J. Mt. Sci. (2017) 14(2): 390-402 e-mail: [email protected] http://jms.imde.ac.cn DOI: 10.1007/s11629-016-3892-8

Collecting Ophiocordyceps sinensis: an emerging livelihood strategy in the Garhwal, Indian Himalaya

Laura CAPLINS 1* http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1481-5190; e-mail: [email protected]

Sarah J. HALVORSON 2 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7431-9730; e-mail: [email protected]

* Corresponding author

1 Department of Society and Conservation, College of Forestry and Conservation, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, 59812, USA 2 Department of Geography, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Montana, Missoula, Montana, 59812, USA

Citation: Caplins L, Halvorson SJ (2017) Collecting Ophiocordyceps sinensis: an emerging livelihood strategy in the Garhwal, Indian Himalaya. Journal of Mountain Science 14(2). DOI: 10.1007/s11629-016-3892-8

© Science Press and Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, CAS and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2017

Abstract: In the Garhwal of , India, the Garhwal. Our study investigates the socio-spatial Bhotiya, an ethnically and culturally distinct tribal dimensions of Cordyceps collection in the high alpine group, were historically engaged in seasonal meadows. We document how a fusion of local migration (i.e. transhumance) to take advantage of knowledge and practice with alpine mountain systems scarce mountain resources and trade relations with has served to reinvigorate the economic integrity of Tibet. This livelihood practice has all but disappeared. mountain communities at a time of rapid socio- Households are adapting to these changing economic change and to reimagine a new relationship circumstances by engaging in the collection and sale between alpine resources and community well-being. of the valuable alpine medicinal fungus The article offers suggestions to address the Ophiocordyceps sinensis, widely known as sustainability of both Cordyceps collection and Cordyceps. The collection of this fungus has livelihood activities which hinge on this fungus exploded, emerging as a lucrative yet high-risk population. We find a need for (1) community-based livelihood strategy for many Bhotiya communities. conservation measures that are rooted in (2) secure The Bhotiyas’ historic herding and trade-based resource access rights for local communities to interactions and knowledge of these alpine continue sustainable collection and sale of Cordyceps environments where Cordyceps are found uniquely and (3) participatory-and science-based processes for positions them to access this valuable biological determining appropriate local collection numbers. resource. Elsewhere in the Himalayan region, some households are earning as much as two-thirds of their Keywords: Cordyceps (Ophiocordyceps sinensis); income from the collection of Cordyceps; in China Garhwal; Himalaya; Livelihood; Alpine meadows; Cordyceps is now listed as an endangered species due Bhotiya; Sustainability to intense over-exploitation in the Tibetan Plateau. This paper seeks to fill the void in the scientific literature on the social, ecological and economic Introduction aspects of the emerging Cordyceps trade in the

Received: 18 February 2016 In the Himalaya, mountain livelihood systems Revised: 7 May 2016 often rely on natural resources located in high Accepted: 8 July 2016

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elevation alpine meadows (Bergmann et al. 2008; “webs of explanation” that help to explain why this Olsen and Larsen 2003). Across this region an biological resource is being collected in the way increasing number of people are spending summer that it is. This article seeks to unravel these months in alpine meadows above treeline to collect explanations through an investigation of the a rare and valuable alpine medicinal fungus (AMF) localized experience of extraction and exploitation called Ophiocordyceps sinensis and widely known of Cordyceps in the high alpine meadows of the as simply Cordyceps among the research of the Garhwal. In order to community. We will be using the term Cordyceps contextualize the collection of cordyceps, the throughout the paper to reflect this common intention here is to situate cordyceps-related vernacular. Cordyceps is spatially distributed activities within a broader historical and economic across the Himalayan mountains of India, Nepal, framework of livelihood change and Bhutan, and China (Sharma 2004; Cannon transformation (Gururani 2014). Today, nearly et al. 2009; Thapa et al. 2014). In the Chamoli entire village populations partially relocate to their District of the Garhwal region of North India the high alpine meadows to spend days, weeks and collection of this fungus has exploded, emerging as sometimes months searching for Cordyceps a lucrative yet high-risk livelihood strategy for (Figure 1). While the sale of Cordyceps has resulted many mountain communities. While Cordyceps in unforeseen cash revenues and the ability to has only been ‘discovered’ in the past ten years in attain new levels of investment in home this part of the Garhwal, long-standing traditions improvement, infrastructure, and community of Cordyceps collection have been documented spaces (Figure 2), there has been little scientific elsewhere such as in the Tibet Autonomous Region investigation of the experience, process, or impacts (TAR) in China (Winkler 2010). Recent increases associated with the collection of Cordyceps. To in market demand for this fungus have actually led date, we have found no study that fully documents to its overexploitation in many of the collection the local-scale experience of collection in this area. areas in China, with Cordyceps now listed as an endangered species by the Chinese government (Wang and Yao 2011). The parallel trends of increasing demand and intensive collection in some areas has pushed Cordyceps buyers to search other Himalayan locales for new Cordyceps markets (Thapa et al. 2014). The Garhwal region has emerged as one of these areas of rapid market expansion and collection. Calls for an investigation of the sustainability of this fungus in alpine Figure 1 Cordyceps camp with fresh snow. meadows in the Garhwal and elsewhere have recently been put forth by researchers (Cannon et al. 2009; Negi et al. 2006) as well as by local communities. Some suggest that bans on extraction are an over-reaction, and that due to the ecology of the fungus and its reproduction via spores, there is not a direct relationship between collection numbers and the population of the fungus (Garbyal et al. 2004). In order to address debates over the sustainability of the collection of Cordyceps in the Garhwal, it is critical to examine this relatively Figure 2 Construction funded by Cordyceps. ‘new’ alpine asset and the practices of collection in relation to broader socio-economic and livelihood Cordyceps has been a topic of inquiry for us contexts. Within mountain livelihood activities are for several years. In 2008 one member of our chains, or what Rocheleau (2008) refers to as author team first observed seasonal depopulation

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of Garhwali villages that could be linked to the two and five years of experience collecting. The Cordyceps collection underway in mountain purpose of research was elaborated, and consent of pastures. Village leaders indicated a decline in the all study participants was secured before local population that was spending time farming administering the surveys. The interviews were and managing livestock. A major motivation to conducted in either or Garhwali depending undertake this study was our interest in probing upon the preference of the interviewee. Two these field observations in greater depth. research assistants served as translators and guides. This article begins by outlining the The assistants served as guides within the villages, methodological approach guiding this study, then on mountain trails, and in the alpine meadows. follows with an introduction to the botanical and Both research assistants were from the area; the medicinal properties of Cordyceps and a brief research would not have been possible without history of its collection in the Himalaya. We their help as their presence helped relax contextualize this emerging livelihood strategy with interviewees. Interviews were conducted in the a description of the collection, processing, and villages, either in homes or common areas, storage of Cordyceps. The paper concludes with the depending upon the preferences of the interviewees. implications of this new livelihood strategy for the Our sampling protocol was influenced by the sustainability of collection and community well- secretive nature of the collection and sale of the being. Cordyceps. In our case, due to the secretive nature of this livelihood activity, a probability sample was not possible and quota sampling was adopted. 1 Methodology Quota sampling is appropriate when random selection is not viable owing to culturally sensitivity Owing to a decade of extensive field campaigns or the in-depth nature of the research (Bernard and interactions with Garhwali communities, the 2006; Singleton and Straits 2010). In order to first author was able to build upon collaborative obtain a quota sample, in each village we divided relationships to facilitate three months of focused the households up by caste and/or family groups fieldwork on Cordyceps collection – including and then took an approximate percentage of our collection group surveys, informal interviews and interviews from each segment to achieve a general participant observation – from June- August 2014. representation of the village. Villages ranged in size Before beginning the study, we received approval from 6 families to just over 80 families. Our from the Institutional Review Board at the sampling frame only took into account families University of Montana to conduct interviews with which lived year round in the villages. Quota human subjects. The study was also reviewed by sampling can appear a lot like a stratified random local leaders, and permission to conduct the sample in its division of the population into research was granted before proceeding. appropriate strata (e.g., family clans, caste, gender, Survey data was obtained from 88 Cordyceps age). We used tight geographic controls, in this collection groups representing 13 villages in the case each village was considered a discrete entity, Chamoli District of the state of Uttarakhand in the to help reduce bias (Bernard 2006). Garhwal. Villages were selected based on The survey consisted of twenty-eight questions recommendations of local leaders, relationships in addition to basic demographic information and familiarity with families in these villages, and about village, age, gender and caste. For all the geography of meadow sharing. The 13 villages questions, follow-up probes were asked when included in this study collected Cordyceps from needed. Survey questions addressed the following: four different alpine areas. We interviewed 60 men where and with whom were collectors camping and 28 women, showing a moderate male bias. and collecting; the knowledge and resources Women were more reluctant to grant interviews as needed in order to engage in collection; the they were often busy with other household problems encountered while engaging in collection; activities. Male interviewees had an average age of the mechanisms, social institutions, and challenges thirty-one and four years of experience collecting. which influence how locals interface with the The female interviewees had an average of thirty- Cordyceps market; the shifts in livelihood and

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village activities when the collection season is root because the majority of the specimen underway; the financial impact of collection and resembles a caterpillar (insect); however, the sale; local knowledge and understanding of the caterpillar-shaped fungus is actually found in the ecology of the Cordyceps; and the sustainability of soil just below the surface and dug up by hand in collection. the same manner as a plant root. Many Garhwalis In addition to the survey data, this article is who participated in this study understand the informed by numerous informal conversations with ecology of this fungus, emphasizing that it is female and male farmers, mountain guides, village similar to a mushroom and grows especially well leaders, traders, shop keepers, forest department when there is an abundance of rain, snow, and employees and local activists. Extensive participant snowmelt. The portion of the Cordyceps that can observation took place in Bhotiya households, on be seen above ground is the fruiting body of the mountain trails, and in camps and collection areas fungus which grows straight up from the dead in alpine pastures. caterpillar’s head. The fruiting body of the Cordyceps is a few millimeters wide and grows one to two times the length of the host body of the 2 Ophiocordyceps sinensis: A Brief caterpillar. When the fungus reaches maturity, Background spores are generated at the top of the fruiting body and released into the atmosphere. The Cordyceps Cordyceps is a peculiar combination of what that are collected in our study area are usually was once two separate organisms: the larva of a gathered before the fungus reaches full maturity ghost moth genus Thitarodes (Hepialidae) and the and therefore before the spores are released. This is Ophiocordyceps sinensis fungus (Cannon et al. in part because once the fungus reaches maturity 2009; Singh et al. 2010). The larva of the ghost the Cordyceps begins to soften from moth lives in soil tunnels on the Tibetan plateau decomposition and is worthless. One study and in the Himalayan Mountains (Zhong et al. participant explained his understanding of the 2014). The larvae live underground for three to reproduction process in this way, “The sacks carry four years, perhaps even longer, feeding on the all of the [spores] that burst and then infect the roots of alpine plants (Li et al. 2011). The fungus is able to reproduce both asexually and sexually, though a full understanding of both processes is lacking (Cannon et al. 2009). The fungus spores infect the body of the moth during its caterpillar stage, eventually killing the caterpillar host. The larva become infected while in the soil; however, little is known about the spatial distribution of Cordyceps in the soil or how precisely the larva becomes infected (Peng et al. 2013). During the teleomorph (sexual) stage, the fungus forms a sporulating structure and produces ascospores which then spread into the environment and becomes mycelium in the soil. Infection can take place though contact with the fungal mycelium in the soil or through the fungal colonization of particular alpine plant roots (Zhong et al. 2014). The Cordyceps fungus takes over the body of the caterpillar, thereby mummifying the caterpillar while it is still underground (Figure 3). Keerajari is the local Hindi name for Ophiocordyceps sinensis; keera meaning “insect” and jari meaning “root.” Garhwalis describe the fungus as an insect- Figure 3 Cordyceps cleaned and ready for market.

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caterpillar underground… If the [spores] are less, 3 Landscapes and Mountain then there is a problem.” Livelihoods in the Garhwal Cordyceps is thought to encourage physical vigor and stamina, and has been used for medicinal The Garhwal is one of two regions in the state purposes within Tibetan and Chinese traditional of Uttarakhand. In the southeast of Uttarakhand is medicine for an estimated 2000 years (Wangchuk Kumaun, and in the northwest is Garhwal (Rais et al. 2012). It has also been incorporated into et al. 2009). The Garhwal is sparsely populated Nepalese and Indian medical traditions, though and characterized by small farms and poor not as extensively as in Tibetan and Chinese infrastructure yet rich in biodiversity (Chandra medicines. In our study area, we did not find any et al. 2011). The region is composed of seven instances where locals use Cordyceps either administrative sub-divisions including Hardiwar, historically or today. It has recently earned the , Uttarakashi, Tehri Garhwal, Garhwal, nickname of ‘Himalayan Viagra’ in the popular Rudraprayag, and Chamoli. The population for the press and is valued as a natural aphrodisiac despite Garhwal region according to the 2011 Indian the fact that there are no rigorous scientific studies Census is estimated at 5,857,294. Our study site is to document these assertions (Yeh and Lama 2013). located in Chamoli District, 30.42°N, 79.33°E Cordyceps can be ingested in pill form, but the (Table 1). more traditional approach is to boil whole Cordyceps in water and consume the fungus- Table 1 Social and health development indicators for infused hot brew as a tea or soup. Chamoli District, Garhwal (Data drawn from the Indian Census 2011) The explosion in the collection and sale of Cordyceps is related to its dramatic increase in Development indicators Rural Urban demand by primarily Chinese consumers. Percentage of population 84.8% 15.2% Traditionally, Cordyceps was only collected in Total population 332,209 59,396 Sex ratio China; however, due to the increase in demand and 1072 767 (females per 1000 males) its overexploitation in China it is now being Literacy of population 80.9% 92.0% collected in India, Nepal and Bhutan. Cordyceps Male literacy 92.9% 95.6% collection began in the Garhwal and neighboring Female literacy 70.1% 87.2% Housing condition reported Kumaun in 2001 according to Negi and his 71.3% 87.5% colleagues (2006). This date corroborates with our as good survey data, as some collectors reported collecting Location of drinking water: Within Premises 29.6% 79.0% for up to 13 years at the time of this study. Negi Near Premises 42.5% 12.6% et al. (2006) indicate that the Kumaun has seen Away 27.8% 8.3% massive exploitation and a dramatic decrease in Location of latrine facility: collection numbers. Within Premises 47.0% 87.5% This increase in demand is due to several Public Latrine 1.4% 2.4% important factors. First, Cordyceps is in high- Open 51.6% 10.2% demand as a luxury gift that was once only affordable by the wealthiest segment of the The Himalayan Mountains in the Garhwal are population (Cannon et al. 2009; Winkler 2009). composed of steep valleys with raging streams and Second, a growing middle class is increasingly rivers that make up part of the Ganges River aspiring to acquire luxury goods that were once headwaters. Permanent infrastructure is difficult to beyond the realm of affordability (Cannon et al. construct and maintain as mountain slopes, 2009). Last, recent occurrences of SARS and avian seismic activity, and river hydrology are dynamic, flu in Asia have also increased interest in the unpredictable, and shifting energy downstream potential of Cordyceps to boost immunity, disease with gravity. resistance, and overall health (Cannon et al. 2009). Due to the complex topography of the Garhwal, Although there has been some success in the the alpine pastures all have unique microclimates cultivation of Cordyceps, it is the wild variety that (Silori and Badola 2000). In the alpine zone the is highly desirable. mean annual temperatures in the Garhwal are

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3.0°C-4.5°C and temperatures during the summer animals would then be loaded with trade goods and can vary from 6°C at night to over 50 °C in the sun proceed northward over mountain passes toward during the day (Nand and Kumar 1989). In this Tibet. After crossing into Tibet, the herders would zone winter predominates from October – April, trade their goods for Himalayan salt and other with snow accumulating up to depths of about 5 valuable commodities. This system of overland meters (Nand and Kumar 1989). The monsoon trade has all but disappeared due to the 1962 season in the Garhwal is from June to September. closure of the Indo-Tibetan border and other During the monsoons the mountains receive 50%– nation-state policies, thereby drastically altering 90% of their annual rainfall (Chauhan 2015). the way of life of the Bhotiya (Bergmann et al. Garhwali villages customarily have rights to 2008; Negi 2007). their own village lands, including the proximate The geography of the Garhwal includes the land used for terraced agricultural fields, prominent peak of Nanda Devi (7817m). The area designated forested areas directly surrounding around Nanda Devi was first protected as a game villages, and alpine pastures. Federally owned sanctuary in 1939; it was further protected as the lands include forest department lands, national in 1982, and then later parks and other protected areas. Some of the lands as the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR) in are allocated for village use, and are primarily 1988. Due to the international conservation managed by village councils called Van Panchayats. policies that resulted in the creation of the NDBR, Cordyceps collection is only allowed by the Indian local control and access to a number of livelihood Forest Department on these Van Panchayat lands. opportunities and resources were dramatically Garhwalis have historically been engaged in an curtailed. Local protests to these conservation array of mountain livelihood activities at various policies and other ongoing regional struggles of elevations. Inhabitants were and in many cases sovereignty and autonomy are well-documented. A remain farmers, foragers, herders, traders, thorough discussion of these movements is beyond mountain guides/porters, and crafts people. They the scope of this paper (See Bosak 2008; Guha continue to grow a substantial amount of their own 2000; Kainthola et al. 2006). The barley and wheat and a variety of vegetables (e.g., are uniquely positioned to collect Cordyceps based potatoes, carrots, mustard greens, onions, garlic). on their historic activities in and familiarity with They also continue to utilize a number of different the complex mountainous terrain and customary non-timber forest and alpine products including collective rights to alpine meadows. wild mushrooms (morels), fiddle head ferns, herbs, and wild leafy greens. Fodder and timber are gathered from village forests and meadows. 4 Collecting Cordyceps Herders tend large flocks of sheep and goats both in close proximity to the village as well as the 4.1 Timing and preparations forests and alpine meadows. Bhotiya, the main ethnic group in this area of The collection season for Cordyceps in our the Garhwal, have practiced a form of seasonal study area is from April through the end of July, migration (i.e., transhumance) to take advantage of with the most intense collection in May and June. scarce mountain resources and trade relations with The collection season begins when the snow melts formerly independent Tibet (Bergmann et al. off the trails and the meadows are sufficiently 2008). The herding of sheep and goats was an exposed to sun to allow for the growth of the important activity, with a great deal of time spent Cordyceps. The end of the season correlates with tending the flocks in the high alpine meadows. the beginning of the monsoon. Mountain travel, navigation, climbing, camping Cordyceps collection was found to occur and surviving in these meadows were requisite between 3650 and 5200 meters. Given the history skills and expertise for shepherds. When the trade of village formation and meadow ownership there routes opened up in the spring, herders would is a range and complexity of community-alpine move their flocks from the alpine meadows where meadow relations that have manifested over time. they had been pastured down to the villages. The A few villages enjoy exclusive use of particular

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meadows while most villages share meadows with and plowing of fields, childcare, and hosting other neighboring villages. This difference in visiting relatives. Other instances where the regards to exclusive use versus the sharing of departure for the alpine meadows is delayed meadows is due to the unique development history include, but are not limited to, religious of the region. About half of our study villages saw a ceremonies, funerals, accompanying a friend or restriction in their use of alpine meadows with the family member on a trip into town for medical imposition of the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in purposes, or for a local election. 1988. Some of these villages have since entered Collection groups generally tent and cook into meadow sharing arrangements with other together and supplies are packed and organized villages. The local micro geography also influences accordingly. The supplies needed for collection how many villages share a particular meadow. In include camping gear, cooking supplies, food some instances, villages have ‘private’ meadows rations for multi-day periods of time, personal located above them (without a nearby village close apparel, and technology for entertainment/ enough to also claim the meadows) and in some communication. instances multiple villages all share the same Camping gear includes a tent, sleeping alpine meadow. In other words, the arrangements pad/mattress and a sleeping bag or blankets. Some around meadow use and access rights are a result collection groups do not use proper tents, but of both politics as well as geography. instead rely on make-shift shelters out of large To collect Cordyceps, a number of different sheets of plastic. Cooking supplies generally and specific activities need to be undertaken, include pots, a pressure cooker, plates, utensils, starting first with the preparation phase. cups, a kerosene stove, and kerosene. Food Preparation activities to a great extent involve supplies vary but generally include a mix of easy to preparing for the proclivities of mountain prepare foods and more traditional Indian cuisine. conditions, including the following: assessments of In most instances simple foods consist of Maggie weather reports, discussions about when to travel (similar to Ramen noodles in the United States), given anticipated weather, and snow and trail soups and pastas. More traditional foods include conditions; decision-making about what pastures lentils, beans, rice, spices and some vegetables. to go to; selection of group members and review of Personal gear includes warm clothing (many times their preparedness; studying route details with made of wool or synthetic materials), gloves, warm other community members; the purchase and hats, scarves or balaclavas, sun glasses, sunscreen, packing of food and gear; and delimiting where to sun hats, waterproof shoes or boots and good socks. safely camp in the meadows in areas that are free Collectors also transport an array of entertainment from rock falls, landslide debris, and avalanche and communication technologies to the high paths. pastures including small TV’s, radios, phones, and Collection groups are typically drawn along solar panels for charging these devices. kinship and friendship lines, thereby ensuring that other farm and household responsibilities in the 4.2 Mountain travel and logistics village are attended to during the small window of Cordyceps collection. Collection groups are usually Getting to the alpine meadows varies greatly two to four people. Another critical task to by village. As noted earlier, each village has sustaining the collection groups while they are in historical customary property rights to particular the meadows is resupplying provisions and any alpine meadows for collection. While a few villages other necessary supplies. Family groups are most have a choice of meadows, most villagers only have common and include either a husband and wife access to one meadow. These meadows vary greatly team or any combination of immediate and in their distance from the villages. Regardless of extended family. Friend groups are usually of a how far each group has to travel, the goal of each similar age and the same gender. group is to travel on the trails during the cool of the Collection dates are influenced by larger social night or early morning. Departure times range and village needs. Individuals are often needed for from midnight to early morning. The length of time their labor contributions to harvesting, planting to travel from the village to the meadows ranged in

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the study site from four hours to two days, died” while collecting Cordyceps. In 2014 while the depending upon the length and difficulty of the research was conducted, two men were reported to route. have fallen while engaging in collection. When Routes range from moderately challenging to groups are together they can help each other not to very challenging. Most of the routes have only slip, or if one does slip, then having other villagers occasional exposure to falls while a few routes are and group members close by is essential for getting highly exposed and include long stretches of a help. Another hazard and reason for early morning narrow cliff trail where a misstep could cause a fall departures is the tendency for rivers to rise to one’s death (Figure 4). Given the location of the throughout the day, as the sun melts last seasons’ alpine meadows, altitude sickness is also a concern. snow in the higher reaches. The river crossings are As one respondent noted “more people are getting less dangerous earlier in the morning before the sick at altitude because of Cordyceps”. As the sun emerges as most rivers have to be forded. After difficulty and inherent danger of a route increases the perils of the trail are overcome collection the tendency of the group to travel together also groups decide on their camp location. increases in order for group members to help each Village camp locations are determined by the other across dangerous sections. In addition to the location of flat camping sites, caves, water, and exposure to falls and the dangers of traveling at established rights. Camping locations are best if altitude, snow patches and river crossings are also they have large boulders which can be used for inherent risks in travel to the alpine meadows. shelter, are located next to a water source, and are flat. The meadows which are shared by different villages have mutually agreed upon camp locations for each village entitled to use that meadow. Collection groups prefer to camp in close proximity to other groups from their village for entertainment, safety, and proximity to resources. Many of the villagers spend the mornings and early afternoons collecting but then enjoy the mid to late afternoons for socializing. They play games together including , cards, and singing, as well as general conversation and enjoying each other’s time. Villagers also feel safer camping in close proximity to each other for fear of wildlife, weather, and groups not returning for the day. If a collection group is missing at the end of the day, the rest of the collection groups from that village will notice and search to find the missing group. Other considerations for where to camp include the location of fuelwood. Those meadows which have fuelwood are chosen over areas which do not to make cooking and staying warm easier. The presence of fuelwood means that kerosene will not be required and will not add extra weight to the Figure 4 Fatal trail drop-off on route to Cordyceps transporting of goods. meadows.

Snow patches which have not yet melted from 4.3 Search tactics and safe keeping the past winter are referred to locally as “glaciers.” These snow patches can be very dangerous to In order to find the Cordyceps, collection cross—a fall without the means or ability to stop groups set out early in the morning and collect till could lead to a slide right off a mountain cliff. In mid-day. A few groups do stay out all day long, but 2008 a 28 year old man “slipped on a glacier and most groups are finished by mid-afternoon, when

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they return to camp for food and festivities. When a safely remove it from the ground. It is very group sets out in the morning they often bring a important not to break the Cordyceps as a broken day sack with them containing food and water. piece is much less valuable than a fully intact one. Many individuals also bring a stick or shovel to To safely remove a Cordyceps from the ground the help remove the Cordyceps from the ground, any first step is to pull away all the grass and vegetation previously collected Cordyceps, a phone for music from around the Cordyceps. Next a stick, tent stake, and communication, medicine, sunscreen, and sun shovel or finger is placed in the ground parallel but glasses. The previously collected Cordyceps are a few inches away from the Cordyceps. This is then kept in a secure or hidden location to reduce the used as a leveraging devise to pry the Cordyceps risk of theft. Having the appropriate resources for out of the ground along with a bit of the collecting is as important as the knowledge of surrounding dirt. Once the Cordyceps is removed where and how to search for the Cordyceps (Figure from the ground the hole created is filled back in, 5). and the Cordyceps is lightly brushed off and stored in a protected place. It is commonly asserted that when one Cordyceps is found, others are in close proximity, whereby the same area is carefully searched. Groups usually return from the meadows to the villages after about ten days to two weeks. Groups return to fulfill family or village obligations, to restock supplies if they run out of food, to take a break when the Cordyceps is proving to be elusive or if the weather is bad, and also to physically rest. The return journey is more casual than the initial entry to the meadows. Groups pack up after Figure 5 Searching for Cordyceps. breakfast, and then travel down in elevation to the Groups choose their gathering location based village. After two or three days, collection groups on a number of different variables, as group are reassembled and collectors hike back up to the collection tactics vary greatly. Collection tactics alpine meadows to resume collection. noted by respondents include: returning to locations which proved fruitful the previous year; 4.4 Processing and storing randomly choosing locations; going further to more remote locations than the rest of the village Once the Cordyceps has been collected and collectors; looking where the most moisture is brought back to camp or the village, they are then thought to be; following the masses; and processed and stored for future sale. The cleaning methodically searching day by day. The majority of process involves brushing the clumped up dirt off groups listen to the most experienced collector in the Cordyceps with a toothbrush. The toothbrush the group for direction on where to collect. is soft enough to not harm the caterpillar shell or Searching involves scanning the ground for the break the fruiting body of the Cordyceps. fruiting body of the Cordyceps. This searching can Once the Cordyceps are carefully cleaned, they be very intense and occurs while either standing, are set out to fully dry in the sun before being kneeling, or crawling. Collectors assert that the stored. In this part of the Himalaya the monsoon skill for searching is directly related to one’s ability brings almost daily rain which makes storing the to concentrate on the task at hand. Collectors Cordyceps in a low humidity environment difficult. suggest that one’s success is also related to one’s The Cordyceps has a tendency to mold during the experience and self-esteem. A common local belief wet monsoon months and can become worthless as is that the more success one has in finding the moisture tends to lead to rot. Bhotiya families Cordyceps in the past, the more perseverance one utilize different strategies to keep the Cordyceps in seems to have to continue searching in the current good condition including the following: wrapping moment. each Cordyceps individually in toilet paper; Once a Cordyceps is found, the next step is to wrapping the Cordyceps all together in fabrics; and

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placing the Cordyceps loose in boxes without any resource today, and 2% indicated that they are not wrappings. When there are sunny days during the sure if there is less Cordyceps now. When asked to monsoon many families will painstakingly remove elaborate on why there is less Cordyceps now 68% the Cordyceps from storage and place them in the of the respondents suggested that it is because sun for further drying. there are more collectors. Ten percent of the collectors made sure to point out that the total Cordyceps population has not decreased, just the 5 Cashing in on Cordyceps income number of Cordyceps available per person due to the increase in collectors. A number of respondents The average household income from reported that they were concerned with the Cordyceps among those surveyed was just over vulnerability of the Cordyceps population to being 200,000 IR or about 3500 USD per year. This over-collected; some even suggested that in a few amount represents valuable income, and in a few years they expect there to be no Cordyceps left. cases, the only cash income received by these When probed about why there might be more or mountain households. Cordyceps as a commodity less Cordyceps, 23% of the respondents suggested is re-shaping entire household and community- that there are less spores or the spores are not able scale economies. Cordyceps income allows families to spread, and 21% of those interviewed say the to access more modern conveniences (clothing, cell decrease in Cordyceps is due to changes in the phones and pocket money), to make improvements climate. One respondent offered an alternative in housing, to better fund children’s education, and view, suggesting that “here there are more people to access better quality and/or quantity of food and more keerajari, [where] there is less people... (Table 2). [there is] less keerajari.” In other words, this individual insinuates that collecting is good for the Table 2 Reported changes in the family economy due to Cordyceps income (N=88) Cordyceps numbers. Collectors were also worried about environmental damages to the meadows, Family economy changes Frequency Percent including seeing areas polluted or the presence of Live a more modern lifestyle 27 31% trash, fires in the meadows from local cigarettes, (phone, cloths, TV, laptop) Invest in a better home 24 27% and the use of iron tools. Some locals believe that Pay for education 24 27% the use of iron tools in the meadows harms the Invest more money toward Cordyceps. 18 20% food The socio-economic risk of losing the Increase in family financial 16 18% collection of Cordyceps as a livelihood strategy was security and independence Less stress 11 13% a great concern among study participants. One Make investments 6 7% woman expressed her concern in this way: “…more Changed from below to above people are now going to school because of 5 6% poverty line keerajari, then perhaps in the future [our] lives Pay for marriages 5 6% won’t be very good because [without keerajari Less work to support the 5 6% people would] not [be] in school.” Another family respondent stated that “if keerajari stops then Almost all of the study participants were everyone's lifestyle is going to drop.” Again, concerned with the sustainability of the resource. another informant discussed the importance of the Sustainability concerns that we recorded centered Cordyceps especially for the poor and women in on both ecological and social risks. Ecological risks this way, “Before keerajari there was no good were associated with over collection and perhaps education but now because of keerajari even poor even the extinction of this fungus as well as families can give their children a good education environmental damages to the alpine meadows. and can marry off their daughters to good When asked if there is less Cordyceps now, families.” What goes unstated here is that if the collectors responded overwhelmingly with 86% Cordyceps money is no longer available, then those saying that there is less Cordyceps now. Twelve who will suffer first are lower-income families, and percent do not feel that there is less of this bio especially their daughters.

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6 Perspectives on Cordyceps future, and 3) the need to establish local collection Conservation and Sustainability numbers. There is little incentive for local conservation to occur if local resource rights are From our study findings it remains unclear if not secured. We disagree with Garbyal et al.’s in the Chamoli District of the Garhwal the overall (2004) statement that there is no concern for Cordyceps population and collection numbers are overexploitation given that 86% of our respondents decreasing, remaining the same, or perhaps even replied that there is less Cordyceps now and many increasing. In the neighboring region of the respondents specifically stated concerns regarding Kumaun, the two published studies which focused resource overexploitation; however, our findings on Cordyceps came to vastly different conclusions. do not align with the dramatic decrease in wild Garbyal et al.’s (2004:185) study concludes that the populations noted by Negi et al. (2006). The “[c]ollection of Cordyceps does not endanger the current state of overexploitation in China and environment or the ecology nor is it making any Garhwalis’ pressing concerns in regards to species extinct.” This is in contradiction to Negi collection numbers in their meadows do support et al.’s (2006:168) study which finds "[a] sharp the need for the identification of conservation decline in the harvest, by as much as 30%–50%." measures as soon as possible. Similar to Garbyal Garbyal et al. (2004:185) suggests that “[i]t et al. (2004) we find that there is a need to work would…be most prudent if guidelines for extraction with Bhotiya communities and other mountain and trading in Cordyceps are worked out in residents in the Garhwal to ensure the long term consultation with the villagers rather than collection of Cordyceps. demanding blanket ban on its extraction, which We highly suggest following the thinking of the will only alienate the villagers, as it would mean collectors themselves who reported the need for that people would be denied most potent source of community meetings to collectively decide on income.” Negi et al. (2006) suggests that poverty collection limits. This approach would serve to drives overexploitation, that villagers should be empower Garhwalis and goes beyond the education encouraged to cultivate other medicinal plants, and of collectors that has been suggested elsewhere that collectors should be educated to leave a few (Negi et al. 2006). The local communities in this Cordyceps each year. area have a long and colorful history of resource management, and are capable of developing their own conservation measures. This is shown by the 7 Concluding Remarks suggestions made by 14 different individuals (though they were not asked for directly) for In this article we have documented the many Cordyceps management which included setting a facets of how the collection and sale of Cordyceps fixed collection season, rotating between collection has rapidly emerged as a new and lucrative years and non-collection years, leaving a certain livelihood strategy in the relatively remote Garhwal number of Cordyceps in the ground while Himalaya. We have also explored how this new collecting others, and limiting the number of livelihood activity fits in the context of broader collectors allowed per household. We disagree with mountain-society relations given the study area’s Negi et al.’s (2006) suggestions to try to push for unique local resource histories and mountain the cultivation of medicinal plants as a replacement geography. Finally, we offer three suggestions to livelihood activity—as the economic returns address the sustainability of both the Cordyceps realized for other medicinal plants are much less collection and the livelihood activities which hinge than Cordyceps, and as we pointed out in our on the Cordyceps populations. article, our study area is uniquely positioned for We suggest taking a three pronged approach to Cordyceps collecting. It seems unrealistic to addressing the sustainability of the Cordyceps assume that the communities we focused on would collection. We find a need for 1) community based be interested in shifting livelihood activities away conservation measures - an approach that also from the collection of Cordyceps given the great hinges on 2) securing local resource rights to deal of effort and learning that has been invested continue to collect and sell Cordyceps into the into this livelihood activity and the very high

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financial returns which are currently being seen. household needs (Wu et al. 2014). As we have The third approach we suggest is to focuses on shown, the current level of investment that locals addressing the dearth in accurate Cordyceps are able to make on their own behalf due to the collection numbers in the Chamoli District of the collection of Cordyceps is having profound and Garhwal. More ecological data on the geo-spatial mostly positive impacts on the standard of living, aspects of the collection is recommended. What are education levels, and quality of housing for locals. the actual collection numbers for Cordyceps for These are all areas in which rural residents in the each village and associated meadows from year to Garhwal tend to fall behind the national averages. year? Without studies to record collection numbers, There is no long term future for the collection monitoring Cordyceps populations over time for of Cordyceps as a livelihood activity if Cordyceps increases or decreases is impossible. This lack of sustainability and local resource development collection numbers severely limits the development rights are not systematically addressed. However, it of science-based locally-appropriate conservation would be premature to impose bans or restrictions measures. on the collection of Cordyceps form outside the By describing the range of tasks and activities community. Without scientific data to support involved in the collection and processing of these policies (such as a documented decline in Cordyceps, and how they are the product of collection numbers) the imposition of a collection specific local resource histories and geographies, as ban from outside would only continue to well as the Garhwals’ economic marginalization, marginalize an already marginal population. The one can see how the larger socio-economic and positive impacts of the collection of Cordyceps for geographic reality of the Garhwal influences the the poor is the one finding that is congruent across current collection of this alpine medicinal fungus. almost all the Cordyceps studies conducted across This level of detail and contextualization can help the region—from China to Nepal to Bhutan and to inform conservation measures that are mindful now in India. What we do have good data on is the of local practices, needs, and realities. positive impacts that the Cordyceps cash is Due to the history of livelihood and resources bringing to these otherwise marginalized struggles in the region, locals are unsure of their communities. What is lacking is quality data on the resource rights – many questioned how long their potential negative ecological impacts that the ability to access Cordyceps will remain. Though the Cordyceps collection is having in the alpine rights to decide their own resource use or access environment. To limit the collection of Cordyceps remains in question, local people are still in a based on our current data is unfounded given its unique position to exploit Cordyceps due to the uncertain ecological dynamics and documented local geography and their communal use of overwhelmingly positive socio-economic impacts. meadows. The alpine meadows where the Cordyceps are located are in essence naturally “protected” from outside exploitation owing to Acknowledgement their geographic location: high elevation with access point through villages. Non-locals with the This research was generously funded in part by intention to collect Cordyceps are quickly and the College of Forestry and Conservation at the easily discovered. Finally, most villagers are well University of Montana, Missoula. Our deepest versed in mountain-based travel and camping - and appreciation goes to those who participated in our enjoy taking part in these activities. study. The logistical support and research The marginalization of this area due to its assistance provided by the Mountain Shepherds relatively isolated setting also impacts household Initiative and the Nanda Devi Campaign based in livelihoods. The exploitation of Cordyceps is taking Uttarakhand were paramount. Finally, we want to off in part because of the lack of other livelihood thank the four anonymous reviewers who provided opportunities and the need for local livelihoods to detailed and thoughtful comments on this be diverse to reduce the risk to the household if manuscript. some other livelihood activities fall short of

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