DOCSLIB.ORG

Trinity in the Qur'an: a Historical Account

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research (ASSEHR), volume 137 International Conference on Qur'an and Hadith Studies (ICQHS 2017) TRINITY IN THE QUR’AN: A HISTORICAL ACCOUNT Media Zainul Bahri Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University (UIN) Jakarta [email protected] Abstract This article focuses on historical accounts about the different views between the Qur’an in the period of its formative in the 7th century and the official Christian church since the 3rd century AD. Theologically, what is meant by the Trinity in the Qur’an is a belief in three Gods: God (Allah), Jesus (Isa), and Mary, as the three independent Gods, while the Christian belief confirms that God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit (not Mary) are one God, not three independent gods. The only one is in “three ways of being”. Historically, the explanations of Olaf Schumann, Parrinder, Kurt Aland, Anton Wessels, and Fazlur Rahman, indicate two important things. First, the Christians in Arabia and whom Muhammad met in Mecca and Medina were dominated by the Nestorians who emphasized the humanity of Jesus and the One Almighty God. That is why the Qur’an sharply criticizes the system of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus and Mary. However, both Schumann and Parrinder believe the Qur’an’s criticisms of Christianity are misdirected, in a sense not to the official Christian Trinity doctrine. The starting point was wrong and so at last. Second, since Mecca is a very international, there are probably many Christian people or communities with different streams. But, as Schumann stated, they were merchants, not theologians. Schumann, Parrinder and many Christian and Jewish scholars agreed that the Christian and Jewish communities in the time of the prophet subjected to criticism of the Qur’an are sects deviating from the legitimate doctrine. Moreover, when the prophet lived, there had been no acceptable philosophical explanations of the great thinkers concerning the doctrine of both Jewish and Christian monotheism to those who were thoughtful. In other words, the prophet only heard and received any information about the theology of both Christian and Jewish from ordinary people or priests who were not master at esoteric knowledge. Keywords: Trinity, official Christian church, Nestorian. Introduction One must be careful that the Qur’an verses of the Trinity differ from the official Trinitarian doctrine of the Christian church since the 3rd century AD. What is meant by the Trinity in the Qur’an is a belief in three Gods: God (Allah), Jesus (Isa), and Mary, as the three independent Gods (see sura al-Maidah: 116). It is true when the Qur’an states that “Indeed, the truth deny they who say, “Behold, God is the third of a trinity…” (al-Maidah: 74). The word „third‟ in that verse indicates there is a first and a second God, each of which is independent. However, the problem is that the doctrine of the Trinity confirms that God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit (not Mary) are one God, not three independent gods. The only one is in three ways of being. For Ward, most Western theologians have said that there is only one center of consciousness and will in God, not three. True, there are three „persons‟ in one „substance‟, but the term person should not be understood as an individual rational agent, with its own independent will. For this view, the word „person‟ in its modern English is very misleading, and should be understood as a „way of being‟, not as separate individual agent (Keith Ward, 1995: 81- 82). In other words, the Trinity is not about “the number of Gods”, but “the wisdom of God”. This crucial problem of this “Christian mystical” is always Copyright © 2018, the Authors. Published by Atlantis Press. 51 This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research (ASSEHR), volume 137 misunderstood by non-Christians who embrace “rationalistic theology” such as Islam and Judaism. Therefore, according to the Christian scholars (as well as its theologians), the Qur’an’s criticism is a very simple theological view as understood by Arabs and th Muslims in the 7 century, and is not addressed to the official Christian/Church doctrine as I discuss below. This article uses a historical approach by describing historical records from Christian and Muslim historians. The historical record will be matched by the Qur’an statement, so it will produce valid historical data and close to empirical truth. Historical Accounts This article will reveal the historical matters about the different views between the Qur’an and the official church on the Trinity in the 7th century, the period of the Qur’an formative. According to the history of Christianity, around Hijaz--during the life of Muhammad--there are several deviant Christian sects that believed in God as Father, the Son, and Mary. In this regard, Schumann believes that, historically, in Africa and Arabian peninsula, there were some similar beliefs to worship the Jesus Christ and his mother, Mary, together. For instance, the ancient Egyptians believed in Horus, the holy son of Osiris and Isis who became a worshiped Pharaoh. According to Schumann, such belief has had influenced some Christian Egyptians living in Mecca or Arabia on their remembrance of Jesus and Mary (Olaf Schumann, 1993: 195). Geoffrey Parrinder, a Professor of Comparative Religion at the University of London, said that in the early centuries of AD, some Christian groups in the Peninsula of Arabia called themselves as the Antidicomarianite, a sect that denies the perpetual virginity of Mary. Its followers then committed to cult her by wearing inappropriate dress. There were also the Collyridians, a group of Arabian women in the 4th of the century adored Mary by presenting her with a special kind of bread (collyrida) intended as sacrifice as was for Goddess Earth’s offering. The cult is exactly the same as idol worship practices. A Christian theologian, Epiphanus, calls such practices as a deviation from the original Christian tradition. According to him, the Trinity: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit must be worshiped, but should not be Mary. For Parrinder, the Qur’an’s criticism of the cult of Mary is likely to be addressed to the deviant sect, and the Qur’an actually affirms the urgency of Mary as the woman chosen by God to give birth to Jesus (Parrinder, 1996: 135). It is also important to know that the Christian faith embraced by the King of Negus in Abyssinia, Ethiopia, is a Christian that sanctifies Mary. She was praised as God for being the one who gave birth to the Lord Jesus. Husain Haekal notes at that time in Abyssinia, there was a dispute between the group who cult to Mary and the ones that worship Jesus. There is also a record that Mary is cultured but not worshiped because she is the holy virgin who gave birth to Lord Jesus. The Prophet Muhammad knew well about the King of the Negus and ordered the early Muslims who were pursued and tortured by the Quraysh to emigrate (hijra) to Abyssinia. The Negus King welcomed them warmly and placed them safely (Haekal, 1947: 156-57). Both Schumann and Parrinder agreed, albeit with different historical accounts, that there were sects and forms of Mary worship in the early centuries of AD until to the time of Muhammad. Furthermore, Schumann argues that it is also necessary to look at, historically, the relationship of Muhammad with the Christianity and the Lord Jesus. Yet, it is not easy to find a definitely answer about it. According to Schumann, there were Christian traders in Mecca who were very likely to discuss with Muslims, or tell heroic stories, either in the afternoon or at night, including religious heroes. There are also records about the existence of Christian workers or slaves who worked for the 52 Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research (ASSEHR), volume 137 household of Muhammad and his friends. Other records mention that Muhammad was witnessing the social and religious life of the Christians while he was trading up to Syria (Schumann: 191-92). According to the history of early Christianity, the Christian communities living and thriving in the Middle East, especially in Syria, are Nestorians. The are Nestorius followers who are also the Origenese and Arius successors. The Nestorian is a sect which emphasizes more on the One Almighty God and the human nature of Jesus. Despite they differ and separate from the Roman (Western) Christian theology, this Eastern Christians still believe in the concept of Jesus as the Son of God in the sense of the unity of man-God as a compound (as in a marriage), not as understood by Western Christians (Anton Wessels, 2004 :5). According to Anton Wessels, Christianity was not a stranger to Arab people. Even before the arrival of the Nestorians, in 225 AD, there was a diocese in Berth-Katraye, Qatar. The Christianity has spread to the tribes of Himyar, Ghassan, Taghlib, Tanukh, Tayy, and Quda'a, long before the arrival of Islam. There was an Arabian Christian queen named Maria who once invited the bishop of Moses to live in her country. The Ghassanids under Byzantine kingdom were monophysitists, while the Lakhmida of Hira relating to Persia were Nestorians (Wessels: 33). th In the 5 century, one of the five dioceses in Arabia is the diocese of Hira under the Nestorian Archbishop led by Kashkar. Nestorian diocese was also existed in Bahrayn, Qatar and Oman. There are also churches in San'a, such as a cathedral established by Abrahah al-Asman- Aden and Dhofar.
Recommended publications
  • The Struggle Against Musaylima and the Conquest of Yamama

    The Struggle Against Musaylima and the Conquest of Yamama

    THE STRUGGLE AGAINST MUSAYLIMA AND THE CONQUEST OF YAMAMA M. J. Kister The Hebrew University of Jerusalem The study of the life of Musaylima, the "false prophet," his relations with the Prophet Muhammad and his efforts to gain Muhammad's ap- proval for his prophetic mission are dealt with extensively in the Islamic sources. We find numerous reports about Musaylima in the Qur'anic commentaries, in the literature of hadith, in the books of adab and in the historiography of Islam. In these sources we find not only material about Musaylima's life and activities; we are also able to gain insight into the the Prophet's attitude toward Musaylima and into his tactics in the struggle against him. Furthermore, we can glean from this mate- rial information about Muhammad's efforts to spread Islam in territories adjacent to Medina and to establish Muslim communities in the eastern regions of the Arabian peninsula. It was the Prophet's policy to allow people from the various regions of the peninsula to enter Medina. Thus, the people of Yamama who were exposed to the speeches of Musaylima, could also become acquainted with the teachings of Muhammad and were given the opportunity to study the Qur'an. The missionary efforts of the Prophet and of his com- panions were often crowned with success: many inhabitants of Yamama embraced Islam, returned to their homeland and engaged in spreading Is- lam. Furthermore, the Prophet thoughtfully sent emissaries to the small Muslim communities in Yamama in order to teach the new believers the principles of Islam, to strengthen their ties with Medina and to collect the zakat.
  • Arabic Literature From

    Arabic Literature From

    Chapter 1 ARABICLITERATURE FROM ITS ORIGINS TO 132/750 Mohamed Abdesselem ‘When the Arab makes his first appearance on History’s stage, he comes bearing a precious and formidable glft: hs profound sense of the beauty of the Word,’’ and it is through the Word that he reveals hs creative abilities. It is regrettable that, as a result of long years of selective, oral trans- mission, many of the literary works from this past, and the oldest in parti- cular, have been lost to us, and that those whch have survived are fragmentary and often of doubtful provenance .’We are thus condemned to ignorance about both the beginnings and the early stages of the development of this literature. It is not until the sixth century AD that the texts become sufficiently numerous and their provenance sufficiently clear, so as to constitute valid documentation. Analysis does, however,suggest that they are part of a tradition that had long since established its own formal rules and thematic tendencies. It is one of the paradoxes in the history of Arabic literature to bepwith what can with no hesitation, and full justification, be called ‘classicism’, a classicism that reigned for two and a half centuries. Even the message of Muhammad and the resulting upheaval of ideas and mores could not separate the Arabs from an aesthetic tradition inherited from their distant past. It was not untd 132/750, when the Banu-l-‘Abbassucceeded the BanG Umayya, that Arabic literature began to innovate on a large scale. 1. R. Blachtre, ‘Le classicisme dans la littkrature arabe’, in G.E.von Grunebaum (ed.), .Jj@osium International 8Hstoire ai? la Civilisation MusuLmane, Actes, pp.
  • Mecca and Its Cube

    Mecca and Its Cube

    Mecca And Its Cube November 7, 2019 Category: Religion Download as PDF [Author’s note: Mohammed of Mecca is denoted “MoM”.] As legend has it, at some point in the late 5th century, a Sabaean leader known as Amr ibn Luhay ibn Qamah ibn Khindaf led a band of (Qahtanite) Arabs a thousand kilometers north of his homeland, Himyar (modern-day Yemen) to settle somewhere in the barren deserts of Thamud: the western region of Arabia now known as the Hijaz. His clan, the Banu Khuza’a, may have hailed from any of three major Himyarite cities: Zafar, Najran, or Ma’rib (present-day Sana’a). A bit of historical context helps to paint the picture. In Zafar, there was a (Qahtanite) cubic shrine known as the “kaaba” at Tabalah. There was another kaaba located at Jabal Taslal in Najran. And there were major temples at Barran and Awwam in Ma’rib–all dedicated to the Sabaean moon-god, “Al-Makah”. Sure enough, the Banu Azd of Marib worshipped “Al-Makah”; and made pilgrimages to his temple. Some of the Banu Harith converted to Christianity; and built a church at Najran (known as the “Kaaba of Najran”). Meanwhile, many Himyarites worshipped the godhead, “Rahman” (Semitic for “Merciful”). Some of these locutions should sound oddly familiar. The question arises: From whence did such pre-Islamic memes come? We find a possible answer in Ibn Hisham’s recension of Ibn Ishaq’s “Sirah”. (Ibn Hisham was himself of Himyarite descent.) According to the famed Islamic hagiographer: At some point, Amr ibn Luhay ventured farther north, into Nabataea, and was inspired by the Nabataean traditions…which he brought back with him to his settlement in the Hijaz.
  • Ancient History of Arabian Peninsula and Semitic Arab Tribes

    Ancient History of Arabian Peninsula and Semitic Arab Tribes

    Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal – Vol.7, No.5 Publication Date: May 25, 2020 D OI:10.14738/assrj.75.8252. Shamsuddin, S. M., & Ahmad, S. S. B. (2020). Ancient History of Arabian Peninsula and Semitic Arab Tribes. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(5) 270-282. Ancient History of Arabian Peninsula and Semitic Arab Tribes Salahuddin Mohd. Shamsuddin Faculty of Arabic Language, Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University, Brunei Darussalam Siti Sara Binti Hj. Ahmad Dean: Faculty of Arabic Language, Sultan Sharif Ali Islamic University, Brunei Darussalam ABSTRACT In this article we introduced first the ancient history of Arabian Peninsula, and pre-Islamic era and then we focused a spot light on the people of Arabian Peninsula, highlighting the four waves of migration of Semitic Arabs from the southern to northern Arabian Peninsula, then we mentioned the situation of Northern Arabs and their tribal fanaticism, then we differentiated between Qahtaniyya and Adnaniyya Arab tribes including their three Classes: Destroyed Arab, Original Arab and Arabized Arab. We also explained the tribal system in the pre-Islamic era, indicating the status of four pillars of the tribal system: 1. Integration and alliance among the tribes 2. Tribal Senate or Parliament 3. Tribes and sovereignty over the tribes 4. Members of the tribes and their duties towards their tribal society In the end we described the master of Arab tribe who was the brightest person had a long experience and often had inherited his sovereignty from his fathers to achieve a high status, but it does not mean that he had a broad sovereignty, as his sovereignty was symbolic.
  • Iraq Tribal Study – Al-Anbar Governorate: the Albu Fahd Tribe

    Iraq Tribal Study – Al-Anbar Governorate: the Albu Fahd Tribe

    Iraq Tribal Study AL-ANBAR GOVERNORATE ALBU FAHD TRIBE ALBU MAHAL TRIBE ALBU ISSA TRIBE GLOBAL GLOBAL RESOURCES RISK GROUP This Page Intentionally Left Blank Iraq Tribal Study Iraq Tribal Study – Al-Anbar Governorate: The Albu Fahd Tribe, The Albu Mahal Tribe and the Albu Issa Tribe Study Director and Primary Researcher: Lin Todd Contributing Researchers: W. Patrick Lang, Jr., Colonel, US Army (Retired) R. Alan King Andrea V. Jackson Montgomery McFate, PhD Ahmed S. Hashim, PhD Jeremy S. Harrington Research and Writing Completed: June 18, 2006 Study Conducted Under Contract with the Department of Defense. i Iraq Tribal Study This Page Intentionally Left Blank ii Iraq Tribal Study Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY CHAPTER ONE. Introduction 1-1 CHAPTER TWO. Common Historical Characteristics and Aspects of the Tribes of Iraq and al-Anbar Governorate 2-1 • Key Characteristics of Sunni Arab Identity 2-3 • Arab Ethnicity 2-3 – The Impact of the Arabic Language 2-4 – Arabism 2-5 – Authority in Contemporary Iraq 2-8 • Islam 2-9 – Islam and the State 2-9 – Role of Islam in Politics 2-10 – Islam and Legitimacy 2-11 – Sunni Islam 2-12 – Sunni Islam Madhabs (Schools of Law) 2-13 – Hanafi School 2-13 – Maliki School 2-14 – Shafii School 2-15 – Hanbali School 2-15 – Sunni Islam in Iraq 2-16 – Extremist Forms of Sunni Islam 2-17 – Wahhabism 2-17 – Salafism 2-19 – Takfirism 2-22 – Sunni and Shia Differences 2-23 – Islam and Arabism 2-24 – Role of Islam in Government and Politics in Iraq 2-25 – Women in Islam 2-26 – Piety 2-29 – Fatalism 2-31 – Social Justice 2-31 – Quranic Treatment of Warfare vs.
  • The Image of Woman in Pre-Islamic Qasida: the Muï¿ ½Allaqat Poetry As

    The Image of Woman in Pre-Islamic Qasida: the Muï¿ ½Allaqat Poetry As

    1 The American University in Cairo School of Humanities and Social Science The Image of Woman in Pre-Islamic Qasida: The Mu’allaqat Poetry as a Case Study. A Thesis Submitted to The Department of Arab and Islamic Civilization (ARIC) In partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts in Arabic Studies (Arabic Language and Literature) Presented By Kamaldeen Yakubu Zahrrah Under the supervision of Prof. El-Sayyed Fadl Faragallah May/ 2012 2 Dedication For my daughter Maryam Kamaldeen Yakubu (Nnna) and my friend Beylal Racheha. 3 Table of Contents Acknowledgement 4 Abstract 5 Introduction 6 Background 6 Research Question/The Problem formulation 8 Method for Data Collection 8 Analysis of Data/Theoretical Framework 11 Literature Review 12 Limitation of the Thesis 19 Chapter One: Development of Arabic Poetry and Literary Implications of Image 20 Overview of the Pre-Islamic Poetry 20 Al-Qasida: The Standard Arabic Ode 25 The Mu’allaqat: An Overview 28 Dynamics of the Concept of Image 34 Chapter Two: Depiction of Woman in the Prelude of Qasida 39 The Image of Woman in the nasib of the Mu’allaqat 39 Symbolic Implications of Mentioning Woman in the Nasib 72 Chapter Three: The Other Type of Woman in the Qasida 78 The Image of Woman in the Body of the Mu’allaqat 79 Conclusion and Findings 86 Bibliography 90 Arabic Sources 91 4 Acknowledgements Many Individuals have enormously contributed to the completion of this paper and I wish to express my greatest appreciation to them all. First, I acknowledge with profound gratitude, the person of Professor El-Sayyed Fadl, my advisor for his constructive guidelines and supervision, and for the fatherly attention and time he gave me during my study at AUC.
  • Under Exclusive License to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K

    Under Exclusive License to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K

    INDEX1 A Administrator (of mosque, shrine, Aba Tayy Hamid ibn Faris tomb, waqf), 128, 137, 143, 146, al-Halabi, 211 194, 195, 200, 208, 216, 230, al-ʽAbbas al-Mustaʽjil, 241, 300, 316 Shaykh, 271n172 Ahl al-bayt (Prophet Muhammadʼs al-ʽAbbas ibn al-Fadl family), 24, 58n78, 155, 156, al-Ansari, 271n172 193, 301, 302, 313 al-ʽAbbas ibn Mirdas al-Sulami, 240 Ahmad, Shaykh, 246 ʽAbbasids, ʽAbbasid, 112, 177, Ahmad Basha ibn Sulayman Pasha 268n133, 293, 294, 296, al-Jalili, 230 305, 313 Ahmad ibn al-Hajji Ibrahim, 232 ʽAbd Allah Chalabi, al-Hajj (known as Ahmad ibn Salih, 216 Hamu al-Qadu), 228 Aleppo, 69, 79, 310 ʽAbdi Efendi, 242 ʽAli al-Nawma, al-Hajj, 230 Abdulhamid II, Sultan, 116 ʽAli ibn Abi Talib, 23, 33, 42, 58n78, Abdulmajid I, Sultan, 115 147, 207, 211, 240, 246, Abrandabad, mosque of, 177 265n109, 315 Abu al-Fidaʼ, 70, 321n23, 322n32 ʽAli Pasha, 115 Abu Bakr al-Khalidi, 191 ʽAlids, ʽAlid, 24–26, 182, 186, 194, Abu Saʽid Bahadur Khan, 145, 303, 200, 213, 238, 240, 244, 246, 314, 323n46 313, 318 1 Note: Page numbers followed by ‘n’ refer to notes. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 339 Switzerland AG 2021 K. Nováček et al., Mosul after Islamic State, Palgrave Studies in Cultural Heritage and Confict, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-62636-5 340 INDEX ALOS Palsar, 88, 93 Bab Jabir, 289 al-Qaʽida, 2–5, 51n6, 62n116 Bab al-Jassasa, 321n22 Amasiya, Bayezid Pasha Mosque, 164 Bab Kinda, 302 ʽAmir al-Khathʽami, Shaykh, 244 Bab Likish, 302 Anatolia, Anatolian, 112, 125, 223, Bab al-Qassabin, 321n22 308, 332, 333
  • Umidissertation Information Service

    Umidissertation Information Service

    INFORMATION TO USERS This reproduction was made from a copy of a manuscript sent to us for publication and microfilming. While the most advanced technology has been used to pho­ tograph and reproduce this manuscript, the quality of the reproduction Is heavily dependent upon the quality of the material submitted. Pages in any manuscript may have indistinct print. In all cases the best available copy has been filmed. The following explanation of techniques is provided to help clarify notations which may appear on this reproduction. 1. Manuscripts may not always be complete. When It Is not possible to obtain missing pages, a note appears to Indicate this. 2. When copyrighted materials are removed from the manuscript, a note ap­ pears to Indicate this. 3. Oversize materials (maps, drawings, and charts) are photographed by sec­ tio n in g the orig in al, beginning a t the upper le ft hand com er and co n tin u ­ ing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each oversize page Is also filmed as one exposure and Is available, for an additional charge, as a standard 35mm slide or In black and white paper format. * 4. Most photographs reproduce acceptably on positive microfilm or micro­ fiche but lack clarity on xerographic copies made from the microfilm. For an additional charge, all photographs are available In black and white standard 35mm slide format.* *For more information about black and white slides or enlarged paper reproductions, please contact the Dissertations Customer Services Department. Dissertation UMI Information Service University Microfilms Iniernational A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 N.
  • Investigating the Reasons for Imposing the First Sanction in History and the Factors Contributing to Its Failure

    Investigating the Reasons for Imposing the First Sanction in History and the Factors Contributing to Its Failure

    IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) Volume 22, Issue 6, Ver. 4 (June. 2017) PP 49-57 e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845. www.iosrjournals.org Investigating the Reasons for Imposing the First Sanction in History and the Factors contributing to its Failure Bahman Zeinali1, Neda Khodadadi2 1(Assistant professor of History department, University of Isfahan, Iran) 2(Master of science student of History department, University of Isfahan, Iran) Abstract: The Meccan boycott of the Muslims and the Hashemites was the first multilateral and targeted policy of sanctions in history that was put to action in 617AD by the idolaters. Muhammad's declaration of prophecy in 610 AD was the greatest monotheistic (Tawhid), intellectual revolution, which went public in 613 AD after three years of secret invitation to Islam. When the invitation and the intentions of Islam were revealed, Islam and Muslims were met with a wave of backlash. One of these backlashes was that of their boycotting of the BanūHāshimites and Muslims in Mecca, which was aimed to separate the Muslims from the prophet, and to discourage the BanūHāshim from protecting Muhammad. This policy could not achieve its purpose and failed in 620 AD due to the insight and management of Prophet Muhammad and the diligent collaboration of the Muslims and the Hashemites despite severe conditions. Using the original sources and a descriptive-analytical method, this study attempts to answer these questions: What was the main reason behind the imposition of the boycott by the idolaters? And what policies were adopted by Prophet Muhammad against the said boycott? The results suggest that the root cause of opposition against the new religion and the policy of sanctions was the threat posed by Islam against the economic and social interests of the idolaters.
  • Quamishli Clashes Bring Arab-Kurd Tensions to the Surface

    Quamishli Clashes Bring Arab-Kurd Tensions to the Surface

    Inside >> No. 17 Muhammad Issam Syrian State Media More Than 400,000 Two Aid Workers Hazima Appointed Promote Denmark’s COVID-19 Vaccine Killed in SDF-held Central Bank Declaration That Doses Reach Syria Deir-ez-Zor Governor Damascus is ‘Safe’ Following the UAE’s lead, Local conditions make Hazima replaces The incident reveals the China steps up COVID Basira especially ousted CBS governor risks of giving fodder to support to Damascus challenging for aid Hazem Qarfoul the Syrian regime Pg 6 implementation Pg 5 Pg 5 Pg 6 26 April 2021 | Vol. 4 | 26 April 2021 | Vol. New Armed Group in Syrians in Sweden IS Attacks Continue As-Sweida as Local File Chemical in Eastern Syria Tensions Flare Weapons Suit IS increases attacks Social tensions in Against Syrian in the northeast As-Sweida Governorate Officials Pg 8 Pg 7 Chemical attack victims seek redress under date universal jurisdiction Pg 7 Quamishli Clashes Bring Arab-Kurd Tensions to the Surface > Page 2 Syria Up An Asayish humvee sits in Tayy neighbourhood after the group seized control over the area from Government-aligned NDF fighters. Weekly Political, Economic, and Security Outlook Political, Weekly Image courtesy of Euphrates Post. 02 Syria Update | In-Depth Analysis n one of the most intense eruptions of violence in The gravity pulling large Arab tribes in northeast Syria in northeast Syria toward overt political causes recent memory, >Autonomous Administration and factionalised armed groups may be security forcesI have seized control over Tayy neighbourhood, the main a cause of additional tension, and it may Quamishli stronghold of the Syiran Government-aligned National fan the flames of local struggles for power Defense Forces (NDF).
  • Alliances Among the Arabs*

    Alliances Among the Arabs*

    ALLIANCES AMONG THE ARABS* ELLA LANDAU-TASSERON The Hebrew University of Jerusalem The institution of alliance, called hilf in Arabic, played an impor­ tant role in pre-Islamic Arabian society, and continued to exist with certain modifications in Islamic times. Elsewhere I studied the ideo­ logical and legal problems precipitated by alliances in Islam. ^ Here I offer an investigation of other aspects of the institution as it existed both in pre-Islamic and Islamic times. I shall first briefly outline the structure of Arabian tribal society as a whole, and explain the princi­ ple of shared responsibility among agnates. This will be followed by a discussion of the different types of hilf. Arabian tribal society Arabian society of pre-Islamic and early Islamic times may be schematically described as consisting of hierarchies of agnatic de­ scent groups that came into being by a process of segmentation. Put differently, any given group considered itself as the descendants in male line of a single male ancestor, thus differentiating itself from other descent groups. At the same time, it considered itself as part of ever larger descent groups, because its members were also the off­ spring of the ancestors fiirther and fiirther removed up in the same male line. Any given descent group referred itself sometimes to a closer, at other times to a more distant ancestor. When it referred it­ self to a distant ancestor, a descent group ignored the dividing lines between itself and those descent groups which, like itself, descended * I wish to thank Frank Stewart for his invaluable comments and suggestions.
  • LCSH Section T

    LCSH Section T

    T (Computer program language) T cell growth factor T-Mobile G1 (Smartphone) [QA76.73.T] USE Interleukin-2 USE G1 (Smartphone) BT Programming languages (Electronic T-cell leukemia, Adult T-Mobile Park (Seattle, Wash.) computers) USE Adult T-cell leukemia UF Safe, The (Seattle, Wash.) T (The letter) T-cell leukemia virus I, Human Safeco Field (Seattle, Wash.) [Former BT Alphabet USE HTLV-I (Virus) heading] T-1 (Reading locomotive) (Not Subd Geog) T-cell leukemia virus II, Human Safeco Park (Seattle, Wash.) BT Locomotives USE HTLV-II (Virus) The Safe (Seattle, Wash.) T.1 (Torpedo bomber) T-cell leukemia viruses, Human BT Stadiums—Washington (State) USE Sopwith T.1 (Torpedo bomber) USE HTLV (Viruses) t-norms T-6 (Training plane) (Not Subd Geog) T-cell receptor genes USE Triangular norms UF AT-6 (Training plane) BT Genes T One Hundred truck Harvard (Training plane) T cell receptors USE Toyota T100 truck T-6 (Training planes) [Former heading] USE T cells—Receptors T. rex Texan (Training plane) T-cell-replacing factor USE Tyrannosaurus rex BT North American airplanes (Military aircraft) USE Interleukin-5 T-RFLP analysis Training planes T cells USE Terminal restriction fragment length T-6 (Training planes) [QR185.8.T2] polymorphism analysis USE T-6 (Training plane) UF T lymphocytes T. S. Hubbert (Fictitious character) T-18 (Tank) Thymus-dependent cells USE Hubbert, T. S. (Fictitious character) USE MS-1 (Tank) Thymus-dependent lymphocytes T. S. W. Sheridan (Fictitious character) T-18 light tank Thymus-derived cells USE Sheridan, T. S. W. (Fictitious