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0 George W. Goethals: Life and Reform in the U.S. Army, 1876 GEORGE W. GOETHALS: LIFE AND REFORM IN THE U.S. ARMY, 1876-1919 Rory M. McGovern A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History in the Graduate School. Chapel Hill 2017 Approved by: Joseph T. Glatthaar John C. Chasteen Wayne E. Lee Michael C. Morgan Benjamin Waterhouse 0 © 2017 Rory M. McGovern ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Rory M. McGovern: George W. Goethals: Life and Change in the U.S. Army, 1876-1919 (Under the direction of Joseph T. Glatthaar) In the culminating achievements of a lengthy career in the U.S. Army, George W. Goethals led the construction of the Panama Canal and managed the effort to sustain an army of approximately four million soldiers during the final year of the First World War. At the outset of that career, neither he nor the U.S. Army was prepared to meet such challenges. Using biography as a vehicle to examine a larger problem, this dissertation follows Goethals’s career in order to understand the nature of change in the U.S. Army during the late-nineteenth and early- twentieth centuries as it transitioned from a frontier constabulary and coastal defense force to a modern army capable of projecting power abroad and meeting the challenges of twentieth- century warfare. Goethals’s story reveals that the legacy of the Civil War and the army’s failure to keep pace with changing social norms and practices in training, education, and perceptions of professionalism created a traditionalist culture that did not embrace the new structures imposed by the Root Reforms at the turn of the century, but sought to apply them to comfortably traditional norms, values, and practices. At the same time, the army’s embrace of the managerial revolution and its experience of the First World War provided the impetus and momentum for cultural change. Reform was actually a decades-long process that was not complete until the army’s culture shifted to realign with its new structures. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .……………………………...…………………………………… v INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………………………. 1 CHAPTER 1: “NO FURTHER NEED FOR PROFESSORS, INSTRUCTORS, AND TEXT BOOKS”: STAGNATION IN MILITARY EDUCATION………….…………... 34 CHAPTER 2: THE SCHOOL OF EXPERIENCE: THE FRONTIER AND ITS IMPACT ON THE U.S. ARMY …………………………………………………………... 68 CHAPTER 3: REFORM AND RESISTANCE: THE DIVORCE OF INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES AND INSTITUTIONAL CULTURE IN THE U.S. ARMY………………………………………………………………………..… 113 CHAPTER 4: MAKING THE DIRT FLY: THE PANAMA CANAL, THE MANAGERIAL REVOLUTION, AND THE U.S. ARMY ………………….……………….157 CHAPTER 5: CRISIS: 1917 AND THE ORIGINS OF CULTURAL CHANGE …………... 215 CHAPTER 6: RESOLUTION: SHIFTING THE PARADIGM IN 1918 …………………… 259 CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………………………….. 311 BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………………………….. 319 iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ADAH Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery, Alabama CCNY City College of New York Archives and Special Collections, New York, New York LC Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. NARA I National Archives and Records Administration I, Washington, D.C. NARA II National Archives and Records Administration II, College Park, Maryland RG Record Group USACE Office of History, United States Army Corps of Engineers, Alexandria, Virginia USAWW U.S. Army Center for Military History. The United States Army in the World War, 1917-1919, 17 vols. Washington, DC: Center for Military History, 1988. USMA United States Military Academy Special Collections and Archives, West Point, New York VMI Virginia Military Institute Archives, Lexington, Virginia v INTRODUCTION June 12, 1912 brought pleasant weather to the Lower Hudson Valley, allowing West Point’s graduation ceremony to be held outdoors. Overlooking the Hudson River at the north end of a grassy plain that served as the cadets’ drill ground, the official party—consisting of the superintendent, the graduation speaker, and a handful of alumni and aged veterans of the Civil War—gathered around the main stage. At ten o’clock sharp, the band struck up a martial tune and the corps of cadets marched with crisp precision from their barracks toward the official party. Ninety-six graduating members of the class of 1912 took their seats in front of the stage while cadets from the classes of 1913-1915 stood in formation, ready to cheer as their friends made the transition from cadet to lieutenant.1 After a laudatory introduction from the superintendent, Colonel George W. Goethals took the stage. He was nervous. He had harbored a hatred of public speaking since his teenage years and was acutely aware that this was only the second time that West Point had invited an officer who had not yet held a general’s rank to be the graduation speaker. Looking out at a multi- generational audience that included officers who long before had helped defeat the Confederacy and cadets who would soon help lead the rapidly modernizing U.S. Army, he may have felt reassured about his decision to focus his remarks on how to succeed as a military officer during times of change and uncertainty. “The duties and problems which confront the army officer in 1 “West Point Cadets Cheer War Veterans,” New York Times, June 13, 1912, 22. 1 recent years are more numerous, more varied, and complex than in former days,” he began. They key to success, Goethals explained, was to have the strength of character to be fully dedicated to any assigned mission, to recognize that they had much yet to learn, and to accept practical experience as the best possible tutor. After all, he reminded the assembled cadets, the program of instruction and training at West Point had provided them not with the full extent of all knowledge and abilities required to succeed, but with “the foundations of a structure yet to be raised.”2 Goethals derived these themes from his own career. As a quiet and unaccomplished teenager, he had reported for duty at West Point as a new cadet in 1876. At that time, the army was organized for and accustomed to its traditional role of guarding the coast and policing the frontier. Moreover, the army Goethals entered lacked formalized and robust systems of training and education to prepare its rising leaders for high command and modern warfare. Neither young Cadet Goethals nor the army he entered was prepared or equipped for the challenges that lay ahead.3 When invited to speak at West Point in 1912, however, Goethals was two years away from opening the Panama Canal to commercial traffic and six years away from successfully leading the War Department’s efforts to build and sustain an army of nearly four million soldiers during First World War. Retiring in 1919 at the end of an accomplished career, Goethals was a changed officer departing a changed institution. This dissertation examines how 2 U.S. Congress, House of Representatives, Address of Col. George W. Goethals, United States Army, at the Graduation Exercises of the Class of Nineteen Twelve, United States Military Academy, West Point, N.Y., Wednesday, June 12, 1912, 62nd Cong., 2nd sess., 1912, H.Doc 904 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1912), 5-8. The quotations are on pages 5 and 6, respectively, and Goethals references being the only the second graduation speaker to not be a general on page 5. For Goethals’s aversion to public speaking, see George W. Goethals to Lewis Sayre Buchard, June 11, 1927, Folder 6, George W. Goethals File, City College of New York Archives and Special Collections, New York, NY. 3 The organization, function, and culture of the U.S. Army that Goethals entered in 1876 is thoroughly examined in Edward M. Coffman, The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784-1898 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986). 2 the institution evolved in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries by tracing and analyzing Goethals’s life within it during that same period. Many scholars have considered this question before, but few have approached this institutional problem from an individual perspective. Goethals spent the majority of his life serving in the army, wearing the uniform from the conclusion of Reconstruction to the conclusion of the First World War. Over the course of that career, he experienced the entire trajectory of reform within the U.S. Army during the Gilded Age and Progressive Era. A detailed examination of that experience offers the chance to reexamine from a new and unique angle the well-traversed ground of the army’s transformation from a force dedicated to defending the coast and policing the frontier to a modern army with a global reach, organized and equipped for twentieth-century warfare. Such an examination also promises to enhance our understanding of the dynamics of change and adaptation in national institutions more broadly. By examining Goethals’s career, it becomes clear that the army’s culture was at odds with the spirit of military reform in the late-nineteenth century and the program of reform crafted by Secretary of War Elihu Root and supported by a cadre of likeminded officers in the wake of the War with Spain in 1898. The Root Reforms were structural in nature and were intended to mold an army capable of meeting the demands of the twentieth century by creating formal systems of military education, rationalizing the command structure, and establishing a general staff corps responsible for both developing war and mobilization plans well in advance of any crisis and coordinating the execution of those plans as crises arose.4 Successful officers of 4 For overviews of Root’s reforms, see Otto Nelson, Jr., National Security and the General Staff (Washington, DC: Infantry Journal Press, 1946), 39-72 and James E.
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