person, then we own it no duties and obligations, even if we may offer it some respect. In spite of whatever form it appears, the bulwark of the arguments we examined here is that the mother’s autonomy is the central question in the abortion debate and in order to respect that the mother should be allowed to abort. However, if respect for autonomy is a basic tenet or is the basic tenet of pro-choicer (and there is no reason to disagree with the importance of autonomy), it does not solve anything in the abortion debate. If the embryo/foetus is autonomous and has an inalienable right to life, the pregnant woman equally possesses inalienable autonomy and the right to life. Since abortion has been medicalised, it can also conflict with the health care provider's autonomy (conscientious objection). Since men are responsible for impregnating women, they should be part of the decision-making process and share the responsibility. This adds up to four autonomies to be reconciled, or, at least, to be taken into consideration.This is a conundrum that pro-choicers cannot solve.

Utilitarian Arguments The third sets of arguments used by abortion advocates to justify their support for abortion are utilitarian in nature. Consequently, before accessing these arguments, let us first familiarize ourselves with the meaning of utilitarianism. An understanding of utilitarianism however, requires an insight into the meaning of consequentialism, an umbrella theory that encompasses both utilitarianism and other consequentialist theories. Thus, we shall begin our journey into utilitarianism from consequentialism. As the word implies, consequentialism is a label affixes to theories holding that actions are right or wrong

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according to the balance of their good or bad consequences. To buttress this meaning T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress explain that for the consequentialists the right acts in any circumstance is the one that produces the best overall result, as determined from an impersonal perspective that gives equal weight to the interests of each affected party. According to them, consequentialism “…is the belief that what ultimately matters in evaluating or judging actions or policies of action are the consequences that result from choosing one action or policy rather than the alternative.” 45 In order words, in deciding the morality of actions, those actions that produce good, positive or desirable results are adjudged moral whereas those that produce negative or undesirable results are adjudged immoral. Seen as a subset of consequentialism, utilitarianism posits that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest utility for the greatest number of people. It follows therefore that utilitarianism is an ethical doctrine that the moral worth of an action is solely determined by its contribution to overall utility. This philosophy judges everything in terms of its utility or usefulness. The basic tenet of utilitarianism and therefore the scale on which the morality of every action is measured is the moral imperative to avoid harm or pain. Thus, according to utilitarianism, pains are the greatest evil and pleasure the greatest good. We should minimizes pain and maximizes pleasure for the greatest number. 46 However, in S. E. Stumpf’s articulation, for utilitarian’s, causing pain can only be morally justified if it is the only means to bring about a greater good. This is still in consonance with the “greatest happiness principle” according to which actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness and wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. “By happiness are intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure.” 47 The point Stumpf makes in this quotation buttresses what we underscored our explanation on

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consequentialism according to which consequences is the basis for judging the morality of actions. Hence, while action may involve pain, the action is still considered moral if the pleasure of its utility outweighs the pain used in procuring the pleasure. When applied to the abortion debate, utilitarianism is concerned with the amounts of pleasure and pain in situations where abortion is permitted as contrasted with the amounts of pleasure and pain where it is forbidden. As in the case with many issues in the utilitarian system, the rightness or wrongness of abortion turns mainly not on the mother or the foetus directly affected by the act, but on the less direct effects on the community at large. That is, the issue of abortion within a utilitarian consideration is stripped of the language of ‘rights’ and emotional sway over ‘murdering babies’, to the question of the desirability of the overall impart of abortion on the population. Usually, the abortion arguments within the utilitarian framework are coined around two subheadings. The first consists in using the difficulty involved in implementing anti- abortion laws and the attendant health hazard of illegal abortion to argue for permissive abortion laws. The second justifies its call for the liberalization of abortion laws on grounds of the direct benefits of abortion to society. In sum, advocates of the first position, contend that restrictive abortion law does not stop women who are determined to procure abortion from doing so. What it does is that it drives them to seek backstreets or illegal abortions in the hands of quacks and since these abortions are performed by non-experts the women either lose their lives or have their reproductive health permanently impaired in the process. The case here is that to stop or at least reduce the high maternal mortality associated with illegal abortion, abortion should be legalized. Legalization will make experts and adequate healthcare provision available for women who would wish to abort and hence reduce the deaths associated with illegal abortion.

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It is obvious but needs to be reemphasized that pro- choice utilitarian arguments do not succeed in addressing the two questions that we consider very central to the abortion debate in this paper. The contentions that abortion law cannot be completely enforced, that some women die when they embark on illegal abortion, or that liberal abortion laws can be used to control overpopulation and crime does not address the question on the status of the foetus neither does it respond to the mother-foetus right dichotomy or address why abortion is considered a moral issue in the first place. In addition, arguments from utilitarianism totally beg the question, because they assume that the unborn are not fully human. If the unborn are fully human, this argument is tantamount to saying that, since people will murder other people anyway, we ought to make it safe and legal for them to do so. But murder is never justified, even if there are social difficulties in forbidding it. Second, “A reasonable estimate for the actual number of criminal abortions per year in the pre-legalization era [prior to 1967] would be from a low of 39,000 (1950) to a high of 210,000 (1961) and a mean of 98,000 per year.” 48 Contrasting this with the fact that there has been an average of 1.5 million abortions per year since 1973, one can only conclude that the pre-Roe anti-abortion laws were quite effective in limiting the number of abortions. Now if the pro-choice advocate claims that a law cannot stop all abortions, he or she makes a trivial claim, for this is true of all laws which forbid illegal acts. For example, even though both hiring paid assassins and purchasing child pornography are illegal, some people remain undaunted and pursue them illegally. But there is no doubt that their illegality does hinder a vast number of citizens from obtaining them. Should we then legalize child pornography and the hit-man profession because we can’t stop all people from obtaining such “goods” and “services”? Such reasoning is absurd. In the final analysis, pro-abortionists, starting from those who argue for the non-personhood of the foetus through those who insist on the mother’s right to personal autonomy

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or self-determination to those who endorse the utilitarian advantages of abortion over its disadvantages, the common ground for all these positions is that abortion is not or is not total immoral and therefore should not be completely outlawed. In time, we will devote some more space to a closer examination of these arguments, for the meantime however, let us turn over to the arguments of pro-lifers.

Anti-abortion Arguments The approach usually adopted by many scholars in presenting the abortion debate is to delineate the arguments from a particular group, pro-choicers for example and then sequentially use the arguments of their opponents, pro-lifers to evaluate the validity of the later position.

Arguments from the Status of the Foetus Many pro-lifers have dwelt extensively on evidence from science to make their case that life begins at conception. J. Mat presented the following argument: Pro-life and pro-choice advocates both seem to genuinely believe they are acting ethically. How can this be? I believe the question really boils down to how an individual views human life. Before I explain this, however, let me first dispel the common misconception that we somehow “don’t know exactly when life begins”. This is an outright falsehood. Any honest, thinking person who defends abortion will immediately concede that life begins at conception. Science answered that question a long time ago (for confirmation, just open any embryology textbook). Those who claim that a foetus is “only a clump of cells” overlook the fact that all of us are really just clumps of cells. 49 However, this is not all. The question of why it is basically wrong to kill a human being which is more fundamental than the question of when life begins is still unanswered. For

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example, admitted that human life begins at conception but humans are not the only beings that have life, animals do as well. Why is it right to kill a cow but wrong to kill a human being? Pro-lifers generally address the question of why it is wrong to kill human beings with their Principle of Sanctity of Life (PSL). According to Ronald Dworkin, the PSL is at the heart of the conflict between staunch pro-lifers and liberal pro-choicers. The reason of the conflict is that for the pro- lifers abortion violates the PSL - this is what he calls the detached objection to abortion. Life is sacrosanct. End of the discussion. 50 There are two different arguments supporting the PSL: the argument from association and the argument from history. Examples of the PSL by association would be that of the Osu Cast system in traditional Igbo society and the sacred cows in India; the lives of the Osu people and the cows are valued because they are associated with certain divinities. The basic argument which associated in use over the centuries to condemn killing which has been used in recent times against abortion is the imago Dei argument. The contention is that human life is sacred because man is the image of God. The foetus in the mother’s womb, from the moment of conception bears this image in no less degree than the adult and therefore he or she has the right to life as much as the adult. Protecting the right of the foetus to life is as much the responsibility of the society as much as that of the adult. J. Mat states this as it is seen by pro-lifers: This is why those of us on the pro-life side of the argument often speak in terms of the sanctity of human life rather than the happiness of human life. What does this mean? It means that we view all human life as having God-given value and certain inalienable rights – from the moment of conception to the moment of death. A life is valuable because it is created in the image of God – not because it possesses certain physical, mental, or emotional

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abilities…and not because it enjoys more total “happiness” than “unhappiness”. 51 The argument from history derives either from the Divine Command theory or from the Natural Law theory. The basic claim of the Divine Command theorists is that a soul is infused at the time of conception; therefore, human life is sacrosanct from the time of conception. No exception should ever be tolerated. This is the expression of God's will. It has to be observed also that the divine command theory has its root in the Judeo-Christian “thou shall not kill” maxism. The position of the Natural Law theorists is a secular variation on the Divine Command Theory: thou shall not kill. What nature has endowed with life is to be respected and allowed to follow its course. Natural Law stands above and apart from the activities of human lawmakers; it constitutes an objective set of principles that can be discovered by the use of reason. 52 Other versions of pro-life arguments demonstrating that foetuses are human beings and therefore must not be aborted have their roots on the theories we have described above. For example, Don Marquis’ potentiality argument which contends that abortion is wrong because it robs someone of a “future like ours” 53 , still requires a justification of why human life is sacred in the first place. In the same manner, the arguments from essence and substance from Peter Kreeft 54 and J. P. Moreland respectively, attempts to answer the question on when human life begins but does not say why it is morally reprehensible to kill a human being. 55 Be that as it may, the central claim of anti-abortionist in relation to the status of the foetus is not just that life begins at conception but also that life is sacrosanct because it has a special origin or association which endows it with sanctity and dignity. This sanctity is what makes killing a human being morally wrong at every stage of his development. In a telling elegance, J. Mat juxtaposes this position with utilitarian pro-choice argument: In order to rationally justify the practice of abortion,

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a person must first accept the existentialist notion that human life is devoid of objective meaning (meaning derived from a Higher Source – not to be confused with subjective meaning derived from oneself). This philosophy then makes it possible for a person to embrace utilitarianism – a brand of ethics that seeks to maximize the overall level of “happiness” in the world. Following utilitarianism to its logical conclusion, one can then successfully argue that abortion is ethically justifiable. The aborted child doesn’t enter the world to experience happiness or unhappiness, and the life of the woman with the pregnancy is made more “happy” (just for the sake of argument here) by not having to raise or support an unwanted child. 56 As with pro-choice arguments on the status of the foetus, the positions of the pro-life advocates do not address the central questions in the abortion debate. Specifically, pro-lifers in a bid to protect the right to life of the foetus fail to recognize that the mother also has right that must be protected. In order words, their either-or position leads to a dead-end that the argument itself cannot resolve. Furthermore, One of the main difficulties with the Divine Command position is the fact that a theological premise (the infusion of a soul) is supposed to lead to a general moral conclusion (an ensouled entity is sacrosanct). The validity of an argument depends on whether the premise(s) is/are true. Since, as Curzer writes, “we have nothing like a soul detector” 57, without a leap of faith the premise cannot be substantiated. Although there should be room, understanding, and tolerance for theologically inspired worldviews, the Divine Command theory is convincing only for those who believe in the existence of the God given soul. Nevertheless, as we observed above, even among those who believe in the soul new perspectives are currently defended. While the current official position and teaching of the Roman Catholic Church still sticks strictly to the Divine Command

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theory, progressive theologians like Joseph Donceel however, support the view of the so-called delayed animation(as opposed to the doctrine of immediate animation). Natural Law theorists are mainly concerned with the sanctity of human life. Some of their arguments are, for instance, that a fertilised human egg is human because it has a complete and specifically human genetic equipment, or that since the time of conception the fertilised egg is alive. 58 No one would really argue seriously against the claim that a human embryo (or zygote for that matter) is both human and alive, and that it has a human genome. These are plain biological facts. Conversely one could, however, argue (for argument sake) whether chromosomal abnormalities (missing or additional chromosomes) deprives an entity from humanity in the same way as we deny apes humanity (their genetic equipment is extremely close to that of humans). What really matters is, first, whether to be a zygote/pre-embryo/embryo is enough to possess moral standing, and, second, whether one should ascribe moral standing only to the species Homo sapiens. Animal rights activists have a serious moral objection against speciesism. The moral consider ability of a zygote remains a matter of ongoing debate. The last word has not yet been said in reproductive technology, and the related moral issues surrounding it are cropping up every day. A clear example of the complexity of the ethics of reproduction and of the ascription of a clear-cut moral weight to a pre-embryo is that moral philosophers with a more or less strong pro-life inclination choose the middle-of-the-road argument from potentiality to ascribe moral standing to the unborn. It is not in virtue of what the zygote/pre-embryo/embryo proper/foetus is now (because at the early stages it is just a cell or a cluster of cells that, if circumstances permit, will one day become a person) that it deserves moral consideration, but rather in virtue of what it the potential to become has. However, one could argue and ask whether a frozen human embryo has a potential unless it is implanted in a woman's uterus; if not

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implanted a frozen embryo will ultimately be discarded, unless its stem cells are utilised (the only alternative potentiality).

Need to be Responsible Pro-lifers also argue that keeping and bringing a pregnancy to terms in itself is a way of owning-up or showing responsibility for one’s actions. The argument here is that any woman engaging in sex should bear in mind that sexual activity can result to pregnancy. If in spite of this awareness, the woman still goes ahead to indulge in sexual activity, the woman should bear the consequence of her action by undergoing the pregnancy and the labour. According to pro- lifers, to abort the child is dodging the responsibility of her actions and meting out capital punishment on the innocent child. To abort in this condition becomes an act of cowardice, selfishness and irresponsibility. A high profile proponent of this position is J. Mat. He articulates his position on this as follows: When people ask me why I’m not pro-choice, I respond by saying I AM pro-choice: I support a woman’s right to choose whether or not to get pregnant. Sex isn’t a biological necessity, and abstinence is a 100% fool proof way to avoid pregnancy. I support a woman’s right to make this choice. When a woman chooses to become sexually active – regardless of the type of birth control being used (if any) – she does so with the knowledge that this behaviour might result in pregnancy. 59 This according to Mat is where personal responsibility comes into play. He was insistent that when a woman engages in sexual activity, she ought to be held morally and legally responsible for protecting the life of her child in the event that a pregnancy occurs. He as well believes that a man who engages in sexual activity ought to be held responsible in a similar manner “(ideally by helping to raise the child as a

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father…but at the very least, by being held financially accountable for the child).” In summary, Mat’s argument consists in this: But when a man and a woman engage in irresponsible, recreational sex…they shouldn’t be allowed to decide that they don’t want to “keep the baby”. If two adults make poor decisions, the solution isn’t to murder an innocent child. 60 As the arguments from the need for responsibility does not address the fundamental problems of the abortion impasse, we shall not be detained here evaluating. We naturally assume that our points in the previous subheading adequately apply to this subheading as well.

Utilitarian Arguments Although, anti-abortion arguments are in the main valued-based or deontological in nature nevertheless, sometimes in order to meet their opponents on their own grounds, pro-lifers also adopt utilitarian reasoning to demonstrate the immorality of abortion. The arguments generally use either the negative impacts of allowing or the positive outcomes of disallowing abortion on individuals and society to support their call for anti-abortion legislation. One of such negative arguments is that abortion procedures, especially the surgical ones, no matter how safe we wish to claim that technology has made them still poses some degree of real danger to the mother’s health and life. According to Ekwutosi some of these risks include, “a perforated uterus, perforated bowel, sterility, and death.” He maintains that: The risk of complication can increase depending on how far pregnancy has progressed. The risk is also dependent upon the skill and experience of the practitioner; maternal age, health, pre-existing conditions, methods and instruments used, medications used; the skill and experience of those assisting the practitioner and quality of recovery

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and follow-up care. 61 Although, Ekwutosi is ready to concede that: In some societies where abortion is illegal the risks are even higher due to quack and unsafe method used. Unsafe abortion methods (e.g. use of certain drugs, herbs, or insertion of non- surgical objects in the uterus) are potentially dangerous, carrying a significantly elevated risk for permanent injury or death, as compared to abortion done by professionals. 62 The point he particularly intends to underline is that abortion is never free from risks. In that regards, he argues that it is safer and more beneficial to women and society if abortion is avoided altogether. Louise-Kennedy also makes similar point when he argues that: Induced abortion involves risks. Repeated abortion by dilation and curettage for instance, weakens and damages the cervix. This often leads to premature delivery or spontaneous abortion in subsequent pregnancies. Again, the cavity of the uterus may be damaged leading to the formation of scar tissue and consequently secondary infertility. Even when the abortion is procured by suction, the womb may be displace from its natural position. When the womb is not in its proper position, conception may take place in the fallopian tube but the zygote cannot be nourished by the wall of the uterus. As a result of this, the zygote dies away. In some women, frequent abdominal pain occurs. Abdominal pains are not conducive for pregnancy and miscarriage may occur. In the case of some young girls it is even worst. Some of them also suffers from psychological disturbances and attracts aspersions to them. Not only do the

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moral consequences of their act weight them down, their social relationship too is marred. They may need good counselling and other kinds of asylum, confidence and self-esteem. 63 Another utilitarian reason pro-lifers use to justify their anti-abortion stance is that granted that pregnancy can be very burdensome; however, there are good alternatives short of abortion that can take care of unwanted pregnancy. Analyzing this position, Ekwutosi explains that a woman put in the family way through rape etc. who feels it would be difficult for her to show love to the child or a mother who feels she has many children and therefore does not want to have the child, should hand it over for adoption or to motherless homes instead of aborting it. His reason for advocating this alternative is that there are many childless couples willing to adopt children. Now the overall logic underpinning this advocacy lies in the utilitarian principle that emphasizes the primacy of utility. Going back to Ekwutosi’s contention above, if the child is adopted instead of aborted, the child whose life is spared, the mother, who is saved from the moral and psychological burden of abortion, the childless couple who adopt the child and the society itself stand to gain much more than it would have if the child is aborted. Considering these utilitarian categories within the framework of utility calculus, the average pro-lifer believes that it is more beneficial to society as well as individuals to disallow abortion. On the whole, pro-life-utilitarian arguments like all arguments by pro-lifers aim at a single purpose: to rationally explain the immorality of abortion and hence explain why it should not be permitted.

Conclusion Finally, the pro-choice and pro-life positions as our analyses in this paper have shown their merits. Nonetheless, their demerits are what undermine their suitability as ideal solutions to the abortion controversy. This paper presents the

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principle of identity and the doctrine of double effect as more suitable solutions to the problem of the morality of abortion.

Endnotes 1. Quoted in W.T., Jones, F., Sontag, M.O., Beckner, RJ. Fogelin, Approaches toEthics: Representative Selections from Classical Times to the Present. 2nd Ed., (New York: McGraw- Hill, 1996), p. 21. 2. Quoted in M. Tooley Abortion and Infanticide, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983), p. 103. 3. J. Laird, The Idea of the Soul. Freeport, (NY: Books for Libraries Press, 1970), p. 8. 4. M. N. Ford, When did I begin? Conception of the Human Individual in History, Philosophy and Science. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991), p. 39. 5. Ibid. 6. A. Long, Stoic Studies. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 233. 7. Ibid. p. 226. 8. B. Rothman, Redefining Abortion, in H Lafollette (Ed.), Ethics in Practice. An Anthology, (Oxford: Blackwell 1997), p. 104. 9. R. C. Solomon, & K.M. Higgins, K.M. 1996. A Short History of Philosophy. Oxford & New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1996), p. 12. 10. M. N. Ford, Op. Cit. 39. 11. E. Tivnan, The Moral Imagination. Confronting Ethical Issues of our Day. New York: Simons &Chuster, 1995), p.34. 12. J. Rachels, The Right Thing to Do: Basic Readings in Moral Philosophy, (New York: Random House, 1989), p.59. 13. J. Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy. z= Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993), p.115. 14. M. N. Ford, Op. Cit. p. 47. 15. Ibid. p. 48. 16. G.E. Pence, Classic Cases in Medical Ethics. 2nd Ed., (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995), p. 147. 17. Ibid. p. 148.

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18. J. Oakley, Applied Ethics, in J. V. Canfield (Ed.), Routledge History ofPhilosophy, Volume X Philosophy of Meaning, Knowledge and Value in the20th Century, (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 364-396. 19. R. Gordon, Op. Cit. p.151. 20. B. Rothman Op. Cit. p. 108. 21. E. Tivnan, Op. Cit. p. 16. 22. G.E. Pence, p. 172. 23. M. O. Izunwa, “Right to Life and Abortion Debate in Nigeria: A Case for the Legislation of the Principle of Double-Effect”, in Nnamdi Azikiwe University Journal of International Law and Jurisprudence, Vol. 2, (2001), p. 115. 24. McSweeny, Sex and Conception, (Ibadan, African University Press, 1979), p. 15. 25. Michael Tooley, Abortion and Infanticide in S. Dwyer & 1. Feinberg (eds.), The Prob/em of Abortion, 3rd Ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1997), pp 40-58. 26. Quoted in M. O. Izunwa, “Right to Life and Abortion Debate in Nigeria, p. 115. 27. Loc. Cit. 28. Loc. Cit. 29. J. Donceel, Immediate Animation and Delayed Hominization. Theological Studies 31(1970), pp. 76-105. 30. W. L. Sumner, Toward a Credible View of Abortion. Canadian Journal of Philosophy A 1, (1974), p. 101. 31. Singer, P. 1993. Animals and the Value of Life, in T. Regan (Ed.), Matters of Life and Death. New Introductory Essays in Moral Philosophy, 3rd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill: 280- 319. 32. M. O. Izunwa, “Right to Life and Abortion Debate in Nigeria, p. 117. 33. Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, United States Law Review 57 (22 July 1989), pp. 5044-45. 34. Virginia Ramey Mollenkott, “Reproductive Choice: Basic to Justice for Women,” Christian Scholar’s Review 17 (March 1988), p. 291.

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35. C. M. Ekwutosi, Bioethics: History and Contemporary Issues, (Akwa: Rex Charles and Patrick, 2008), pp. 63-64. 36. Ibid. p. 62. 37. Andrew Varga, The Main Issues in Bioethics, Rev. Ed. (New York: Paulist Press, 1984), pp. 67-68. Varga himself, however, does not believe that abortion is morally justified in the cases of rape and incest. 38. J. Thomson, “A Defense of Abortion”. Philosophy and Public Affairs 1:1 (Autumn 1971), p. 63 39. Ibid. p. 52. 40. Ibid. p. 53. 41. Ibid. p. 54. 42. Walter E. Block, “Abortion, Woman and Fetus: Rights in Conflict?” Reason, (April, pp, 1979), pp. 18–25. 43. Ibid. 44. T. L. Beauchamp, & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 340. 45. Loc. Cit. 46. S. I. Stumpf, Philosophy; History and Problems, 5 th ed., (N.Y: McGraw-Hill Inc, 1994), p. 709. 47. Louis-Kennedy OsinachiIlobinso, “Policy on Abortion in the Nigerian Society: Ethical Considerations”, (Master’s Thesis in Applied Ethics Centre for Applied Ethics LinkopingsUniversitet, 2007), p. 6. 48. Ronald Dworkin, Abortion and the Sanctity of Life, in S. Dwyer & J. Feinberg (Eds.), The Problem of Abortion. 3 rd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1997), p. 131. 49. J. Matt, Abortion, Op. Cit. 50. S. Blackburn, Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 256. 51. Don Marquis, “Why Abortion is Immoral”, The Journal of Philosophy86 (4) (1989), pp. 183-189. 52. Peter Kreeft, “Human Personhood Begins at Conception,” htt://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/asin/0898707218/ref=nos im/caatholiceduca-20 53. J.P. Moreland, “Humanness, Personhood, and the Right to Die,” Faith and Philosophy 12.1 (January 1995).

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54. J. Matt, Abortion, Op. Cit. 55. H. J. Curzer, Ethical Theory and Moral Problems, (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1999) p. 435. 56. J. Noonan, Jr., An almost absolute Value in History, in J.D Arras & N.K. Rhoden (Eds.), Ethical Issues in Modern Medicine, 3rd Ed, (Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1989). 57. J. Matt, Abortion, Op. Cit. 58. 59. Ibid. 60. C. M. Ekwutosi, Bioethics: History and Contemporary Issues, p. 66. 61. Ibid. p. 67. 62. Louis-Kennedy OsinachiIlobinso, “Policy on Abortion in the Nigerian Society: Ethical Considerations”, p. 28. 63. Chidi Nkwopara, “We’ve not Legalised Abortion in Imo – Okorocha”, htt/www.vanguard.com (30/05/17).

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Culture: The Identity and History of Every Tribe By

Esther Ogochukwu Akpulu Department of Igbo African and Asian Studies Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka [email protected] 08063010049

Abstract Our culture is our way of life. No race can exist without culture. Any race that does not have culture cannot boast of any history of its own. It is disheartening that today; Africans have relinquished and traded their culture to promote alien cultures. The evil seed was planted by the colonial masters who tried and succeeded in promoting their culture to the detriment of Africans and African culture. Religion plays a major role to this effect because promoters of alien religion will always try to trace almost all African cultural behaviour to idolatry, paganism and fetishism. It is against this misinterpretation that this kind of study is necessary in order to unveil the relationship between culture, and identity or history as it affects the Igbo culture. The objective of this study is to analyse the role of Western colonization towards the neglect of African culture by Africans. The study is also proposed to call Africans back to their cultural identity as it is the foundation on which other boundaries are established. It is a descriptive study. The data collection was through observation and relevant literature sources. The theory used is the theory of Behaviorism. Among the findings of this study is that African culture and Igbo culture in particular is not devilish rather it has been wrongly interpreted by those that wanted to promote theirs. It is advised that Africans go back to history and embrace their cultural identity as it is the bedrock of the present and posterity vision and heritage. Key Words: Culture, History, and Identity

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Introduction The Igbo is one of the major three tribes in Nigeria. They are found in the south-eastern Nigeria and they are Igbo language speakers. Igbo people have their identity which is the history they live out in their culture. The history of the people is in their culture. It is culture that sustains the history of any society. Any cultural community that allows its culture to be entirely influenced and dominated by other cultures has traded its existence. This is because the people’s culture makes them different from others. Most Igbo people neglect their culture but are rather in pursuit of foreign cultures. Consequently, the cultural heritage that was the bedrock of our ancestors is fast going into extinction and it is equally affecting our vision and growth.

One thing Igbo people are known for is their industrious nature. This is why they are found almost in all parts of the world. While in foreign land, they normally learn the language and culture of their host communities and make sure they teach same to their children. This no doubt enhances their relationship with their host communities. The problem is that most of them on the course of acculturation, forget their own cultural pattern and language. It is a problem because these children thus grow up to believe that everything about Igbo people is archaic and their culture fetish and evil. Also, Igbo culture suffers the same fate among some Igbo people born, raised and live in Igbo land as a result of Westernization and acculturation. They neglect their culture and cultural values. Some of these Igbo people subjugate their culture simply because they want to belong to the class of the modernized thereby, losing their cultural identity. Igbo in (2012:101) observes that the colonialists tried and achieved their plans whereby the colonialist is superior to the colonized.

No doubt, Igbo people’s culture is how they live as a group of

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people and what is used to identify them. Therefore, to neglect what Igbo people are known for should not be encouraged for any reason. As a result, this study explores the role of culture in preserving the people’s historical identity. The meaning of history and culture will be explained. Culture will also be examined as a context of philosophy and the effect of colonization on African culture also explored. The study is guided by behavioral theory. Analysis of findings is to be carried out and conclusion brings the research to a close. It is expected that Igbo people should restrain from all acts of negligence and embrace their culture. This will save Igbo cultural heritage and historical identity.

Literature Review This section will discuss the major concepts connected to this work

History The world history traces its root to the Greek word historie, which means inquiry. History is the study of events of the past that led to the present. It is also the written or even spoken account of events that took place in the past. History covers every aspect of life as there is no aspect of human life that does not have history. In the academic world also, every subject or course of study has its own history. It is this history that educates and enables the present age to be conversant with the past. Obiakor (2015:5) defines history “… as the study of man’s past events; how and why they happened.” History concerns itself with the study of man. Carr (1961:30) refers to history as “… a continuous process of interaction between the past and the present.” Nothing is history until it is behind us in time. History studies the lives of our ancestors and past heroes as well as their ways of life. It records actual course of events known as historical facts.

History is not merely narration and giving account in words of what happened in the past but it goes beyond just narration. It

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is in line with this that Espie (1965:8) writes that history is not simply description and accounts in words about the past. It concerns the movements of people and individuals who looked, thought and acted differently from ourselves in many respects”. This implies that words alone cannot bring out the complete and full meaning of the past event. Nigeria-Biafra war of 1967-1970 is well understood when one watches the videos of what transpired then; the killings and actions of both the civilian and the soldiers, helps the history to be complete and have its effects on people who did not witness the event.

Moreover, history could also be said to mean the account of what happened in the past which is made up from the writings of people who lived at the time or soon after the period being described. Shaw (1965) in Gella (1993:12) in his contribution maintains that “… history is the story of what happened at any time in the past, whether anyone wrote down anything about it or not” No matter the medium used to do so. If it is only by writing them down what would have become of our uneducated parents who could neither neither read nor write? But these people still contributed in their own different ways in handing us over most of the information about the past that we are aware of today. Unlike in Europe where history is often captured in a decaying building, in Africa the story of the continent is found in the people who live there.

History is a product of continuous interaction between man and his environment. This Gella (1993:12) agrees that while writing on historical consciousness which he says goes beyond cognitive sphere and is the concept of one’s position in the sequence of existence. Historical consciousness is all about a critical evaluation and understanding of the relationships that existed and were entered into between man and man in the process of development over time. Such history Gella (1993:12) maintains “… should be an organized critical study of past activities that had significant impact on subsequent developments.” It should involve critical

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interpretation of the past experiences in the light of things that are happening in the historical present.

From the above conceptions of history, it is obvious that Igbo people cannot boast of a future while they relinquish their past. This is because there are interconnections between the past, present and future. Therefore it is right to say that people’s culture is their historical facts.

Culture

The meaning of the term “culture” has been highly contested, especially within anthropology (Kroeber and Kluckhohn 1952).The first highly influential definition came from Tylor (1871:1) who opines that culture is “… that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a society.” Herskovits (1948:17) states that “… culture is the man-made part of the environment.” In the view of Geertz (1973:89), culture is “… a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols.” Culture, on such a view is like a text or something that needs to be interpreted through the investigation of symbols.

Some scholars have also traced the origin of the word culture. “The word “culture” derives from a French term, which in turn derives from a Latin word “colere,” which means to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture. It shares its etymology with a number of other words related to actively fostering growth”, Rossi in Zimmermann (2017). Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people, encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habit, marriage, music and arts among other things.

The center for Advanced Research and Language Acquisition goes further to define culture as shared pattern of behaviours and interactions, cognitive constructs and understanding that

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are learned by socialization. Thus it can be seen as a growth of a group identity fostered by social patterns unique to the group.

The concepts of culture above indicate that culture encompasses everything a group is known for. Therefore, any group that jettisons its uniqueness dares absolute degradation.

Culture and Development of People’s Identity Identity distinguishes individuals or communities from each other. History has stripped Africans of the dignity of building their nation by themselves on their own indigenous values, institutions and heritage. The modern African state is the product of Europe, not Africa. To attempt at this date to return to ancestral identities and resources as bases for building modern African nation would risk the collapse of many countries. At the same time, to disregard ethnic realities would be to build on loose sand, and a high risky exercise. In the opinion of Deng (1997), ethnicity is more than skin colour or physical characteristics, more than language, song, and dance. It is the embodiment of values, institutions, and patterns of behaviour, a composite whole representing a people’s historical experiences, aspiration, and world view. Deprive a people of their ethnicity, their culture, and you deprive them of their sense of direction and purpose.

In the view of Konadu (nd:37), “… history informs us that the closer Africans get to things non-African, whether they be liquor, money, or gadget (technology), the more these Africans become dependent, mystified, and lose their sense of cultural being ( including their cultural and material resources).” Africans are not proud of their own inventions but would rate anything foreign superior. Akoto 1999 in Konadu (nd: 37) observes that, A mole is will perceive the world in terms of tunnels and tunneling. In the same way, an ant or bee will understand reality as an expression of the collective

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… The imposition of the mole’s conception or reality on the bee can only result in a confused and self- destructive bee. The Africans must always try to be like the sun, which contribute greatly to human life but does not proselytize, in all humility, it shines brilliantly each day and simply does what a sun does. Cultural identity is the sense of belonging towards a culture. This belonging can be justified with the shared set of companionship, principles or beliefs of living. Basically, it can be considered as owning the culture and its various boundaries of ethnicity, nationality, language, religion and gender. And owning a culture means that the person embraces all the tradition that has been passed down throughout history. The cultural identity reveals the person’s heritage as well as helps to identify with others who have the same traditions or similar belief structures. Ownership of culture directly adds value to cultural identity and it includes practicing religion, wearing traditional clothes, or even eating food the culture is known for. It establishes means of identifying the person as a part of the culture or nationality.

The Effects of Colonization on African Culture Snowden (1983) expresses that, the classical view of blacks was not negative among ancient Europeans. Rather his research shows that blacks were taken by ancient Europe as models of beauty. It was after the experiences of slavery that the negative conception of blacks took root. According to Snowden (1983), this historical event was aided by later conquest and direct colonization by European powers aided by their obvious scientific heritage. Oguejiofor and Ezenwa- Ohaeto (2015:3) agree that the question “… whether Africans are what they should be” raises a negative feeling for people do not usually spend time in asking what they should be as a people, a country or a continent. They agree that this negativity was created by the historical experience of the Africans with the West, starting from the time of slavery. Nuun and Wantchekon (2011) in Nunn (2017:115) believe

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that the long-term impacts of the trans-Atlantic and Indian Ocean slave trades altered the cultural norms of the descendants of those exposed to the trade, making them inherently less trusting.

Igboin (2011:101) affirms that, “...the colonial rule was an imposition that unleashed deadly blow on African culture with the immediate consequences of the introduction of such values as rugged individualism, corruption, capitalism and oppression.” Colonial rule disrupted the traditional homogeneity and practice. The African method of moral transmission was invalidated which resulted in the abandonment of traditional norms and values. This was achieved through the systematic depersonalization of the Africa and paganising of its values. It was possibly because Africans could no longer hold on strongly to their communal life, one that places others first. Igboin (2011:101) also observes that the African cosmos became a victim of extraneous ideology which it has continued to wrestle with little or no success.

In his contribution, Copans (1977:21) affirms that …it is evident that the ‘founding’ of the field lies ostensibly in anthropology and through agents of the European colonial enterprise. Essentially, the colonial enterprise’s physical occupation and its maintenance (pacification, exploitation of Africa) made research possible, research freed of constraints of maintaining order and its own security. The unrestricted access of research ‘objects’ bolstered the efforts of anthropology, which in turn, provided the knowledge base for much of the other academic disciplines, including colonial planners, whose policies of indirect rule mandated ‘ethnographic’ data for establishing and perpetuating an effective hegemony even without their physical presence.

It is said that a discipline is marked by a clearly established intellectual parameters with apparent theoretical configuration

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and that must be delineated. That is what specifically separates what ‘we’ do as unique in the social construction of knowledge. Unfortunately’ both non-Africans studies and Africana studies lack a consummate theory of the study of Africans. Akoto 2001 opines in Konadu (nd: 36) “… that the source of what these enterprise need but lack can be found in the conceptions of culture, history, and spirituality that have not always been presented in a coherent fashion.” There has not been coherence because as Igboin (2011:101) observes that “…colonialism expressed the ethnocentric belief that the morals and values of the colonizer were superior to those of the colonized.” This belief was programmatically achieved through the establishment of schools, which the curricula was tailored to achieve the goals of the colonizer rather than train the colonized to be independent and the missionary ventures, which helped a great deal in vitrifying the religious concept and inclination of the colonized. This scenario naturally created two classes, one being the supererogatory and the other the sub-ordinary, with the deliberate structure that favour the former. This has been the woe of post-colonial Africa.

Culture as Context of Philosophy Fundamentally, in every culture is what one may call “popular philosophy.” This conception of philosophy comprehends proverbs, witticism and insight about reality, myths and religious conceptions of a particular people. Such areas of culture mentioned form not only materials for philosophizing, they also constitute the background to any philosophy Asiegbu, (2016:4-5). Nuun (2012:112) agrees that culture shapes people’s thinking as he observes “… that individuals from different cultural backgrounds make systematically different decisions even when faced with the same decision in the environment.”

In words of Asiegbu (2016:6), philosophy is not culture neither does a popular conception serve as philosophy

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properly understood. While culture is not philosophy, culture provides the raw material for philosophy. Consequently, a philosopher however great his love for wisdom, would be devoid of any material for speculation should he do away with culture. It means that philosophy is impossible without culture. The major reason for closeness of philosophy and culture is that philosophy is an interpretation, a hermeneutics, a quest for meaning, an attempt at giving meaning to man’s world. Every attempt of interpretation begins with man himself. In fact, man’s attempt at giving meaning entails a self-interpretation. Okere in Asiegbu (2016:6) agrees that man’s understandings of his world and his experiences of it are all at once “limited, culture –bound and so historical and situated, and finite.”

Theoretical Review This study considers the theoretical concept of Behaviorism.

Theoretical concept of Behaviorism Human behavior changes at different conditions, as a result, it is unpredictable. Cherry in Susman (2021) opines that behaviorism also known as behavioral psychology is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behavior are acquired though conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environment stimuli shape our actions. This is the view of John B. Watson the “father” of behaviorism and strict behaviorists who state that all behaviours are the result of experiences. Any person regardless of his or her background can be trained to act in a particular manner given the right conditioning.

Strength of Behavioural Theory Behavioural theory focuses on observable, measurable behaviours, so it is sometimes easier to quantify and collect data when conducting research.

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* It is a useful application in therapy, education, parenting, child care. * It is useful in changing maladaptive or handful behaviours in both children adults. (Susman, 2021).

Weaknesses of Behaviourial Theory *Critics of behaviourism argue that the theory is a one dimension approach to understand human behaviour. It does not account to free will and internal influences like thoughts, feelings and desires that influence people’s action. *Behaviourist neglects the cognitive approach to psychology and influences in favour of studying just observable behaviours. * It does not account for other types of learning that occur without the use of reinforcement and punishment. With this theory, it means that the misguided behaviour of Igbo people presently towards Igbo cultural life is as a result of experiences. Since observable behaviour can help in changing misguided behaviour. This behaviour can be modified through reinforcement.

Data Analysis Here, the study will examine the factors that formed its objectives.

Analysis of Findings Findings show that most Igbo communities have jeopardized their cultural heritage because of Western influence via the coming of the missionaries that brought Christianity in Africa. Those cultural practices that helped the ancient people to achieve a stable society have been neglected. For instance, rites of passage like “iru mgbede” which helped the maidens then to guard their purity and virginity is now extinct. This particular rite of passage if still in use would have continued to serve as a moral guide for the modern maidens against living a loose life. This is because any maiden who has lost her virginity must not participate in the ceremony, and no one

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will dare to stand the humiliation. Consequently, immorality rate would be checked. The issue of rape, abortion etc will be reduced to the nearest minimum.

The rate at which some people disregard their culture and embrace other foreign cultures may not augur well for the preservation of Igbo cultural heritage. It was observed that Igbo communities do not perform traditional rites of passage instead they prefer to Westernize those passage rites. Cases of school graduation ceremonies from nursery to university school levels have taken over Igbo traditional rites of passage like “ịwa akwa” and other rites that qualify both male and female youths to adulthood. Some parents spend a huge sum of money to make sure their children and wards participate in the graduation ceremony at every level. These same parents cannot take their children home to participate in any form of traditional rites. Evidence has shown that such children cannot understand anything about their cultural background and heritage. Their thoughts are filled with foreign ideas that have little or nothing to offer for cultural development and preservation of historical identity.

The neglect suffered by African traditions can be checked if the people start to add value to their indigenous ways of life. It was gathered that almost all the contemporary illnesses have orthodox medications. But some Igbo people would rather die than take the traditional medicine. These people argue that those orthodox medicines are not scientifically certified despite that people that use them attest to their efficacy. Research findings have shown that older women in most Igbo community did not give birth to their children in the hospitals. They rather engage the services of “Oji nwa” or “ndị na-ana nwa” as they are popularly known. Even when there are complications like the unborn child being tied by cord, these traditional health workers still dictate the problem, handle it and ensure successful delivery. In those days, Igbo women hardly die during child birth. But it was gathered that

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this is almost in extinction because there is no longer parents to children transmission of these cultural traits and prowess. In as far as formal education is good to build ones traits and be professionals in various fields, modernity should enhance our indigenous traits and not kill it.

Also, Igbo culture is used to identify Igbo people as a unique race. This cultural identity is equally achieved through language. Therefore, Igbo language could be used to promote and preserve Igbo culture and identity. It was gathered that most Igbo people now prefer foreign languages to Igbo language. Both Igbo people residing in foreign land and those in Igbo land now speak foreign language to the detriment of their mother tongue. Their children also cannot understand or speak Igbo language. For such children, Igbo cultural norms and values do not exist. Thereby, neglecting, denying their identity and subjugating their culture. Isidienu and Ibeh (2020:239) affirm that Igbo language is capable of developing the Igbo identity since Igbo people are the speakers of the language. Igbo people can be proud of their identity using their language as an instrument of development.

The Igbo culture of communalism can as well be instilled in its members using culture as a context of philosophy. Culture as the material for philosophizing instills the spirit of patriotism and communalism among its members. This means that when some Igbo people enormously interpret Igbo culture as evil, they can never think as Igbo people and this affects the unity and identity of Igbo nation. Since culture is the growth of a group’s identity fostered by social pattern peculiar to the group, no society can make any head way by denying their cultural identity. Igbo people should uphold their culture as it will help to revive their social and cultural values.

It was observed that the work of Aristotle, Plato and the rest were properly documented and therefore easily accessible but our fore fathers who because of their informal form of

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learning could not document their work. These ancient and unnamed individuals still tried and passed their wits orally from generation to generation. For instance, the myth of “inception of death” was a story of how death came into the world. The originators of the story meticulously narrated how tortoise in his uninterrupted journey was able to get to heaven before dog who ordinarily should have been the first. Thus the report to God that humans have decided that there should be death. Africans are great thinkers whose work and life style should never be taken for granted.

Conclusion No matter what culture a people are part of, one thing is for certain, that is, it will change. Culture appears to have become the key in our interconnected world, which is made up of so many ethnically diverse societies but also riddled by conflict associated with religion, ethnicity, ethical belief and essentially the elements which make up culture. But while change is inevitable, the past should be respected and preserved. Nuun (2012:113) observes that historical events could have persistent impacts if they alter the relative cost and benefits different cultural traits, affecting their prevalence in the society. In the same way, if cultural traits are transmitted vertically from parents to children, then the impacts would persist through time. The United Nations has created a group called the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to identify cultural and natural heritage and to conserve and protect it. Zimmermann (2017) observes that monuments, building and sites are covered by the group’s protection. According to the international treaty, the convention was concerning the protection of the world cultural heritage. This treaty was adopted by UNESCO in 1972.Many African nations are members of this organization and yet it is still very difficult for them to project and preserve their culture.

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