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Ben-Gurion University of the Negev the Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research the Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies

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Ben-Gurion University of the Negev the Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research the Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies Ben-Gurion University of the Negev The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research The Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies Necessities, Obstacles, and Parameters of Decentralized Greywater Treatment in Informal Bedouin Villages Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of or “Master of Science” By: Amalia JM Inkeles Date: October, 2018 Ben-Gurion University of the Negev The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research The Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies I Necessities, Obstacles, and Parameters of Decentralized Greywater Treatment in Informal Bedouin Villages Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts By Amalia JM Inkeles Under the Supervision of Dr. Yodan Rofe and Dr. Clive Lipchin Department of Environmental Studies Author's Signature …………….……………………… Date 18/10/18 Approved by the Supervisor…………….…………….. Date 23/10/18 Approved by the Supervisor…………….…………….. Date 14/10/18 Approved by the Director of the School …………… Date ………….…28/10/2018 II Abstract Inadequate wastewater sanitation is an ongoing problem in informal Bedouin settlements of the Negev, and one which land disputes between the Bedouin community and the Israeli continues to perpetuate. In the meanwhile, unchecked open disposal, unlined cesspit use, and raw greywater irrigation leave the village and the greater Negev at risk for a number of environmental and health hazards, including antimicrobial resistant bacteria. In unrecognized villages, provisions by the State are unlikely for centralized sewerage and treatment, while the expectations for such recognized but still informal villages are seen as decades away. Decentralized wastewater management can provide a low cost, flexible, and quick solution to is problem. Coupling this with greywater reuse could also supplement the water supply for communities often deprived of clean water. However, the topic of wastewater disposal in Bedouin settlements has seen little research or discussion, which may shed light on the necessity or utility of decentralized treatment and greywater reuse. This research thus sought to assess the feasibility of both decentralized treatment and greywater reuse in the informal village of Um Bat’in. This feasibility analysis integrated data from various disciplines. Geographic information analyses were conducted to find the settlement’s residential area, and by extension its population density and water consumption density. Waster consumption was extrapolated from meter readings. Additionally, blackwater and greywater samples were collected over the course of four weeks and tested for their solids, organic matter, and pathogen concentrations. Disposal site observations were made to better understand disposal behavior and pathways to exposure. Not only were both greywater and blackwater, as expected, found to be contaminated to the point of necessitating water treatment, but antimicrobial resistant bacteria was detected in both types of wastewater, indicating a critical need for treatment. The present water consumption volume makes centralized collection uneconomic. Regarding decentralization, consumption density makes onsite treatment environmentally unsound in dense locations along the Hebron steam, though possible in less dense areas in the south of the village. I In terms of energy, cost, maintenance, and land requirement, constructed wetlands are considered an appropriate technology. However, this research does not take it as this new wastewater paradigm as incontrovertibly acceptable. Though wastewater is treated as a waste product, there is little concern over greywater other than the damage detergents pose to soil. Wastewater is seen as a low priority, not dealt with in an ideal manner, but does not warrant further investment. Though this research recommends emphasizing the water saving elements of decentralized treatment and greywater reuse, net savings would need to be more explicitly quantified, new plumbing and constructed wetlands must be financed, and the installation of constructed wetlands must be accompanied with education that reaches all parts of the community. II Acknowledgements To properly thank every person who made this thesis possible would take more pages than the thesis itself. So, for the sake of brevity, I would like to thank those who whom without, this thesis would have never materialized. Firstly, I would like to thank my advisors Yodan Rofe and Clive Lipchin for having the faith in me to guide me along on my research. Thank you to Professor Pnina Motzafi-Haller, Dr. Sarab Abu Rabia Queder, Dr. Yaakov Garb, and Professor Amit Gross who provided me the tools to conduct my research to the best of my ability. Regards must go out to the Abu Kaf, Abu Assa, and Abu Queder families for your time and insights. Thank you as well to Zubaida Ezery, Seema Porob, Roi Ram,ini Eli Sperling, and Nick Duppen, all of who got me through tight spots. I also cannot forget Ethan Levy, for without him I may have never applied. Each and every one of my friends deserves a shout out for getting me through the past two years with my sanity (mostly) intact. There is no measuring how much each and every one of you contributed to my life. And though I appreciate you all, I must give my thanks to Yuri Keum, Elizabeth Warburton, Lisa Talya Strover, Luther van der Mescht, Tural Hamidli, Ben Leyland, Ben Swartout, Katya Novichkova, Mark Khenkin, Yaara Zohar, Capucine Baubin, Ido Frenkel, Claudia Allegrini, Giorgos Arnaoutakis, Alex Masis, Yuting Fu, Mika Gvirtzman, Eilana and Boomie Ben Sheleg, Hashem Sayed, Annette Penny, Tebo Kgosiemang, Or Eliezer, and Reut Vardi. The fact that I stand here today is through the support of all out you and more. And of course, there is no thanking the world without giving special mention to my family. Thank you mom, thank you dad, thank you Daniel, thank you Zach, thank you Jesse, and thank you Robyn. For it is for the ones I love that compel me to strive the most. III Table of Contents Chapter Page Abstract I Acknowledgements III Table of Contents IV List of Figures and Tables____________________________________ _VII Terms, Initialisms, and Organizations IX Chapter I: Introduction and Literature Review 1 Section 1: Introduction Section 2: Water Supply and Disposal in Negev Bedouin Villages 3 -Limitations to Water Supply 3 -Informal Wastewater Disposal 4 -Potential Health and Environmental Impact______________________________5 Section 3: History of the Negev Bedouin and Dynamics with Authorities 9 -The Negev Pre-1948 9 -Post 1948: Sequestration and Urbanization 10 Section 4: Informal Bedouin Village 12 -The Lay of the Land 12 -Grey Space in Informal Villages 14 Section 5: Discourse Surrounding Villages and Urbanization 16 -Rationale for Nonrecognition 16 -Counter Narratives 17 Section 6: Centralized and Decentralized Wastewater Management 19 -Centralization and Its Limitations 19 -Decentralization as an Alternative 21 -Considerations of Decentralization 22 Section 7: Treatment Technologies 24 -Overview of Technologies 24 -Constructed Wetlands 26 Section 8: Introducing Decentralized Waste Management 28 Section 9: Research Objectives 29 -Research Questions 29 -General Research Objective 30 -Specific Research Objectives 31 Chapter II: Methodology 32 -Overview 32 Section 1: Study Site – Um Bat’in 33 -Rationale 35 IV Section 2: Geographic Analysis 36 -Overview 36 -Population and Density 37 -Topographic Analysis 38 Section 3: Water Analysis 39 -Water Sampling 39 -Statistical Analysis 40 -Qualitative Analysis 41 -Water Volume 42 Section 4: Interviews 42 Synthesis 43 Chapter III: Results 44 Overview 44 Section 1: Geographic Analysis 45 -Population and Density 45 -Topography and Water Catchment 46 Section 2: Site Observations 48 -Site 1 48 -Site 2 50 -Site 3 51 Section 3: Water Quantity 52 Section 4: Water Quality Analysis 53 -Water Quality: Chemical Parameters 53 -Water Quality: Microbiology 62 -Summary 63 Section 5: Observations and Interviews 64 -Um Bat’in in the Context of Informal Villages 64 -Water as both Abundant and Limited 65 -Effluent as a Low Priority 67 -Sources of Concern 69 -Visions of Future Villages 70 Chapter Summary 72 Chapter IV: Discussion 74 -Overview 74 Section 1: Water Pollution and Wastewater Risk 74 -Contamination of Water 74 -Pathways of Contamination 77 -Pathways of Infection 78 -Sense of Risk 80 Section 2: Appropriate Technology and Management Scheme 82 -Feasibility of Conventional Sewerage 82 -Scale of Technology: The Case of Constructed Wetlands 83 -Onsite or Offsite Treatment 85 -Concerning Sewerage 87 -Communal Engagement 89 -Cost of Treatment 92 -The Future and Beyond Um Bat’in 93 Summary 95 V Chapter V: Conclusion 96 Section 1: The Necessity for Water Treatment 96 Section 2: Obstacles for Wastewater Treatment 97 Section 3: Parameters of Wastewater Treatment 99 Section 4: Concluding Remarks 100 Limitations 103 Bibliography 104 Talks and Interviews 109 VI List of Figures and Tables Figures Page Figure 1: Map of the Northern Negev 13 Figure 2: Location of Um Bat’in 33 Figure 3: Aerial Photo of Um Bat’in 33 Figure 4: Central Um Bat’in 38 Figure 5: Site 1 & Site 2 39 Figure 6: Site 3 39 Figure 7: Residential Area Map of Um Bat’in 46 Figure 8: Map of Um Bat’in Slope and Streams 47 Figure 9: Elevation Map of Um Bat’in and Direction of Water Flow 48 Figure 10: Site 1 49 a: Repaired Greywater Pipe b: Greywater Drainage Figure 11: Site 2 50 a: Sheet Metal Covered Cesspit b: Blackwater Trench c: Olive Tree Irrigated by
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