Rsidade Federal Do Paraná

UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DO PARANÁ

ALINE GUIMARÃES COUTO

UMA ANÁLISE BEHAVIORISTA RADICAL DA DISCUSSÃO FEMINISTA SOBRE O EMPODERAMENTO DA MULHER

CURITIBA

2017

ALINE GUIMARÃES COUTO

UMA ANÁLISE BEHAVIORISTA RADICAL DA DISCUSSÃO FEMINISTA SOBRE O EMPODERAMENTO DA MULHER

Dissertação apresentada como requisito parcial à obtenção do título de Mestre em Psicologia, pertencente à Linha de Pesquisa em Análise do Comportamento do curso de Pós-Graduação em Psicologia do Setor de Ciências Humanas, da Universidade Federal do Paraná.

Orientador: Prof. Dr. Alexandre Dittrich

CURITIBA

2017

Dedicado à luta das mulheres

AGRADECIMENTOS

Dizem sempre que a pós-graduação é dura. Difícil de atravessar. Quando nos queixamos é frequente ter pessoas a nos confessar que passaram pelos mesmos problemas, que “é assim mesmo”. Deparar-se com o desconhecido, ter a responsabilidade de uma pesquisa inteiramente em suas mãos, lidar com prazos, com os caminhos tortuosos da Academia, com a solidão de estar em uma cidade desconhecida, longe da família, com o dinheiro contado, com as expectativas que pesam – as alheias e as suas próprias. Nada disso é fácil, e talvez por isso fique tão feliz de ter tantas pessoas a agradecer neste texto, porque, genuinamente, cada uma delas me ajudou a carregar esse fardo.

Sou imensamente grata à minha família. Meu pai, Hélio, mesmo não tendo concluído sequer o primário, a vida inteira insistiu que deixaria de herança para mim os meus estudos, e realmente deixará. Nunca questionou os caminhos acadêmicos que escolhi, mesmo sem entender muito deles, estando sempre pronto a me ajudar. Minha mãe, Rosângela, que dava sempre um jeito de me estimular sempre desde criança, segurava na minha mão e me dava as necessárias sacudidas quando eu reclamava demais da vida. E a minha irmã, Caroline, mesmo tão diferente de mim, me ensina o quanto é importante poder ser exemplo pra alguém e cuidar de alguém.

Tenho muito a agradecer também à Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal em Nível Superior – CAPES, cujo apoio foi imprescindível. Sem o apoio financeiro que recebi, eu não teria qualquer possibilidade de escolher trilhar esse caminho. Espero que mais pessoas continuem se beneficiando desse apoio como eu pude me beneficiar e possam construir uma trajetória fora dos planos do destino escrito pelas desigualdades.

Agradeço a todo o pessoal do Programa de Pós-Graduação em Psicologia da UFPR – aos professores, em especial a Bruno Strapasson e Gabriel de Luca, que me receberam e me apoiaram na universidade de forma calorosa, indo além das suas responsabilidades como professores e assumindo papeis de amigos; e aos funcionários, em especial a Mariangela, que em meio aos puxões de orelha por falta de cumprimento de prazos, me deu o exemplo de funcionária pública que carregarei

daqui pra frente, e Marcel, que muito me ajudou aliviando o peso da burocracia na reta final.

Também sou grata às alunas e alunos de graduação da UFPR que cruzaram comigo, e que foram generosos com minha falta de habilidade ao dar aulas, cuidar de disciplinas, supervisionar trabalhos e organizar eventos, dos quais ganhei carinhosos e inesperados elogios e fontes de apoio. Fazem-me lembrar, também, de agradecer às professoras e professores que me deram aulas na graduação, em especial Rodrigo Guimarães e Ana Lúcia Ulian, Aninha, que lá no meu primeiro ano de graduação me fez ler o primeiro texto de autoria do meu atual orientador e despertou meu interesse por pesquisa conceitual e análise do comportamento.

Fiz amigos de que lembrarei para o resto da minha vida. Serei sempre grata à minha colega Cindy Vaccari, pois sem ela para me receber em Curitiba e na UFPR eu teria, certamente, metido os pés pelas mãos e me sentido consideravelmente mais solitária. Também ao Ramon Cardinali, por toda a ajuda, companhia e discussões lá no Restaurante Universitário sobre feminismo, questões sociais e tantas coisas mais (escrever isso apenas ao final faz parecer que foi há 700 anos atrás). Vocês foram a melhor comunidade verbal que eu poderia ter. Merecem menção honrosa também por isso Diego Mansano Fernandes, Junio Rezende e Denilson Paixão, que mantiveram acesa em mim a vontade de fazer as coisas diferentes. E, entrando nos últimos momentos, agradeço às minhas colegas da residência multiprofissional, que me deram todo o apoio que podiam em meio a tantas dificuldades que passamos juntas, numa rotina tão árdua – Bruna Celano, Flávia Borger, Fabíola Figueirêdo, Giovanna Maiuri, Julia Ribeiro, Larissa Kraemer, Gabriela Martins, Rouglana Ribeiro, Marina Perez, Nathalia Caldeira, Carla Cruz, Taís Laurito... todas mulheres incríveis. Também agradeço à minha terapeuta, Denise Orsini, por me fazer levar pela luz e não pelo tamanho do túnel, quando eu passei pelos momentos mais difíceis.

Tenho muito a agradecer ao meu orientador, prof. Alexandre Dittrich, pela confiança depositada em mim desde a seleção para o mestrado, já que sequer me conhecia, e pela paciência com os meus tropeços durante a caminhada, bem como por ter aceitado o desafio de estudar o tema que escolhi, nunca tolhendo a minha liberdade e, no caminho, me ensinando quanta responsabilidade vem com ela. Fica

também meu agradecimento póstumo à profa. Maria R. Ruiz, pioneira nos estudos sobre feminismo e análise do comportamento, que foi uma das primeiras pessoas que contatei quando do meu interesse pelo tema e que me respondeu de forma calorosa, me ajudando com indicações de bibliografia e demonstrando genuíno desejo de saber o que eu ia descobrir. Infelizmente, não houve tempo para isso. Espero fazer justiça ao que ela esperou da minha produção e manter seus pertinentes questionamentos vivos na comunidade de analistas do comportamento.

Espero poder agradecer todos os dias também ao Yuri, que foi a pessoa que esteve do meu lado desde o primeiro dia, dividindo a alegria das conquistas que aos poucos eu tive e as dores que tive de enfrentar nessa jornada. Não consigo sequer imaginar como seria passar por esses anos sem todo o amor e apoio que recebi e sem a felicidade de ter um verdadeiro companheiro comigo, companheiro que descobri ser possível ter.

Serei também eternamente grata às minhas companheiras do Coletivo Feminista Marias e Amélias de Mulheres Analistas do Comportamento, em especial Ana Arantes, Marcela Ortolan, Amanda Morais, Laís Nicolodi e Izadora Perkoski. Nunca teria me atrevido a estudar sobre feminismo e análise do comportamento sem elas. Todas as discussões, as risadas, as dores, as ideias surgidas e estimuladas, são diretamente alimentadoras deste trabalho. Sei que sem tudo isso, ele não existiria.

"O momento é propício para behavioristas radicais participarem da discussão sobre questões feministas, que estão entrando em sua quinta década de desenvolvimento. O impacto crescente dos conhecimentos, do ativismo e da política feminista vai continuar sem a nossa entrada, mas, para behavioristas, permanecer em silêncio significaria uma perda para todas. Nossos pontos em comum incluem raízes históricas, visões das possibilidades transformadoras do comportamento humano e o compromisso para criar ambientes ideais para desenvolvimento comportamental. A fusão é, de fato, de interesse para ambas as comunidades." (Ruiz, 1998, p. 190, tradução livre)

RESUMO

O movimento feminista, desde sua gênese, busca descrever as condições das mulheres por todo o mundo, destacando a falta de igualdade de direitos e de condições entre os gêneros. Junto a tal descrição, o feminismo é ativo em propor soluções para a problemática da desigualdade entre homens e mulheres. Uma das vias frequentemente citadas pelas feministas é a do empoderamento, que se refere tanto à tomada de consciência da desigualdade quanto à superação desta por meio de condições que libertem as mulheres, enquanto classe de indivíduos, dos contextos onde elas sofrem os efeitos da discriminação. No entanto, o termo é frequentemente usado para descrever uma grande variedade de condições e ações que podem ou não, segundo críticas das próprias vertentes feministas, ser de fato libertadoras. Entendendo empoderamento como um conjunto de comportamentos humanos, o presente trabalho realiza uma revisão das variáveis comportamentais que controlam o uso do termo em periódicos feministas – constituindo-se portanto como uma análise do comportamento verbal –, em uma tentativa de descrever em quais condições as feministas consideram comportamento(s) como empoderados/empoderadores, se utilizando, para isso, de duas categorias principais: empoderamento com base em estados internos e empoderamento com base no contracontrole. Após esta revisão, o trabalho analisa, de acordo com a perspectiva behaviorista radical, como as categorias de comportamentos descritos pela literatura se coadunam com os objetivos expressos pelo movimento feminista.

Palavras-chave: empoderamento; feminismo; Behaviorismo Radical.

ABSTRACT

The feminist movement, from its genesis, describes conditions of women throughout the world, highlighting the lack of equality of rights and conditions between genders. Alongside this description, feminism is active in proposing solutions to the problem of inequality between men and women. One of the ways often cited by feminists is empowerment, which refers to the awareness of inequality and also to overcoming it through conditions that free women, as a class of individuals, from the contexts in which they suffer the effects of discrimination. However, the term is often used to describe a wide range of conditions and actions that may or may not, according to critics of feminist tendencies, be liberating. Understanding empowerment as a set of human behaviors, this work reviews behavioral variables that control the use of the term in feminist journals - thus constituting an analysis of verbal behavior - in an attempt to describe under what conditions feminists consider these behaviors empowered/empowering, using two main categories for this: empowerment based on internal states and empowerment based on countercontrol. After this review, this work analyzes, according to the radical behaviorist perspective, how the categories of behaviors described in the literature fit the goals expressed by the feminist movement.

Keywords: empowerment; feminism; radical behaviorism.

SUMÁRIO

1. Introdução ...... 13

1.1. O feminismo e suas relações com a Análise do Comportamento ...... 13

1.2. Epistemologia feminista: considerações sobre estudar questões das mulheres ...... 18

1.3. Um conceito relevante para o feminismo: o empoderamento ...... 20

2. Método ...... 23

2.1. Definição do problema de pesquisa ...... 23

2.2. Especificação das informações relevantes ...... 24

2.3. Seleção do material ...... 24

2.4. Levantamento das informações ...... 27

2.5. Tratamento das informações ...... 28

3. Resultados e discussão ...... 29

3.1. Artigos revisados na literatura feminista ...... 29

3.2. Empoderamento com base em estados internos ...... 32

3.3. Empoderamento com base no contracontrole ...... 40

4. Considerações finais ...... 47

5. Referências ...... 50

Apêndices ...... 56

Apêndice A: Siglas dos periódicos revisados empregadas na categorização...... 56

Apêndice B: Total de trechos categorizados, por periódico ...... 57

Apêndice C: Trechos categorizados, por periódico ...... 58

1. INTRODUÇÃO

1.1. O feminismo e suas relações com a Análise do Comportamento

Existem diversas definições do que viria a significar a palavra feminismo, que variam em complexidade, apontando para as várias dimensões do movimento. Para 5 Garcia (2011), o feminismo pode ser definido como

a tomada de consciência das mulheres como coletivo humano, da opressão, dominação e exploração de que foram e são objeto por parte do coletivo de homens no seio do patriarcado sob suas diferentes fases históricas, que as move em busca da liberdade de seu sexo e de todas as 10 transformações da sociedade que sejam necessárias para este fim. Partindo desse princípio, o feminismo se articula como filosofia política e, ao mesmo tempo, como movimento social (p. 13). A ensaísta feminista americana bell hooks1 define o feminismo de forma ainda mais simples, colocando-o como um “movimento destinado a acabar com o 15 sexismo, a exploração sexista e a opressão” (hooks, 2000, p. 1). Os objetos sobre os quais se debruça a luta feminista estiveram, durante toda a sua história, em constante discussão. A experiência feminina com a desigualdade entre gêneros engendrou diversas tentativas de explicar e discorrer sobre sua situação em diferentes pontos da História, constituindo-se, ainda que como uma narrativa 20 fragmentada, dadas as próprias condições das mulheres (Nye, 1995), como um corpo teórico e epistemológico em crescimento até hoje.

Inicialmente, o movimento feminista se organizou em torno do direito ao voto, no início do séc. XIX, mas antes disso outras mulheres e homens já haviam começado a atentar para as diferenças entre os direitos dos gêneros, na esteira dos 25 ideais iluministas e humanistas que se desenvolveram desde a Revolução Francesa (Garcia, 2011). Desde então, o movimento passou por diversas fases, tendo enfocado questões relacionadas à desigualdade e às particularidades de cada gênero de diferentes formas e guardando estreitas relações com diversas correntes teóricas, filosóficas e políticas, como o liberalismo, o marxismo, o existencialismo e 30 a psicanálise (Nye, 1995). As sucessivas conquistas do movimento feminista ainda não foram suficientes para levar, no entanto, à tão sonhada igualdade, restando ao feminismo contemporâneo a tarefa de elaborar e responder aos anseios de

1 Pseudônimo da autora Gloria Jean Watkins (1952-presente). O mesmo é grafado com minúsculas por opção da autora, que diz preferir que sua mensagem tenha destaque em detrimento do seu nome (Enciclopedia Britannica, 2015).

mulheres que participam de diversos contextos e têm diferentes demandas decorrentes destes, como a realidade social e de classe, as questões raciais e a 35 vivência da sexualidade e da identidade de gênero (Garcia, 2011).

Como movimento social e por trazer uma visão particular dos problemas das mulheres, o envolvimento com questões feministas pressupõe uma nova forma de agir no mundo, já que as mulheres são afetadas pelos atos que perpetuam a exploração sexista e a opressão feminina – partindo tanto dos homens, que se 40 beneficiam diretamente da sociedade patriarcal, quanto das próprias mulheres, que reproduzem ações machistas já que crescem numa cultura que as ensinam a fazê- lo. Nas palavras de Thompson (2001), o feminismo “surge e continuamente retorna a problemas de valor, de bem ou mal, certo ou errado, do que vale a pena e do que é significativo ou não é” (p. 7).

45 As teorias feministas se desenvolveram ao redor dessa realidade multifacetada. Apesar do antropocentrismo sexista da sociedade também se refletir na construção de suas teorias, na psicologia também se desenvolveram tradições de estudo relacionadas ao movimento feminista, especialmente a partir da década de 70 (Dauder, 2003). O Behaviorismo Radical, no entanto, não participou 50 ativamente da rediscussão feminista da ciência psicológica, sendo inclusive duramente criticado por feministas que, muitas vezes, reconheciam o behaviorismo como uma teoria monolítica, e endereçavam ao Behaviorismo Radical as mesmas críticas que eram feitas ao behaviorismo de Watson e às influências anteriores, como a de Thorndike (Ruiz, 1995; Dauder, 2003).

55 Uma breve revisão de literatura em periódicos de Análise do Comportamento revela que a produção articulando conceitos behavioristas radicais e teorias feministas é bastante recente e irregular ao longo dos últimos anos, sendo também restrita a poucas autoras e autores (Couto e Rezende, 2014). No entanto, já se pode perceber a existência de esforços nesse sentido e possibilidades de diálogo sendo 60 exploradas. Algumas das compatibilidades já descritas são a visão de mundo contextualista (Ruiz, 1995, 1998; Ruiz & Roche, 2007), de acordo com a qual um ato (ou comportamento) se relaciona intrinsecamente ao contexto em que está envolvido; e, por conseguinte, a ênfase na determinação das ações humanas por fatores ambientais (contextuais, sociais), em detrimento de explicações

65 biologicistas, essencializantes e/ou internalistas (Ruiz, 1995,1998, 2003). Algumas das críticas do feminismo à psicologia e à filosofia são comuns também ao Behaviorismo Radical. Uma delas se dirige à noção de livre-arbítrio: o excessivo foco no indivíduo como iniciador das ações por muitas das correntes da psicologia contribuiria para ocultar os determinantes sociais das ações humanas, o que 70 enfraqueceria a discussão do papel destes determinantes numa cultura menos sexista para as feministas, e obscureceria as possibilidades de análise e de intervenção para behavioristas radicais. Outra crítica comum é feita ao ideal de neutralidade do cientista: para as feministas, a ciência é produzida de acordo com o viés sexista das sociedades das quais cientistas fazem parte, e seu comportamento 75 é produto da interação entre variáveis culturais (Ruiz, 1995, 1998, 2003; Wolpert, 2005; Ruiz & Roche, 2007). Também se pode destacar a importância que o feminismo dá à linguagem como fator de influência sobre as ações de homens e mulheres – algo que o Behaviorismo Radical discute por meio da noção de comportamento verbal, e deste como também determinado por múltiplos fatores 80 (Ruiz, 1995, 1998, 2003).

Além dos pontos de convergência entre as duas teorias, a literatura já começa a apontar questões que ainda podem ser discutidas de um ponto de vista behaviorista radical dentro do feminismo. Ruiz (1998) destaca o conceito de agência pessoal – a noção de que uma pessoa pode, em certa medida, superar o contexto 85 do qual faz parte e agir conscientemente, algo que não está muito bem definido no feminismo e pode estar relacionado a um dualismo pessoa-situação latente nas teorias que o embasam. Por sua vez, o Behaviorismo Radical também se beneficiaria, possivelmente, de um ponto de vista feminista na discussão, por exemplo, dos valores que norteiam sua prática científica e o ideal de sobrevivência 90 das culturas como valor último (Ruiz & Roche, 2007; Ruiz, 2013). A questão de gênero é frequentemente uma variável “invisível” para o Behaviorismo Radical na explicação do comportamento humano (Ruiz, 2003), sendo pouco considerada na determinação do comportamento do cientista – e está ausente mesmo do planejamento da cultura considerada ideal, assim como questões relacionadas à 95 raça e classe social, no projeto original de Skinner em Walden Two (Wolpert, 2005).

Sabe-se, também, que a participação feminina no desenvolvimento da própria análise do comportamento é influenciada por questões de gênero, já que existem

várias diferenças entre homens e mulheres nas publicações, nas áreas a que se dedicam e nos cargos que ocupam. Mulheres costumam ocupar posições 100 consideradas de menor prestígio nas associações, recebendo menos convites para participações de maior destaque nos eventos da área do que homens; além de estarem em maior número na área aplicada, também de menor projeção entre seus pares (diferenças demonstradas e discutidas em Poling et al., 1983; Myers, 1993; McSweeney & Swindell, 1998; McSweeney, Donahoe & Swindell, 2000; McSweeney 105 & Parks, 2002; Simon, Morris & Smith, 2007). No Brasil, como sublinha Keller (2012), a história da Análise do Comportamento é diretamente ligada a uma variedade de grandes nomes femininos – Maria Amélia Matos, Carolina Bori, Margarida Windholz, Rachel Rodriges Kerbauy, entre outras –, e o desenvolvimento da abordagem no Brasil deve em muito à incansável atividade de tais nomes na 110 difusão da formação em Análise do Comportamento. No entanto, tal atividade não se refletiu no desenvolvimento de um campo local em estudos de gênero behavioristas radicais, como é possível deduzir pelos resultados escassos em língua portuguesa já apontados por Couto e Rezende (2014).

Dado que o gênero é pouco discutido na Análise do Comportamento, 115 descobrir quais seriam os impactos de uma revisão da teoria behaviorista radical incluindo tal fator é ainda uma tarefa a ser realizada, e cujas consequências ainda são incertas. Porém, com o crescimento e relevância dos estudos de gênero, pode- se dizer que ignorá-los seria uma perda tanto para a área feminista quanto para a Análise do Comportamento (Ruiz, 1998). Um exemplo é o campo de estudos sobre 120 a cultura, em franco crescimento na análise do comportamento – e que, mais do que um interesse teórico, também projeta possibilidades de planejamento cultural que devem incluir uma discussão sobre a redução das desigualdades (Biglan & Cody, 2013). Uma discussão como essa, necessariamente, passará por uma análise de quais desigualdades estão sendo percebidas ou não pelos cientistas do 125 comportamento, dado que tal percepção é influenciada pelo background cultural desses cientistas, de discurso majoritariamente ligado ao homem branco e heterossexual (Ruiz, 1998; Wolpert, 2005).

Outro exemplo de campo de estudos que possibilita intersecções entre as duas teorias é a ética feminista. Como aponta Thompson (2001), o feminismo 130 realiza uma análise crítica das ações humanas e de como estas impactam na

superação de uma sociedade opressora para as mulheres. O feminismo não apenas descreve a sociedade em termos da discriminação sexista, mas também prescreve ações tendo um objetivo: o fim dessa exploração baseada na discriminação. No entanto, nem sempre as direções de tais ações são claras, tanto para o indivíduo 135 que busca agir de acordo com os pressupostos feministas como para o feminismo enquanto movimento. Mesmo os objetivos do feminismo diferem de acordo com a perspectiva adotada, sendo que este se multifacetou em diversos campos, como o feminismo radical, o feminismo interseccional e o feminismo liberal, cada um com pressupostos e enfoques distintos (Garcia, 2011). A discussão ética behaviorista 140 radical, ao primar pela clareza de objetivos com base no método científico (Castro & De Rose, 2008), bem como explorar as discussões no campo dos valores (Ruiz & Roche, 2007), pode trazer novos elementos às discussões internas ao movimento.

A discussão relacionada à mudança de condições em que vivem as mulheres na sociedade também remete ao conceito de contracontrole. Alterar as 145 contingências que afetam diferencialmente o comportamento de homens e de mulheres, destacando as desvantagens dessa diferenciação, envolve o desvelamento do controle aversivo e das diversas táticas empregadas para manter tais desvantagens, algo que Skinner (1971) discutiu sob a égide do contracontrole. Explicitar o controle nas relações entre homens e mulheres levaria, então, à reflexão 150 sobre como este contracontrole poderia ser exercido e como a Análise do Comportamento poderia auxiliar num projeto de sociedade mais igualitária entre gêneros. Algumas reflexões referentes à noção de contracontrole e de como esta se relaciona aos objetivos do movimento feminista serão apresentadas neste trabalho (ver seção 3.3).

155 Percebemos, portanto, que a interface entre as teorias feministas, o Behaviorismo Radical e a Análise do Comportamento requer esforços de uma agenda de estudos que pode lançar diversas questões a abordar, e que as bases dessa interface estão ainda em construção apenas há pouco mais de uma década – o que, ao mesmo tempo em que denota as dificuldades a serem enfrentadas na 160 construção desse diálogo, também atesta a necessidade de iniciá-lo e a urgência de trazê-lo para a comunidade behaviorista radical.

1.2. Epistemologia feminista: considerações sobre estudar questões das mulheres 165 A Análise do Comportamento tradicionalmente confere grande importância à discussão sobre epistemologia e metodologia. Mesmo o Behaviorismo é um movimento que, em última análise, nasce de um debate crítico sobre os métodos em Psicologia (Watson, 1913). Décadas após a proposição de suas bases 170 filosóficas e seus métodos de escolha, com especial destaque para o Behaviorismo Radical e o método experimental (Andery, 2010), ainda há espaço para encampar críticas à forma pela qual se produz conhecimento na área, que refletem, por exemplo, desequilíbrio entre a valorização da pesquisa conceitual e de outros métodos considerados científicos por excelência (Laurenti, 2012). Aqui, podemos 175 incluir a discussão feminista sobre a produção de conhecimento e como ela se aplica à filosofia behaviorista radical e à análise do comportamento. Com a conclusão apresentada pelo movimento feminista de que a sociedade privilegia os homens, os questionamentos se voltam também para a produção de conhecimento nessa mesma sociedade e de como ela foi e é reflexo dos valores e 180 problemas julgados importantes por essa parcela da população. As teóricas feministas, então, passaram ao escrutínio desses modos de produção de conhecimento e de como estes podem contemplar as mulheres. Surge, então, a epistemologia feminista como disciplina que reúne tais questionamentos. A epistemologia feminista se assenta nas seguintes perguntas fundamentais: 185 dadas as notáveis diferenças entre homens e mulheres, existem meios de produzir conhecimento fundamental e/ou distintamente femininos? E, se sim, quais seriam tais meios e por que estes podem ser assim caracterizados? (Harding & Hintikka, 1983). Harding (1987) pondera que, em geral, os métodos utilizados pelas feministas em pesquisa são fundamentalmente os mesmos nas ciências humanas e 190 sociais – observação de comportamento, ouvir (e interrogar) informantes, examinar pistas e registros históricos. Portanto, a diferença não estaria na utilização de métodos construídos pela ciência encampada por homens, e sim em algo que os subjaz; então, as perguntas a serem feitas se referem à forma com que esses métodos são aplicados e que vieses eles apresentam em cada contexto, tornando a 195 tarefa da pesquisadora observar, sempre, quais vozes estão sendo silenciadas na produção de conhecimento. De forma complementar, Rago (1998) destaca que

mesmo os posicionamentos da epistemologia feminista em língua inglesa e francesa, de origens tão tradicionalmente colocadas como as primeiras fontes a serem consultadas, dada a robustez da produção nestas línguas, podem ser 200 questionadas a partir dos próprios problemas levantados por essa disciplina, já que a vida das mulheres em culturas ocidentais do sul e da América Latina, incluindo aí a vivência das brasileiras, pode trazer novas perspectivas acerca da produção de conhecimento por mulheres – permitindo falar, portanto, de várias epistemologias feministas. 205 Podemos colocar a filosofia do Behaviorismo Radical entre os modos de produção do conhecimento que foram construídos por homens - afinal, B. F. Skinner, teórico behaviorista radical de maior projeção, era um homem, e a maioria dos seus colegas de renome e interlocutores na área também o eram. As preocupações referentes à forma com que as mulheres viviam na época aparecem 210 pouco na obra de Skinner, que, observador do comportamento que era, se valeu da proximidade de mulheres importantes da sua vida – sua esposa e filhas – para atentar para as condições das mulheres em uma breve passagem da apresentação de Walden Two (1948) republicada na década de 1970: The dissatisfactions which led me to write Walden Two were personal. I 215 had seen my wife and her friends struggling to save themselves from domesticity, wincing as they printed ‘housewife’ in those blanks asking for occupation. Our older daughter had Just finished first grade, and there is nothing like a first child’s first year in school to turn one’s thoughts to education. (Skinner, 1948/1976, p. V, grifo nosso) 220 Dittrich (2004) retoma passagens de Walden Two em que Frazier, o alter ego de Skinner na comunidade apresentada no livro, expressa a preocupação de planejar práticas que promovam a igualdade entre os sexos, especialmente no que concerne às questões relacionadas ao trabalho e à criação dos filhos – o que pode 225 permitir inclusive considerar Walden Two como uma obra visionária do ponto de vista feminista, dada a época de sua publicação original. No entanto, tais passagens são escassas e restritas a tais temas, e não chegam a avançar sobre outras problemáticas tratadas pelas feministas, a exemplo da expressão da sexualidade, da representatividade racial e da vivência das mulheres enquanto vozes ativas na 230 construção daquela comunidade, conforme apontado por Wolpert (2005), que também chama a atenção para a falta de personagens femininas importantes no livro.

Ruiz e Roche (2007) refletem que a construção da Análise do Comportamento não pode se furtar à discussão de quais valores subjazem às 235 nossas investigações e práticas. A pretensa neutralidade científica não combina com os questionamentos de Skinner sobre o que devemos fazer enquanto cientistas, pois o que fazer com o conhecimento produzido é uma questão eminentemente política (Lopes & Laurenti, 2016). Dito isso, a escolha de temáticas e os caminhos que levam a elas devem estar, no mínimo, claros para quem 240 pesquisa e, quanto possível, claros para quem lê a pesquisa e para as pessoas a quem interessa o produto da pesquisa. Neste trabalho, optamos por privilegiar trabalhos de periódicos feministas, em sua maioria de autoras, no intuito de privilegiar o conhecimento produzido pelo feminismo como fonte. Dado que o feminismo é um movimento plural e horizontal, a 245 opção de realizar uma revisão de literatura extensa ao invés de fundamentar a análise em poucas autoras ou mesmo em textos da literatura científica geral tem como objetivo oferecer um panorama amplo da produção de conhecimento feminista.

250 1.3. Um conceito relevante para o feminismo: o empoderamento

Definir qualquer termo utilizado pelo feminismo é uma tarefa difícil. O feminismo é um campo de estudos em constante construção, por se valer de matrizes teóricas prévias bastante diversas sem, no entanto, se limitar a uma releitura das mesmas, e por adotar enfoques diferentes a depender da linha teórica 255 utilizada. Isso se reflete em uma instabilidade das categorias utilizadas para descrever os fenômenos que lhe são importantes, que é considerada necessária para manter o debate (Harding, 1993). No entanto, um termo de uso frequente pode ser destacado para a discussão dos objetivos feministas: o empoderamento.

O seu uso é multifacetado, tendo surgido na prática dos movimentos 260 feministas, passado a ser discutido na teoria acadêmica e ganhado uma série de interpretações diferentes, não necessariamente feministas. Ele parece ser tanto um produto, um objetivo último, quanto um processo que leva as mulheres à autonomia (Sardenberg, 2012).

O empoderamento se refere basicamente a três aspectos da ação feminina: 265 questionamento da ideologia patriarcal, transformação das estruturas e instituições que reforçam e mantêm essa ideologia e a criação das condições para que ambos sejam feitos pelas mulheres, em especial pelas mais pobres (Sardenberg, 2012). Ele se refere, em última análise, aos meios concretos pelos quais cada mulher pode se libertar de um contexto opressor ou à libertação desse contexto em si, 270 carregando em sua definição uma tensão entre aspectos individuais e coletivos – sendo criticado inclusive por feministas, por apresentar por vezes um viés excessivamente focado nas liberdades individuais em detrimento da liberdade das mulheres enquanto classe de indivíduos (Sardenberg, 2008). Não existe consenso sobre o termo, e ele é usado por vezes indiscriminadamente para falar de ações que 275 não necessariamente têm objetivos últimos libertadores, segundo análises de algumas correntes feministas (Sardenberg, 2008). Um exemplo particularmente discutido é o empoderamento sexual. Tomando como base o anseio feminista de que todas as mulheres possam exercer sua sexualidade como desejarem, a mídia e a sociedade retratam a “mulher empoderada sexualmente” como a mulher que 280 consome produtos que a deixam sexy, desejável, sem se importar com concepções moralistas – mas o modelo a ser imitado aí é o de uma mulher heterossexual, que nunca recusa uma relação sexual e que se veste e se porta de acordo com um ideal de sexualidade bastante específico; em última análise, algo vantajoso para o gênero masculino (Gill, 2008).

285 Uma análise behaviorista radical dos usos do termo empoderamento na literatura feminista requer, inicialmente, uma revisão das menções correntes ao termo, identificando quais comportamentos o compõem e quais variáveis controlariam seu uso nas teorias feministas. A variedade de acepções provavelmente estará de acordo com a também variada matriz filosófica do 290 feminismo, o que deverá resultar em diferentes perspectivas sobre que comportamentos estão envolvidos na descrição e na promoção do empoderamento, algumas delas mais ou menos próximas da matriz teórica do Behaviorismo Radical. Além disso, tal análise possibilita a discussão sobre a interação entre aspectos ontogenéticos e culturais nas ações feministas voltadas à superação do sexismo e o 295 impacto da utilização do termo empoderamento nas prescrições feministas. A noção behaviorista radical de comportamento enquanto interação organismo-ambiente

pode contribuir para um maior entendimento do comportamento feminino nos termos feministas e, mais ainda, contribuir para o delineamento de intervenções culturais orientadas pela Análise do Comportamento - o que, desde Skinner, se configura 300 como um dos objetivos da ciência fundamentada pelo Behaviorismo Radical (Skinner, 1971).

2. MÉTODO

305 O presente delineamento metodológico se baseia na proposta desenvolvida por Tourinho (2006) para a pesquisa em Análise do Comportamento. Descrita pelo autor como um dos pilares da abordagem, a análise conceitual não apresenta, no entanto, uma unidade metodológica, nem soluções que sejam aplicadas uniformemente por todos os pesquisadores que se dispõem a realizá-la. Isto posto, 310 as decisões metodológicas tomadas em um trabalho de análise conceitual devem ser explicitadas e defendidas em sua pertinência - sem, no entanto, prescindir de uma sistematização que preze pela clareza das mesmas.

Tourinho (2006) aponta cinco passos para o desenvolvimento da pesquisa em Análise do Comportamento, a saber: definição do problema de pesquisa; 315 especificação das informações relevantes; seleção do material de interesse; levantamento das informações e tratamento das informações. Tal proposta foi retomada e adaptada em trabalhos posteriores, a exemplo de Brunkow (2014). Além de tal proposta, foram consideradas diretrizes metodológicas para pesquisa conceitual descritas em Laurenti e Lopes (2016), especialmente no tocante à 320 seleção dos trechos para análise na etapa de levantamento das informações. A proposta de pesquisa conceitual sugerida por estes autores, no entanto, não foi integralmente utilizada, dadas as dificuldades para aplicá-la devido à quantidade de textos analisados e o uso de textos de autores de matrizes epistemológicas diversas.

325 Neste trabalho, as propostas metodológicas citadas acima foram retomadas e adaptadas, a fim de servir adequadamente aos objetivos do trabalho. As etapas são descritas a seguir.

2.1. Definição do problema de pesquisa

330 A pesquisa objetiva, primeiramente, elencar quais comportamentos são caracterizados pela literatura feminista como empoderados ou empoderadores, constituindo, portanto, um levantamento bibliográfico do registro da resposta verbal empoderamento e suas semelhantes topográficas, bem como das condições em que ocorre sua emissão nas publicações feministas analisadas.

335 A realização deste primeiro objetivo dará subsídios para a consecução do segundo: serão discutidas, em termos analítico-comportamentais, categorias mais comuns de comportamentos julgados pelo feminismo como empoderados ou empoderadores e quais as relações de tais comportamentos com os objetivos expressos pelo movimento feminista em relação à libertação das mulheres de 340 práticas culturais que as oprimem, enquanto coletivo.

2.2. Especificação das informações relevantes

O trabalho se inicia com a revisão dos usos do termo empoderamento na literatura feminista recente, com o objetivo de identificar a quais comportamentos o 345 movimento se refere quando utiliza tal termo para defini-los.

As fontes de informação que serviram como base a este estudo se dividem em dois campos principais: 1) textos que versem sobre teoria e epistemologia do feminismo e seus principais conceitos; 2) textos sobre teoria e epistemologia behaviorista radical, especialmente quando relacionados às discussões sobre 350 feminismo.

2.3. Seleção do material

Uma dificuldade na seleção de material da literatura feminista para o presente trabalho é o fato de não existirem, até o presente momento, bases de dados de livre 355 acesso que contenham apenas periódicos sobre estudos feministas. O termo empoderamento é utilizado também em outros referenciais dentro das Ciências Humanas; portanto, uma pesquisa utilizando apenas tal termo como palavra-chave retorna textos com usos diversos, não necessariamente de autoras feministas. Para tentar tornar a pesquisa representativa do uso do termo apenas por autoras 360 comprometidas com a produção de conhecimento feminista, uma opção é recorrer aos periódicos de estudos feministas disponíveis online em português e em inglês. Embora ainda não existam bases de dados específicas do tema e livres, algumas entidades organizam listas de periódicos sobre feminismo. Uma delas é a lista da seção de "Estudos de Mulheres e Gênero" da Association of College & Research

365 Libraries (2008), que conta com periódicos em inglês listados em pelo menos três indexadores da área de Ciências Humanas. Outra lista é a publicada pelas editoras da Revista Feminismos, ligada ao Núcleo de Estudos Interdisciplinares sobre a Mulher (NEIM-UFBA), que conta com títulos em português, espanhol e inglês (2013). Além dessas listas, existem bases de dados de estudos feministas e de 370 gênero compiladas por programas de pós-graduação ao redor do mundo, sendo a maioria deles, no entanto, de acesso restrito aos pesquisadores ligados aos mesmos programas; ou listas de fontes que compreendem não apenas periódicos científicos, mas também livros, revistas, sites e blogs feministas que não sejam revisados por pares – que, embora importantes na construção de um conhecimento 375 popular e dinâmico como é o conhecimento feminista, carecem de critérios claros para publicação. Embora a utilização de listas ao invés de bases de dados de Ciências Humanas apresente limitações, a opção pelas primeiras se justifica pela necessidade de representatividade de um campo específico ainda em formação.

Para a seleção dos artigos na área do feminismo, foram incluídos na 380 pesquisa todos os periódicos revisados por pares presentes em pelo menos uma das duas listas acima citadas, publicados nos últimos 10 anos (incluindo, portanto, publicações de 2006 até o presente ano), e disponíveis no Portal de Periódicos CAPES. Além destes, foi incluído um periódico de conhecimento da autora deste trabalho que não constava em nenhuma das listas (Feminism & Psychology) por sua 385 pertinência para o trabalho aqui realizado. Foram excluídos todos os periódicos que, embora presentes nas listas, se caracterizassem por (1) não apresentar a prática de revisão por pares claramente explicitada na política editorial; (2) publicar apenas trabalhos sobre temas específicos sob a perspectiva feminista (periódicos sobre artes e literatura, saúde, religião, dentre outros).

390 Nos periódicos que dispõem de pesquisa automatizada, a busca foi feita por palavras-chave, enquanto nos que não dispõem de tal recurso a busca foi realizada de forma manual, pelas mesmas palavras-chave, em todos os números do período citado, cujos artigos/resumos dos artigos estejam disponíveis no site da publicação. Os critérios de seleção em ambos os casos são: 1) presença das palavras 395 empoderamento/empowerment no título, resumo e/ou lista de palavras-chave do artigo; 2) presença de definição/discussão de tais palavras no corpo do artigo. No caso dos artigos que não dispunham de resumo, foram lidos e excluídos aqueles

cujas menções ao termo empoderamento não eram acompanhadas da identificação de condições contextuais relacionadas ao seu uso.

400 Foram excluídos também (1) resenhas de obras literárias, artísticas ou científicas; (2) entrevistas com autoras e autores, ou textos autobiográficos; 3) editoriais ou comentários das editoras e editores dos periódicos. Com isso, se privilegiou a análise de textos teórico-conceituais que analisavam o uso do termo empoderamento e textos aplicados, que usavam o termo para descrever 405 comportamentos das participantes das pesquisas relatadas.

Todos os periódicos revisados estão presentes na Tabela 1.

Tabela 1

Lista de periódicos sobre feminismo incluídos nesta revisão

Período de Filiação da chefia do Periódico Instituição a publicação corpo editorial Affilia: Journal of Women and Association with Women and 1 1986-atual Social Work Social Work (EUA) Universidade Federal de 2 Caderno Espaço Feminino 1994-atual Uberlândia Universidade Estadual de 3 Cadernos Pagu 1993-atual Campinas Universidade Federal de 4 Estudos Feministas 1992-atual Santa Catarina University of Maryland 5 Feminist Studies 1972-atual Publicação independente (EUA) 6 Feminist Teacher 1984-atual University of Illinois Newcastle University, University of London, 7 Feminist Theory 2000-atual Publicação independente University of Kent, Lancaster University (Reino Unido) Murdoch University (Austrália), University of Umea (Suécia), University of Calgary (Canadá), 8 Feminism & Psychology 1991-atual Publicação independente University of South Africa (África do Sul), Aberystwyth University (País de Gales) Frontiers: a Journal of Women 9 1975-atual Ohio State University Studies 10 Gender & Society 1987-atual Publicação independente Oakland University (EUA) North Carolina State 11 Gender Issues 1980-atual Publicação independente University (EUA) 12 Gênero na Amazônia 2012-atual Universidade Federal do Pará Hypatia: a Journal of Feminist 13 1986-atual Publicação independente Villanova University (EUA) Philosophy 14 Journal of Women's History 1989-atual Johns Hopkins University

Universidad de La La Aljaba, segunda época: Pampa/Universidad de 15 1996-2013 Revista de Estudios de La Mujer Luján/Universidad de Comahue Meridians: Feminism, Race, 16 2000-atual Indiana University Transnationality American Psychological 17 Psychology of Women Quarterly 1976-atual Association (Division 35) Universidade Federal da 18 Revista Ártemis 2004-atual Paraíba Universidade Federal 19 Revista Gênero 2000-atual Fluminense 20 Social Politics 1994-atual Oxford University Feminist Press at the City 21 Women's Studies Quarterly 1973-atual University of New York ª Apenas para publicações independentes (produzidas por coletivos de autoras feministas e não filiadas diretamente a 410 nenhuma universidade, embora indexadas). Nestes casos, optou-se por citar a filiação da chefia do corpo editorial para destacar o caráter acadêmico do periódico em questão.

Além dos artigos selecionados pertencentes aos periódicos acima, a interpretação dos trechos selecionados da literatura feminista teve o auxílio de 415 textos que discutam o Behaviorismo Radical, a exemplo das obras de B. F. Skinner, dada a sua relevância quanto ao tema em foco neste estudo, bem como de outros textos de conhecimento da autora sobre análise conceitual e análise comportamental da cultura.

420 2.4. Levantamento das informações Todos os trechos que se referiram à resposta verbal empoderamento, incluindo descrições de comportamentos empoderadores ou empoderados, e prescrições de comportamentos que poderiam ser descritos como empoderamento – incluindo os trechos que reúnam descrições ou exemplos, hipotéticos ou reais, de 425 intervenções que visem a emissão de comportamentos ditos empoderados – foram selecionados e registrados em uma tabela. Os trechos foram avaliados pela relação com a resposta verbal de radical empod- ou empow-, sendo, portanto, topograficamente variados em relação à sua extensão. A categorização foi realizada nesta tabela, com o uso da letra S (state/sense) 430 quando o trecho pertencia à categoria empoderamento com base em estados internos e da letra C (countercontrol) quando o trecho foi categorizado como pertencente ao empoderamento com base no contracontrole, conforme detalhamos

a seguir. As tabelas com os trechos analisados se encontram disponíveis no Apêndice C deste trabalho. 435 2.5. Tratamento das informações Para a consecução dos objetivos expostos, os trechos selecionados e registrados que forneceram indícios das condições contextuais em que são emitidas respostas verbais com o radical empod- (empoderado/a, empoderador/a, 440 desempoderado/a, entre outras respostas de topografia semelhante e suas respectivas versões em inglês) foram julgados de acordo com duas categorias principais, emergentes a partir da leitura dos artigos: empoderamento com base em estados internos – comportamentos que foram relatados ou observados e que são característicos do empoderamento (empoderados ou empoderadores) por sua 445 relação com sentimentos ou pensamentos das mulheres – ou empoderamento com base no contracontrole – comportamentos que seriam característicos do empoderamento (empoderados ou empoderadores) por suas consequências relacionadas à oposição a práticas de controle, quando emitidos pelas mulheres. Posteriormente, foram identificadas as relações entre o uso feminista do 450 termo e as discussões promovidas na literatura analítico-comportamental, a fim de avaliar se tais usos se coadunam com os objetivos expressos na promoção do empoderamento, conforme o termo é usado pelo movimento feminista. A discussão se fundamenta nas categorias utilizadas no estudo para, a partir daí, discutir quais implicações a definição de empoderamento com base em estados internos ou no 455 contracontrole tem para a consecução dos objetivos do movimento feminista.

3. RESULTADOS E DISCUSSÃO

460 3.1. Artigos revisados na literatura feminista

A revisão em periódicos feministas, após aplicados os critérios de seleção por palavras-chave discutidos na seção Método, retornou 177 artigos que utilizam o termo empoderamento. Entre os artigos selecionados de acordo com os primeiros critérios de busca foram realizadas exclusões adicionais, quando a leitura tornou 465 evidente que os textos não seriam úteis para o trabalho. Por exemplo, Barroso e Farias (2014) não se dedicaram a discutir o empoderamento de forma consistente, citando o termo apenas no resumo, sem mencioná-lo novamente no decorrer do artigo. Tendo sido a busca realizada nos sistemas de pesquisa próprios de cada periódico, tais exclusões se tornaram necessárias pois, mesmo com o uso das 470 palavras-chave, alguns dos textos não apresentavam resumos ou traziam menções insuficientes à palavra empoderamento, razão pela qual a exclusão se deu após breve leitura dos artigos. Finalmente, após a primeira seleção por palavras-chave, utilizando os critérios de exclusão mencionados na seção Método e as exclusões adicionais, restaram 126 artigos para a presente análise. Com as exclusões, um dos 475 periódicos foi eliminado por não retornar nenhum texto que cumprisse os critérios (La Aljaba); este periódico também era o único em língua espanhola, restando apenas periódicos em português e inglês.

A Tabela 2 apresenta o total de artigos incluídos nesta revisão, por periódico.

Tabela 2

480 Quantidade de artigos incluídos para revisão por periódico

Artigos selecionados Periódico para revisão Affilia: Journal of Women and 1 19 Social Work 2 Caderno Espaço Feminino 2 3 Cadernos Pagu 1 4 Estudos Feministas 2 5 Feminist Studies 5 6 Feminist Teacher 14 7 Feminist Theory 3 8 Feminism & Psychology 13 Frontiers: a Journal of Women 9 14 Studies

10 Gender & Society 6 11 Gender Issues 7 12 Gênero na Amazônia 2 Hypatia: a Journal of Feminist 13 2 Philosophy 14 Journal of Women's History 2 La Aljaba, segunda época: 15 0 Revista de Estudios de La Mujer Meridians: Feminism, Race, 16 1 Transnationality 17 Psychology of Women Quarterly 14 18 Revista Ártemis 2 19 Revista Gênero 2 20 Social Politics 6 21 Women's Studies Quarterly 9

Total 126

Foram selecionados para análise, ao total, 916 trechos dentro dos textos incluídos na revisão, sendo 80 trechos em português e 836 trechos em inglês. Dentre esses, 301 trechos (32,9%) foram caracterizados como empoderamento com 485 base em estados internos e 399 trechos (43,5%) como empoderamento com base no contracontrole. Restaram 216 trechos (23,6%) que não se encaixaram em nenhuma das duas categorias – como os que se referiam a nomes de programas (a exemplo de Jones e Mattingly (2016), que usava a denominação empowerment- based self-defense para um programa de ensino de autodefesa para mulheres); 490 trechos onde a palavra empoderamento e derivadas eram utilizadas para caracterizar aspectos metodológicos internos ao texto; ou ainda trechos que não traziam contextualização suficiente para inferir quais variáveis levavam à sua emissão naquele momento. Tais trechos não categorizados foram eliminados da análise final, restando, portanto, 700 trechos que fundamentaram as seções 495 seguintes deste trabalho.

Um exemplo de categorização, a seguir, é demonstrado no texto de Smith (2006), sobre um programa de serviço social que atendia mães que perderam a guarda dos filhos por vício em substâncias, tendo o empoderamento como foco deste programa. O seguinte trecho se concentra no empoderamento como parte de 500 uma estratégia de empatia, cujo objetivo era fazer com que as mulheres atendidas não se sentissem culpadas pela perda da guarda das crianças e então as

empoderasse como mães – fazendo parte da categoria S (empoderamento com base em estados internos):

“An understanding and greater awareness of the shame, guilt, loss of hope, 505 and frustration that these mothers feel is critical to the success of their treatment. These finding provide greater insights into the process of losing one’s children and being identified as being “unfit.” A greater awareness and sensitivity to this process will, it is hoped, provide an increased level of empathy and a stronger drive for empowering these women in their recovery 510 process.” (Smith, 2006, p. 456) Já o trecho seguinte, do mesmo texto e da mesma autora, se concentra no desenvolvimento de estratégias de empoderamento dentro dos programas de cuidado a tais mulheres, sendo classificado como parte da categoria C (empoderamento com base no contracontrole):

515 “Increasing sensitivity and knowledge about addiction were identified with the enactment of the ASFA (1997). This new law allocated funds for states to provide increased substance abuse training for child welfare service providers—training in which sensitivity and empowerment and understanding the experiences of mothers in the system would fit well. 520 Research on the facilitation of this new training and whether it includes a strong sensitivity component would be helpful in examining where the system is in its effort to increase knowledge of addiction and recovery. Including an empowerment-based sensitivity component in this training would work to address the obstacles to family reunification that were 525 expressed by the women in this study.” (Smith, 2006, p. 456) Tal trecho coloca como estratégia de empoderamento aquela que tem como objetivo ensinar às mulheres a lidar com o vício em substâncias para, então, estar novamente perto de toda a família – em outras palavras, o poder, ou controle, que foi dado ao Estado de decidir os rumos da família volta a ser da mulher. Embora 530 sentimentos relacionados à reunião da família sob tutela da mulher possam ser eliciados na situação retratada, a descrição acima concentra-se na construção de estratégias como cerne do empoderamento, e não nestes sentimentos como critério para julgar a transferência de poder do Estado novamente às mulheres.

A Tabela 3 demonstra a quantidade de trechos por categoria, por periódico.

535 Tabela 3

Quantidade de trechos das categorias S e C, por periódico

Periódico Categoria S Categoria C Sem categoria 1 Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work 36 102 30 2 Caderno Espaço Feminino 0 18 3 3 Cadernos Pagu 0 3 0

4 Estudos Feministas 1 5 4 5 Feminist Studies 11 5 11 6 Feminist Teacher 30 32 30 7 Feminist Theory 13 4 8 8 Feminism & Psychology 50 24 9 9 Frontiers: a Journal of Women Studies 33 40 22 10 Gender & Society 5 43 13 11 Gender Issues 27 8 16 12 Gênero na Amazônia 0 18 0 13 Hypatia: a Journal of Feminist Philosophy 13 3 0 14 Journal of Women's History 0 10 6 15 Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationality 4 1 2 16 Psychology of Women Quarterly 45 25 28 17 Revista Ártemis 0 8 0 18 Revista Gênero 0 17 3 19 Social Politics 22 21 20 20 Women's Studies Quarterly 11 12 11

Total 301 399 216

Algo notado a partir da tabulação dos dados é a concentração da categoria S nos periódicos em língua inglesa – em português, apenas um trecho dos 80 540 analisados foi classificado como pertencente a esta categoria. No entanto, o volume de publicações de língua inglesa e língua portuguesa analisado foi bastante desigual (115 em inglês, 91,3% das publicações; contra apenas 12 em português, 9,5% das publicações); além disso, um volume considerável de trechos foi excluído da análise final (216), tornando difícil estimar as razões da diferença encontrada.

545 Nas seções seguintes, serão exploradas as relações encontradas na literatura pesquisada entre empoderamento, estados internos e estratégias de contracontrole.

3.2. Empoderamento com base em estados internos

550 Os 301 trechos identificados como parte da categoria empoderamento com base em estados internos consideram, em geral, comportamentos relacionados à expressão verbal de sentimentos das mulheres estudadas como característicos do processo de empoderamento, ou descrições verbais das mulheres como

empoderadas em determinado contexto a partir do momento em que elas adquirem 555 consciência do controle exercido por práticas culturais patriarcais.

Em alguns casos, a literatura permitia presumir mudanças nos contextos em que as mulheres viviam que poderiam ser responsáveis pelos sentimentos descritos como relacionados ao empoderamento. Mesmo assim, a palavra empoderamento surgia sob controle dos sentimentos que as mulheres relatavam, a exemplo de 560 Nasrabadi (2014), que discute a participação feminina no movimento estudantil à época da revolução iraniana:

Within the parameters of gender sameness, some women experienced novel feelings of empowerment and belonging. Soosan came to the United States in 1978 and quickly became immersed in the 565 Iranian student Left in Berkeley. After the revolution, she would spend almost a year in prison in Iran and narrowly escape execution. Soosan remembered her participation in the ISA as “really one of my best times that I had in my life.” She smiled when she recalled “that passion of doing something” collectively. “We were so equal,” she said. “I could be news 570 leader or a man could be.” (Nasrabadi, 2014, p. 133) Em outros textos, a relação com o empoderamento é descrita pelas autoras como parte dos sentimentos que as mulheres descrevem ter em contextos que, de alguma forma, desafiam as normas relacionadas ao comportamento que é esperado na sociedade pelas mulheres. Medved (2009), em um artigo no qual relata 575 entrevistas com mulheres que são provedoras financeiras das suas famílias (breadwinning mothers), destaca sentimentos de felicidade destas mulheres por fornecer bons exemplos às suas filhas como característicos do empoderamento, atrelados à construção da identidade de boas mães:

In other passages, hopes for future gender-role changes were also 580 positioned as the result of mothers’ acts and identities of breadwinning: “Oh, gosh, my girls have such a strong father figure at home. . . . That is going to make such a difference in their lives. . . . You just can’t put a price on that. I mean, I know they’re getting, they’re going to be strong girls because I’m a strong mom that believes they can do whatever they want to.” A strong 585 sense of self as a breadwinning mother is constructed as having a direct affect on children’s lives in this excerpt. And this passage can be read as an empowering aspect of a breadwinning mother’s subjectivity. (Medved, 2009, p. 151, grifo nosso) Alguns dos trechos categorizados, embora trouxessem o empoderamento 590 relacionado aos sentimentos das mulheres em determinados contextos, também teciam críticas a esse sentimento de empoderamento considerado como libertação de práticas culturais do patriarcado. É o que ocorre, por exemplo, em Showden (2009), que discute os “novos feminismos” em que se valoriza a reinterpretação de

mulheres como não apenas vítimas, mas também como livres e empoderadas, 595 tendo uma visão mais positiva de práticas combatidas como degradantes às mulheres pelos movimentos feministas anteriores e, para isso, enfocando os sentimentos de liberdade experimentados por estas mulheres:

Thus, a significant problem with the postfeminist girl power position is that it confuses a determined reclamation of femininity with a feminist 600 statement on agency. While wearing lipstick and miniskirts might feel empowering and freely chosen, such freedom and empowerment are often—at least to some degree—illusory given the individual’s inability to control the reading of her actions. (Showden, 2009, p. 177, grifo nosso)

605 Tal noção de empoderamento também aparece em Lieu (2013), que discute a percepção de mulheres vietnamitas sobre a participação em concursos de beleza, falando também do estímulo ao consumo aplicado às mulheres e de como este subjaz a lógica neoliberal de liberdade como escolha individual:

Moreover, personal ideas about freedom and individualism within 610 the logic of neoliberalism can be extended to discussions of gender particularly in the era of postfeminism. According to Yvonne Taskler and Diane Negra, postfeminist culture “works in part to incorporate, assume, or naturalize aspects of feminism; crucially, it also works to commodify feminism via the figure of the woman as empowered consumer.” Aligned 615 with neoliberalism, postfeminist culture emphasizes choice (professional and educational opportunities) and individual freedom particularly through physical and sexual empowerment. With the intent of being fully engaged in discussions about gender in modern America, Vietnamese American beauty pageants reflected these shifts in their 620 organizational objectives. While the pageants were marketed as communal events, organizers promoted them as affable sites where each contestant could feel good about herself as she forged friendships with other women. However, the reality of these competitions is that only one woman can emerge as the beauty queen. The sole winner would be rewarded with 625 material goods, as well as gain symbolic capital as a spokesperson for the community. She might also be granted modeling opportunities with sponsors that would open up paths for further success, leaving all others behind. Despite these contradictions both pageant organizers and contestants themselves deployed the neoliberal language of choice, 630 opportunity, and female empowerment to defend the competitive process whereby female bodies would be displayed and judged. In line with postfeminist rhetoric the collective acts of objectification and commodification went unchallenged as young women “chose” to enter the pageants with high hopes of a successful outcome. (Lieu, 2013, pp. 28-29 635 grifo nosso) Sentido semelhante é conferido ao comportamento das mulheres nepalesas participantes de concursos de beleza citadas por Crawford et al. (2008):

Women who enter beauty pageants present themselves as ‘intelligent, goal-oriented, independent, feisty, and committed to 640 individualism’ (Banet-Weiser, 1999: 88). By making what they see as an individual, assertive choice to participate, they believe they are gaining

an opportunity to enhance poise, self-confidence, and self-esteem, and to become empowered, independent, liberated, and ‘modern’ (Ahmed- Ghosh, 2003). (Crawford et. al., 2008, p. 64-65, grifo nosso)

645 Em trechos como os presentes em Doetsch-Kidder (2012), o empoderamento enquanto sentimento também aparece como parte de um processo de escolha; as mulheres, argumenta-se, podem exercer tal escolha frente aos desafios colocados ao seu gênero:

Blaming does not create change. As Thich Nhat Hanh writes, "Only 650 love and understanding can help people change." Anzaldua articulates the bind created by blaming others for oppression: "Blocked, immobilized, we can't move forward, can't move backwards. We abnegate." She points out the choice that we all have to feel empowered or to feel victimized.

[...]

655 To say that one can choose to be empowered does not deny the reality of structural oppression and other limits to what one can do in the world Keating calls this "the paradox of personal agency and structural determinacy" and notes that Anzaldua writes from within this contradiction, declaring her inability to resolve it. The choice to feel empowered is 660 expansive, the location of creativity, and a source of love. Through loving criticism, we accept responsibility for our role in conflicts and our power to respond, construct, create, and transform. We refuse to circumscribe people as victims and oppressors. (Doetsch-Kidder, 2012, p. 457, grifo nosso)

665 O empoderamento como algo libertador a partir dos sentimentos das mulheres aparece também em Bowman (2013), que examinou a relação das mulheres com a prática da masturbação. Ao refletir que o comportamento de uma mulher de masturbar-se é malvisto na sociedade – em outras palavras, punido ou passível de punição – , a autora coloca os sentimentos de poder das mulheres como 670 característicos da libertação que a prática traria, mesmo reconhecendo que a definição de empoderamento é motivo de discussão na literatura feminista:

It is important to precisely define the construct of sexual empowerment, especially considering that feminist theorists continue to struggle with its definition (Lamb, 2010; Lamb & Peterson, 2011; McClelland 675 & Fine, 2008; Peterson, 2010; Tolman, 2012). Is empowerment best understood as an internal experience of agency and power (i.e., feeling or experiencing empowerment)? Or is it a concrete measure of a person’s ability or power to alter social and political arrangements (i.e., being empowered)? Some theorists distinguish ‘‘power to’’ (an internal sense of 680 self-efficacy or selfesteem) from ‘‘power over’’ (actual control over decision making and resources; Hollander & Offermann, 1990; Riger, 1993; Yoder & Kahn, 1992), whereas others have simply referred to the former as subjective and the latter as objective empowerment (Peterson, 2010). Though there continues to be a lack of consensus regarding which 685 form of power constitutes sexual empowerment, my study attempted to understand women’s own experiences of sexual empowerment as an aspect of masturbation, regardless of whether these beliefs

translate to observable shifts in power relations. (Bowman, 2013, p. 364, grifo nosso)

690 Outros trechos, como em Godbee & Novotny (2013), relacionam o empoderamento à construção de auto-estima e autoconfiança, diretamente ligados ao conceito de agência mencionado anteriormente neste trabalho. Neste artigo, as autoras falam do empoderamento que ocorre em turmas de escrita para mulheres baseadas em co-mentoria:

695 The powerful moments we see, then, are not ephemeral, but lasting. When Charisse taps into Andrea’s classroom experience, they collaboratively create a record of the conversation and claims that arise, and the subsequent notes become the roadmap leading Andrea through her writing process. Further, the writing serves as a means of self- 700 empowerment associated with the confidence built and agency asserted during the conference.

[...]

If we agree that feminist comentoring plays an important role in fostering one’s sense of value (i.e., self-empowerment, agency, 705 solidarity), then individuals can recognize it as important to their own and others’ positions in academia and put time toward it (even folding it into other time-demanding tasks), rather than being pulled away by all the other demands on time. (Godbee & Novotny, 2013, pp. 190-191, grifo nosso) Outros trechos encontrados na literatura consultada caracterizam o 710 empoderamento como um fenômeno relacionado à construção de consciência - ou seja, à descrição das mulheres das variáveis que afetavam seu comportamento e à possibilidade de ação que tal descrição poderia acarretar. Um exemplo dessa caracterização é encontrado em Maneschy, Siqueira e Álvares (2012), ao descrever o comportamento classificado como empoderado das mulheres participantes de 715 uma associação de pescadoras brasileira:

No Brasil, a Articulação Nacional de Pescadoras é um grande exemplo. É notável em um ramo que, conforme as representações convencionais e hegemônicas, é associado aos pescadores, hábeis e corajosos homens a enfrentar o mar distante e seus perigos. Desse modo, 720 as pescadoras em movimento criam suas próprias versões de empoderamento e conscientizam-se de sua presença objetiva em curso no processo da pesca, desestabilizando noções como as de que são “ajudantes” ou “dependentes”; enfim, de que elas não estão nesse setor em suas próprias capacidades. (Maneschy, Siqueira e 725 Álvares, 2012, p. 724, grifo nosso) A relação entre agência e conscientização é explorada por Ruiz (1998) como um dos pontos de tensão das teorias feministas que poderia ser discutida à luz do Behaviorismo Radical. A autora argumenta que, embora as feministas considerem o comportamento humano como produto de um contexto, não refletindo quaisquer

730 essências do gênero masculino ou feminino, alguns internalismos persistem na discussão das instâncias “causadoras” do comportamento. A agência é vista como o “agir com consciência” – ou seja, a partir da discriminação das variáveis que afetam o comportamento, uma pessoa pode mudar o curso de suas ações, agindo de forma diferente. No entanto, a forma como tal processo é descrito tende a obscurecer as 735 variáveis em questão, uma vez que coloca o locus da ação no indivíduo, sem descrever que variáveis contribuem para a mulher em questão passar a descrever as contingências que a afetam. No caso dos trechos discutidos acima, pode-se questionar de que maneira as mulheres aprenderam a descrever seus comportamentos como empoderados a partir do que sentem. A crítica de Lieu 740 (2013) à lógica neoliberal, por exemplo, sugere que no contexto em que as mulheres aprendem que a escolha livre está ligada ao consumo de ideais de beleza, os sentimentos que elas expressam são tomados como característicos dessa escolha.

Os sentimentos também são tomados como fonte do empoderamento 745 descrito por essas mulheres, como surge em Bowman (2013), citada acima. Tomar sentimentos como característicos da liberdade experimentada pelas mulheres nos remete à discussão de Skinner (1971) sobre o enfoque nos sentimentos para explicar o comportamento dos indivíduos.

The contributions of the literature of freedom, however, are not 750 usually described in these terms. Some traditional theories could conceivably be said to define freedom as the absence of aversive control, but the emphasis has been on how that condition feels. Other traditional theories could conceivably be said to define freedom as a person's condition when he is behaving under non-aversive control, but the emphasis has 755 been upon a state of mind associated with doing what one wants. [...] A person escapes from or destroys the power of a controller in order to feel free, and once he feels free and can do what he desires, no further action is recommended and none is prescribed by the literature of freedom, except perhaps eternal vigilance lest control be resumed. (Skinner, 1971, pp. 36- 760 37)

O autor chama a atenção para a possibilidade de exercer controle sobre os indivíduos mesmo quando estes não se sentem controlados. Isso diminui a probabilidade do contracontrole e permite que controladores utilizem menos os métodos de controle aversivo, modificando esquemas de reforçamento para que os 765 controlados façam mais com um menor emprego da força. Partindo daí, os sentimentos dos controlados são pouco confiáveis como critério para julgar a

liberdade que os mesmos têm naquele contexto. Skinner (1974) lembra ainda que sentimentos positivos surgidos em relações de exploração não percebidas pelos controlados tendem a manter tais relações intactas:

770 The important fact is not that we feel free when we have been positively reinforced but that we do not tend to escape or counterattack. Feeling free is an important hallmark of a kind of control distinguished by the fact that it does not breed countercontrol. The struggle for freedom has seemed to move toward a world in which people do as they like or what they 775 want to do, in which they enjoy the right to be left alone, in which they have been “redeemed from the tyranny of gods and governments by the growth of their free will into perfect strength and self-confidence.” [...] It is a world in which the control of human behavior is wrong, in which “the desire to change another person is essentially hostile.” Unfortunately the feeling of 780 being free is not a reliable indication that we have reached such a world. (Skinner, 1974, pp. 77-78) Por outro lado, Skinner (1953) também destaca que os sentimentos podem ser pistas importantes das contingências que estão em vigor, sendo evocados sentimentos positivos (felicidade, júbilo, alívio) quando há reforçamento, seja ele 785 positivo ou negativo, e sentimentos negativos (raiva, agressividade, frustração) quando há punição, seja ela positiva ou negativa. Isso nos permite deduzir que as mulheres que se sentem empoderadas, segundo a literatura consultada, estão emitindo comportamentos que são reforçados pelas pessoas do seu convívio – outras mulheres e outros homens. Pensar que mulheres que se engajam em 790 atividades de cuidado estético, como nos casos citados referentes a concursos de beleza ou cuidado dos filhos, estejam recebendo reforçamento social por tais atividades, seja em forma de elogios, afeto ou mesmo por evitar a aversividade ligada ao não-envolvimento com práticas culturais tidas como femininas, torna possível enxergar tais sentimentos como parte de contingências onde a sensação 795 de felicidade ou alívio é uma descrição genuína.

O problema surge a partir da possibilidade de existirem consequências aversivas atrasadas empregadas no controle. Skinner (1971) discute tais consequências atrasadas, ou armadilhas do controle, a partir dos esquemas de reforçamento empregados pelos controladores. Nos casos retratados acima, há que 800 se observar a possibilidade de consequências atrasadas, por exemplo, nas situações em que o empoderamento tem relação com aspectos físicos ou sexuais. Mulheres que se comportam de forma a conformar-se a ideais de beleza, sensualidade e/ou maternidade – exercendo tarefas em que se embelezam,

comportam-se de forma a estar disponíveis sexualmente ou dedicam-se aos 805 cuidados com a prole – estão se adequando às práticas culturais esperadas para as mulheres, e caso tais comportamentos não sejam emitidos, as mulheres são punidas por não serem bonitas ou boas o suficiente como mães. O adequar-se a práticas culturais misóginas que geram reforçadores imediatos mantém tais comportamentos no repertório feminino, mas não contribui para a mudança da 810 hierarquia entre gêneros a longo prazo.

Outros questionamentos podem ser levantados a partir da relação entre consciência e empoderamento, destacada em alguns dos trechos categorizados. A discriminação e descrição verbal de variáveis presentes no ambiente, que caracterizaria a consciência em termos analítico-comportamentais, é um repertório 815 comportamental adquirido e requer ser explicado, enquanto tal, de acordo com as suas próprias origens. A consciência das variáveis relacionadas a práticas culturais decorrentes da misoginia pode ser considerada parte do desenvolvimento das estratégias de mudança e da detecção da necessidade de aprendizagem de novos repertórios comportamentais, e, mais ainda, da intervenção necessária por parte de 820 planejadores culturais, o que denota a importância do desenvolvimento de comunidades verbais que ajudem as mulheres a descrever tais fatores, conforme salientado por Ruiz (1998). A autoconsciência, colocada como parte do processo de empoderamento nos trechos citados acima, como em Maneschy, Siqueira e Álvares (2012), pode surgir do contato com comunidades verbais que descrevam as 825 variáveis que afetam o comportamento das mulheres – o que pode ajudar a explicar por que, entre mulheres, comportamentos que antes eram vistos como típicos de homens sejam, então, caracterizados como empoderados. No entanto, apenas a descrição verbal de variáveis não necessariamente altera outros repertórios comportamentais dessas mulheres. Carvalho Neto, Alves e Baptista (2007) 830 discutem a consciência como fator de prevenção e cuidado contra a violência, destacando os problemas de colocar a consciência como necessária para a mudança:

De um ponto de vista analítico-comportamental, a consciência não seria um determinante autônomo interno da ação dos indivíduos. Não 835 poderia ser a causa do aumento da violência (ausência) e nem de sua solução (presença). Mais do que isso, a consciência estaria entre os produtos da própria violência, entendida como uma forma de interação coercitiva entre o indivíduo e a sociedade. Seria apenas mais um dos

repertórios de esquiva (autocontrole) gerados por certas práticas culturais 840 (Sidman, 1989/1995 e Skinner, 1957/1992). Poderia ser entendida também como "ser capaz de descrever o que se está fazendo" e "porquê", identificando as variáveis de controle (racionalidade) (Skinner, 1974/1976). Nesse sentido, a consciência seria um repertório comportamental a ser explicado e não uma explicação última para as demais ações. [...] a 845 responsabilidade pelos problemas acabaria por recair sobre as próprias pessoas mais diretamente afetadas por eles, ou melhor, recairiam sobre as capacidades internas inferidas que supostamente estariam ausentes nessas pessoas. (Carvalho Neto, Alves e Baptista, 2007, pp. 39-40) Assim como não poderíamos ver a consciência como solução para a questão 850 da violência em um indivíduo, também podemos pensar que o empoderamento, visto de acordo com os critérios sugeridos por Sardenberg (2012) e citados na seção 1, não se esgota na construção do repertório comportamental da consciência. Este é parte de uma relação que envolve a transformação do poder, ou seja, da mudança de posição entre controladores e controlados. As noções encontradas na 855 literatura classificadas de acordo com a categoria de empoderamento baseado no contracontrole permitirão uma análise mais aprofundada dessa transformação, a seguir.

3.3. Empoderamento com base no contracontrole

860 Os 399 trechos categorizados como participantes do empoderamento com base no contracontrole em geral se relacionam a descrições de alterações nas contingências vigentes desvantajosas para as mulheres - seja em termos do reforçamento ou punição recebida naqueles contextos por comportamentos emitidos por elas, seja em relação à percepção do controle por práticas culturais decorrentes 865 da misoginia pelas mulheres e da descrição de tais práticas de controle como objeto de posterior intervenção pelos grupos estudados, com o intuito de modificá-las. O contracontrole é citado por Skinner (1974) como a resposta dos organismos ao controle poderoso exercido principalmente por uma agência de controle ou por outros indivíduos. Este controle pode ser exercido ao dispor 870 contingências imediatamente aversivas ou de exploração ao longo do tempo. Quando indivíduos respondem de forma a atacar ou modificar as estruturas do controle, seja por meio de ação organizada como protestos, greves ou revoluções ou nas ações contra um membro controlador da sociedade, exercitam o

contracontrole. Sá (2016) refina a definição de Skinner de contracontrole social ao 875 descrevê-lo como qualquer classe de respostas emitidas por indivíduos (isolados ou em grupo) que tenham o efeito de prevenir, eliminar ou atenuar as consequências aversivas e/ou exploratórias (a curto, médio ou longo prazo) produzidas para tais indivíduos por qualquer dada instância de controle 880 social institucionalizada (legal ou consuetudinariamente) ou em vias de institucionalização. (Sá, 2016, pp. 55-56).

Skinner (1974) pondera que o contracontrole é mais nitidamente visível nas relações sociais em que há emprego de consequências aversivas imediatas. Nas 885 relações em que há consequências atrasadas, frequentemente não ocorre contracontrole, pois, conforme discutido na seção anterior, as contingências que produzem os sentimentos de liberdade surgidos em tais relações diminuem a probabilidade de contracontrolar. Nessas relações de exploração, podemos incluir a desigualdade entre homens e mulheres, que perdura também pelo emprego de 890 consequências aversivas atrasadas – mulheres que se comportam de acordo com práticas culturais misóginas recebem reforçamento positivo imediato. A relação de poder entre controlados e controladores foi objeto também de uma revisão do conceito de contracontrole promovida por Ricetti & Dittrich (2016), que, frente à variedade de definições presentes na literatura behaviorista radical, ponderam que, 895 ao considerar a utilidade do conceito na análise de fenômenos sociais, analistas do comportamento devem atentar à modificação de relações de poder na direção de uma distribuição mais igualitária do mesmo. Dito isto, o empoderamento feminino se configura como uma destas possbilidades de modificação na distribuição de poder entre indivíduos, conforme 900 descrições presentes nos trechos da literatura revisada. A definição de empoderamento como um fenômeno diretamente relacionado à mudança de relações de poder está presente em parte dos trechos encontrados, a exemplo de Mariano (2008): A importância da perspectiva de gênero está relacionada à 905 democratização das relações sociais entre homens e mulheres, partindo do entendimento de que estas são relações de poder, conforme Joan Scott (1990), as quais estruturam sistemas de desigualdades sociais. Quando orientadas por essa concepção, as proposições de projetos e políticas públicas implicam vislumbrar impactos nessa estrutura de poder, 910 visando, com isso, promover o empoderamento das mulheres, de forma a abalar e superar as relações de subordinação (Mariano, 2001). (Mariano, 2008, p. 161, grifo nosso).

Outros trechos colocam o empoderamento como característico de 915 comportamentos que mudam ou refletem mudanças nas relações de poder, discutindo a mudança nas relações entre indivíduos, a exemplo de Hung (2012), que descreve as alterações no repertório comportamental de mulheres participantes de workshops voltados a recém-divorciadas, algo culturalmente malvisto na China, país onde foi realizado o estudo: 920 In the empowerment workshops, the women were also invited to share what they saw as their strengths. Their lists included the ability to handle their relationships with their ex-husbands and the paternal family, to survive hardships in the divorce process, and to be able to 925 handle the negative emotions that were involved. The participants were also helped throughout the process to realize their strengths in making the decision to divorce and encouraged to make efforts to improve their situations by registering with the workshops and learning from and helping each other. (Hung, 2012, p. 293, grifo nosso). 930 É interessante notar que, mesmo discutindo os sentimentos das mulheres em relação ao divórcio, algo importante nas contingências em que as mulheres se encontravam, o estudo de Hung (2012) valorizou as estratégias pelas quais as mulheres aprenderam a lidar com tais sentimentos, desde a participação nos 935 workshops e os esforços para estarem ali presentes até o próprio compartilhamento de experiências pelas mulheres. Tal característica se verifica também em outros trechos classificados como versando sobre o empoderamento com base no contracontrole: a menção aos sentimentos das mulheres ocorre, mas a descrição das variáveis que levam a tais sentimentos permite inferir a função de tais 940 sentimentos em uma contingência de aversividade presente ou de percepção do controle a que se submetem as mulheres nos contextos apresentados. A caracterização do empoderamento enquanto processo pelo qual mulheres adquirem repertórios comportamentais que, de outra forma, não gerariam reforçamento dado o gênero a que pertencem é bastante presente em um contexto 945 encontrado com frequência nos artigos consultados neste trabalho: a superação da vulnerabilidade econômica por programas de microcrédito ou tranferência de renda a mulheres. O empoderamento relacionado a tal contexto se refere à situação de pobreza em que se encontram mulheres e suas famílias e aos impactos da transferência de recursos financeiros em contextos que afetam mulheres de forma 950 específica – como, por exemplo, a decisão por manter ou não um relacionamento violento com um parceiro ou parceira íntima. No entanto, a transferência de renda

por si só não seria capaz de alterar parte dos comportamentos aprendidos por mulheres que se relaciona a práticas culturais machistas. Um exemplo de tal discussão está presente em Krenz, Gilbert & Mandayam (2014): 955 Since the mid-1980s, concern for women’s empowerment has grown within the international development field (Batliwala, 2007). Development scholar Naila Kabeer (1999) characterizes empowerment broadly as the ‘‘process through which those who have been denied 960 the ability to make strategic life choices acquire such an ability’’ (p. 435). (Krenz, Gilbert & Mandayam, 2014, p. 310, grifo nosso)

Though much research has brought into question the empowering effects of microcredit, the provision of financial services to poor women and 965 families has been widely promoted by donor agencies as a relatively straightforward pathway to empowerment and poverty reduction (Mayoux, 2003). The assumed correlation between microcredit and empowerment is based on the premise that, with access to financial resources, women are better equipped to meet practical needs, 970 contribute to household resources, and challenge gender inequity (Mayoux, 2003). On a basic level, the practice of microcredit involves extending small loans to poor borrowers who otherwise would not be able to access credit. Loans are disbursed to individuals or groups, with the expectation that the money will be invested in entrepreneurial activities, 975 generate income and employment opportunities, and help to lessen poverty on the individual and community level (Isserles, 2003). (p. 312, grifo nosso)

By insisting on a group-based model of empowerment, Annapurna [grupo participante do programa de microcrédito estudado] 980 creates new and safe social spaces for observation, interaction, and personal development. Spaces that foster group inclusion and nonhierarchical relationships between poor and less poor individuals seem to be particularly successful in improving feelings of self-worth. The larger organization-wide meetings also serve to reassure clients that 985 they are not alone in their struggles. (p. 316, grifo nosso)

Some couples likely practiced more equitable decision making even before joining Annapurna. For various reasons, some husbands might be more likely to support their wives’ participation in microfinance activities. 990 This is consistent with Ahmed’s (2008) research, which demonstrates the way in which divergent models of masculinity influence men’s attitudes toward gender empowerment and their wives’ participation in microcredit schemes (p. 152). (p. 321, grifo nosso)

995 Nos trechos apresentados, além da mudança de contingências referentes às condições econômicas das mulheres, a discussão das autoras nos leva a pensar nos efeitos da pobreza específicos sobre este gênero. Ruiz (1998b) atenta para o fato de que as mulheres que recebem auxílio de programas de bem-estar social frequentemente têm baixa escolarização e também têm filhos em idade em que 1000 dependem das famílias, e que, portanto, estão submetidas a um complexo conjunto de contingências e metacontingências onde a mudança de comportamento torna-se, também, mais difícil. A autora também aponta a educação como potencial elemento

transformador de tais contingências e metacontingências, visto que a mesma permite às mulheres acessar posições em que recebem mais e se colocam em 1005 condições de empregar de forma mais efetiva os recursos financeiros recebidos. Levando em conta as observações de Krenz, Gilbert & Marayam (2014) acima citadas, além da educação formal citada por Ruiz (1998b), mulheres podem estar em condições onde a mudança de poder ocorre também a partir de alterações nas contingências que ensinem a descrever as condições pelas quais passam, formar 1010 alianças com outras mulheres em situação semelhante – em espaços onde possam falar de si sem sofrer punições, ao ver que não estão sozinhas – e mesmo nas relações íntimas, a partir do momento em que alterações no comportamento feminino também passam a afetar o comportamento dos seus parceiros. Mudanças nos comportamentos dos homens que convivem com mulheres 1015 que passam pelo processo de empoderamento, no entanto, não se verificam sempre nos textos consultados, sugerindo que algum nível de controle aversivo ainda é empregado contra as mulheres que passam a agir de modo a desafiar o poder masculino. Tal constatação é vista nos trechos presentes em Amorim, Fiuza e Pinto (2015), que discutem o empoderamento de trabalhadoras rurais participantes 1020 e não participantes de sindicatos: A noção conceitual de empoderamento traz, assim, consigo essa perspectiva de mudança nas relações sociais das mulheres com os homens. Outros autores também abordam essa possibilidade de estabelecimento de relações conflitivas na família e na comunidade 1025 advindas da conquista do empoderamento por parte das mulheres (Antunes, 2006; Cortez & Souza, 2008). [...] Na pesquisa de Antunes (2006) com o movimento das babaçueiras do Maranhão a autora analisou se ocorreu a transferência do empoderamento coletivo, alcançado na esfera pública, na luta pelo direito ao livre acesso ao babaçu, para o âmbito 1030 individual, na esfera privada. Ela constatou em seu trabalho a existência em uma mesma mulher de sua faceta de líder empoderada e de esposa desempoderada, demonstrando que essas mulheres deixaram todo o poder alcançado na esfera coletiva do lado de fora. (Amorim, Fiuza & Pinto, 2015, p. 206, grifo nosso) 1035 [...] Nesse mesmo sentido, Cortez e Souza (2008) apontam o empoderamento de mulheres e a repercussão que isso tem causado nos índices de violência conjugal. Os autores destacam as implicações do empoderamento de mulheres em suas relações conjugais. Aspectos 1040 como trabalho assalariado, questionamentos sobre a vida sexual e maior participação no âmbito público são sinalizadores do empoderamento das mulheres e se tornam “ameaçadores” à tradicional dominação masculina. Dessa forma, os homens tentam proteger sua masculinidade através da violência praticada contra a 1045 mulher o que também representa mecanismo de suprimir manifestações femininas de poder. (p. 207)

Tais aspectos podem indicar que, embora a educação de mulheres entre mulheres promova uma alteração nas estruturas de poder entre gêneros na 1050 sociedade, tal alteração não é completamente pacífica, envolvendo, mais do que a percepção do controle, também o enfrentamento do controle aversivo exercido por parceiros e homens do seu convívio. O aprendizado de repertórios alijados das mulheres, portanto, mais do que gerado apenas por reforçamento positivo, pode envolver também o estabelecimento de contingências aversivas, nas quais a 1055 educação é exercida como forma de contracontrole. A noção de que o empoderamento envolve o aprendizado de repertórios comportamentais ligados à educação para a participação em meios dominados por homens também surge nos trechos presentes em Blair et. al. (2011), ao descrever a experiência de um acampamento digital voltado para jovens mulheres: 1060 Rather than presume, however, that the only thing feminist educators need to do to facilitate literacy and resulting empowerment is to provide targeted learning experiences for girls, we recognize that such focused experiences can help participants develop a shared understanding of the technological possibilities and constraints in their own lives and then 1065 to articulate those experiences through multimodal composing processes in ways that move them from the position of users of technological spaces to designers of them. (Blair et al, 2011, p. 47)

Designing assignments and curriculum in ways that value learning 1070 as a process not only disrupts hierarchical structures that privilege final products but also broadens the opportunities for thinking with and through technological spaces, which is especially important if we seek to empower girls and women to form relationships with and through technology that are not mediated by gendered stereotypes. (p. 57, grifo 1075 nosso)

Galié (2013), ao tratar de uma população de fazendeiras na Síria, retrata a participação de mulheres em um meio tipicamente masculino e coloca a questão das relações de poder modificadas pelo empoderamento feminino, ao discutir a 1080 visão de poder comumente descrita pela literatura feminista: Empowerment of women has become a frequently cited goal of development. In agricultural development, empowerment is considered essential in order for farmers to safeguard their livelihood interests and seed-based agro-biodiversity. Empowerment is also considered to enable 1085 small farmers from marginal areas to participate in research as more equal partners alongside scientists, thereby increasing the effectiveness of agricultural research. Empowerment of the most marginal farmers, and rural women in particular, is considered important to provide these most vulnerable groups with the means to voice their needs and 1090 desires and to take action so that they can influence rural and agricultural development for the improvement of nutrition and food security. Nobel Prize winner Amartya Sen demonstrates in his book Poverty and Famines how hunger stems from disempowerment, marginalization, and poverty. (Galié, 2013, p. 58, grifo nosso)

1095 [...] Part of the empowerment literature looks at power as a struggle between individuals with conflicting interests to gain the power held by others, in a zero-sum game. By looking at copower, others draw attention to the power produced by relationships and by collective action to address the 1100 common concerns of groups. Collective action— the voluntary action taken by a group to achieve common interests— has been analyzed as a powerful strategy for securing the needs and interests of group members. (p. 81)

Frente aos trechos destacados nesta seção, as considerações tecidas pela 1105 literatura feminista sobre o empoderamento da mulher estão relacionadas, em grande parte, à alteração de contextos para que a desigualdade de poder entre homens e mulheres seja mitigada. Tal alteração depende tanto do aprendizado de repertórios de contracontrole frente a situações aversivas como do aprendizado referente a situações em que as mulheres não participam de forma comum nas 1110 culturas a que pertencem, principalmente por serem mulheres.

4. CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS

Frente à caracterização do empoderamento levantada na seção anterior, 1115 podemos estabelecer uma tentativa de definição comportamental do empoderamento da mulher. Podemos afirmar que o empoderamento feminino é o processo pelo qual as mulheres adquirem novos repertórios comportamentais que, de alguma forma, se relacionam à mudança de contextos aversivos dependentes do seu gênero. Tal aprendizado se dá, especialmente, entre outras mulheres, que, de 1120 acordo com suas próprias histórias de vida, dispõem reforçadores para o comportamento das mulheres aprendizes que não estejam de acordo com as práticas culturais prescritas pela sociedade em geral.

Como parte das contingências em que mulheres passam a obter reforçadores anteriormente não acessíveis, podem ocorrer sentimentos de prazer, felicidade, etc., 1125 paralelamente ao poder adquirido. No entanto, conforme apontado, este é apenas um dos efeitos do reforço positivo, ao lado do efeito fortalecedor da resposta - e ele, por si só, não caracteriza um ganho de poder. Nada impede que se atente aos sentimentos das mulheres como parte das contingências promotoras do empoderamento, já que estes são parte do processo e irão ocorrer junto às 1130 mudanças nas relações de poder, incluindo as contingências de contracontrole; este, porém, não deve ser um critério único, que prescinda de um cuidadoso exame das modificações nas práticas culturais estabelecidas entre homens e mulheres.

É importante também notar que o empoderamento feminino se relacionou a uma grande variedade de contextos referentes às mulheres na literatura 1135 pesquisada. Os artigos estudados se referiram ao empoderamento relacionado à modificação de contextos em que as mulheres passaram por violências e traumas diversos (Lewinson, Thomas & White, 2014), situações de vulnerabilidade física, psicológica e/ou material (Leitão-Martins, 2006; Krenz, Gilbert & Mandrayam, 2014; Kim, 2012), participação na política institucional ou na formação de coletivos de 1140 mobilização (Melo, 2011; Rai, 2007; Gulbrandsen & Walsh, 2012), dentre outros. A superação de eventos aversivos e/ou de práticas culturais referentes às mulheres não prescinde de descrever quais são estes eventos e práticas culturais e como eles se aplicam às mulheres na sua totalidade ou a subgrupos dentre as mulheres. Para planejar intervenções referentes a contextos onde o empoderamento feminino

1145 é importante, torna-se necessário ter clareza de qual contexto precisa ser superado e como ele se relaciona com aquele subgrupo de mulheres e com as mulheres enquanto categoria. O presente estudo traz limitações acerca do método empregado, no entanto, já que a grande variedade entre os contextos apresentados pela literatura analisada 1150 dificulta uma análise mais aprofundada de cada contexto e das propostas possíveis a partir da Análise do Comportamento. Além desta limitação, a análise do comportamento verbal proposta neste estudo contém as limitações inerentes à dedução das variáveis das quais este tipo de comportamento é função: sem acesso ao ambiente em que tais comportamentos são emitidos, resta especular as 1155 condições das quais o comportamento verbal registrado nos textos analisados é função. Outra dificuldade encontrada se refere à variabilidade entre as matrizes epistemológicas presentes nos artigos consultados como objeto principal deste trabalho; as asserções sobre o empoderamento feminino, em geral, subjaziam noções filosóficas diferentes sobre o entendimento do que é a mulher e das formas 1160 com que o feminismo luta para emancipá-la.

As categorias aqui propostas como parte do exame das contingências promotoras do empoderamento feminino seguramente não esgotam a complexidade dos fenômenos que envolvem as relações entre os gêneros. A grande quantidade de trechos (216) que se referiam ao empoderamento, mas não foram incluídos em 1165 nenhuma das duas categorias aqui destacadas, pode denotar a pluralidade de contextos outros não analisados por este trabalho. Mesmo a discussão intracategorias poderia ser examinada mais detalhadamente, visto que em alguns dos contextos descritos nos artigos analisados por este trabalho, as noções de estados internos e contracontrole se apresentavam em complementaridade – com 1170 especial atenção à noção de consciência, que, embora muitas vezes interpretada de forma internalista, pode, em outros casos, destacar a importância do aprendizado da descrição de contingências como elemento importante para a mudança destas.

Não obstante, permitem aproximações entre o entendimento da filosofia behaviorista radical e das teorias feministas acerca do comportamento dos seres 1175 humanos e, principalmente, buscam fomentar as possibilidades de diálogo entre as duas áreas do conhecimento. O panorama da literatura feminista aqui apresentado pode ser útil para a comunidade analítico-comportamental, uma vez que sumariza

aspectos importantes do que é considerado o empoderamento feminino pelo movimento feminista e dos recursos e limitações do conceito para o planejamento 1180 de intervenções comportamentais que tenham como objetivo contribuir para a igualdade entre homens e mulheres.

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APÊNDICES

Apêndice A Siglas dos periódicos revisados empregadas na categorização

Periódico Sigla Affilia: Journal of Women and 1 AFFILIA Social Work 2 Caderno Espaço Feminino ESPAÇOFEM 3 Cadernos Pagu CADPAGU 4 Estudos Feministas ESTUDOSFEM 5 Feminist Studies FSTUD 6 Feminist Teacher FTEACH 7 Feminist Theory FTHEORY 8 Feminism & Psychology F&PSYCH Frontiers: a Journal of Women 9 FRONT Studies 10 Gender & Society GEN&SOC 11 Gender Issues GENISSUES 12 Gênero na Amazônia GENAMAZONIA Hypatia: a Journal of Feminist 13 HYP Philosophy 14 Journal of Women's History JWHIST Meridians: Feminism, Race, 15 MERID Transnationality 16 Psychology of Women Quarterly PWQ 17 Revista Ártemis ARTEMIS 18 Revista Gênero GENERO 19 Social Politics SOCPOL 20 Women's Studies Quarterly WSQ 1435

Apêndice B Total de trechos categorizados, por periódico

ARTEMIS ESPAÇOFEM CADPAGU ESTUDOSFEM GENAMAZONIA GENERO 5C 3C 1? 3C 3C 1S 2? 17C 11C 3? 3C 1? 3C 2C 2? 1C 6C 69C 1S 10? 8C 15C 1? 5C 1S 4? 18C 17C 3?

18C 3?

AFFILIA F&PSYCH FSTUD FTEACH FTHEORY FRONT GEN&SOC GENISSUES 2C 5S 3C 10S 1C 3S 2? 2C 3? 5C 1? 6C 2S 2? 1C 1S 1? 2C 3S 2C1S 1C 1S 2? 3C 1? 2C 9S 5? 2C 1S 1? 14C 4? 2C 16S 5? 4S 4C 14S 6? 2C 2? 2S 4? 4S 1C 2S 3? 1C 3? 2C 1S 6C 10S 3S 1? 2? 1C 5S 4C 13S 8? 1C 2? 2C 1S 2? 4S 4C 1S 2? 4S 2C 5? 6C 5S 3C 1S 2? 1C

6C 6S 5C 11S 11? 3C 5S 7? 4C 2S 1? 17C 1S 1C 3S 6?

4C 2C 10S 1? 3C 1S 2C 1S 43C 5S 13? 1C 2S 4?

24C 5S 5? 2C 12S 1? 1C 2S 1? 15C 4S 7? 8C 27S 16?

2S 1? 11C 5? 3S

1C 2S 1? 24C 50S 9? 3C 3S 1?

1S 2S 4? 4C 4S 1?

6C 2? 4C 1S 2? 1C 3S 2?

1S 1C 6S 1? 3C 1?

2C 6C 3S 3? 2C 5S 2?

32C 30S 40C 33S 11C 10? 30? 22? 6C 3?

7C 2?

14C 1?

7C 2S 3?

102C 36S 30? 1440

HYP JWHIST MERID PWQ SOCPOL WSQ 1C 13S 5C 1? 1C 4S 2? 7C 1? 7C 4S 9? 2C 2? 2C 5C 5? 3C 2? 3C 2? 1C 2S 2?

3C 13S 10C 6? 3C 2? 1C 2S

3S 7? 4C 1S 1? 3C

1C 2? 5C 5? 2C 1?

5S 3? 2C 17S 1? 2S 1?

21C 22S 7C 4S 1C 3S 3? 20S 330C 300S 1C 1S 8? 2S 1? 206?

1C 5S 2? 2C 1?

1C 12C 11S 11?

23S 1?

1C 1S 1?

1S 1?

25C 45S 28?

Apêndice C Trechos categorizados, por periódico AFFILIA – Tabela C1

País Referência Público/Objeto do Trechos estudo p. 448 - S p. 449 - C p. 449 - S p. 450 - S p. 455 - S p. 456 - S p. 456 - C

Working with van Wormer and Engaging the The use of An Increasing resistant clients Davis (2003) “unfit” mother focus groups understanding sensitivity and is not generally described a in treatment in this study and greater knowledge about a pleasant model for needs careful provided a awareness of addiction were experience, and treating consideration, mechanism the shame, identified with the Programs, substance addictions from with sensitivity for obtaining guilt, loss of enactment of the such as the abusers have a strengths to the shame the hope, and ASFA (1997). This Family been known to perspective, with and guilt that perspectives frustration new law allocated Rehabilitation present with the these mothers of the that these funds for states to Program in extreme levels acknowledgment present (Bush mothers and mothers feel provide increased New York of resistance. of the & Sainz, 1997; their is critical to substance abuse City, that Mães que The importance individual’s “self Carten, 1996; experiences the success training for child emphasize perderam a of empathy, defeating Smith, 2002). with of their welfare service strengths and Smith guarda dos empowerment, behavior, guilt Empathy and treatment treatment. providers—training EUA empowerment (2006) filhos por vício and a feelings, and understanding and services These finding in which sensitivity have been em nonjudgmental busted must be used, after they provide and empowerment successful in substâncias attitude in work relationships” (p. and judgments lost their greater and understanding treating with resistance 17). They of what we children insights into the experiences of mothers who has been well stressed the perceive as because of the process of mothers in the are documented importance of a the “unfit their losing one’s system would fit recovering (Barber, 1995; treatment mother” must addiction. children and well. Research on from addiction Boyle, 2000; modality that be put aside. These being the facilitation of (Carten, Egan, 1989; offers hope and The term itself perceptions identified as this new training 1996). Marsh, D’Aunno, a way out of the must also be provided an being “unfit.” and whether it & Smith, 2000; addiction cycle. examined and in-depth look A greater includes a strong Miller & Rollnick, As a part of the reframed, at how these awareness sensitivity 2002; Rogers, healing process, because being women felt and sensitivity component would Deckner, & van Wormer and deemed “unfit” once they to this be helpful in

Mewborn, Davis presented to parent is were process will, it examining where 1978). the model of extremely identified as is hoped, the system is in its rename, disempowering “unfit.” The provide an effort to increase reframe, and in and of itself. experience increased knowledge of reclaim, which of feeling level of addiction and examines the shamed and empathy and recovery. Including choices of stereotyped a stronger an empowerment- disempowering is loud and drive for based sensitivity terminology that clear. The empowering component in this are used to label and its these women training would work define implications in their to address the individuals who regarding recovery obstacles to family are struggling treatment process. reunification that with addiction. and service were expressed by experiences the women in this were not study. positive and did not appear to be empowering. AFFILIA – Tabela C2

p. 80 - S p. 82 - C p. 88-89 - S p. 89 - S p. 91 - C

The feminist perspective I chose to use the The stories the women Perhaps more important By providing counters these negative narrative method for this told indicate that running for the five women was the support for attitudes and research. Riessman can take on different increase in self-efficacy women who run emphasizes women’s and Quinney (2005) characteristics and and selfworth that came and/or exercise, empowerment through pointed out that the functions, depending on from running. Each woman even at high physical fitness. Chrisler narrative approach has life circumstances. described the importance intensity and Mulheres and Lamont (2002) been virtually ignored Although three of running for becoming endurance Leedy atletas de EUA discussed the varied as a method of social distinctive periods were physically fit and healthy, levels, social (2009) corrida ways in which women’s work research. covered in these providing a goal to work workers can participation in physical Nonetheless, the use of narratives—precrisis, toward, and giving them a empower them to activity can help attain narrative-based crisis, and crisis sense of identity. The take charge of feminist goals, from the research is seen as a resolution—two women often mentioned their own political components of means of equalizing the distinctive running their racing physical and social change to the relationship between functions were noted. In accomplishments and mental health level of the individual. the researcher and the the first period, which expressed confidence and through the

They contended that participant, leading to occurred during baseline positive images of means that they fitness, strength, and an empowerment periods of stress, themselves on the basis of perceive work physical abilities result in approach that is running served as a their fitness and the best. increased self-efficacy consistent with social means of promoting discipline they exerted that and selfworth. Physically work values (Fraser, health and empowering allowed them to maintain a fit women develop self- 2004; Riessman & the women. When faced high level of training. assurance in their own Quinney, 2005). with a time of personal These portrayals support capabilities and are able crisis, the meaning of earlier reports that the to initiate other changes running and even the benefits of running, in their lives. Chrisler types of running including positive self- and Lamont also changed. In this critical appraisal and increased elucidated the role of period, running took on a fitness and health, may physical fitness for more therapeutic underlie sustained well- women who may function, with the women being and empowerment struggle with using it as an active (Biddle & Mutrie, 2001; depression, anxiety, coping mechanism. In Dorothee & Stoll, 2000; body dissatisfaction, the third period, following Hays, 1999). stress, or the the resolution of the consequences of abuse crisis, the women were and trauma. With able to return to running increased fitness and as a health and mental body awareness, health promotion women can gain a strategy and to run for sense of control in their empowerment and lives. enjoyment again. 1445

AFFILIA – Tabela C3

p. 127 - S p. 127 - S p. 129 - S p. 131-132 - S

This section first presents the emerging themes for the 10 single-female While cooperative family Although the women’s participants, followed by Suyapa (all the names are efforts may have helped dependence on their those for the 30 pseudonyms) had this to some microcredit children and/or male participants who were say about her participation participants to feel partners to repay their viviendo con maridos in microcredit: ‘‘I feel that I empowered financially, loans poses unintended (cohabiting with male have more security now, for those who relied on consequences, the women partners) at the time of the and I have learned to work financial contributions were still choosing to study. I begin the report without needing him [her from their children, it Mulheres participate in microcredit on each subgroup by male partner] or anybody. I sheds doubt on the Vonderlack- participantes programs, and their discussing the women’s feel secure because I have extent to which the Navarro de um Honduras expressed feelings of decision to enter the my little house and I have women had really (2010) programa de empowerment and informal economy and my loan, and I no longer increased their financial microcrédito enhanced self-esteem their eventual microcredit feel useless.’’ Such security and autonomy were significant. Women’s participation and review comments as Suyapa’s through participation in continued participation and their use of loans and illustrate that for some Genesis, as opposed to microcredit’s popularity repayment strategies. women, participation in developing a new suggest that the benefits of Next, I explore the microcredit schemes dependence on their the program may outweigh women’s feelings of contributes to feelings of children or on other the challenges for empowerment and empowerment. members of their participants. financial autonomy families. through their participation in the program.

1450 AFFILIA – Tabela C4

p. 275 - C p. 276 - S p. 276 - S p. 276 - C p. 276 - C? p. 277 - C p. 277 - S p. 277 - S

Women who Deveaux Empowermen Green The Pease Bay-Cheng, participate in (1994) t has been a (2008) predominan (2002) Lewis, Similarly, feminist speculated central and cautioned ce of advocated Malley, and second-wave activism on the role of contested that in empowerme for a critical Stewart feminist determine power in concept in feminist nt in the analysis of (2006), for authors were their own feminism antioppressiv discourse, literature how example, instrumental truths about and e and dominant attunes empowerme argued that in placing the how they highlighted antiracist ideologies women to nt is making locus of experience the need to feminist work regarding the defined, assumptions control of and account since the late resistance to influence of cautioning about what power in the understand adequately 1960s (Yuval- patriarchalis power on that it is individual. power and for the role Davis, 1994). m are central individual cannot be empowering For example, how these of women’s Ample to feminist and assumed can Hill Collins truths agency in discussion in definitions of collective that potentially (2000) circulate defining and the social empowerme experiences empowerme undermine conceptualiz beneath the negotiating work and nt. Dominant of feminist nt practice women’s ed Mulheres surface of power. She feminist themes in activism. or intentions ownership of empowerme Gulbrandsen ativistas Ca their social advocated literatures feminist However, to empower power in nt as an & Walsh em na activism. for research has defined discourse empowerme will lead to social emerging (2012) grupos dá Experiences that empowermen contribute to nt has been emancipatio movements. self- sociais of power in explicates t and its a prescribed discussed n. Other Researchers awareness in social women’s parameters. feminist primarily in feminist who have which activism have processes of In feminist agenda on terms of researchers focused on women been empowerme discourse, a women’s desired have how recognize analyzed in nt and common individual outcomes challenged individual and the literature attended to theme is how and with less prevalent women in understand according to women’s empowermen collective consideratio assumption the collective the presence the themes of direct t can be a empowerme n of how s that experience and empowerment experiences catalyst for nt. In this empowerme empowerme empowerme dynamics of , with power, transformatio discourse, nt is nt is nt have power and intersectionali commenting: n and gender negotiated necessarily raised oppression ty, identity "Feminist change. equality and by individual an awareness in their and critiques on Rowe (2009) resisting women. externally of how circumstance difference, how power contrasted patriarchal Although imposed women’s s and daily and shapes the power feminist force (Bay- agency can lives. positionality women’s transformativ structures theorists Cheng, mediate

or one’s experiences e potential of are noted as have Lewis, prescriptive subjective have individual individual explored the Malley, & forces of perception of suggested women’s women’s finer points Stewart, empowerme their social the need to consciousnes priority of 2006; nt. The self- location place the s of power concerns theoretical Carillo, efficacy and (Hanvinsky et subject’s with related to definitions 2007; internal al., 2010; interpretation domination, power and of Nelson, locus of Rowe, 2009; and an empowerme empowerme Shanahan, control of Williams, mediation of oppressive nt. nt and & Olivetti, individual 1994). her tradition of discussed 1997; women experiences power that is how these Pearlmutter, challenge with power imposed on subtleties 2002). They the ‘‘power at the centre women and translate have over’’ theme of inquiries associated into critically of power that into the how with women’s analyzed is dominant and why of victimization experiences the role of in the power. Such and of power, power in mainstream an analysis marginalizatio they have activism in discourse on might ask, n. She done less terms of power in 'what do asserted that work to empowerme positivist relationships situating bring nt and paradigms of power feel power in the women’s challenged (Nelson et like from the individual reflections prevalent al., 1997). inside, what allows on their own assumption are the women to experiences s of possibilities engage their with power empowerme for individual and to the nt and resistance, collective surface and power as a and what power toward to identify commodity individual social women’s that can be and change. specific shared, collective concerns transferred, processes and or imposed. will take us interests. Some have there?' (p. also 244) [...] elaborated Women who on how participate in empowerme activism nt can be

have a construed proximity to and how power and externally the agency imposed to interpret, power can mediate, and inadvertentl direct it y perpetuate actively. oppression. Their consciousne ss of power places women in control of their own empowerme nt.

Continuação (Gulbrandsen & Walsh, 2012)

p. 286 - C p. 277 - S p. 281 - S p. 283 - S p. 283 - S p. 284 - S p. 284 -S p. 285 - C

Yuval-Davis (1994) Each Another The same A further limitation Blumer, Green, emphasized the participant’s woman participant As intersectionality of the study is that Compton, and vital connection narrative reflected on described how methodology has only race and Barrera (2010) between the revealed how the sharing power suggested, women class aspects of conceived of individual and the the participant empowering translated into Hill Collins interpret their difference arose empowerment as collective. was deliberately effect of one supporting one (2000) experiences in the in the women’s an ideal, an Empowerment, she compelled to of her own another’s reinforced the collective commentaries. outcome of power suggested, mediate power, experiences actions and centrality of the according to Future research being addressed becomes possible how she with activism. initiatives. "I individual intersecting involving more openly within the when the cultivated her She gained think the woman in aspects of focused questions interpersonal boundaries own power from support is just feminist activism difference. For regarding realm of between the empowerment, her being with a and referred to example, difference and collective feminist individual and the and how she experience group of women’s self- considering and identity would activism. hooks collective are strived to by both activists. I think awareness as analyzing encourage (2000) urged transcended and achieve a depth giving and it’s much more the authentic difference women to contemporary when positions of receiving empowering to locus of their influenced the elaborate on how feminist activists related to difference understanding emotional act, even if it own women’s race and class to continue to in the collective are by analyzing support. "It sometimes feels empowerment. awareness and intersect with cultivate a recognized and and reflecting was like you’re The ways in reconciliation of other aspects of collective addressed. on power extremely bumping your which the privilege. The identity, such as understanding of McPhee, Marcus, according to her empowering head a lot, than participants women in the age, ability, and power despite the Caragata, and own for me to be it is not to act described study were more sexual orientation. struggle it entails Hutchinson (2002) experiences. there. We and feel ownership for inclined to A more and argued that envisioned The women’s went to the disempowered. I understanding recognize and representative that there is still collective accounts within site where think the and reconciling discuss the examination of much work to be empowerment this theme the women activism power are implications of the role of done in this whereby individuals represent the had been community in reminiscent of personal privilege difference in regard. To contribute to women’s own killed,'and we Calgary is quite Hill Collins’s on their feminist activism achieve collective consciousness- consciousness cried and supportive of characterization experiences of would necessarily transformation, raising processes. of power; the were there in each other, and of power than they include the women will have This dynamic, participants solidarity, it’s because, as empowerment. were to reflect on perspectives of to devise multiple interpersonal demonstrated and we took I said, it’s personal women who ways to channel process of how power at back the relatively small experiences of experience their self- ‘‘conscientization,’’ the individual campus. It and people get disempowerment. disempowerment determined which was originally level is was quite, . . to know each and power, reflexivity,

described by Freire understood via . it’s quite other. People do marginalization. and (1970), is achieved introspective emotional extend or even As Fredericks understanding through dialogic reflection. actually even over extend, I (2010) noted, toward processes and today. So I think, in order to women who have engagement at promotes think for me support each histories that are the collective consciousness and that was a other. marked by level. The lived shared part where Something marginalization experiences of understandings of that might come up, and the women in the power and collective and it might not disempowerment study could oppression that being be your biggest envision and inform emerge as together, that burning issue, experience power recommendations collective support and but the person from a unique on how women knowledge. Popular solidarity, that’s putting it perspective. who create education has thus helped me to forward activist spaces contributed to the overcome my supported your can support one conversation about individual big burning another in power in the fears. It also issue so you go constructing feminist literature, let me know out to support individual and suggesting that that I could hers." collective empowerment that make a understandings arises from the difference." of power. collective can propel action toward social change.

1455

AFFILIA – Tabela C5

p. 294-295 - p. 290 - C p. 291 - ? p. 290 - ? p. 292 - S p. 293 - C p. 293 - C C Different When feminist In the These perspectives on poststructuralist empowerment collected The feminist the subject of perspectives are workshops, sayings discourse in meaning making, applied to the women reflect the Hong Kong, which include the empower were also fact that the Grounded in which is a blend interpretive women, the invited to participants research on the of socialist tradition, purpose of an share what were aware meanings of feminist and One essential constructivism, intervention is to they saw as of the divorce (Fok, poststructuralist part of the social facilitate their strengths. negative 1999; Hung, discourses, empowerment constructionism, divorced women Their lists social 2002, 2008), I stresses the workshops poststructuralism, in the included the meanings developed an fluidity of female involved and development of ability to conferred on intervention identities and identifying postmodernism, an awareness of handle their divorce and model based on the similarities have offered the discursive relationships divorced the feminist empowerment among the various origin of their with their ex- women, as poststructuralist of divorced participants’ explanations for views and husbands and constituted perspective women (K. W. experiences of Mulheres the process and suffering that the paternal by the Hung (Weedon, Chan, Wong, divorce. chinesas China structure of the will encourage family, to dominant (2012) 1997b) to Leung, Lee, & Commonalities divorciadas constitution of them to choose survive Chinese empower Ho, 2001; Hung, were revealed meaning. a positive hardships in cultural Chinese 2002; Hung & by the Nevertheless, identity for the divorce discourses divorced women Fung, 2003). participants they share the themselves from process, and on divorced through the One concern for after they had understanding among the to be able to women. The reconstruction the present shared their that meaning is competing handle the empowering of what divorce study is the stories of socially discourses and negative impact of the means in their identification of marriage and constructed and available emotions that cultural audit lives. This an increasingly divorce in the contextualized. discursive were involved. and article permissive first group This article resources on The examination documents the attitude toward session. focuses on divorce and participants of the effects intervention divorce that feminist divorced were also of the model. contradicts the poststructuralism, women. The helped dominant traditional, particularly that social worker is throughout the discourses condemnatory put forward by part of the process to on an attitude. Weedon (1997b, process, realize their individual 1997c), which introducing the strengths in are notable.

guides the feminist making the Individual development of poststructuralist decision to divorced an empowerment framework as a divorce and women who model when way for divorced encouraged to are given the working with women to make efforts to opportunity Chinese divorced understand the improve their to share women in Hong discursive base situations by their Kong. of their suffering registering suffering and facilitate the with the begin to reflection and workshops challenge choices that will and learning the normality ultimately result from and and in the helping each superiority of reconstitution of other. these the meanings discourses. they hold regarding divorce. AFFILIA – Tabela C6

p. 71 - C p. 72 - C? p. 73-74 - C p. 78 - C p. 78 - C p. 80 - C

The However, for In addition to Despite her Finally, this U.S. MDPs effectiveness of Sen (1988, p. gains in emphasis on review leads to have assisted MDPs is 278), freedom income, gains the importance some women, evaluated in is ‘‘alternative in knowledge, of women’s suggestions for particularly regard to the bundles of greater empowerment further those from extent to which functions that psychological through MDPs, research. First, Mulheres economically the MDPs person may be empowerment, Dumas did not although a americanas and socially enhance able to and increases pay attention to relatively large beneficiadas disadvantaged Kim (2012) EUA women’s achieve.’’ In this in social gender- number of por programas backgrounds, in economic and example, the networks have segregated studies de apoio a enhancing their psychological alternative been reported labor divisions indicated that microempresas economic self-sufficiency, bundle of by women reinforced by women- empowerment such as functionings for participants of MDPs, which centered U.S. through business start- the person is a U.S. MDPs. encourage MDPs have business start- ups, gains in job in another Dumas (1999, women to start been effective ups (Jurik, income, town and 2010) a home in improving 2005). empowerment, accessible conducted in- business. women’s

and gender transportation depth Servon (1996) income and equality. to reach it. interviews with also reported psychological According to the women that U.S. MDPs empowerment, Sen’s model, participants of have the studies on the person’s the First Track contributed to the freedom of FastTrac women’s effectiveness of choice is program and empowerment. womencentered violated. Sen Community She evaluated U.S. MDPs argued that Entrepreneurs WISE clients’ lacked economic Program of the empowerment methodological development Center for by using a case rigor, such as must entail Women and study from a using a giving people Enterprise. The survey, in-depth comparison or greater freedom participants interviews, and control group. and autonomy reported that observations. Therefore, to achieve they achieved She reported more rigorous capabilities to positive that nearly 50% empirical attain their changes in their of the research is alternative knowledge participants in needed to verify functionings, about business, the WISE the which requires critical thinking program effectiveness of empowerment skills to assess reported womencentered and an active their ideas, self- increases in the U.S. MDPs. role in their esteem, indicators of lives. empowerment, empowerment, and a such as self- supportive esteem, career social network, options, work as well as skills, and the income gains. potential for success.

1460 AFFILIA – Tabela C7

p. 153 - C p. 153 - C p. 154 - C p. 160 - C

Food sovereignty is the right of peoples to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through Food security has been ecologically sound and identified as an urgent global sustainable methods, and Because agroecology problem by a wide range of their right to define their own emphasizes the capability of stakeholders, from transnational A PCFSW perspective food and agriculture systems. local communities to corporations (TNCs), will then be introduced It puts those who produce, experiment, evaluate and governments, foundations, and and elaborated as a distribute and consume food scale-up innovations through Mulheres do international institutions to civil critical theoretical lens at the heart of food systems farmer-tofarmer research, campo society organizations and social with which to unpack and policies rather than the Deepak and grassroots extension (movimento NSA movements. There is agreement proposed approaches demands of markets and (2014) approaches (Altieri & Toledo, La Via among these groups that to global food security corporations. . . . Food 2011) the agricultural Campesina) women are disproportionately initiatives that highlight sovereignty prioritizes local knowledge of women can be burdened by food insecurity and gender equity and and national economies and honored and shared, that women’s empowerment and women’s markets and empowers providing an opportunity for gender equity are key to empowerment. peasant and family farmer- women’s empowerment addressing the problem, but driven agriculture, artisanal- (Lopes & Jomalinas, 2011). there are vast differences in the fishing, pastoralist-led two proposed solutions. grazing, and food production, distribution and consumption based on environmental, social and economic sustainability.

AFFILIA – Tabela C8

p. 310 - C p. 310-311 - C p. 311 - C p. 311 - S p. 311 - C p. 311 - C p. 311 - C p. 312 - C

Since the Though initially Considering Empowerment Discontent Interested in Throughout Eager to mid-1980s, theorized by the is generally with creating the 1980s demonstrate concern for feminists from contentious conceived as developmen more just, and 1990s, a women’s the developing discourse the process by t theories inclusive, women’s progressive empowerme world as a on women’s which a person that did not and groups in approach to nt has means to empowerme or group recognize participatory India gender while grown challenge nt and its develops the situated processes of embraced reducing within the patriarchal centrality to critical complexity development empowerme poverty and international oppression collective awareness of gender and inspired nt as a tool stimulating developmen through feminist and agency, or relations or by Paulo for social economic t field consciousness politics as the ability to challenge Freire’s work justice, growth, (Batliwala, raising and well as local act existing on critical creating many 2007). political developmen purposefully economic consciousne spaces for governments Mulher Developme activism, more t practice, and effectively structures ss and women to and es nt scholar recently the this article for desired (instead, popular ‘‘collectivize development indian Naila notion of traces the ends. Widely equating education, around organization as Krenz, Kabeer women’s effects of used and women’s these shared s adopted partici Gilbert & (1999) empowerment one NGO’s variously empowerme scholars and experiences the language pantes Índia Mandayam characterize has been microfinanc defined, nt with activists saw of poverty, of de um (2014) s embraced by e program ‘‘empowermen access to ‘‘women’s exclusion, empowerme progra empowerme mainstream on women t’’ figured the public empowerme and nt while ma de nt broadly development from poor prominently in ‘‘productive’’ nt’’ as a discriminatio standardizin microc as the organizations, urban areas U.S. radical sphere), critical n, critically g its rédito ‘‘process primarily of Mumbai, political members of component analyze the implementati through nongovernment India. [...] movements of DAWN of structures on which those al The focus of the 1960s and emphasized development and (Batliwala, who have organizations our has been that gender for social ideologies 2007). been denied (NGOs) that research taken up more subordinatio transformatio that Microcredit the ability to promote was to recently within n must be n (Batliwala, sustained programs make microfinance to explore the feminist and understood 2007). In and emerged strategic life reduce gender empowering development in terms of contrast to reinforced during this choices inequality by effects of discourse socially top-down their time as a acquire generating Annapurna (Oxaal & constructed development oppression, favored such an social and Pariwar’s Baden, 1997, gender strategies, and raise tactic for ability’’ (p. economic microfinanc p. 1). The relations empowerme consciousne reducing 435). development e model feminist and larger nt was ss of their poverty while

(Batliwala, through the conceptualizati systems of conceived as own empowering 2007). From stories and on of inequality a bottom-up subordinatio women, the perspective perspective ‘‘women’s (Drolet, process in n’’ particularly of feminists s of women empowerment’ 2010). which (Batliwala, as wary of who ’ as a political women 2007, p. responsibility neoliberal participate project and develop a 560). The for women’s appropriation, in the development critical success of empowerme the focus on program. intervention awareness these early nt shifted individual emerged in the of their own interventions from the rather than mid-1980s in situation and was one state to local collective reaction to dictate the factor governments empowerment, prevailing shape of leading to and NGOs ‘‘entrepreneurs approaches to social the adoption (Leach & hip and women in change (Sen of Sitaram, individual international & Grown, empowerme 2002). selfreliance, development 1987). nt rhetoric rather than (Saunders, by cooperation to 2002). government challenge s and power development structures organization which s in the subordinate 1990s. The women,’’ 1995 Fourth signifies a World fundamental Conference denaturing of on Women ‘‘empowerment in Beijing ’’ as a political was critical and in bringing transformatory empowerme idea (Cornwall, nt to the Gideon, & forefront of Wilson, 2008; development Oxaal & policy and Baden, 1997, practice p. 5). Others (Batliwala, argue that 2007). microfinance Highlighting

programs, the when connection successful over between time, can pave women’s the way for empowerme collective nt, poverty transformation reduction, (Kabeer, 2005; and Mayoux, 2011). economic growth, the Beijing Platform for Action identified women’s empowerme nt and gender equality as necessary prerequisites for achieving social, political, economic, cultural, and environment al security (Beijing Platform for Action, 1995, as cited in Drolet, 2010, p. 215).

1465

Continuação (Krenz, Gilbert & Mandayam, 2014)

p. 312 - C p. 312 - S p. 312 - C p. 312-313 - C p. 313 - C p. 313 - C p. 314 - C p. 314 - C p. 314 - ? Though much Generally Despite the Microfinance Founded in For According to research has concerned with limitations programs 1975, Annapurna an impact brought into improving inherent to operating Annapurna Pariwar, analysis question the women’s income- microcredit as a within the Pariwar is a microcredit is conducted by Drawing empowering earning capacity strategy for feminist group of six an ‘‘entry Annapurna upon feminist effects of via women’s empowerment NGOs located point’’ into Pariwar, its standpoint microcredit, entrepreneurialis empowerment, paradigm in the Indian poor urban microfinance theory, our As a path- the provision m and self- Kabeer (2005) recognize the state of communities program has intent was to dependent and of financial employment, argues that limitations and Maharashtra and the basis positively design a multidimension services to microcredit has microcredit possibilities of and is one of for further impacted 150 study that al process, poor women been criticized for programs do microcredit as the first urban empowerment slum gives voice to empowerment and families placing the onus have the a means of microfinance . The communities women’s is inherently has been of development potential to promoting organizations organization in Pune and lived difficult to widely on individual address gender justice in India. Since utilizes a joint 60 slum experiences, define and promoted by women rather women’s basic and social 1993, liability group communities while measure donor than challenging needs in the transformation Annapurna (JLG) in Mumbai, furthering our (Kabeer, 2011). agencies as a broader structural informal (Mayoux, Pariwar has microfinance measured in understandin Qualitative relatively barriers to gender economy, and 2010). Using worked toward model, terms of g of research straightforwar equality and the therefore a ‘‘Credit- achieving its consisting of borrowers’ empowermen methods may d pathway to alleviation of should not be Plus’’ model, vision of five members earning t as a be best able to empowerment poverty (Drolet, dismissed. organizations ‘‘empowered who stand power, family development capture local and poverty 2010). Many Indeed, many such as Pro women in guarantee for welfare, child intervention understandings reduction feminist scholars women’s Mujer in sustainable the loan education, with the of (Mayoux, view microcredit organizations Bolivia, families’’ drawn by and receipt of potential to empowerment 2003). The as an attempt to have long Bangladesh through needs- each member adequate address not and the assumed integrate poor utilized Rural based projects, in the group. health care only nuanced correlation women into the microfinance as Advancement partnerships, The JLG (‘‘Annapurna individual outcomes of between neoliberal a tool for Committee in and advocacy. model is a Pariwar,’’ financial empowerment microcredit capitalist market women’s Bangladesh, Though the version of 2011). Our resources but interventions. and system and empowerment, and the Self- organization’s group research gender empowerment consider the use operating within Employed first and dynamics extends this inequality, is based on of what Mayoux Women’s primary activity similar to the analysis by poverty, and the premise ‘‘empowerment’’ (2003) terms Association in remains self-help exploring oppression. that, with in this context a ‘‘the feminist India empowering group, a pathways to access to misleading empowerment supplement women common tool the broader financial appropriation of a paradigm.’’ microcredit through for the goal of

resources, political concept Reflective of the with ancillary microfinance, empowerment women’s women are (Batliwala, 2007; perspective services the of vulnerable empowerment better Drolet, 2010; advocated by based on the organizations groups in , such as equipped to Rankin, 2001). DAWN, the needs of associated India based gender meet practical feminist clients and with on the equality and needs, empowerment concern for Annapurna premise of challenges to contribute to paradigm seeks gender Pariwar increased the household not only to meet empowerment collectively social capital. socioeconomi resources, women’s . Despite offer a Individual c and political and challenge practical needs reservations package of loans range in structures that gender but also to about the services that size from oppress inequity transform effectiveness include (1) 1,000 to women. In (Mayoux, oppressive and efficiency microloans and 35,000 rupees other words, 2003). On a power relations of the ‘‘Credit- savings; (2) (roughly the our study basic level, throughout Plus’’ model vocational equivalent of sought to the practice of society (Drolet, (Mayoux, training and US$18– assess what, microcredit 2010). 2010), job placement; US$623). if any, involves Empowerment Velasco and (3) changes in extending is viewed as a Marconi microinsurance women’s small loans to complex, (2004) ; (4) family, individual and poor multidimension suggest that legal, and household borrowers al process such an health well-being lay who otherwise affecting approach counseling; the would not be multiple aspects does not and (5) low- groundwork able to access of women’s necessarily cost child care for community credit. Loans lives, from limit the and and societal are disbursed consciousness financial educational change, which to individuals and self-esteem sustainability sponsorship. can ultimately or groups, to agency, or lead to with the access to effectiveness structural expectation resources, and of transformation that the the ability to development . money will be work with programs. invested in others for social Based on entrepreneuria justice (Kabeer, their analysis l activities, 2011). Given of Pro Mujer, generate that women’s the authors income and experiences of argue that employment marginality provision of

opportunities, occur within integrated and help to particular social and lessen poverty contexts and financial on the reflect services may individual and intersecting actually community relations of improve level (Isserles, power, there is repayment 2003). no predictable rates and pathway to foster empowerment. increased Within this lending and paradigm, investment, microcredit may particularly for help further the organizations process of that engage in empowerment group lending. for some Much of the women, but existing should not be research on considered an the ‘‘Credit- end in itself. Plus’’ model of microfinance takes an organizational perspective, measuring outcomes in terms of profitability, financial sustainability, and repayment rates (Chakrabarti & Ravi, 2011; Godquin, 2004). To

date, few studies have explored ‘‘Credit-Plus’’ from a feminist empowerment standpoint as a means to foster women’s empowerment and broader structural changes in gender relations (Mayoux, 2010). Continuação (Krenz, Gilbert & Mandayam, 2014)

p. 314 - ? p. 315 - S p. 315 - ? p. 315 - S p. 316 - C p. 318 - S p. 318 - C p. 320 - C p. 321 - C The interview and Theme 1: By insisting on Empowered Theme 2: Theme 3: Some couples Participants survey questions Psychosocial a group-based by their Economic Household likely practiced were asked to Their survey were designed to Empowerment model of record of Empowerment Gender more complete a and interview assess the - Since taking empowerment, success with - Aside from Empowerment equitable brief survey responses respondents’ their first loans Annapurna Annapurna instigating - Since taking decision that included explore the sense of agency over 2 years creates new and driven by changes to loans, the making even basic relationship and empowerment ago, study and safe social their women’s women did before joining demographic between by asking open- participants spaces for responsibility psychosocial report Annapurna. questions and Annapurna ended questions described observation, as providers, well-being, the increased For various survey items Pariwar’s pertaining to the themselves as interaction, and the women loans control over reasons, some pertaining to microfinance effect of the ‘‘better,’’ personal also disbursed household husbands their program and microfinance ‘‘more development. possessed through resources and might be more participation in various program on their confident,’’ Spaces that the courage Annapurna’s financial likely to a women’s dimensions of sense of and ‘‘happy.’’ foster group to dream microfinance decision support their empowerment empowerment. confidence and Their inclusion and about the project help to making, as wives’ intervention. self-esteem, responses nonhierarchical future: "I increase well as more participation in

patterns of reflected relationships want to fulfill women’s egalitarian microfinance personal and subthemes of between poor this dream access to intrahousehold activities. This household improved self- and less poor with the help capital assets, gender is consistent decision making, confidence, individuals of Annapurna improve relations. All of with Ahmed’s familial and self-efficacy, seem to be . . . I will not financial the women (2008) extrafamilial and social particularly give up. management described research, relationships, relationships. successful in Whatever skills, and maintaining which economic well- In general, improving money I get, reduce both control over demonstrates being, and they noted feelings of self- I will keep on household and the use of their the way in community-level feeling more worth. The saving and I individual loans, though which empowerment. self-assured larger will to buy my vulnerability. most consult divergent Interviews were and capable in organization- own house with their models of coded to identify their work and wide meetings one day. I husbands masculinity patterns and their daily also serve to want my when making influence themes across the interactions, reassure clients daughter to major financial men’s responses. The particularly in that they are continue her decisions. attitudes content analysis social not alone in further toward gender was informed by situations they their struggles studies. That empowerment the previously is the main and their preconceptualized avoided. purpose. I wives’ categories have no one participation in identified in else except microcredit Malhotra, Schuler, for my schemes (p. and Boender’s daughter. 152). (2002) framework Whatever I for assessing do, I will do it women’s for her." empowerment. [...] Kabeer’s (1999) definition of empowerment undergirded the content analysis: Each dimension was assessed in terms of the women’s sense of agency and access to

resources, before and after taking loans from Annapurna Pariwar. Continuação (Krenz, Gilbert & Mandayam, 2014)

p. 321 - ? p. 322 - C p. 322 - C p. 322 - C p. 322 - C p. 322-323 - ? p. 323 - C p. 323 - C This research For Annapurna The heightened By involving Due to the Collective action Though it is explored Pariwar, visibility of men in the loan- contingent nature in the social, widely women’s empowerment is women as granting process of empowerment, economic, and acknowledged Despite the accounts of not considered a entrepreneurs and offering the outcomes political spheres that above gains, the personal and solitary endeavor, and business health insurance documented in can alter policies empowerment is women did not collective but a process owners might and counseling this study cannot and practices in not an automatic experience empowerment impelled by also instigate a to all family be generalized to a way that consequence of significant through a case mutual support change in members, similar improves women’s access changes in their study analysis of and collective perceptions and Annapurna interventions women’s ability to savings, household Annapurna action. As social relations Pariwar may elsewhere. The to make strategic credit, or group responsibilities Pariwar’s demonstrated in over time. In avoid some of small sample size life choices, even formation, this due to participants. this study, group- discussing the the tension (n = 10) and if they were not study is a first participating in Overall, the based future of generated by selection bias involved in step in Annapurna’s women’s empowerment women’s increasing toward women advocating for demonstrating empowerment narratives can strengthen empowerment in women’s access with the time and change. how individual, program. suggest a women’s social India, New to resources and availability to Microcredit household, and Although many gradual process ties, improve their Delhi–based public visibility. participate in the borrower groups collective committed more of empowerment social author and However, study limit the have the agency time to income- characterized by competence, and columnist encouraging generalizability of potential to dynamics earning activities psychosocial, expand their Nilanjana S. Roy men to the findings. become sites of change for since joining the material, and extrahousehold (2013) notes, challenge Women who solidarity building women who organization, relational network of ‘‘Given power, patriarchal dropped out of the and collective have they did not note changes on the support. Over women give gender relations program were also empowerment, participated in a subsequent individual, time, improved attention to and advocate for not considered for encouraging new an decrease in time household, and social capital may issues that don’t the participation. forms of empowerment spent on unpaid community increase women’s matter as much empowerment of Despite these collective action program that work within the levels. Results access to to their male women will likely limitations, the around strategically home. suggest that the resources and counterparts— require a deeper narratives community or combines social and decrease like access to and more documented here gender issues. microfinance financial tolerance for better drinking concerted effort represent a crucial Furthermore, with other vital

services work in gender-based water. In on the part of first step toward access to services. tandem to oppression and addition, the women’s groups understanding the financial and Annapurna reduce discrimination. presence of to involve men in relationship nonfinancial Pariwar’s holistic household Additionally, women in a processes of between resources, ‘‘Credit-Plus’’ vulnerability and when increased visible position of change. Annapurna including approach merits improve the income is command at the Pariwar’s ‘‘Credit- insurance, child further capacity of combined with village level has Plus’’ model of care and longitudinal women and other financial been shown to microfinance and savings, can study as a families to meet assets, like loans, have a significant women’s guarantee relevant their basic savings, and effect on the empowerment. security for the empowerment needs and insurance, aspirations of Further most vulnerable model for social negotiate better women’s young girls, and ethnographic and lay the work practice. relationships in economic has also research inclusive groundwork for the home and activities can increased of more varied future gains in community. In reduce household general societal perspectives, from health, particular, the vulnerability to acceptance of staff members to education, group model of external risk and working women.’’ family and former income, and lending, the improve long- program general welfare. combination of term security. participants, will However, group- savings help to broaden based instruments and our understanding microfinance is loans, and the of ‘‘empowerment’’ unlikely to result integration of in this context. in a renegotiation health care and of gender health insurance relations, into the collective political microfinance action, or model changes in demonstrate the sociocultural most profound norms without impact on organizational participants’ commitment to a feelings of wider confidence, empowerment solidarity, and agenda. security.

1470 AFFILIA – Tabela C9

p. 194 - S p. 194 - ? p. 202 - S

Feminist theories have historically been TIC models emphasize that trauma concerned with women and other’s awareness must be cultivated among experiences of trauma, particularly as service providers and integrated into trauma and resulting powerlessness interventions and program structures. In are products of oppressive systems recognition of how trauma can destroy a This study is framed by interrelated (Dietz, 2000; Kulkarni et al., 2010). sense of safety and personal power in theoretical perspectives, specifically Emphasizing the personal and political relationships, TIC models must also variations of trauma theory that dimensions of oppression, feminist address physical and psychological emphasize the cumulative nature of theory calls for responses to trauma safety, emphasize client choice and traumatic and adverse events (Kubiak, that address systemic roots of violence Lewinson, control, and provide opportunities for 2005; Turner & Lloyd, 1995) and and build individual power through Thomas & Mulheres empowerment. For homeless services EUA feminist theory and empowerment programs and clinical interactions that White sem-teto settings, TIC has been defined as, ‘‘a perspectives that recognize the impact emphasize self-determination and (2014) strengths-based framework that is of oppression and the role of mutual mutual helping relationships. Trauma grounded in an understanding of and relationships and self-determination in theory, feminist theories, and responsiveness to the impact of trauma, addressing and healing from trauma empowerment perspectives are that emphasizes physical, (Dietz, 2000; Kulkarni, Kennedy, & integrated in trauma-informed care psychological, and emotional safety for Lewis, 2010). (TIC) service models that are both providers and survivors, and that permeated by trauma awareness, creates opportunities for survivors to safety, a strengths perspective, and rebuild a sense of control and opportunities to rebuild control (Elliott, empowerment’’ (Hopper et al., 2010, p. Bjelaiac, & Fallor, 2005; Hopper, 82). Bassuk, & Olivet, 2010). AFFILIA – Tabela C10

p. 332 - S p. 335 - C p. 336 - S p. 337 - ?

"It’s the most expressive for This analysis suggests that, Dance has long been deemed For social workers working me, the most accepting. Belly when analyzed from the a holistic movement modality, with women who are Mulheres dancing is very size positive. standpoint of contemporary especially styles that are currently in unsafe Moe praticantes EUA It’s very empowering, and it practitioners, belly dance premised on self- situations, it would be critical (2014) de dança allows you to be creative. may be beneficial to women experimentation, improvisation, to utilize strength- and do ventre With belly dancing, the in terms of empowerment discovery, and empowerment empowerment-based majority of it comes from and overall health. Such (Halprin, 2000; Levy, 1988; methods of communication

existing. Everyone can exist findings are helpful in Payne, 2006). The women in and safety planning. If such in that moment and express expanding notions of this study indicated many women are already engaged themselves to this music empowerment-based self- instances in which they found in belly dance, and feel safe without fear". In the above directed coping, as belly dance to facilitate healing, doing so, it would behoove excerpt, Emma also applicable to feminist social making links between the harm social workers to support underscores the uniqueness work practice. they had suffered and the and honor them. of belly dancing, as a genre consequential benefits of belly that accommodates the dance. Paramount among individual regardless of size, these was the physical experience, or body image. reclamation, wherein they She also hints at the experienced positive importance of communal appreciation for what their support within the genre. bodies could do. The women also described a sense of belonging and comfort within the social context of belly dancing. For many, such settings provided respite from the stresses of their lives. They found the individualized characteristic of belly dance to be helpful as well, allowing myriad uses of the dance without the burden of conforming to certain physical or skill expectations. While some were not able to articulate the exact feelings they had while belly dancing, their overall sense of it was one that encompassed joy, release, comfort, and empowerment. All of these sentiments are indicative of its holistic capacity. AFFILIA – Tabela C11

p. 370 - S

Ormiston Pedagogia EUA Students might then feel empowered to return to their territories and know what kind of questions to ask as part of their (2014) indígena own coming to know. That is, students who learn about the identity of another territory they are situated in will then feel empowered to find out more about their own indigenous territory and learn how to ask the questions in pursuit of coming to know where they are from and who their people/traditional territories are and their traditions. AFFILIA – Tabela C12

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In 2004, the These directives Social work Through a The LCCM The opportunity Trio are in alignment models based competitive delivered a to participate in As part of Foundation’s with social justice on proposal total of 479 hr setting and their Family Board of and feminist empowerment process, the of one-on-one achieving life Economic Directors theoretical are vital when Trio coaching to goals with the Security identified perspectives by working with Foundation address extensive Project, WOW ‘‘services to recognizing that women who selected the participants’ support defined the increase individual are YWCA of immediate provided by the Direct service following women’s struggles are disempowered Metro St Louis and longer LCCM, and the would be a strategies as economic often rooted in by constraints as the term needs ability to central element vital to empowerment’’ oppressive at both the administering during Phase request and of the initiative. financial as the focus of social, political, individual and organization 1. These receive The empowerment their first and cultural societal levels, because (a) services were financial administrating for low- targeted giving environments, including its mission provided from assistance organization income initiative. and that, in the women in and core an according to would use women: (a) Scheuler, Foundation face of these poverty and expertise empowerment their ‘‘empowerment’’ Mulheres promoting Diouf, principals oppressive victims or were perspective in individualized approaches in solteiras economic Nevels & EUA reviewed systems, survivors of consistent which the needs, helped working with de baixa security as Hughes research, individuals must domestic with those of LCCM empower these participants, renda defined by a (2014) contacted other be empowered in violence (Mills, the initiative, interacted with women. By making specific Self- organizations order to make 1996; (b) the YWCA participants as completing decisions about Sufficiency working for progress Parsons, had more of a degree how to provide Standard,5 (b) women’s (Atkinson, 2001; demonstrated coach and programs and assistance and targeting empowerment, Thompson, & Parsons, East, past success facilitator than attaining work services within a higher wage and held a Grant, 1993; & Boesen, with the target a traditional in general program and series of Morrow & 1994; Prigoff, population, (c) case maledominated framework nontraditional community Hawxhurst, 1992). Further, the agency’s manager. fields, they provided by the employment, meetings with 1998). In this the education case Sessions succeeded in foundation. and (c) nonprofit and case, the of women has management included overcoming promoting postsecondary oppressive long been philosophy reviewing some of the Individual educational systems included recognized as was budgets and barriers that Development leaders to (a) a job market an empowerment helping hinder women Accounts gather input. that did not empowerment based, and (d) women from achieving (IDAs). Feedback from reward women strategy for personnel to access more economic community with positions addressing the staff the stable and parity with

organizations that paid enough power initiative were adequate men. confirmed the to support a differential already in services. need in the St family and that between men place. Primary topics Louis region for judged ‘‘women’s and women addressed a new initiative work’’ to be less (Stromquist, during these to support low- valuable than 2002). sessions (in income women ‘‘men’s work’’; (b) order of with children; a punitive and frequency) forum rigid public include participants welfare system; school, noted that and (c) an employment, ‘‘women in the educational debt middle,’’ who system that was reduction, were not inaccessible to medical dealing with low-income needs, severe single women housing financial and who were also needs, and personal crises raising children. childcare. but still in need As Parsons, of significant East, and support in Boesen (1994) building noted ‘‘welfare economic reform’’ security were programs in the underserved by United States current typically focus on programs and job training and services. financial assistance without taking into account the effects of oppression and disempowerment experienced by low-income, single heads of households. 1475

AFFILIA – Tabela C13

p. 8 - S

Empowerment and self-determination - Approximately half (n ¼ 26, 50.9%) of the agencies expressly used the term ‘‘empowerment’’ or language referencing a victim’s sense of power. Although some organizations were concerned with the empowerment of women in general (e.g., Florida Coalition Against Domestic Violence, n.d., Mission Statement section, { 1), others discussed Barrett, Almanssori, Construtos feministas empowerment specific to victims (e.g., ACADV, n.d., Mission Statement section, bullet 5). Relatedly, Kwan & Waddick em publicações sobre EUA 20 coalitions (39.2%) noted the importance of ‘‘self-determination’’ or the right of individuals to make (2015) violência doméstica decisions or take control of their own lives. Although some coalitions, such as the Alaska Network on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault (ANDVSA), noted a belief in the ‘‘self-determination of women’’ (ANDVSA, 2009, Our Philosophy section, { 4), self-determination was most commonly discussed in conjunction with individual victim’s rights. AFFILIA – Tabela C14

p. 6 - C p. 11 - C

When workers were asked the reasons why women commit violence, they usually answered by describing the helplessness these women felt due to a lack of family, community, and service support. Women’s violence was therefore framed by workers within the structural dimensions of gender inequality as well as gender norms that stigmatized women who are either Women’s use of violence was necessarily a difficult victimized or violent. They emphasized how women’s issue for DV workers to speak about. Their practice Mulheres violence should be understood as a last-ditch defense in and professional judgment was informed by a Mottram trabalhadoras da the absence of protective options or support, driven by prevailing anti-violence sentiment that linked & Salter assistência social com EUA broader structural and normative patterns of gender violence to the wrongful exercise of power; a (2015) mulheres acusadas de inequality. However, as the following section shows, sentiment that came under challenge when violência doméstica women’s violence had an important subjective element disempowered and victimized women used involving the psychodynamic interplay of various factors violence. within women’s lived experience against a broader backdrop of victimization and disempowerment. The way in which women’s own histories, mental health, and coping strategies informed their responses to abuse and powerlessness appeared to distinguish those women who used violence from those that did not.

1480 AFFILIA – Tabela C15

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Several Empowering Feminist It is in this theoretical practice shapes interventions spirit that frameworks programs by often seek to In conjunction advocates have drawing from empower with feminist often refer to influenced the needs of clients theories and those who interventions clients, builds (Dominelli, empowerment, a have with survivors on strengths of 2002; Petrectic- strengths experienced of partner people, revises Jackson et al., perspective is intimate violence and intervention, 2002). often employed violence as The literature provided and pays Dominelli in partner survivors and reveals the The most insight into the ongoing (2002) and violence not victims. suggested use commonly experience of attention to Payne (2005) advocacy (Black, Strengths- of referenced abuse. power summarized 2003). The oriented empowerment, guiding Feminist and differentials some of the strengths practitioners strengths philosophy or critical (Simon, 1994). major elements perspective empower the perspective, theories for Advogados(as) theories are The of feminist rejects the view people they CBT, and practice were que atendem most prevalent empowerment social work of people in work with by feminism empowerment Wood vítimas de in academic perspective is practice, need of services highlighting theories in EUA and strengths- (2015) violência literature as the foundation including as victims and these interventions based causada por models for for advocacy analysis of asserts, instead, strengths and with survivors perspective. parceiros advocacy services in power, focus on that everyone using a future of IPV. Other Hope and interventions many shelters the personal has inherent orientation to theories are in feminism also with survivors (Goodman & experience in strengths and apply skills use with emerged as of IPV Epstein, 2008). the public resourcefulness. toward current survivors, such important (Lockhart & The experience context (the By listening, problems as crisis constructs for Mitchell, of domestic personal is asking (Howe, 2009). intervention IPV advocacy. 2010), along violence is political), the questions, and Black (2003) (Roberts, with understood as de-emphasis pointing out assessed the 2007). empowerment fundamentally on blame and themes, social strengths- approaches disempowering pathology of workers can help based and the for survivors. women, clients to perspective as strengths- Women are consciousness discover these being based stripped of their raising, strengths (Howe, interwoven perspective personal reflexivity, and 2009). with feminist (Black, 2003; agency and egalitarian and Busch & freewill by the relationships empowerment

Valentine, abusive partner and attention to models and a 2000), but and then forced issues of common tool these by no to enter process. IPV in working with means provide uncharted agencies often partner an exhaustive territories of strive to use the violence list. services nonhierarchical survivors. Her (Busch & structures and study of Valentine, consensus- domestic 2000). making models violence court Personal power central to some advocates is restored by feminist confirmed that encouraging theories they use a and creating (Bennett et al., strengths avenues for 2004). orientation to women to practice make decisions (Black, 2003). about their own lives (Kallivayalil, 2007). Shelters and agencies often do this by creating safe spaces to give survivors the time to make their own choices without fear or punishment (Clevenger & Roe-Sepowitz, 2009). Continuação (Wood, 2015)

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Advocates Since An Belief in social Advocates It is not referenced the advocates did empowering, change and typically surprising that specific ways not empower client driven- eliminating endorsed the most they go about people approach can oppression, several commonly used Far and away, facilitating personally, but be difficult for particularly connected practice the empowerment. rather helped advocates to based on causes of theories are empowerment These included facilitate implement, gender, was a violence rather empowerment model was the offering empowerment, especially when guiding belief for than one factor. and strengths Advocates most used or resources, there were a the survivor practice in some Strengths perspective. As a second often had to referenced education, number of does not have agencies, as perspective and Advocates in theory closely reconcile their perspective for providing different ways the same goals Renee stated, empowerment this sample linked to hopes for the advocacy information, participants in as the advocate ‘‘Well, the theory were the viewed an empowerment, future of the practice. listening, the sample might wish for philosophy at most empowering advocates individual Empowerment reflecting, approached them, does not our agency is referenced approach as a overwhelmingly survivor and a meant that the raising this skill. The want to use a very much one practice mediator endorsed a client-driven advocate awareness, and approach taken potentially of social theories used in against the strengths- model. provided avoiding by the advocate helpful change, social this sample. abuser’s power based Sometimes, support for the judgment. to empower the resource, or justice and They were not, and control and perspective in this contributed client, but the Importantly, survivor moves at a empowerment however, the necessary to their work with to a sense of survivor is ‘‘in advocates changed with pace that is of survivors.’’ only increasing survivors. A helplessness or charge’’ of the using an the setting and uncomfortable Participants approaches to client buy-in for strengthsbased lack of control types of empowerment the timing of for the rest of endorsed work with services. When perspective in the work. services she perspective did the the people feminist beliefs, survivors that empowerment meant drawing Advocates also used and when not make intervention. working with especially in were is partnered on the natural try to anticipate she used them. choices for Characteristics her. Advocates relationship to mentioned. with a strong abilities of that in a model This is guided someone else, of the survivor drew on perceived Other theories rapport and survivors and based on by the idea that but supported also helped the personal causes of and client-led focusing empowerment, survivors are them where advocate reflection to partner violence. perspectives services, interventions on working with the experts on they are at, as determine what mediate against Overwhelmingly, endorsed by advocates felt their expressed survivors will their own lives Alma outlined. information to desires to participants advocates that survivors needs. not be simple and understand 'Technically, we offer and how interject their attributed the included were able to [...] what they need don’t empower to best provide thoughts on the cause of partner motivational make goals that when they them. We help an empowering best course of violence as, in interviewing mattered to present for them find their perspective. action. As Ana part, a desire for and the stages them and built services. own Rita talked noted, power and of change, a more positive empowerment about her goals advocates control. Many cognitive– sense of self. and help them using the specifically participants behavioral Highlighting empower empowerment used the skill of expressed that techniques, and strengths and themselves to perspective and patience and violence the emerging using them as a

see that they how they embraced a stemmed from paradigm of means for goal have choices changed lack of control cultural gender traumainformed planning was a and to expand depending on to continue roles that care. One natural those choices. the individual using an contribute to a important extension of If we’ve done client. 'Well I empowering need for power theoretical this that and they want to approach. and control or at construct that perspective. choose to stay empower them. 'Being patient least allow it to guides practice This finding is with an abusive I want them to and I think that thrive. was the especially person, then know that there that is crucial to concept of important, they’ve made are shelters out empowerment. hope, given this that choice or there, that there A lot of times I especially as it centrality of they choose to are people who will, in the back relates to empowerment keep using care. Even just of my head, I’ll survivors of to social work drugs or educating just be, ‘‘Let me IPV. practice and whatever.' them, that a lot just do this, I the seemingly of people feel can do this, I lacking that they have can do this understanding no rights. faster than of the best Especially with you,’’ but that is methods to the just the approach IPV undocumented absolute wrong intervention in population; you approach for a social work know, batterers survivor. They education. In will sometimes need to do this one study of use that against themselves, master of social them like, ‘‘If they are work students, you leave me, perfectly feminist or I’m going to capable, they power-related deport you or know that, they causes of I’m going to can do it and violence were deport your I’m not there to only minimally family and I make things endorsed, and know where move faster or empowerment- you live’’ and make based it’s just fear. everything to interventions You know, and be just right. were scarcely just letting them Patience and recognized know that fear also just kind-of (Black, Weisz, is very valid embracing not & Bennett,

and real but being in control, 2010). there are that’s another different very important resources that thing.' they can access to try to get their documents in order and do things legally. Again, just being able to help them and meet them where they’re at.' Continuação (Wood, 2015)

p. 297 - C p. 297 - ? p. 298 - ? p. 298 - C p. 299 - ? Evidence of Hoping is also wishing Feminist and empowerment With a wide agreement in the empowerment-influenced for a different outcome, theoretical approaches are literature about a focus on services came not only especially for survivors still very much in use in IPV empowerment and strengths, from direct references who may have returned agencies, despite there needs to be more but also from statement to abusive partners or disagreements over practice discussion and clarification Historically, feminist and of actions undertaken in exhausted their time models and organizational about what empowerment is empowerment-based approaches advocacy practice. In this limit at shelter. For structure (Davies & Lyon, and how it is used as a have inspired and guided the research, participants many advocates in this 2014; Goodman & Epstein, practice model movement to end IPV. This discussed their desire to sample, following a 2008; Lehrner & Allen, 2009; (Kasturirangan, 2008). research revealed that they still do, educate clients about client-driven model Wies, 2008). Although Researchers like Zosky to a large part. However, the societal forms of based on clinical theories may have a (2011) have advocated for fidelity of these practice models oppression, provide empowerment also place in IPV advocacy, the an empowerment approach needs improvement as does the information gained at carried a risk of default setting in many that draws on survivors and training and implementation of increasing personal worrying and wondering agencies is still a feminist their help-seeking skills. In theory at the agency level. power and resource about the people who empowerment approach that this sample alone, there was acquisition, and returned to violent intends to be client driven a vast array of explanations encourage clients to homes, called on the and build on strengths. The of empowering practice, build supportive crisis line but didn’t mutual emphasis of some of which were networks with other make it in, or moved empowerment and strengths empowerment in name only

survivors. This theme away to another based on social work and more closely matched a also marked a transition shelter. practice and IPV case management model. in feminist social work to intervention creates a Confusion over the meaning looking at intersecting natural link to better prepare of empowerment was oppression and privilege students and early-career indicated by statements (Kemp & Brandwein, practitioners about the which suggested that clients 2010). These ideas connections between theory gained empowerment by complement the notions and practice. The findings of following the directives of expressed by this research support the agency protocol. Further participants Alma and assertions of Arnold and exploration into how Rachel that advocates Ake (2013) that the empowerment is translated do not help or give movement to end IPV is not from a perspective to a empowerment to necessarily in decline but practice with survivors of survivors but rather rather in a careful evolution violence is needed to facilitate a process by that is blending grassroots, enhance the role of this which survivors are able political, and clinical perspective in the field. This to empower themselves. strategies to address could entail evaluation work Use of empowerment violence and trauma from to assess the fidelity of and the strengths the standpoint of survivors. empowerment and strengths- perspective in advocacy focused models in practice has also been as well as training for new acknowledged in other and seasoned advocates. In literature. Black (2003) addition, social work discovered in an analysis education and leadership of survivor experiences can continue to improve with court advocates that educational practices about strengths perspective IPV and efficacious and feminist approach interventions and theoretical were most often used. constructs (Black et al., Zosky (2011) interviewed 2010). 161 survivors about shelter stays and found that services provided by programs helped survivors find strengths and increase safety. Davies and Lyon (2014) promote the efficacy of victim-defined advocacy

with the focus of understanding the perspective, experience, and impact of culture and oppression on each individual survivor. AFFILIA – Tabela C16

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Through understanding the Scholarship in social work lifeworlds of disabled that examines microfinance women who were and gender equality has The contradictory claims of structurally and culturally also argued that financial empowerment in less privileged, I illuminate services alone are unlikely microfinance have been Based on the philosophy of the structural biases of the to generate empowerment widely explored in feminist Yunus—founder of the microfinance approach and unless coupled with literature. Feminist Grameen Bank model and the norms of embodiment intervention in other areas scholars have increasingly Nobel Prize laureate— that underwrite this of socioemotional life argued that poverty microfinance has been approach. I argue that the (Krenz, Gilbert, & alleviation and market Mulheres de globally upheld as a individualizing, market- Mandayam, 2013; Shankar expansion are linked baixa renda neoliberal panacea for oriented logic of & Asher, 2011; Thomas & through gendered forms of com addressing poverty and microfinance comports Sinha, 2009). Exhaustive power. Nancy Hartsock deficiências, income disparities. Despite standards of compulsory preoccupation of Chaudhry (2006) observes that the que não Índia these advances, able-bodiedness that are microfinance with the (2016) transformation processes aceitam microfinance—as a key contradicted by disability as economic dimension of aimed at empowering empréstimos de policy tool for increasing a reality that is experienced social life leads to women through iniciativas de well-being, social mobility, through relational kinship neglecting noneconomic microfinance are, in fact, microcrédito and capital markets in the ties in rural India. This forms of empowerment double edged: While they underserved communities suggests that approaches (Barker, 2005; Bergeron, seem to liberate women of the Global South—has to social work in 2006). Since the focus in from ‘‘patriarchal not yet been evaluated for microfinance and disability microfinance is toward oppression,’’ they also its effects in empowering should attend to cultural productivity, not necessarily incorporate women into women with disabilities. aspects of power that toward addressing gender ‘‘global capitalism’’ on manifest through beliefs disparities or understanding ‘‘greatly unequal terms’’ (p. about gender, ability, and the terms of women’s 188). kin-based relationality, empowerment, efforts to beliefs which may sit increase the public viability uneasily with western of female businesses

cultural norms of autonomy, through microcredit can empowerment, and overburden and individual agency purported disempower women in by neoliberal development. societies with fraying social safety nets and changing household gender roles (Vonderlack-Navarro, 2010).

Continuação (Chaudhry, 2016)

p. 180 - C p. 181 - C p. 186-187 - C p. 187 - ? p. 187 - C As a member of the disabled Loans are targeted especially For both Rama and Kamla, Analyzing microfinance at Research on the intersection community and a woman toward women and seek to their disabilities made it the crossroads of gender, of social work and from India, my focus on the redress the fact that they are a harder for them to navigate disability, and poverty marginalized identities coconstruction of meaning disproportionate majority physical spaces, and their expands our understanding reveals that there is no single within the rural Indian among impoverished groups unmarried status made it of development and pathway to empowerment context of kinship ties allows that frequently suffers harder for them to navigate demands a complex through the marketplace. An for an understanding of discrimination in labor markets. social and public spaces incorporation of the disability ethnographic approach to social rationalities and These groups are mainly including the market. Their and gender dimension as understanding the marginal emergent norms of organized to receive lived experiences challenge they intersect with each lives of disabled women embodiment that complicate microfinance, with the goal of the very claims of gender other. As demonstrated, challenges current practices ideologies of ableism and reducing poverty based on the empowerment espoused by these questions can be of microfinance in India and rational actor theory in Grameen Bank principles; that the neoliberal microfinance explored more productively their complicity in promoting microfinance regimes. My is, democratizing capital, approach. This also through an intersectional ableist market-oriented visual disability then became capitalism from the ground-up, demonstrates how disability and gender interventions. Nonnormative a point of rupture, facilitating and business with a ‘‘human participation in the market perspective. Where a embodiment provides a lens similitude with my face.’’ This emphasis is based was not a neutral disability perspective can to peer through the informants. Being with them on the World Bank’s phenomenon; it was lend a critical lens to conditionality of microfinance

in their contexts of uneven neoliberalized grassroots contingent upon, and examine the nature and as an aspiration and development and disability empowerment, constructed around, cultural claims of gender normalizing exercise of allowed for greater critical entrepreneurship, and social norms of personhood that empowerment espoused by power in the current global dialog. It also took them out capital thinking that intersected with caste, microfinance, a critical landscape of neoliberalism. of the mold of project strengthening network gender, kinship, gender lens can Indeed, approaches to performativity, the pressure connections, associational ability/disability, and other simultaneously reveal the intersectionality must be to respond in socially relationships, and participation axes of power in the village. gendered nature of disability nuanced to fit the context of desirable ways that fitted the in markets can help people oppression and underscore practice. Approaches to grand narrative of project move out of poverty and other the need for engendering social work in microfinance empowerment. disadvantaged positions disability in social work and disability should attend (Coleman, 1990; Putnam, policies and interventions. to cultural aspects of power 2001; World Bank, 2009). that manifest through beliefs about gender, ability, and kin-based relationality that may sit uneasily with Western cultural norms of autonomy, empowerment, and individual agency purported by neoliberal development programs in the global south. 1485

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p. 263 - C p. 263-264 - C p. 264 - C p. 264 - C p. 264 - S

Implicit in both empowerment theory and ESD is a radical reexamination of the status quo. ESD has One important the potential to ‘‘effect intervention that change’’ at the group empowers individuals Arising in an ESD level by challenging of targeted social class, the newfound the embedded identities and their awareness of one’s Gutierrez states that: narrative that casts broader communities own verbal, social, Social work focuses 'The process of women (and other is the teaching of emotional, and on the liberation of empowerment occurs oppressed identities empowerment-based physical power brings the systematically on the individual, that are socially self-defense (ESD). the confidence to disempowered. interpersonal, and constructed as ‘‘weak’’ The goal of this piece resist the narrative of Social work’s institutional levels, or ‘‘victimized’’) as is to draw social the inherent weakness Treinamento empowerment theory where the person inherently and workers’ attention to of women and other de asserts that ‘‘the develops a sense of unequivocally Jones & the many ways in victims and autodefesa capacity of people to personal power, an physically vulnerable. Mattingly EUA which ESD can insurmountable em mulheres improve their lives is ability to affect Interventions based on (2016) address the root strength of men and vítimas de determined by their others, and an ability empowerment theory problems of unequal other perpetrators at violência ability to control their to work with others to are more likely to power, prevent both the personal and environment, namely, changes social create real, violence, and help the political levels. As having power’’ institutions. (1990, p. sustainable change survivors of violence those whose identities (Hasenfeld, 1987 in 150)'. ESD curricula than many others. For and other trauma to are socially Busch & Valentine, contain both example, a prominent survive, heal, and constructed as weak 2000, p. 83). preventative and prevention model thrive. Feminist realize that they and reactive components. intended to address empowerment theory their classmates have sexual assault in the challenges us to many strengths, they United States today is recognize and become empowered. bystander intervention address structural education (BIE). BIE oppression. encourages bystanders to interrupt potentially violent situations on behalf of others at risk of harm.

While bystander intervention is certainly part of the solution, reliance on BIE and the exclusion of empowerment models further a narrative in which potential victims are helpless and in need of saving by a heroic other. Empowerment-based interventions send the message that the targeted are capable of defending themselves. Continuação (Jones & Mattingly, 2016)

p. 265 - C p. 267 - S p. 267 - C p. 268 - ? p. 268 - ? p. 268 - ? p. 269 - C A lived experience of Social workers Some feminists have Too often, Dr. Judith being powerful shifts employ ESD at both raised concerns in approaches to social Herman As the interest in how one moves in the micro-level and recent years about work have been recommends and funding of Training in ESD the world and reacts the macro level, with nonempowering accused of enforcing self-defense in violence can also assist to surroundings; clients, communities, approaches to societal inequity the newest prevention social workers in conversely, a lived and for themselves as selfdefense, noting rather than edition of her increases, social the application of experience of being practitioners. Within they may blame the empowering targeted foundational workers invested empowerment powerless can leave interpersonal practice, victims of violence and communities to stand work Trauma in empowerment theory. For one even more ESD offers an hold them (not against it. ESD and Recovery, in theory are called example, even the vulnerable to empowering perpetrators) training provides an which she notes on to understand well-meaning predators. Thus, one alternative and responsible for ending opportunity for social that self-defense and disseminate practitioner can of the major goals of complementary violence and abuse. workers to lead the training can the significant unintentionally, empowerment self- pathway to prevention They fear any self- charge of challenging empower research even subtly, defense is to and healing for many defense training and thereby survivors to ‘‘face evidence for convey victim- demonstrate to populations and may places the onus on undermining power their world more ESD’s prevention blaming attitudes. students that they be integrated into targeted individuals to imbalances. ESD confidently’’ capacity. are powerful and consciousness raising change their behavior empowers directly by (1997, p. 198). that they have and skill-building when it is the developing and

opportunities to sessions for at-risk perpetrators who are accessing the employ their own social identities responsible for the inherent power within power before, [including but not problem. As there the targeted, during, and after limited to women, currently is no marginalized, and violence, including youth, lesbian, gay, credentialing or disempowered attempted violation bisexual, transgender, licensure requirement, individual at risk of or assault by known and queer (LGBTQ) there is nothing to victimization by and unknown others. people, immigrants, stop people with very perpetrators of sex workers, and little training or violence. It is an ideal survivors of child grounding in intervention for sexual abuse]. empowerment incorporation within principles from calling social work practice. ‘‘ themselves self- . . . [A]n defense instructors. empowerment Many self-defense approach to self- classes are little more defense training than introductions to contributes to the various martial arts, anti-violence with an exclusive movement in multiple emphasis on physical ways: providing a fighting techniques pathway to increase and warnings about women’s and girls’ ‘‘stranger danger.’’ safety and their Such an approach potential for includes no becoming powerful awareness of the and effective social larger social context or changes agents . . . realities of and offering interpersonal violence comprehensive and may run the options to recognize, gamut from prevent, and interrupt nonharming to violence’’ (Thompson, ineffective, to 2014, p. 351). disempowering, to retraumatizing.

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p. 165 - ? p. 166 - ? p. 171 - C p. 172 - C

Most workers believed it was within their job role to The limited literature on empower clients. Writing on the relationships between women workers and clients women as workers and collaborating for women as clients is empowerment on a steeped in role conflict. community project, Callahan Miller and Stiver (1997, p. and Lumb (1995, p. 809) 49) have provided a observed that ‘‘one of the powerful analysis of why clearest messages from these roles appear to be workers throughout the The researchers also inherently at odds, noting Asked whether they project was their sense of examined stresses ‘‘Indeed . . . a dominant believed their role was to isolation and lack of power. common to both group is not likely to empower clients, 83.3% Just as clients feel caseworkers and create mutually of participants said, marginalized and stigmatized clients; what empowering Mulheres ‘‘Yes.’’ Jane, a rural child by child welfare, so do relationship, if any, relationships, else it cuidadoras protective worker, workers.’’ For the participants Koncikowski exists between would not remain em serviços echoed similar thoughts in this study, as working & Chambers EUA/Canadá identifying bias, dominant. Thus, a de bem- from others, sharing: ‘‘It’s mothers within a system (2016) empowering clients, patriarchal society would estar de about being an advocate: dedicatedto child well-being and labeling oneself a not evolve a system of crianças working collaboratively and protection, they feminist; and whether relationships based in with moms; looking for expressed a similar maternal ambivalence mutuality.’’ Perhaps opportunities; supporting sentiment. Perhaps what is might be a platform for because of this power them in whatever way missing from the child engagement between differential inherent in a possible.’’ welfare system in relation to workers and clients. system that is reflective empowerment is a of the larger patriarchy, discussion, as Callahan and there has been no focus Lumb (1995, p. 799) in the field on what may suggested, of ‘‘the shared be a major shared problems of workers and commonality between clients as members of many female stigmatized groups.’’ Swift caseworkers and female (1995, p. 495) also clients: their mothering recognized the possibility for experiences. an empowered relationship between women workers and

clients, arguing that while it is essential to make women’s victimization visible, it is also necessary not to portray women as ‘‘damaged, powerless, and in need of ongoing intervention by child welfare and other authorities.’’ She went on to note the strengths, resiliency, and resourcefulness shown by many mothers in child welfare and suggested that if the child welfare system were reinvented by women, it might become ‘‘less hierarchical, less divisive, less competitive, more participatory, and vastly more preventive in its directions’’ (1995, p. 498). Crenshaw (1991, p. 1251), in her ground-breaking article on intersectionality, cautioned: ‘‘The fact that minority women suffer from the effects of multiple subordination, coupled with institutional expectations based on inappropriate nonintersectional contexts, shapes and ultimately limits the opportunities for meaningful intervention on their behalf.’’

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Continuação (Koncikowski & Chambers, 2016)

p. 172 - C p. 172 - C p. 173 - C p. 174 - C p. 174 - C An important area for future investigation includes whether outcomes would be different if, instead of entering their clients’ lives solely as an agent of the state, caseworkers were able to use their parenting status to engage and empower clients in an authentic way. As Miller and Stiver (1997) suggested, the Roberts (2006) provided an analysis legitimization of one woman’s from a macro social work feelings and experiences by perspective, observing that So even though only half of another, especially one she Additionally, how ‘‘feminism’s reinterpretation of A system recognizing and participants were believes has an authoritative role might clients, private problems as political issues, supporting the mutual comfortable labeling in her life, can be validating. They workers, and the its ambition to emancipate and empowerment of themselves as feminists, write, ‘‘When someone else ‘goes system be improve the lives of all women, and caseworker-mothers and the fact that so many with us’ in the feelings, we are transformed if its method of taking women’s voices clientmothers would be expressed belief in more able to believe that our workers and clients seriously—especially the voices of truly transformative to women’s equality and in feelings are legitimate’’ (1997, p. were empowered to the most disadvantaged women— child welfare practice and creating relationships that 33). To begin to understand what accomplish can shed critical light on these could only promote empowered clients a mutually empowering something of mutual thorny questions of child welfare’’ (p. positive outcomes for suggests that feminist relationship between a client and benefit in their 44). Feminism, with its focus on children. social work still matters in worker would look like, it would community? empowerment and intersectionality, practice. also be essential to learn from may still be able to address issues clients about their experiences within the child welfare system. relating to caseworkers, areas of commonality, and areas of difference and need. Hill Collins (1994, p. 48) has noted, ‘‘We must distinguish between what has been said about subordinated groups in the dominant discourse, and what such groups might say about themselves if given the opportunity’’.

101

1495 AFFILIA – Tabela C19

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Encouraging From a feminist A qualitative One of them financial empowerment evaluation of the described this empowerment paradigm, REAP program transition in her among survivors inequality and reported improved own life, from of intimate partner subordination in cognitive/affective often being a violence (IPV) is the lives of behavioral and victim of one of the many women need to learning outcomes predatory responsibilities of be analyzed in and feelings of lending to In an effort to advocates order to promote empowerment upon making provide insight on working in the IPV social and completion of the financial Researchers how financial field. Improving economic justice program for choices that have also literacy can be financial (Mayoux, 2002). participants empowered argued that used as one of empowerment A feminist (Sanders, 2007). her:' We financial training the strategies for among survivors empowerment Participants also started talking Silva- for advocates economic of IPV is crucial, model provides a reported actively about other Martínez, Advogadas would provide empowerment, as studies have foundation for working toward forms of Stylianou, que utilizaram opportunities to especially for shown that considering the short- and long-term predatory Hoge, conhecimento further empower survivors of IPV, financial multiple factors financial goals, lending like Plummer, de finanças EUA and aid both the purpose of dependence is that impact overall improvement rent-to-own McMahon com mulheres advocates and this article is to one of the main women in in their financial lives, furniture & vítimas de survivors in understand the reasons a woman patriarchal and taking steps to places. I would Postmus violência navigating and experiences of 19 remains in an societies, achieve and maintain go finance a (2016) understanding advocates abusive including economic TV that would economic implementing a relationship economic independence end up being systems financial literacy (Adams, 2011; inequality. When (Sanders, 2007). A $3,000, $4,500 (Postmus, program Anderson & focusing on the quantitative . . . Then, after 2010). designed Saunders, 2003; impact of evaluation of the reading the specifically for Barnett, 2000; patriarchy in the REAP program also curriculum, I survivors. Kim & Gray, 2008; lives of women found that survivors thought, do I Sanders & and the centrality who participated in take that same Schnabel, 2006). of gender in the REAP program 50 dollars that I Although IPV multiple aspects had significantly would be occurs across all of their lives better scores in making on a socioeconomic (Drolet, 2010), it financial knowledge monthly classes, low- is important to compared to planned income women pay special survivors who did not payment

102

are more often attention to the participate in REAP towards this subject to abuse fact that women (Sanders et al., stuff and put it (Meier, 1997; are more 2007). away? So it’s Tolman & vulnerable to really, really Raphael, 2000). financial abuse helped me.' as a tactic used by their abusers to perpetuate IPV. Continuação (Silva-Martínez, Stylianou, Hoge, Plummer, McMahon & Postmus, 2016)

p. 121 - C p. 123 - C p. 123 - C p. 123 - C p. 123 - C p. 124 - C p. 125 - C p. 125 - C p. 125-126 - C . . . the group On a number of Some Carr (2003) The results Another Financial Addressing situation- occasions, advocates suggests that corroborate dimension of literacy is a financial Finally, a support group advocates made when the need to not the study of potential new literacy as a discussion of survivors-is stated that the decisions for implementing only promote financial intervention strategy for around what is so, so powerful information in the clients a feminist financial literacy and that can be economic economic and the curriculum without empowerment literacy as a economic used with empowerment empowerment empowering should not just asking them, model, it is strategy for empowerment survivors of IPV for women and and what is that I cannot be given to thus not important to be economic that could be as a tool for acknowledging financial imagine-unless survivors of IPV incorporating reflexive about empowerment explored in the becoming the literacy should a woman has but to all an power with survivors, future is a economically particularities be a specific women. This empowering relations not but to do it with contextualized empowered. around encouraged. problem with a was echoed approach. only around us women in analysis of the Social and finances in Financial creditor or over and over Many of the but also within general, realities of economic women’s lives literacy can something like again, and it advocates the including advocates as justice needs to can help in encompass that that an underscores chose which professional advocates. working women be considered eradicating the many topics advocate can the need for topics they relationship. Individual and how their a priority in historic and can help her, I just acknowledging felt were best This involves empowerment own economic order to come marginalization include at the think the group financial for the clients searching for for women empowerment closer to the that women, minimum a is the way to literacy and based on alternative depends on affects the way dream of advocates and discussion go.' [...] For economic assumptions ways of collective they work with economic survivors of IPV about one’s these empowerment and not on sharing efforts, and survivors. empowerment included, have assets and advocates, the as a tool for evidence. decision- this is very Equally for women. been subject to, liabilities and group setting addressing a This may be making much true important is the Thus, especially in budgeting allowed them multiplicity of in part due to processes and when thinking need for developing the economic concerns. to meet a dimensions the power. about examining the empowerment- arena. broader goal around advocates’ Although there economic relationship oriented praxis

103

for their economic beliefs that may not exist empowerment between in social work participants by equality for they are any perfect in particular diversity and through a providing a women, doing what is formula on (Fraser, 1989). economic feminist lens is context in including those best for their deciding who In that sense, empowerment. crucial, which to model women who clients, but it participates in ‘‘by relocating especially when an work with could foster a financial social work acknowledging empowerment survivors of an literacy within a that for women approach. IPV. environment program, patriarchal to achieve well- of control encouraging capitalist being and which is all residential global social peace, they especially and structure’’ need to gain concerning nonresidential (Dominelli, access to considering programs for 2002, p. 9), economic the clients IPV survivors feminist social power at both have recently to adopt some work research individual and left controlling form of and practice collective situations financial can be a great levels. [...]Also, with their literacy might platform for given that abusive be a first step advancing survivors of IPV partners. in providing economic have different this type of empowerment racial, ethnic, education at for women social, and different receiving economic stages. services for backgrounds, IPV as well as implementing the women an economic who work with empowerment them as curriculum can service be complex. providers. Educating advocates is central to the success of implementing financial literacy and economic empowerment

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efforts with survivors in both nonresidential and shelter programs, and transitional housing. This could be done by first having the advocates go through the topics on their own as ‘‘clients’’ in order to provide a basic foundation for the content of the curriculum. Additional booster classes on new topics can then be provided on an ongoing basis as needed.

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ESPAÇOFEM – Tabela C20

País Referência Público/Objeto do Trechos estudo p.2 - C p.4 - C p.7 - C p.8 - C p.9 - C

Segundo Freire Para (2001), desenvolver a compreendermos as consciência crítica é possibilidades de um meio vital para a emancipação, de obtenção do poder. autonomia das Para o autor isto é mulheres que foram possível a partir de objeto desse estudo, uma educação a partir do processo reflexiva, que educativo, preconize o dialogamos com os Concebemos o O trabalho Análise da desenvolvimento do pressupostos empoderamento desenvolvido no Finalmente é autogestão de pensamento crítico. educacionais na como um processo grupo sócio- interessante mulheres idosas Dentro dessa perspectiva de Paulo de construção da educativo observar que a após a inserção perspectiva nos Freire, que pensa na autonomia, da proporciona a autogestão em um Grupo aproximamos da emancipação dos autogestão que essas idosas um conquistada facilitou Leitão sócio-educativo categoria de sujeitos através da deve potencializar o maior o empoderamento Martins em um Brasil “empowerment” ou autonomia, do desenvolvimento empoderamento. dessas mulheres, (2006) Programa de empoderamento. conhecimento e do dos cidadãos, em Este processo se Já que fortalecer o Atenção à “Empoderamento” é conceito de especial os menos dá através de um emponderamento é Pessoa Idosa um conceito originário empoderamento de privilegiados. Seja aumento de poder possibilitar que a em uma das ciências políticas, autores como por causa de sua pessoal nas pessoa assuma o Universidade que surgiu a partir dos Francescato (1998) e idade, sexo, renda, questões poder sobre seu Pública Federal. anos 70 da luta de Vasconcelos (2001). ou nível de referentes à sua próprio destino. movimentos Segundo escolaridade. realidade. organizados pelos Vasconcelos (2001), direitos civis e do o empoderamento movimento feminista. pode ser definido Na década de 70, um como o “(...) aumento grupo intitulado do poder pessoal e Women in coletivo de indivíduos Development (WD) e grupos sociais, iniciaram à análise do principalmente conceito de poder e daqueles submetidos

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de empoderamento à relações de dentro do movimento opressão e feminista (Iorio, 2002). dominação social Labonte (1989) (Vasconcellos, 2001, denomina de p.5). “empowerment education” a efetivação de uma modelo pedagógico que possa contribuir para a emancipação do sujeito através do pensamento crítico e estímulo a ações que objetivem a superação das estruturas ideológicas de opressão. 1500 ESPAÇOFEM – Tabela C21

p.235 - C p. 236 - C p. 237 - C

No caso de dona Antônia, é possível No grupo de mulheres perceber que as mudanças ocorrem Em nossa pesquisa, constatamos acompanhado por nós, percebemos e que algumas modificações na vida que a inserção da mulher no que a entrada da mulher no das mulheres pobres advêm para mercado de trabalho remunerado mercado de trabalho trouxe uma Análise de que elas vivenciem uma experiência desencadeou um processo de série de vantagens à vida das possíveis de empoderamento e de liberdade. mudanças que afetou a vida das mulheres e para suas famílias. mudanças na No entanto, essas vivências não mulheres por nós analisadas. Um Podemos destacar as estratégias de Izquierdo & vida de um acontecem de forma isolada, elas dos aspectos desse processo diz empoderamento expressa em ações Rodrigues grupo de Brasil fazem parte de um processo de respeito ao acesso dessas mulheres de poder usadas para se proteger (2014) mulheres após mudança de ordem social (ELIAS, a diversas redes sociais de da violência física e simbólica dos a sua entrada 2011). Esse processo se dá de conselhos e de fofocas. Percebemos homens. Um dos aspectos no mercado de forma lenta e gradativa, e perpassa que essas redes funcionam como resistência da vida dessas mulheres trabalho. a capacidade individual. Embora meios de transmissão de ideias, as se revela por meio de conselhos. As seja de ordem social, ele induz os quais colaboram para que as mulheres mais velhas afirmaram indivíduos a substituir, mulheres vivenciem experiências de que aconselham as suas filhas das paulatinamente, comportamentos de empoderamento. vantagens e desvantagens da vida uma ordem por outros, de casada, incentivando-as.

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possivelmente, opostos aos anteriores. No caso de dona Antônia, é possível perceber como ela foi substituindo a atitude de submissão, por uma tomada de consciência de si e da sua situação de pobreza e abandono, situação essa que precisava ser mudada pelo bem dela e da sua família. No entanto, sair de casa para trabalhar acarretou uma série de dificuldades. Seu marido se opunha a que ela trabalhasse e sua mãe questionava o fato de deixar as crianças em casa e de contestar as decisões de seu marido. No entanto, o apoio para perseverar no trabalho que era negado pelo seu marido e sua mãe, ela o encontrava em algumas colegas de trabalho e na alegria das crianças quando conseguia comprar o que elas precisavam com o dinheiro que ganhava na fábrica.

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CADPAGU – Tabela C22

País Referência Público/Objeto do Trechos estudo p. 61-62 - C p. 73 - C p. 110-111 - C

Porque entendo ser necessário Mas, para os propósitos deste sustentar e aprofundar tal artigo, pretendo apresentar uma processo permanente de crítica e definição própria de instituição de desconstrução daqueles estatal. Em meu entendimento o Nossa atenção vai estar elementos e estruturas que ainda Estado é, fundamentalmente, um finalmente voltada para as se organizam de modo bastante recurso de poder em si mesmo, na condições de possibilidade da enviesado em relação a gênero, medida em que é capaz de criação e manutenção continuadas ou seja, se organizam mobilizar outros recursos (sejam no tempo e no espaço de patriarcalmente dentro do Estado materiais, sejam simbólico- instituições e mecanismos que brasileiro, é que me voltei para o culturais e, claro, políticos) de possam compor sistemas de esforço de escrever este ensaio. poder. Em sociedades responsabilização institucional que Entendo, pois, que só a partir democráticas complexas – venham a ser sensíveis a gênero e desse exercício é que será multiculturais e multiétnicas como sejam, finalmente, receptivos a possível acumular e disseminar a nossa sociedade brasileira – já é processos continuados de Participação das as forças necessárias para claramente possível identificar empoderamento das mulheres Matos & mulheres na política efetivamente se determinadas inclinações e como estratégia democratizadora Paradis e a Brasil “despatriarcalizar” o nosso tendências de gênero e étnico- do Eado brasileiro no âmbito dos (2014) despatriarcalização Estado, com vistas a afirmar e a culturais institucionalizadas no poderes Legislativo, Executivo e do Estado consolidar as condições de âmbito do Estado brasileiro, seja Judiciário. Essas novas vias possibilidade da manutenção através de políticas públicas analíticas poderiam ser frutíferas continuada no tempo e no espaço especificamente direcionadas a para apreciações feministas mais de instituições e mecanismos que esses grupos, entrelaçadas, aprofundadas sobre o Estado que possam compor sistemas de contudo com as inclinações de fugissem de perspectivas responsabilização institucional classe (um ótimo exemplo é o do meramente essencialistas, que, por sua vez, venham a ser Programa Bolsa Família), seja homogeneizadoras e de simples sensíveis a gênero e sejam, pelos mecanismos que vêm sendo aversão a esse ator que, como finalmente, receptivos a criados para empoderar esses afirma Alvarez (2000:48) “mexe processos continuados de diferentes grupos. E isso tem se conosco, sem que possamos nos empoderamento das mulheres dado porque parte-se do livrar dele”. como estratégia democratizadora pressuposto de que o Estado foi do Estado brasileiro, no âmbito constituído historicamente dos poderes Legislativo e segregando e distanciando a

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Executivo. população feminina e negra do país. E ambas, segregação e exclusão, estão diretamente articuladas a nossos processos de colonização.

1505 ESTUDOSFEM – Tabela C23

País Referência Público/Objeto do Trechos estudo p. 720-721 - C p. 721-722 - C p. 724 - S p. 725 - ? p. 731 - C p. 731-732 - ?

Tem-se Entretanto, é No Brasil, a Há, ainda, outra Todavia, os níveis A busca por destacado, inegável que a Articulação evidência: o de empoderamento, também, a mulher e seu Nacional de avanço desse empoderamento como eixo importância da mundo sempre Pescadoras é movimento das assumidos pelas central das participação dos estiveram em um grande pescadoras nas mulheres da discussões agentes locais particular exemplo. É trilhas criadas pesca podem ser sobre as origens para lidarem com proximidade com notável em um pelo movimento contabilizados em da subordinação a complexidade a natureza. Sua ramo que, feminista muitas frentes. e da dos vinculação na conforme as internacional, a Incluem o direito desigualdade ecossistemas. agricultura, com a representações partir de de associação, o das mulheres na Mulheres Folke et al. coleta de frutas e convencionais e meados dos acesso a espaços sociedade, Maneschy, pescadoras relacionam a alta de plantas, com o hegemônicas, é anos 1980. O de direção em fortaleceu novas Siqueira & em diferentes Brasil adaptabilidade de aprovisionamento associado aos movimento organizações de políticas em Álvares contextos um sistema de água, com a pescadores, identificara essa pescadores, a âmbito (2012) nacionais social-ecológico à criação de hábeis e situação do busca e as internacional, “[...] capacidade animais, com a corajosos ponto de vista possibilidades de nacional e local de os atores retirada de homens a institucional e se capacitarem nas últimas reorganizarem o matérias-primas enfrentar o mar cultural e para lidar com a décadas. O sistema dentro e a elaboração distante e seus procurou, desde modernização significado de estados de artesanato perigos. Desse então, pesqueira e, ao desse desejados em etc., é ancestral. modo, as desenvolver o mesmo tempo, empoderamento situações de Assim, é pescadoras em debate sobre o contribuir com as nas relações mudança de fartamente movimento empoderamento lutas locais contra entre os sexos condições e reconhecida sua criam suas como tática de políticas de tem sido eventos contribuição na próprias versões quebrar as ocupação de seus insuficiente para

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perturbadores”. manipulação de de barreiras que territórios e a destituir Esses autores sementes e no empoderamento dispunham os favor de garantia integralmente o trazem para o conhecimento de e conscientizam- níveis de de acesso aos poder de mando centro da análise plantas se de sua desigualdades recursos. Essa masculino no o tema do medicinais. De presença sociais nos trajetória das coletivo, onde empoderamento todo modo, nas objetiva em vários âmbitos, mulheres na transitam, em e da autonomia décadas curso no incluindo-se aí pesca, que suas local, aspecto passadas foi processo da as relações de fortaleceu seu comunidades. que Gabriel N. sintomático o pesca, trabalho. autoconhecimento Contudo, tem Rebouças, Ana papel dos desestabilizando sobre as propiciado a Carla Filardi e movimentos de noções como as hierarquias de desmontagem Paulo Freira mulheres e de que são poder nas de marcadores Vieira igualmente feministas em “ajudantes” ou relações de sociais que reforçam. A trazer à tona “dependentes”; trabalho, foi antes propósito, questões novas, enfim, de que possível com o polarizavam as Thomas Dietz, a partir das elas não estão dimensionamento relações nesses Elinor Ostrom e conferências nesse setor em dos debates sobre ambientes. Uma Paul Stern mundiais, em suas próprias os temas da das dificuldades mostram que torno dos capacidades. inclusão e da nessa trajetória muitos casos de propósitos da exclusão dos é o persistente degradação política de sujeitos sociais, atrelamento do ambiental empoderamento, aspirantes de uma lugar de gênero ocorreram sob a como reflexo da identidade ao todo, seja vigência de contra- construída através esse pensado regimes hegemonia aos da participação como família ou centralizados de padrões nos poderes comunidade. administração estabelecidos. públicos. dos recursos, que Esse movimento deixaram os de usuários e os empoderamento, gestores locais e muitas vezes lido regionais sem como dado e de autonomia para forma unilateral, agir. Daí deriva o é pleno de conceito de contradições. As governança reivindicações de adaptativa no mulheres por manejo de reconhecimento recursos, o qual de seus vários

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envolve papéis – autoridade do econômicos, nível local na sociais, políticos definição e na – tendem a aplicação de significar políticas, empoderamento compartilhamento das comunidades de poder com o no tocante ao Estado, controle dos compartilhamento recursos de que de saberes entre dependem. Isso cientistas e porque tratam de conhecedores trazer a gestão locais, segurança pesqueira para o de direitos dos nível local, moradores e dos compreendendo usuários diretos que a pesca dos recursos e artesanal, como instâncias as demais participativas de atividades deliberação. produtivas não se mantêm por si sós, através dos laços mercantis. Ao contrário, decorrem de um conjunto de funções e de relações, envolvem mulheres e homens, tarefas associadas a saberes diversificados, a sociabilidades e a espaços interacionais específicos.

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ESTUDOSFEM – Tabela C24

p. 104 - ? p. 105 - C p. 109-110 - C p. 116 - ?

O projeto Mulheres da Paz, O projeto qualificou as de partida, fundou-se na mulheres para trabalhar as possibilidade de dimensões subjetivas e institucionalizar os objetivas. A dimensão movimentos de mães, subjetiva envolveu questões atraindo- os para “encorpar” relativas a atitudes e os esforços governamentais comportamentos das próprias contra a criminalidade, a MP, dos jovens e de suas favor da prevenção quanto Amparado na ideia do famílias. Neste sentido, a ao ingresso de jovens no empoderamento, o modelo pesquisa apontou o aumento mundo do crime e da está alinhado a uma da autoestima e o promoção de uma cultura de concepção de política empoderamento das MP paz. Entretanto, a Secretaria pública que entende que, como uma das grandes Na experiência de Políticas para as para transformar, é preciso conquistas do projeto. As estudada, o modelo Implementação Mulheres (SPM) identificou mudar o indivíduo; o que mulheres também foram mostrou-se bem do projeto de na proposta original do ocorre muito mais por meio capazes de orientar a Santos sucedido na combate à projeto a imagem da capacitação do que por comunidade sobre a & identificação de violência Brasil “naturalizadora” de mães meio de mudanças prevenção e redução das Silveira jovens em situações Mulheres da Paz cuidadoras, a qual se opôs, estruturais. O modelo violências e sobre a prática (2015) de risco e no em Santa Luzia argumentando que o projeto valoriza o protagonismo de uma cultura da paz, além empoderamento das (MG) deveria promover o como “elo de conexão entre de iniciarem o mulheres em suas empoderamento das os níveis micro e acompanhamento do comunidades. mulheres e a incorporação macrossociais, confere à percurso social formativo dos homens. A versão final atividade de educação/ dos/as adolescentes. O fato do Projeto incorporou parte capacitação uma importância das MP identificarem dessas sugestões. O artigo central no desenho do situações relacionadas à 8. da Lei n. 11.707, de 19 de projeto Mulheres da Paz”. violência e criminalidade junho de 2008, agrega, aos quando da visita aos objetivos, as alterações domicílios, discutirem com as recomendadas pela SPM, famílias e com a equipe dando visibilidade no texto multidisciplinar tais problemas legal à tensão mãe versus e encaminharem a demanda mulher [...] Este formato é para a rede de proteção coerente com a ideia de social, permitiu o participação que reconhece fortalecimento da autonomia,

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a presença das mulheres a expansão das habilidades pobres no espaço público de interação social e o como uma forma de protagonismo delas. Esse empoderamento, fato foi apontado por fundamental à mudança das vários/as entrevistados/as: relações de gênero, e que se "Um dos pontos positivos que inicia na esfera pessoal, a gente comenta é a passa pela vida familiar e se autonomia e o expande para o território em empoderamento das que elas vivem. mulheres. Muitas mulheres nem saíam de casa e hoje a gente percebe que as mulheres, minimamente, sabem dos direitos, têm, minimamente, um pensamento crítico. [...]. Do trabalho delas na comunidade, [veio] o reconhecimento quando elas nos falam que antes algumas já faziam o trabalho dentro da comunidade e não eram reconhecidas e que hoje elas são reconhecidas."/ "Olha, acho que o positivo é quando a gente [se] percebe assim emocionada, a primeira é o empoderamento das mulheres. É como se você tirasse um rótulo da dona de casa, daquela que cuida dos outros, e colocasse um outro rótulo e ela se sentisse importante com isso. E ela tá, não só como no lugar dela como cidadã, mas ela busca falar pelos outros também. Segundo é que elas realmente trouxeram as

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demandas na medida do possível, as demandas da comunidade para a prefeitura. Então isso, quer dizer, elas fizeram esse trabalho de escuta e de olhar, de retorno. Essas são as necessidades, algumas demandas foram atendidas e outras não."

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F&PSYCH - Tabela C25

País do Referência Público/Objeto Trechos estudo p. 41 - C p. 46-47 – C p. 48 - C

The third component, accountability, is the acknowledgement that the process of Midwives thus honour the multiple informed choice has been successfully dimensions of the lived, embodied facilitated (Valerio, 2001: 73). While legally experience. One cannot reasonably it is the midwife who is held professionally argue that physicians do not recognize accountable, recognizing this as a shared the importance of pregnancy and duty once again emphasizes the central In offering this childbirth in women’s lives. Actively role of the client. It encourages the woman comparison, the aim is to engaging with women on this level, to assume responsibility for her plan of illustrate a continuum of however, is often deemed beyond the care. Maintaining awareness of the choice and demonstrate scope of their practice and is constrained complexities of informed choice is another Thachuk Obstetrizes Canadá how the integration of a by heavy patient-loads. Certainly the facet of accountability; choices arrived at (2007) relational approach to introduction of multidisciplinary teams are subject to periodic re-evaluation. maternal care enhances (i.e. chaplains, social workers, aboriginal Moreover, ‘implied consent, or general and empowers the cultural helpers, etc.) within the hospital consent, such as the client broadly expectant woman. setting has eased this gap in care. Yet consenting to any and all actions, is not despite these improvements on the part acceptable’ (Valerio, 2001: 74). This of medical institutions, midwifery’s time- alleviates many concerns regarding the intensive, holistic approach continues to potentially coercive nature of informed foster greater self-empowerment for consent. Clients are therefore encouraged expectant women. to develop and exercise their autonomy skills, and empowered to actively participate in preparing a plan of care. 1510

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F&PSYCH - Tabela C26

p. 64-65 - S p. 67 - C p. 72 - C

Women who enter beauty pageants present themselves as ‘intelligent, goal- They [contestants] have to answer oriented, independent, feisty, and Participants were female residents of the so many questions not only committed to individualism’ (Banet- greater Kathmandu metropolitan area related to women but so many Weiser, 1999: 88). By making what they who volunteered to participate. Focus Crawford global issues, and they learn how Mulheres see as an individual, assertive choice to group 1 (N = 4) was conducted at the et al. Nepal to speak, how to be friends with nepalesas participate, they believe they are gaining office of a nongovernmental organization (2008) people . . . [Beauty pageants] an opportunity to enhance poise, self- (NGO) devoted to the empowerment of empower women . . . to get out of confidence, and self-esteem, and to women, particularly through educational their homes, to know different become empowered, independent, interventions to reduce sex trafficking. countries, talk with people. liberated, and ‘modern’ (Ahmed-Ghosh, 2003).

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1515 F&PSYCH - Tabela C27

p. 225 - ? p. 226 - S p. 226 - S p.228 - S p. 228-229 - S p. 230 - C

Thus, the current Whilst feminist project also has values, implications for including sexual larger feminist entitlement, On the other debates that sexual liberation hand, however, locate There have and personal one could argue Is one to contemporary been many empowerment that pole dancing Over the past five or six conceptualize female conduct cultural trends are incorporated is ‘inherently’ years, however, pole the various within a politics and ‘fads’ for into ‘post- denigrating and dancing has begun a choices of of freedom, women’s feminist’ raunch disempowering transition from being women to wear individualism and health and culture, the to women, and typically regarded as a items such as g- choice. Here, exercise over resulting ‘ways that its sexually oriented activity to strings and choice is seen as the past few of being’ connection to one that is currently playboy bunny a ‘cherished decades (subject patriarchal marketed as a popular midriff tops in principal’ (Braun, including positions) made institutions may Homens e form of recreation and terms of in press) that is activities such available render its mulheres aerobic exercise, albeit still Whitehead empowered widespread as aerobics, through this enactment envolvidos within a discourse of & Kurz EUA women making within kickboxing attempt are problematic in na prática ‘sexual (2009) free, westernized and Pilates. argued by Levy any context, from de pole liberation/empowerment’. autonomous culture and is None of these (2005) to a feminist dance For example, the various choices? And if theorized as a activities, represent an perspective. marketing slogans so, should the critically however, have exhibitionist, Thus, pole attached to promotional voices of these definitive factor been claimed ‘cartoon-like’, dancing could material for pole dancing women not be in the ways we to be both male-imagined arguably be seen studios in the Australian foregrounded perceive ‘personally caricature of to seal particular context include ‘Strength and respected, ourselves (Gill, empowering’ female constructions of and femininity’, ‘Power and rather than 2007; Hughes, and ‘sexually sexuality. This gender and beauty’ and ‘Sex appeal critiqued and 2002). Thus, liberating’, as ‘technology of sexuality that comes from within’. problematized? ‘choice’ is is the case for sexiness’ (Gill, ultimately fail to conceptualized pole dancing. 2007: 72) is disrupt power as so important then sold (often distribution within as to supersede as a society at large. the influence of consumable culture itself product) as the (Braun, in press). only version of

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As such, the female sexuality individual that is deemed decision to currently participate in any acceptable and activity that could desirable to be argued to be women. degrading in a more holistic, cultural manner can be re- worked as empowering and desirable through a discourse of choice. However, as argued by Morgan (1991), this re-working of ‘choice’ can often disguise what is actually acquiescence to prevailing social expectations and instances of conformity.

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Continuação (Whitehead & Kurz, 2009) p. 231 - ? p. 231 - ? p. 232 - ? p. 233 - S p. 233 - S p. 234 - S p. 234-235 - S p. 235 - C p. 235-236 - C We will now well I think Alice This Yeah so (.) The issues of When analyze the ways if you’re compares and construction okay what empowerment questioned in which the doing it for contrasts leaves little about if they and about issues of activity of pole fitness it recreational room for said it the disempowerme empowerment At the first dancing was can be and criticism of the other way? nt as related to and stage of constructed by empowerin professional ‘fun/fitness’ What if they both disempowermen analysis, any our participants g (.) 631 pole dancing, version and said that it’s recreational and t, Sally invokes collected talk All discussion in their talk because stating at simultaneously empowering? professional the direction of that was sessions were around the topic. it’s like (.) if different points achieves the Helen: Ah (.) pole dancing monetary related to the facilitated by the In particular, we you’re in the extract construction of yeah (h) (.) were most exchange as the broad topics first author and wish to focus on having fun that ‘I don’t two subject yeah it is (.) commonly factor that of sexuality, were guided by the ways in doing it think it’s positions. First, it’s um (0.5) located within a delineates empowermen a focus group or which notions of and you’re always it positions the yeah it’s sort discourse of between an t, interview ‘empowerment’ getting fit empowering’ woman who of like (.) it’s control ‘empowering’ degradation, schedule. These and ‘degradation’ at the (line 635, chooses to sort of like regarding and performance, schedules were invoked, same time emphasis pole dance for artistic sort of money and ‘disempowering’ control, consisted of six managed, and (.) you’re added) and ‘if fitness as thing (.) it’s choice. As position (line choice, to eight justified within gunna (.) you’re doing it empowered like dancing demonstrated in 847). Sally’s enjoyment, questions that these accounts. you’re for fitness it and beyond it’s just like extract 3, this reference to discomfort, were designed We characterize gunna feel can be criticism on any normal discourse again ‘drawing the line power, men, to elicit three ways in good about empowering’ account of her dancing (.) serves to . . .where the individuality, responses which the issue [yourself] (line 630, participating in but you (.) construct the money is’ stereotypes, focusing on of [...] cos emphasis an activity that there’s a pole actual act of constructs a maturity, female sexuality, (dis)empowerme you’re like added). This is constructed involved. Its pole dancing as particular culture, the pole dancing, nt was ‘oh I’m serves to as (.) it takes a a neutral version of social gaze and empowerment constructed having fun construct the empowering lot of skill and activity, with the reality in which objectification and within the talk, at this and act of dancing through the (.) confidence assumptions everything of an were included disempowermen with these I’m getting around a pole attainment of and um (.) not regarding empowering in a first body t. relating to fit at the as an fun, fitness everyone can ‘empowerment’ nature resides of instances discourses of (1) same time’ inherently and hence do it. [...] moderated, in on one side of (Potter and fun and fitness; (.) but I neutral activity feeling ‘good Additionally, this case, by the Wetherell, (2) control of don’t think that can be about [herself]’ by control. aforementioned 1987). money and it’s always seen as (line 632). constructing Moreover, this ‘line’ and choice; and (3) empowerin empowering or Second, the pole dancing control was everything of a performance and g for like (.) disempowerin polarized and as ‘like operationalized disempowering the male gaze. the women g, as a dichotomous dancing . . . through the nature resides

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in the clubs function of the comparisons just like any direction of on the other. because specific between normal monetary Here, the sole (0.5) I don’t context of its recreational dancing’ (line exchange. determinant of think the enactment. In and 201), Helen what falls on men are relation to this, professional normalizes each side of going to contextual pole dancing the act of pole such a line is see the qualifiers such simultaneously dancing in determined by women (.) as ‘having fun’ construct such a way as who is the they’re ‘getting fit’ and those who to make it consumer and going to hence, feeling might seek to seem who is providing see their ‘good about question pole ridiculous to a service. Again, bodies they yourself’ (line dancing (on represent this serves to don’t see 632) work to ideological pole dancing construct pole them as a characterize grounds) as in as a possibly dancing as an woman (.) recreational some way disempowerin activity that is they just pole dancing misguided or g act. Helen politically neutral see them as illinformed. In then supports and, in this as empowering. extract 1, Alice this assertion instance, something In direct draws direct by contextualized to look at contrast, the comparisons constructing by monetary (.) participant between recreational exchange, something constructs ‘disempowerin pole dancing control and pretty to professional g’ professional as choice. Sally see pole dancing pole dancing empowering then states that as and by virtue of it ‘if you’re being disempowerin ‘empowering’ providing an paid to do it then g, on account recreational opportunity it’s like (.) you of the pole dancing. for artistic have (.) your (.) assumed Through this expression like your choice subjective comparison, (line 201) and has been taken position of the anyone who the away’ (line 849). male would seek to acquisition of Here, Sally spectators. [...] represent skill and constructs the This serves to recreational confidence imaginary discursively pole dancing (line 202). female subject locate the as as being professional disempowering disempowered pole dancer as is thus on the grounds sexually potentially that she has not

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objectified. positioned as chosen to give Thus, the confusing the her power away, discursively issues but has rather constructed surrounding had it taken contextual this away by an environments dichotomous outside agent. of ‘fun and construction. fitness’ verses ‘sexual objectification’ work to position pole dancing itself as neutral, with the context within which the behavior is enacted as either empowering or disempowerin g.

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Continuação (Whitehead & Kurz, 2009) p. 237 - ? p. 238 - S p. 239 - S p. 239 - S p. 239 - S p. 239 - S p. 239 - S p. 241 - ? Thus, the woman The theme that The control of The discourse of It is also of In conclusion, who pole dances runs through all money and performance analytic interest we argue that for a stranger is three discursive choice discourse and the male that many of talk around constructed as constructions of is a more explicit gaze represents the participants recreational being pole dancing reference to the a more implicit in the current pole dancing disempowered, by reported above subject of control. reference to research can be seen to default, on revolves around Here, control and choice and attempted attend to a Thus, pole dancing account of the issues of choice choice are control. Here, numerous variety of is able to make the objectifying male and control. As specifically the female times to complex and transition from a Participants also gaze of a demonstrated in moderated by subject is construct the interesting ‘disempowering’, constructed the stranger. Rachael our analysis money, which constructed as act of pole ideological ‘underground’ activity of pole then contrasts this section, the was constructed empowered dancing itself dilemmas. As activity to an dancing as being with the ‘loved fun/fitness as providing through her as essentially an individual ‘empowering’ inherently one’, whose discourse consumerist access to politically activity, it can ‘mainstream’ performative, hypothetical discursively power in control and neutral, with the be constructed activity via its where the response to such locates the response to want. choice as to ideological as empowering discursive ideological a performance is choice to take up This is again when she palatability of through the (re)location as an outlook of the constructed recreational pole juxtaposed with positions herself pole dancing as extent to which ideologically neutral assumed (through reported dancing as professional pole as the erotic being it affords activity. Then, once audience is often speech) as being empowering dancing, which object. Unlike determined by women the rendered neutral, it invoked as a ‘wow (.) she cares through the was constructed the professional the context in opportunity to is (re)constructed signifier of about me this attainment of fun by our pole dancer who which the exercise a form as a form of whether pole much that she’s and fitness. This participants as must dance for activity was of ‘choice’ and expression dancing should willing to do this is directly disempowering by her patron performed. This ‘control’. It may requiring artistic be regarded as and (.) oh my god contrasted with virtue of the because she may work, also provide a talent, persistence, empowering or (.) look at her professional pole professional has been rhetorically, to vehicle for confidence and as disempowering. confidence’ (line dancing, where dancer being ‘bought’ as a disconnect pole women to resulting in a skill 753). What is choice and required to be sexual item, the dancing from its resist that is ‘just like any interesting about empowerment objectified and recreational pole place of origin hegemonic normal dancing’. these two are implicitly sell herself to dancer is (namely, the notions of constructions is constructed as make money, constructed as sex industry). In femininity as the extent to missing by virtue rather than having control this way, pole passive and which the social of the experience expend it on and choice dancing can be modest. institution of the of sexual items that she because of redefined and However, intimate objectification. wants. Thus, being the reclaimed as an following heterosexual Moreover, the women who consumer in the empowering, Dentith (2004),

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relationship is invocation of the participate in exchange fitness activity. one must invoked as an fun/fitness recreational pole (rather than consider that automatic discourse serves dancing are service provider) activities ‘antidote’ to any as a rhetorical constructed as and the experienced as suggestion that device utilized to empowered discursive liberating on an gendered power head off potential through their redefinition of individual level may be at play. criticism by ability to exercise the male gaze of may often positioning those consumerist ‘loved ones’ as secure who would power. ‘appreciative’, societal-level question rather than oppression in recreational pole ‘objectifying’. covert ways. dancing as Additionally, Thus, pole somewhat pole dancing is dancing may misinformed and also constructed reinforce as someone who as liberating on societal would deny account of its notions of both women the right ability to masculine and to have ‘fun’. facilitate a feminine woman’s sexuality as a obtainment of result of control over encouraging body size and women to shape so as to construct conform to themselves as societal erotic objects. expectations of desirable femininity. F&PSYCH - Tabela C28

p. 115 - S p. 116 - S p. 119 - ? p. 121 - S

The sexualization of A second issue is that Sexualized technologies This notion of object/subject contemporary British culture contemporary ‘up for it’ may be used by women is echoed by Gill (2003), who Evans, has in part been enabled by female sexual subjectivities who employ the signifiers of argues that women are no Riley & Sexualização Reino a neo-liberal rhetoric of appear to impose new patriarchal and objectifying longer objectified in media Shankar da mulher Unido agency, choice and self- individualized neo-liberal practices to produce the representations, but that, in (2010) determination, which within discourses which regulate signified meaning of the context of a neo-liberal sexuality discourses have the subject through an liberation, assertiveness ‘pleasing themselves’

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produced an ‘up for it’ internalization of regimes of and power (Duits and van discourse, are instead being femininity, a sexually savvy disciplinary power. The Zoonen, 2006). Such a subjectified. For example, the and active woman who can neoliberal subject ‘is less a resignification can be seen 2006 Pretty Polly hosiery participate appropriately in social citizen with powers in relation to the campaign, ‘Stairway to consumer practices in the and obligations deriving popularization of pole- Heaven’, depicts model Anna production of her choice from membership of a dancing, which has shifted Torkarska on the first rung of biography (Attwood, 2006; collective body, than an from an activity typically a ladder leading to the sky, Gill, 2007b; Harris, 2004). individual whose citizenship associated with the sex with the reader positioned The opportunities for such is active’, so that the industry to all female beneath her permitting a view consumption have responsibility to be a ‘good’ exercise classes. Here, full of her fishnet tights and blue proliferated, producing pre- citizen now lies within the embodiment in sexualized underwear. This packaged sexual individual (Rose and Miller, culture is contextualized as advertisement reproduces an knowledge for the 1992: 201). Neo-liberal an expression of image which, on the surface, fashionable, young, self- discourses of choice and empowerment (Holland and appears to be inviting the defining woman. Examples freedom have been tied to Attwood, 2009; Whitehead male-gaze. However, as with include burlesque and pole- notions of empowerment and Kurz, 2009). much postfeminist dancing classes; the near- and liberation so as to advertising, the woman is compulsory ownership of produce the ‘injunction to positioned as the subject of sex toys; porno-chic fashion render one’s life knowable her own objectification, styles of the ‘Porn Star’ and meaningful through a posed as confident with her type t-shirts and Gstrings; narrative of free choice and own sexuality and ascending images of ‘empowered’, autonomy – however her own ‘Stairway to sexually assertive lingerie constrained one might Heaven’. This is more models on billboards and in actually be’ (Gill, 2007b: complex than the female the pages of women’s 260). body directly selling a magazines; the publication product through the of sex/porn manuals and discourse of sex. Instead, accompanying media hype discourses of empowerment concerning book and blog and liberation imply that the erotic memoirs; the woman pictured is presenting increase in female porn herself as an object through directors and sex shop autonomy and ‘choice’. owners; and the proliferation of web-based texts, DVDs and television programmes that bring commodified sex directly into the private sphere.

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F&PSYCH - Tabela C29

p. 99 - S p. 100 - S p. 102 - S p. 119 - S

Feminists wishing to address concerns about the ways in which beauty The absence of conflict Notions of empowerment and practices are promoted to The postfeminist promise of between messages free choice need to be and required of women liberation through about women’s examined in relation to the need to take into empowered choice is freedom and femininity often hidden influence of consideration the overwhelmingly packaged works to normalize a ideology, which serves to discourse of the neoliberal within the crushingly cruel Estudantes de small set of preferred regulate the availability of self and its implications in beauty images that western psicologia ‘choices’ for women subject positions by continuing work. The Stuart & women are judged against interessadas that continue to tie emphasizing preferred continuing invisibility of the Donaghue Austrália and incited to emulate (Gill, em debates women to narrow ‘choices’ and limiting the role of discourse in (2012) 2006, 2007a, 2007b, 2008; sobre standards of feminine availability of others in which constituting subjects, Jeffreys, 2005; Wolf, 1990). feminilidade beauty. Agency as an social consequences particularly the subversion For all its ‘choices’, empowered or motivate against of empowerment and contemporary western liberated woman is nonconformance and reward choice discourses in culture places intense predicated on being compliance, resulting in a popular culture (as argued scrutiny on women’s beautiful first, and then system that disciplines and by Evans et al, 2010), bodies. being free. limits ‘choice’. conceals the impossibility of women positioning themselves outside of them.

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F&PSYCH - Tabela C30

p. 145 - S p. 145 - S p. 146 - S p. 146-147 - S p. 152 - S p. 159 - S

Feminist scholars (e.g. Attwood, 2006; McRobbie, 2008; Tasker and In practice, the Negra, 2007) have sexually emphasised the empowered location of ‘raunch’ Consistent with postfeminism celebrated in postfeminism’s call within consumer postfeminist As we signalled to empowerment culture where Often elided popular culture Although it can be earlier, popular through feminist arguments with girlie is subjected to a argued that feminist culture is a consumption (Gill, for choice, consumption regulatory socio- discourse is significant source 2007; McRobbie, independence and and practices, cultural eye. available within the of postfeminist 2008), Iris positions agency have been sexuality and Despite being empowerment and constructions of herself as a appropriated and sex are key ‘free’ to agency messages femininity and it consummate buyer commodified in the components of experiment with of postfeminist provides girls with of clothes. Jackson marketing of goods the versions of body-exposing rhetoric, its classist Pré- an avalanche of However, Iris et al. EUA to women. Within femininity or ‘sexy’ clothing and racialised adolescentes material that elides constructs that (2013) this consumer produced within as some entanglement with empowerment, consumption not as discourse, women a postfeminist researchers commodification sexuality and an act of personal and girls are discourse. appear to and sexuality clothing in the power or even positioned as Indeed, being suggest (e.g. distorts the figure of the ‘sexy’, pleasure but an act powerful citizens ‘sexy’ and Duits and van message of power ‘cute’ and ‘hot’ girl of submission to where shopping for being Zoonen, 2007), (see also Currie et (Brookes and power – the power girlie products ‘empowered’ girls are subject al, 2009; Griffin, Kelly, 2009; of the market to such as clothes are conflated. to the risk of 2004). McRobbie, 2008). influence all girls’ and shoes being alienated clothing practices, assumes status as and derogated herself included. an expression of as ‘sluts’ should empowered they adopt such choice. ‘Girlieness’ dress (Griffin, is a key feature of 2004). postfeminism, softening the edges of an

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empowered construction that might otherwise suggest too much masculinity (Walkerdine, 2006).

F&PSYCH - Tabela C31

p. 480 - S p. 482 - S p. 482 - S p. 482 - C p. 483 - ? p. 486 - C

By focusing on As Nancy Berns Finally, some women’s capacities (2001) explains in critics highlight the for preventing and her analysis of ways the discourse avoiding violence, media Some feminists relies upon and Guided by this the tone of the representations of hold that these reproduces a In other words, theoretical prevention gendered violence, safety practices construction of Amy’s logic framework, the discourse is one of neoliberalism has and the discourse women and reflects the present study self-empowerment. the dual effect of of prevention women’s bodies as empowered extends a However, by degendering challenge vulnerable such victim tension: focus on the focusing on violence (i.e. conventional that the the “safety ways in which women’s roles as obscuring the role constructions of empowerment checklist” women occupy potential victims, gender and power femininity as rhetoric of self- empowers Estudantes the tension- Frazier & the discourse play in the vulnerable and defense is women to help de uma filled position of Falmagne EUA implicitly relies production of weak, and instead contingent upon manage their faculdade the empowered (2014) upon problematic violence), while create new problematic risk of na periferia victim: enabled assumptions gendering the blame spaces for constructions of victimization; as individuals equating women (i.e. placing the women’s women’s bodies as however, to take charge with weakness and responsibility for subjectivity, frail and in need of women’s risk is of their own vulnerability. In avoiding violence on characterized by reform (Cahill, assumed to safety, while other words, the women’s shoulders). increased agency 2000; Hollander, exist, framing destined to positions of Within this context, and 2001; violence and victimhood by empowerment not only are women empowerment Mardorossian, victimization as virtue of their offered to women held responsible for (e.g. McCaughey, 2003; Martin, 2002; inevitable. gender. through the avoiding violence, 1997). Stanko, 1997). In prevention but women who do this way, women’s discourse are fall victim to violence bodies are contingent upon are viewed as maintained as

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constructions of personally perpetual danger women as potential responsible for their sites and “rape and perpetual victimization. spaces” that need victims. In this way, Women are then to be managed or the discourse of compelled to trained in order to prevention creates prevent or avoid the avoid victimization contradictory position of victim (Cahill, 2000; subject positions for (and instead occupy Hollander, 2001). women, the position of the simultaneously self-determined, framing them as empowered citizen) empowered and via the enactment of victimized. a number of personal safety practices. Continuação (Frazier & Falmagne, 2014) p. 486-487 - S p. 490 - S p. 494 - S p. 494 - S p. 494 - S p. 494 - S p. 495 - S Like Amy, Becky While young Women’s Young women The “postfeminist” In conclusion, also assumes that women’s dismissal discussions of struggled to agenda highlights problematic Participants’ women are of catcalling could violence across age reconcile the young women’s assumptions reproduction of this inherently at risk for be read as an reflect the pervasive realities of their agency and regarding gender, construction of victimization. As she empowering act— tension inherent in experiences with empowerment ‘race,’ class, violence suggests frames female removing agency the discourse of the assumptions of through economic sexuality, and age, that the alleged vulnerability and from the catcallers prevention: women the prevention consumption, and which underlie the empowerment that victimhood as by labeling them are compelled to discourse. ignores gender as a discourse of accompanies the inevitable, she also “silly” and the occupy the Specifically, young structural and prevention, infuse the fulfillment of draws upon the like—it became empowered non- women who are discursive formation everyday meaning- precautionary empowerment clear throughout victim position, while compelled to (Aronson, 2003; making and measures is rhetoric of the risk women’s simultaneously facing position McRobbie, 2004). In experiences of the perpetually management discussions that the construction of themselves as highlighting social agents who eclipsed by the discourse, what was actively violence as an empowered individual draw upon them. ideological suggesting that being dismissed inevitability for through the terms empowerment and Specifically, in the maintenance of women are capable was not the women. Within the of the discourse agency, claims of present study, violence and of outsmarting the catcallers, per se, terms of this are denied the discrimination based women across the women’s attackers they will but women’s own discourse, it is space to voice or on gender are lifespan drew upon victimization as inevitably face, yet emotional and impossible for an legitimize their delegitimized and the empowered inevitable. that they will experienced individual woman to concerns and their instead viewed as victim construction, succeed only if they discomfort with the construct a cohesive feelings of “offensive and reproducing the

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devote enough effort situation. narrative that does discomfort and inappropriate for the expectation that to it. Becky again not at times position fear. current era” women are inherently reproduces the her as immune to (Showden, 2009, p. at risk for empowered victim violence, while at 168). victimization and tension, assuming other times condems simultaneously women will fall victim her for ignoring the capable—and to violence and risks she faces. responsible—for “there’s nothing avoiding this you’re going to do to victimization. In this change it,” while still way, the discourse of indicating that prevention functions women are expected not to offer a position to take steps to try to of empowerment for do just that. women, but actually to reinscribe women as ineffectual victims (a construction this discourse directly aims to challenge). 1530

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F&PSYCH - Tabela C32

p. 523 - S p. 523 - ? p. 523 - S p. 524 - S p. 524 - C p. 525-526 - S p. 528 - S

Discourses of We identify two As we illustrate Advice on breast cancer discourses that in this section, After a long restoring women’s offer women appear to shape within the history of looks and As we argue, a number of the pink ribbon discourse of breast cancer (interchangeably) although subject culture and that ‘individual being their self-worth elements of positions, construct responsibility constructed as stems from the pink which allow understandings and a shameful and programmes such ribbon culture them to of breast empowerment’, private as Reach to Breast are beneficial receive cancer: the women are disease, great Recovery and awareness and support, but discourse of positioned as efforts were Look Good, Feel messages are empowering, at the same ‘individual ‘empowered’ made to break Better, which constructed there are time constrain responsibility when they are the silence, to have been through a some limiting their and seen to engage empower dominant sources discourse of effects of this subjectivity empowerment’ in personal women with of advice for ‘individual culture, in Cultura with regard to and the testimony about breast cancer women since the responsibility terms of how de their illness. discourse of their cancer, (King, 2006). 1950s (Batt, and breast cancer Gibson combate In taking a ‘optimism’. We practices that This began 1996; Klawiter, empowerment’, is et al. ao Austrália feminist discuss these maintain their with women 1999), originally in but this can constructed (2014) câncer approach, we discourses femininity and writing public the US and now also operate as and how de focus on the separately, breast self- accounts of internationally a discourse of women with mama discursive around some of surveillance having breast (King, 2006). duty and of breast cancer and material the practices strategies. cancer and, Such blame, and one are effects this that make up Women’s frequently, programmes which positioned, has in these empowerment discussing the aimed to reproduces the namely, in shaping discourses; is constructed medical encourage neoliberal focus gender women’s however, they through the (mis)treatment compliance with on self-care normative lives. As our need to be information and they endured, (often painful and (Lemke, 2001; ways and as title suggests, viewed as support offered serving to raise disfiguring) Rose, 1999). personally we examine intersectional in to women with awareness medical treatment responsible how the way that breast cancer, about breast by focusing on the for their discursive they construct and on a cancer and to restoration of health and constructions breast cancer structural level politicise the women’s pre- illness. of breast and position through medical experience surgery cancer – such women with and (Anglin, 1997). appearance with as the breast cancer. informational prostheses and

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imperative of resources, such make-up (Batt, breast as those offered 1996). Whilst surveillance – in Australia. these may appear can shape Attention to to some as women’s empowerment empowering, they subjectivity in does serve to centralise the both position women importance of productive as in control of appearance to and restrictive their illness women’s ways (e.g. as trajectories in identities, both both ways that were assuming and empowering previously creating an and an disallowed; expectation that imperative to however, we all women’s be followed). argue that it primary concern also locates the should be the management of restoration of a health and feminine illness in the appearance. domain of personal responsibility, reflective of the neoliberal individualism of Western society (Rose, 1999).

Continuação (Gibson et al., 2014) p. 530 – S p. 531 - S p. 531 - C p. 533 - S p. 534-535 - S p. 535 - S p. 536 - S p. 537 - S

The focus on Support groups Women’s health In addition, Thus, survivor The concept of Women are In taking a health can also be act in a similar and recovery from following the self- stories involve the ‘neoliberal further feminist post- reproduced capacity and can breast cancer has help movement, the narrator subject’ can constructed as structuralist through women’s be extremely been promoted on people with confronting and also be having control approach to personal stories, beneficial (e.g. a structural level cancer have overcoming her extended to over the illness critiquing the pink such as those Coreil, Wilke, & in several ways in started to use illness, in the analyse when they are ribbon culture, published in this Pintado, 2004; Australia. For complementary process women’s seen to engage in we have

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newsletter (e.g. Ussher, Kirsten, example, and alternative gaining subjectivity in self-surveillance endeavoured to ‘My quest to Butow, & approved breast medicine (CAM) something, or relation to their or modify their illustrate how this improve my Sandoval, 2006). cancer treatments to gain control being positively health. Breast behaviours in neoliberal illness health’, and They provide and medication over their illness transformed. In cancer is attempts to culture has ‘Transformation of spaces in which are heavily and to empower this way, the constructed as prevent breast productive an arthritic couch women can learn subsidised for all themselves in illness an illness that cancer. They are effects, in potato’), which about the illness citizens and response to the experience is threatens the thereby empowering repeatedly and treatment permanent dominance of imbued with a individual positioned as women, whilst featured words choices, residents, through biomedicine sense of woman, who is responsible for simultaneously such as construct a the Australian (Broom, 2009). purpose and expected to taking control of placing ‘achievement’, survivor identity Government The practice of worth (Frank, remain vigilant their health. They responsibility on ‘motivation’, and gain a sense Medicare and CAM, Broom 1995), and the (in response to are similarly women for their ‘energised’, of empowerment Pharmaceutical (2009) individual this threat) by ‘empowered’ health and ‘positive’ and ‘new and of Benefit Schemes, demonstrated, becomes an engaging in when they are illness, and me’ (BCNA, 2012, community making most very often utilises empowered self- seen to engage in limiting how it pp. 7–12). These (Sandaunet, breast cancer discourses of heroine, who surveillance, in practices such as can be stories, again, 2008; Ussher et treatment freely positive thinking has taken order to ward exercise or experienced. promote the al., 2006). available and self-control. control and off a diagnosis. positive thinking, neoliberal regardless of [...] This strategy ultimately If a diagnosis or to reinstate discourse of financial additionally succeeded. does arise, she their femininity ‘individual circumstances. supports the is then through beauty responsibility and However, support principles of the positioned as practices. Such empowerment’ by organisations like women’s health needing to take practices may constructing BCNA also movement, which control by help many women women as encourage undergirds the staying well to deal with a responsible for women to inform pink ribbon informed about difficult illness improving their themselves about culture, through the illness, and experience and health and the limits of such the promotion of being proactive repair or sustain wellbeing through schemes and how women’s and optimistic their identities in a project of self- such limitations empowerment in order to light of a life- improvement. The might affect their over their health emerge as a threatening construction of illness (King, 2006). breast cancer illness. These advice, such as in trajectories. Such ‘survivor’. discourses and The Beacon (the approaches could Women with practices, name symbolises be empowering breast cancer however, can be hope), additionally for women in are thereby restrictive. Whilst reproduces the making informed constructed as women are intersecting choices about self-reliant, positioned as discourse of their treatment empowered empowered, they

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‘optimism’, and enable them and agentic in are through positive to contribute to dealing with simultaneously language. discussions with their illness. positioned as Encouraging health providers. However, in individually women to be turn, this responsible for proactive in subject position maintaining or restoring their places a great restoring their health appears to deal of the health. This is be genuinely responsibility of similar to the empowering. health (and ways in which However, it is survival) on the women are important to individual constructed as consider other woman. responsible for factors that shape their ‘recovery’ women’s health from other difficult and ‘recovery’, experiences, such such as their as depression sociocultural and (Lafrance, 2009). economic This is positions and their perpetuated subsequent through practices access to support that promote self- and resources, care (e.g. such as their exercise, beauty ability to engage practices) and in physical selfsurveillance activities or follow (e.g. breast specialised diets checking). (Rao, Warburton, & Bartlett, 2006). 1535

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F&PSYCH - Tabela C33

p. 207-208 - C p. 208 - C p. 209 - C p. 210 - C p. 210 - C

There is increasing There is a growing Early second-wave focus on a style of body of research on feminists, aware of training termed the effectiveness of the pervasiveness of ‘‘empowerment self- self-defense training. violence against defense’’ (Thompson, However, nearly all of women and critical of 2014), also known as this research society’s reluctance ‘‘feminist self- evaluates a small to address it, took Further, I argue that defense’’ (Rentschler, subset of the total their safety literally women’s self- 1999; Telsey, 2001). range of courses, As both I (Hollander, into their own hands, defense training — These classes focus focusing on longer, 2014) and Senn et al. adapting martial arts when done well—is explicitly on empowerment-based, (2015) found in techniques to suit primary prevention, empowering women and padded-attacker recent studies, self- women’s needs; in that it helps to rather than restricting classes (see Brecklin, defense training not adding verbal, change the root them by instructing 2008; Hollander, only improves psychological, and conditions that allow them on what they 2014; Sarnquist et women’s ability to Defesa pessoal emotional skills; and violence to flourish. should or shouldn’t al., 2014; Senn et al., resist assault, it also como estratégia integrating a critical For all these do. They address the 2015; Sinclairet al., Hollander reduces the initiation de EUA gender reasons, and full range of violence 2013). Consequently, (2016) of assaults against empoderamento consciousness into because recent against women, my discussion below women, suggesting da mulher their trainings research has built a especially assaults focuses on this that women who (Bevacqua, 2000; case for its perpetrated by narrower subset of have been trained in Telsey, 1981). effectiveness, I acquaintances. They courses and may not empowerment-based Although self- argue that women’s teach effective apply to other types. self-defense are able defense classes vary empowerment based physical tactics that When I discuss self- to avoid or forestall in format and self-defense training build on the strengths defense training attacks before they content, most teach should be part of any of women’s bodies below I do not mean begin. awareness, physical sexual violence (e.g. prioritizing a brief workshop that fighting skills, and prevention effort. lower-body rather focuses on scare escape tactics. than upper-body tactics, tells women Some, as I discuss at strength), target to monitor their dress greater length below, vulnerable points on or their alcohol also teach verbal assailants’ bodies, consumption, and/or assertiveness and and require minutes directs them to limit empowerment skills. or hours rather than their activities or to years to master. At depend on men for

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the same time, the protection. Rather, I goal of these classes mean a thoughtful is to stop violence process of before it starts, and to empowering students that end they offer an through awareness of array of strategies the realities both of that include assault and of their awareness, own abilities, both assertiveness, and verbal and physical, de-escalation skills as to prevent and resist well as physical violence against techniques, and them. I refer to these empower women to classes as choose the options Empowerment Self- that are best for their Defense (ESD) own situations. classes below to Perhaps most make clear that I am importantly, referring only to this empowerment-based narrower subset of self-defense classes classes about which interrogate both the we have empirical social conditions that evidence. facilitate sexual assault and the psychological barriers to women’s resistance that result from gender socialization and expectations. For example, they discuss how women are encouraged to put others’ comfort before their own, to care for others even at the risk of their own safety, and to accept abuse rather than

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demanding respect. In so doing, these classes foster a critical consciousness about gender inequality (Searles & Berger, 1987; Telsey, 2001).

Continuação (Hollander, 2016) p. 211 - C p. 211 - C p. 213 - C p. 214 - C p. 219 - C p. 220 - C Staying home, relying on others for protection, and monitoring one’s clothing or behavior all There is also a growing constrain women’s lives Thus, the critique that body of research that ESD training empowers by reducing their access Empowerment-based women are not strong finds that feminist, women to choose the to public space, limiting self-defense training While many may be enough to defend empowerment-based strategies that work their agency, or fostering may also, as I have beneficial to women, themselves is based self-defense training best for their particular their dependence on discussed above, foster to date only not on real-world reduces women’s risk of circumstances — their others (Rozee & Koss, long-term changes in comprehensive, evidence but on gender experiencing violence. own abilities and status, 2001; Stanko, 1997). social norms and beliefs empowerment-based stereotypes and My own research, for the particulars of their ESD training, in about gender held by self-defense training ideology, as well as on example, found that assailant, and the contrast, expands both women and men. has been a narrow understanding college women who resources available in women’s range of ESD training transforms demonstrated to of what self-defense completed an ESD class their environment. Not action, empowering women’s sense of reduce the risk of training entails. It may had a significantly every strategy may them to claim public themselves and their victimization and to also, as some writers decreased risk of work in every situation space, enter into understanding of produce the changes have suggested, be assault over the or for every person, but relationships with others gender; these changes that I argue may rooted in discomfort following year, when women are as equals, make their affect how they interact influence perpetrators with women’s compared with similar armed with this toolbox, own choices about their with others and may be and result in cultural empowerment and use women who did not take they have more options behavior, and assert transmitted, both directly change. of violence such a class (Hollander, than when they are not. themselves in their and indirectly, to others. (McCaughey, 1997). 2014). everyday lives (McCaughey, 1997; Thompson, 2014). Of course, not all self- defense classes are

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alike, and some classes may indeed suggest that women restrict their lives in these ways. Empowerment-based self-defense classes, however, critique these limitations and instead argue that women have the right to move in the world as freely as men. 1540

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FSTUD – Tabela C34

p. 456 - S p. 457 - S p. 457 - S p. 457 - S p. 457 - S p. 458 - S

Self-examination To say that one not only helps can choose to be Accepting the pain activists to accept empowered does and abuse she has our own not deny the suffered, Shiva humanness and to reality of views those see our To blame structural Blaming does not experiences as connections with dominant culture oppression and create change. As gifts that enable others, it leads to and ideologies other limits to Thich Nhat Hanh her to understand discovering the Monique's and/ or what one can do writes, "Only love more and to power we need to description of privileged in the world and change the world change the world. how her spiritual people for Keating calls this understanding for future Lorde writes of self work connects causing "the paradox of can help people generations examination as a with her activism suffering personal agency change." through writing crucial part of provides one separates the and structural Anzaldua and organizing empowerment, example of self- world into those determinacy" and articulates the around domestic which she defines empowerment as who are notes that Espiritualidade bind created by violence and child Doetsch- as "our political work. responsible and Anzaldua writes em um grupo blaming others for sexual abuse as Kidder EUA strengthening in Monique explains those who are from within this de ativistas oppression: well as South (2012) the service of that her spiritual victims — contradiction, feministas "Blocked, Asian queer ourselves and work sustains oppressor and declaring her immobilized, we issues. Activists each other, in the her, "gives me oppressed—a inability to can't move and critics can service of our work this sense that violent division resolve it. The forward, can't transform their and future." that there is order that cedes choice to feel move backwards. painful Empowerment is to all of this ... I power to people empowered is We abnegate." experiences into the work of believe very with more expansive, the She points out the sources of discovering one's much that we are privilege and location of choice that we all strength and erotic power, a all connected." further creativity, and a have to feel empowerment. power that enables disempowers source of love. empowered or to Accepting our creativity and those who have Through loving feel victimized. power, we can movement. Erotic less. criticism, we better understand power is not a accept the power that power that can be responsibility for others have to held or wielded but our role in affect the world. a power that flows conflicts and our through everything power to

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and can be respond, accessed by construct, create, anyone. and transform. We refuse to circumscribe people as victims and oppressors. Continuação (Doetsch-Kidder, 2012) p. 460 - S p. 461 - S p. 466 - S p. 467 - S Native Canadian educator Kim Anderson's project A Recognition of Being: Reconstructing Native Womanhood is a reparative one. She examines how Native women Letting go of the attachment to being "maintain their power, in spite of all right can contribute to a sense of hooks prescribes such hopeful Being correct is not the same as the oppression" and finds the answer empowerment. Monique found that thinking to counter the stress that being empowered, or free. People in a four-part process through which she had to let go of her investment in comes with Black women's often get stuck, attached to a Native women define themselves by being right in order to speak her truth. paranoia: "Since so much of our position, a tactic, or an emotion, when "resisting negative definitions of being; As a leader in her professional and personal worrying has to do with we feel correct. Such fixity can reclaiming Aboriginal tradition; spiritual communities, she learned to feeling that the worse that can prevent movement and growth, constructing a positive identity by "speak with conviction and authority" happen will, we can truly counter locking one down in a conflict while translating tradition into the and says, "I feel much more confident this negative by changing thought other possibilities go unnoticed. contemporary context; and acting on in my ability to express my opinions". patterns." She relates the many Calling for empowerment rather than that identity in a way that nourishes [...]Not needing to be correct or to win, health problems that make stress correct politics, Lorde argues that it is the overall well being of our we can tap into our erotic power, find life-threatening for Black women more important for people to learn communities." She states that her our truths, and speak them, and from and notes that "stress does not and grow than to create a correct focus in the book reflects her purpose this place of empowerment, we can empower us to handle whatever system without them. of contributing to the health and respect each person's need to find hir comes our way." empowerment of Native women. This own truth. loving project carries Anderson's hope for dialogue, vision, and reflection that will help Native women and others create more balanced, healthy, and respectful lives. 1545

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FSTUD – Tabela C35 p. 767 - ? p. 771 - S p. 773 - C p. 773 - ?

Feminism, so broadly accepted, was a term, then, that encompassed many different views about womanhood and many different strategies. Some people identified the Again I ask: does it matter differences among feminists how we name ourselves? by speaking of "liberal After all, the struggle for feminists," "socialist women's equality could feminists," "radical fem inists," continue by a multitude of "cultural feminists," "spiritual But I look back on other names. I'd like to feminists," "lesbian separatist feminism's history and suggest it does matter. It feminists," "Black feminists," However our women's history and find matters because our history "multicultural feminists," strategies, our that the periods in which our matters. It matters because "Christian feminists," "Jewish priorities, our views gains were most striking those who distort our history feminists," and more. In their might differ, we shall História do were when we used the are not motivated by a Moses strategies, some feminists know that we are movimento EUA/China word "feminism" most concern for women's equality. (2012) gave priority to sexuality or joined in support of feminista broadly, imbuing it with It matters because, in this issues of reproduction; some each other, in support multiple meanings, and increasingly globalized world, gave priority to work-related of women, and in thereby created the largest women are strengthened by issues; some called for a support of women's sense of belonging, a also belonging to a global socialist revolution; some empowerment. shared aspiration for movement and reflecting their defended capitalism, but women's empowerment. commitment to a global noted that reforms were movement in their naming. It necessary to include women matters, in other words, for us in capitalism's benefits; some to believe ourselves joined in stressed the necessity for a a common vision of women's new psychology of women if empowerment. women were to empower themselves; and some stressed that state and economic structures had to change. On the theoretical level, some believed that women had been socialized

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differently from men and in ways that disempowered them. Some stressed that women were naturally different from and perhaps even superior to men, especially in their capacity for inter personal relationships. FSTUD – Tabela C36 p. 405-406 - ? p. 428 - C p. 429 - C p. 429 - ?

Egyptian women, far from being passive objects of such policies, negotiated the reproductive politics of state family planning in ways that both challenged and The involvement of the reaffirmed its normative international population assumptions about gender, the Rather, the history of community and emphasis on Moreover, notions of body, and modernity. As a site reproductive politics in Egypt liberal constructions of individual rights, choice, and for the articulation of gendered demonstrates that current citizenship has led to a family- agency linked to an agenda subjectivities and visions of a family-planning programs, no História da planning program in which of women's empowerment new revolutionary society and the less than those established in entrada de notions of reproductive rights become more problematic if family models that society was to the immediate postwar period, métodos and improving the "status" of we consider that current Bier be built upon, the history of the can be read as normalizing contraceptivos e Egito women go hand-in-hand with clinical practices privilege the (2010) national family-planning program projects that aim at creating new planejamento contraception. Given more provision of the IUD and new in Egypt suggests that the sorts of citizens and families familiar no Egito "choice," better information, and contraceptive technologies privileging of the individual body through the regulation of pós-guerra clinic practitioners who are such as Norplant and Depo- asthe bearer of reproductive gendered bodies with trained to be "sensitive" to the Provera that take control out rights forecloses understandings complicated and unexpected needs of their patients, women of the hands of the female of the ways in which women's implications for women's agency have been empowered to patient. bodies are inscribed within and empowerment. exercise their own rights to historically and geographically reproductive self-determination. specific webs of social and political relations with complicated implications for women's empowerment, agency, and citizenship.

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FSTUD – Tabela C37 p. 72 - ? p. 79 - ?

Thus, Boggs saw a potential danger in the idea of social identity, in that it can constrain both one's sense of self and the ability to see meaningful connections with others. Her story also pointed to the importance of context as she What goes on when diverse groups "get into a room" that later reminded the audience that a movement to empower Mulheres ativistas results in either "fussing" or generating useful new Asian Americans did not exist during her early years of Cole e e criadoras de strategies and tactics? How do groups work together activism. She did not have the option to organize around Luna movimentos EUA productively across power asymmetries to achieve her racial identity, but, instead of avoiding political action, (2010) internos ao common goals, and what practices are necessary to she became an active ally. Boggs established her feminismo ensure meaningful participation by the most commitment to racial justice and local community disempowered constituencies? empowerment over decades. She continued to move beyond activism around obvious identity categories when she founded the Boggs Center, in Detroit, Michigan, which offers community programs, many of which are aimed at youth. FSTUD – Tabela C38 p. 201 - C p. 208 - ? p. 209 - ? p. 217 - C p. 220 - ? p. 224 - ? p. 226 - ?

In 1969, the In a final shift, SOS Corpo For their part, Demands for The groups For each of radical the emphasis members MMTR the sought to these northeast women's on individual seized the members accountability challenge Brazilian health empowerment language of may not have of the regime relations of women's História de movement had through radical feminism initially seen to its citizens power rather organizations, movimentos burst onto the consciousness in the global their life had been part than simply to translating feministas scene in raising, North and experiences of the lexicon provide charity against the brasileiros e Boston, with dominant resignified it for as objects of of the for the less current meant a the publication among many their own exchange or opposition fortunate; and forging Thayer articulação Brasil of Our Bodies, feminist purposes as the and continued their broad relationships (2010) urbana e Our Selves, a movements in through their grounds for to be an criteria for with more rural no health manual the North, gave practices. In potential object of success powerful allies contexto da that sought to way in Brazil to time, however, connections struggle in the included both in Brazil ditadura empower broader the disjuncture beyond the postdictatorial intangibles, such and in the global militar women by alliances with between words sertão. period. In the as "developing North. In the providing the women's, and their forms However, political critical process, each accessible community, of their sense, consciousness," faced different information labor, and implementation encounters accountability "empowering kinds of about their political grew too wide. with allies, signified women," and dangers. By

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bodies. The organizations Euro-American such as SOS transparency, "reframing making movement that had earlier discourses of Corpo, and democracy, issues," as well themselves affirmed the opposed the "women's with and an end to as more easily legible to power of authoritarian bodies" and international corruption- measurable donors, MMTR knowledge regime. In the understandings funding values ones, such as members gained about the body 1980s, during of agencies led espoused by policy changes material and and challenged the Reagan and "empowerment" to a new the larger Left and material political its monopoly Thatcher years, could no longer, appreciation community of improvements in solidarity, but by medical as feminists in by themselves, of the value which people's lives. they also risked "experts". In the North make sense of that their own women's the kind of Europe, too, a watched their feminism in the constructions organizations commodification self-help gains erode, Brazilian of their lives like SOS that led them to movement was Brazilian context, if they might hold in Corpo were a conflicts with urging women feminist and ever had. In a global part. It SOS Corpo. to take charge other social 1990, the marketplace referred to the "Rural women" of their own movements organization of aid, as well accountability could become a health as a were appropriated a as in feminist of ruling confining, as vehicle toward participating in new, more coalitions. In political well as an liberation. the process of fitting discourse- a sense, institutions to empowering These creating a new, that of "gender"- MMTR their newly category, a strategies were postdictatorship and, once members empowered means of linked with constitution. again, began became constituents. exoticizing and consciousness the process of empowered dividing raising, translating at the very constituencies, through which meanings and moment that thereby limiting participants linking them to they saw their possibilities traced the new political power and subjecting connections practices. threatening to them to the between their slip from their designs of intimate hands. As others. experiences of "rural oppression and women" gendered entered the structural aid market inequalities. and acquired The discourses the status of around a valued women's commodity, bodies and control over

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empowerment, their and the translation practices became an linked to them, object ot soon began to contention travel. By between the 1980, Our MMTR and Bodies, its urban Ourselves had allies. been translated into eleven languages. By 2008, there were twenty- nine foreign language editions, as well as innumerable unofficial translations and adaptations of the original.

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1555 FTEACH – Tabela C39

País Referência Público/Objeto do Trechos estudo p. 106 - ? p. 106 - C p. 109 - S p. 111 - S p. 114-115 - S p. 120 - ?

According to Finally, guest According to the Carolyn speakers can Advocacy-Based Shrewsbury teach students Counseling (166) and Lynne practical skills that approach, an We have found Webb, Kandi As with feminist empower them instructor should that the Walker and pedagogy, the both emotionally listen and provide Advocacy- Tamara Bollis core goal of and physically. For resources to Based (418), some of ABC is to example, Portnow students—not Counseling the core address argues that solve the The rape perspective, principles of individual and learning problem for them. trauma with its focus on feminist societal selfdefense is a Though this may syndrome survivor pedagogy inequalities “transformational feel becomes more empowerment include: through the learning counterintuitive to Exercício do than words on and active recognition that empowerment experience” instructors, there aconselhamento paper, and the listening social of individuals. because it “not are several Durfee & em classes concept of techniques, to inequalities exist The advocate only increases reasons why Rosenberg (ABC), do ponto EUA empowerment be useful in all in society; attends to the knowledge, but instructors should (2009) de vista da becomes real stages of the empowerment of ways that more importantly, not try to “fix” or pedagogia through the teaching the student; a macro-level leads to deep and solve the feminista relief or anger process— from “reformation” of problems pervasive shifts in problems of our heard in a rape planning course the professor- manifest the learner’s students. First, it survivor’s content to student themselves in perspective and is important to voice. (Turell handling relationship so individual understanding” understand that 51) stressful that all situations, and (qtd. in Cermele 3). one critical situations individuals both she or he seeks In one of Alesha’s component of the and/or student share and to identify and classes, a Crime victimization the crises that arise acquire change these Prevention Officer student has both during and knowledge; inequalities. from the campus experienced is after class. privileging the police department the absence (or individual voice, came to a class removal) of and the respect session and taught personal agency. and valuation of self-defense This may have

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diverse personal techniques and been done by a experiences. strategies. One specific individual student (as in cases of commented that domestic the “hardest part violence, where wasn’t pretending one person has to hit or kick. It was used coercive yelling ‘NO!’ when tactics to the police officer maintain power asked us to.” Most and control over students started another person), the class saying or on an “no” quietly or institutional level while laughing, but (as in cases of by the end of the racism where self-defense student behavior training, their may have been shouts echoed constrained by through the room institutional and down the practices). In hall—a reflection of either case, part the empowerment of the they felt over their empowerment own safety. The process is instructor can then helping students help contextualize learn to exercise and historicize the their own agency. material guest Thus it is not speakers present. helpful for someone else to take control over the situation.

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FTEACH – Tabela C40 p. 204 - ? p. 210 - C p. 211 - C p. 212 - C

Halfway through the semester and shortly after the end of a class meeting, a student visited my office and told me that she did not appreciate what I was doing. When I asked her to These students also believed that elaborate, she said that complaining about current inequities “ignorance is bliss” and that she should not be their only means; did not want to learn what she instead, they decided to reach out to learned about gender inequity their communities and inform people Moreover, this infusion of In this paper, I during this course. She asked about these inequities. Their gender issues expanded argue that infusing me if I realized that ignorant approach resembled the Arab students’ knowledge about gender issues into people were happy because they Women Speak Out project the painful impact of gender the contents of did not know many facts in life. I (www.cawtar.org), which has inequity and the relationship Henry Turma de regular psychology responded by asking her if Egito stimulated many Arab women to between psychological (2010) psicologia courses may spark ignorant people had any form of discuss their conditions, enhance development and gender. students’ interest in power. My question startled her, their self-image, and take action The students then used this the subject and so I tried to assure her that this toward change (Jabre, Underwood, knowledge to experience may also empower new knowledge might eventually and Goodsmith). Therefore, it empowerment and reach out them. transform and empower her. My seemed that the students’ ideas of to their communities. response was influenced by empowerment involved both Paulo Freire’s idea in Pedagogy individual and community of the Oppressed, further development (Belenky, Bond, and developed by Caroline Porr, et Weinstock). al., that “education . . . should incite people to delve into their own banks of knowledge so as to pursue human liberation and transformation of their world” (Porr et al. 331). 1560

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FTEACH – Tabela C41 p. 227 - S p. 229 - S p. 231 - ? p. 233 - ? p. 233 - ? p. 234 - ?

As a result, in Early in the Conversely, two However, it is some classes the semester, during a students argued clear that the greater challenge discussion of how that I had shown too difference comes not from girls learn to much tolerance feminists were anti-feminist define themselves toward the less satisfied than students but from through their empowerment were the the conflict appearance, feminists. As one empowerment between two Madison raised wrote, Madison However, feminists, and that different types of her hand and “subscribes to all of problems self-identification third-wave declared, “But I the oppressive emerged again as lesbian or feminists. For want enjoy being a girl!” gender norms and during a class transgender of better terms, I I then led her and compulsory session on Still another significantly refer to these two the others through heterosexuality. . . . “performing” race wrote that at first affected students’ types as “difference a discussion of As a feminist and and gender, in she had found it views, whereas feminists” and both how women gay rights activist I which some difficult to cope ethnicity and Turma de “empowerment can indeed gain made the point [to difference with the social class estudos feminists.” power and Weitz] that bigots feminists empowerment appeared to have Weitz sobre Difference pleasure from their should not make it EUA responded feminists’ no effect. Both (2010) feminismo feminists view appearance and through WST critically when “sweeping factions included em uma gender and sexism how women can classes. . . . some generalizations students of color. universidade as deeply be harmed However, during a empowerment and comments Although I cannot embedded in the whether they conference with feminists made carrying know what caused structure of society succeed at Weitz, she comments that offensive these differences, and as intimately meeting discouraged me (as could be connotations.” I suspect that the entwined with appearance norms I interpreted it) from interpreted as lesbian and oppression based or fail to do so. being too harsh with supporting racial transgender on ethnicity and From this point on, the poor little bigot.” and gender students were sexuality, while though, it became Another two stereotypes. more likely than also sometimes clear from students from the others to expect questioning or students’ body difference feminist that women’s queering the very language, faction did not give studies nature of sex and murmured me permission to classrooms gender. comments, and read their essays, would—and Empowerment occasional public perhaps suggesting should—be “safe feminists oppose comments that that they also spaces” for them. sexism, but believe some found disagreed with my

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that they can Madison and the actions. Three of circumvent it other the four who either through their empowerment did not give me individual choices feminists naïve at permission or and rarely raise best and thought I had deeper questions dangerously anti- favored the regarding the feminist at worst. empowerment inherent nature of Meanwhile, some feminists had sex and gender. of the difference publicly identified as feminists lesbian or occasionally transgender. criticized or corrected the empowerment feminists’ ideas or information in ways that the latter regarded as supercilious and censoring.

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1565 FTEACH – Tabela C42 p. 41 - S p. 42 - S p. 42 - S p. 44 - C p. 50 - S p. 51 - S

Posing the question, “Can we be healthy in an unhealthy Finally, students society?” is a way to demonstrate how The four themes broach the idea they would that emerged from “The Process of ofsocial action and empower and the data, therefore, Empowerment” is to show examples advocate for their Equalizing the reflected both the intended to develop of empowerment, clients through a therapeutic learning outcomes culturally sensitive one of which role-play activity relationship (achievement of counseling skills, occurred in the that they (authority); the objectives) and dispositions, and wake of Hurricane themselves educating clients the pedagogical knowledge. Katrina with the construct, giving The article about power approach (what the Through this grass roots information about motivated dynamics and how teacher does and exercise, students formation of the clients’ lives, students to locatedness within how it affects are challenged (1) “Women of the the presenting learn more social structures students’ to listen to clients’ Storm,” a diverse Turma de issues they have about how to contributes to experience of the life experience even group of women psicologia e identified (loss help personal difficulties Pierce educational when it may be from New Orleans ecofeminismo EUA and grief, anger, traumatized (positionality); (2010) process): [...] (3) difficult to hear; (2) and southern pós-furacão depression, post- clients to reframing clients’ an appreciation of to become aware of Louisiana (David).1 Katrina traumatic stress recover and life experience to the value of how societal These women, symptoms, etc.), empower gain new community and structures and representing various and the them to understandings and empowerment (the attitudes contribute classes and races, resources they move knowledge opportunity to give to their problems; mobilized to might access. forward. (mastery)—all came voice to their own (3) to respond with pressure the United Many times, to be seen as experience, to hear deep understanding States Congress to students selected legitimate and alternative to their feelings and support recovery a group format effective ways to viewpoints, and to perspectives; and efforts in the Gulf for this role-play, heal and empower accept shared (4) to empower and Coast areas, recognizing the their clients. responsibility for advocate for their actually traveling to potency of a each other’s well- clients. Washington, D.C. to group to support, being) tell their stories to heal, and senators and empower. representatives and petition them to help. Opening their

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blue umbrellas to symbolize the blue tarp “roofs” in the post-disaster region, busloads of women marched up to Capitol Hill in a collective demonstration of their solidarity of purpose. The words of one of the women who participated in the event captures part of the spirit and significance of empowerment: “It was a phenomenal day for me, one that I will never forget as long as I live. Just the fact that we felt like the American process was in action. We had the ability to go to Washington, meet with our Congressmen, voice our concerns . . . it was very worthwhile and fulfilling for us. We were actually doing something” (146– 47).

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FTEACH – Tabela C43 p. 47 - C p. 48 - C p. 49 - C p. 50 - C p. 57 - C p. 57 - C

In addition to In “The Design of modeling Web 2.0: The Rise Rather than ourselves as of the Template, presume, however, tech-savvy users The Fall of that the only thing of and producers Designing Design,” Kristin L. feminist educators with technology, assignments and Arola claims that in Our third need to do to we also seek to curriculum in order to empower benchmark facilitate literacy empower the ways that value composers, we Consequently, at stresses the and resulting girls to act as learning as a must encourage the Digital Mirror importance of empowerment is to savvy users and process not only them to move Camp we use play connecting provide targeted producers in their disrupts beyond template to empower the identity and learning relationships with hierarchical use and into an girls to recognize practice. As the experiences for one another. It’s structures that area of Web design themselves as second girls, we recognize important to us privilege final not constrained by users and benchmark that such focused that, as co- products but also predetermined producers of suggests, we experiences can facilitators, we broadens the interfaces. technology— want to empower help participants seek to help the opportunities for Blair Acampamento Additionally, people with young women to develop a shared girls accomplish thinking with and et al. digital de EUA without templates, agency in form understanding of their goals and through (2011) mulheres the girls are more increasingly relationships with the technological achieve their technological likely to begin to computer- technology, and possibilities and visions for their spaces, which is see themselves as mediated contexts doing so involves constraints in their portfolio projects. especially producers and not and in the face of not only learning own lives and then While we offer important if we merely as users of technologically how to use the to articulate those our assistance seek to empower technology. [...] deterministic technology, but experiences and expertise girls and women Encouraging narratives that also learning how through multimodal when asked, we to form design, then, have often denied we, as women, composing also allow and relationships with fosters the digital women such are shaped by processes in ways strongly and through literacies Selber agency. and can shape that move them encourage the technology that identifies as the technology from the position of girls to teach are not mediated essential to any we use. users of each other. [...] by gendered twenty-first century technological The relationships stereotypes. composer, spaces to between new and empowering them designers of them. returning as the inventors — campers allow not the invented. the returning girls

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to inhabit the role of teacher, and this can be very empowering for them.

1570 FTEACH – Tabela C44 p. 23 - ? p. 24 - S p. 24 - ? p. 26 - ? p. 26 - S p. 26 - ?

Building on the work of Paulo Freire, bell This essay hooks, and other examines feminist scholars of Wanting to fully educational praxis transformational engage students, in an education, the our methodology undergraduate program is based on highlighted Feminist course based on the premise that dialogue, dialogue peer learning and Rather than reclaiming one’s own participation, and requires us to student pretending that Some of the education and sharing experience as critically empowerment. the instructor’s elements of knowledge with others central features. investigate and Public education in role is to critical feminist can be an important Like Chow and “problematize Turma sobre the United States eliminate power pedagogy that and empowering her co-authors, knowledge” feminismo frequently fails to and authority in shaped our educational one of our goals (Allman 426). Ochoa & em um promote creativity, the classroom, program experience. Students was to create a Further, Freire Pershing programa de EUA critical thinking, we recognized included: [...] 5) and faculty engage in learning contends that (2011) monitoria de leadership, and our positions of incorporating collaborative learning environment that dialogue is not graduação student initiative. power and tried caring and designed to would enable the end goal, but universitária This study analyzes to use them to empowerment deconstruct systems students to rather the our experiences in foster the in our teaching of power and transform beginning of the Student empowerment of methods (Chow oppression. We themselves from engaged and Discussion Leader students (Chow et al. 260). merged concepts from “passive empowering (SDL) Program, a et al. 271). critical and feminist knowledge- education peer education pedagogy to create an consumers” to (Freire 83–84). project designed to alternative teaching “empowered heighten student praxis, a “pedagogy of knowledge- agency, engaged resistance” that producers” (260). learning, and employs Freire’s cultural analysis. pivotal concept of “conscientization” and

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hooks’s emphasis on “critical awareness and engagement” (Freire 36, hooks 14). Continuação (Ochoa & Pershing, 2011) p. 28 - ? p. 31 - C p. 31 - C p. 32 - ? p. 32 - S p. 35 - C p. 38 - ? p. 39 - S p. 39 - S We were During the The power Like other We built on constantly faced discussion, dynamics between members of Peter with questions one young the students and During the the teaching McLaren’s about how to woman came the teaching team summer of team, I used observation that encourage to the were always on my 2010, the SDLs my first “empowerment dialogue, realization, mind. Jennifer worked with the name, means not only We had to Feminist exploration, and and was able Gore discusses faculty member encouraging helping learn to trust professor debate while to verbalize how feminist to learn more students to students to our own and author also creating a for the first educators need to about feminist do likewise understand and Initially, the ideas and Bonnie learning time, that her be aware of the and and engage the students abilities, and Morris environment partner had power they hold empowering explaining world around expected to I worked observes that was repeatedly and the ways in pedagogies. why. I them, but also continue what hard to find that the inclusive and sexually which We analyzed wanted to enabling them they had done my voice constant advocated abused her. power/empowered the theories begin the to exercise the in high school: and focus on attempt to social justice for Others relationships can and semester by kind of courage memorizing the devalue all people. recounted create an “us vs. contributions of positioning necessary to material and empowering feminist Students were their own them” mentality in Paulo Freire, myself as a change the spitting it back aspects of scholarship finding their memories of the classroom bell hooks, facilitator of social order on papers and the program. is also an voices and interpersonal (340). The term Bonnie J. classroom where exams, rather I soon attempt to becoming violence, “empowerment” Morris, Antonia learning, necessary” than wanting to realized that disempower empowered by incest, has been widely Darder, Henry defining (182). We learn for it wasn’t until women by what they were domestic used in a range of A. Giroux, and teachers and asked students enjoyment or I took myself not taking learning, yet violence, and educational other scholars, students as to engage in an empowerment. seriously them they often rape by discourse: while colearners activism project that others seriously expressed friends or conservative, simultaneously and hoping that would would (4). stereotypes and relatives. The liberal humanistic, reading the to empower provide reciprocate. bigotry, or class united and critical course material all members opportunities to neglected to do and created a political/feminist for Women’s of the class apply theory in the reading and supportive (Gore 333). We Studies 101. (see the analysis of made environment wanted to be Crabtree and their own comments that enabled thoughtful as we Sapp 135). experiences. based on students to constructed notions

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personal share their such as power, assumptions pain and truth, and and anger in knowledge, all of misinformation. empowering which relate to ways. feminist educational empowerment (Gore 330). [...] As we attempted to identify the issues arising around agency and voice in the classroom, we considered Gore’s words of caution about common understandings of “empowerment”: “In attempts to empower others we need to acknowledge that our agency has limits, that we might ‘get it wrong’ in assuming we know what would be empowering for others, and that no matter what our aims or how we go about ‘empowering,’ our efforts will be partial and inconsistent” (340).

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FTEACH – Tabela C45 p. 108 - C p. 112 - S p. 118-119 - C p. 121 - C

The first class I taught was Introduction to Sociology, a writing-intensive course A growing body of feminist with nineteen students. I Ultimately, as all critical and critical pedagogy found teaching to be I began to recognize the and feminist pedagogues literature positions teaching empowering beyond belief. classroom and related proudly proclaim, we are as transformative, for both I had complete creative activities as “political and students ourselves, teachers and students, as the control over designing my cultural sites that represent perpetual lovers of Mulheres classroom has the potential course; I had an accommodations and learning. We participate in negras no início Warin & to become a site of adrenaline rush for the contestations over the process of developing do seu trabalho Bordoloi EUA exploration, liberation, and entire fifty minutes of knowledge by differently and delivering knowledge como (2012) empowerment (hooks 16). class! It blew my mind that empowered social to demonstrate to others professoras The classroom is indeed a I was comfortable constituencies” (Mohanty the power of knowledge universitárias powerful social tool that can “professing” knowledge 194). To advance the ideas obtainment and serve as a catalyst for and cultivating critical of a diversity curriculum, I production, in hopes to personal development and thinking skills among had to move beyond the inspire them to partake in social change on many students who were just a pages of a book. the empowering process levels. few years younger than of education. me. It was surreal to me that my four year- old dream was a reality!

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FTEACH – Tabela C46 p. 184-185 - C p. 189 - ? p. 189 - S p. 194 - S

Virginia shared with me that she learned her practical approach to language In my interview with Dr. Janne Within the summer institute, revitalization work from Underriner, the Director of Greg saw that the focus was another elder. They were at NILI, I asked her to tell me on developing and providing an indigenous language how the summer institute got tools that tribal community conference, and it was early started. Within her comments members needed to do the on in Virginia’s involvement it is clear that tribal people’s language work themselves. as a leader in these efforts. vision of community The pedagogical focus of NILI She spoke freely to the group empowerment is what guides Notably, indigenous is tribal peoples’ about the challenges of doing all of the work. Janne shared scholars tend not to frame empowerment with the goal of this work, the lack of that the formal beginning of their work in terms of tribal self-determination. This resources, the numerous NILI could be traced back to a advancing a feminist Pedagogia pedagogical approach barriers, and so on. Then one meeting between tribal agenda, but instead situate feminista inspired Greg to followthe elder jumped up, pointed at community members and arguments in terms of Jacob indígena em lead of his elder, Virginia. her, and let her know how EUA University of Oregon strengthening self- (2012) um instituto Greg is now also enrolled in much potential she had, how linguistics graduate students determination, empowering de the doctoral program in important her work was, and and professors. She shared tribal peoples, linguística linguistics at the University of gave her a simple message that at the meeting, tribal implementing horizontal Oregon. Like Virginia, Greg is that Virginia has forever peoples expressed their forms of leadership, and focusing his dissertation on carried with her. That needs: “They wanted within dedicating oneself towards Ichishkíin, and their message was “Just do it!” their communities more serving the collective good. scholarship further supports When Virginia tells this story, language classes, community the language revitalization she giggles with delight, language classes, language movement because they are remembering that elder taught in schools or head using their graduate studies jumping and pointing at her. start programs or developing as a way to produce language She said it startled her, but more community schools. So education resources for the she knew he was right. Doing we met with them and then community. the work was what mattered. we started NILI that summer.” This message of empowerment represents the spirit of her work.

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FTEACH – Tabela C47 p. 220 - ? p. 222 - ? p. 223 - ? p. 224 - ? p. 225 - ?

Bearing these The second For example, One student issues in mind, it phase of the one student, noted that, quickly became project required while although the apparent that a students to write acknowledging global traditional a draft grant the importance hegemonic ideal In addition, students noted the service-learning application on of teaching of international conditions that grants imposed. model would be behalf of the carpentry skills development Some grants came from incompatible international to women in was based on charities/organizations/foUndations with our desire development Zambia since material affiliated with religious organizations, for a project group with this is typically outcomes, her some of which would be unlikely to informed by whom they were thought of as a work on the fund projects aimed at women’s transnational paired. In the masculine Teen Vision equality and empowerment. feminism and grant writing endeavor, conference Corporate funders often insisted that social justice. projects, worried about proposal one or more of their employees be Programa de Although the students were individual agency enabled her to embedded in the projects that they pesquisa service-learning also tasked with and realize that funded. Commenting on this, one baseado na literature considering the empowerment in individual student argued that this type of Parisi & participação em highlights many gendered this project empowerment of conditionality was even worse than Thornton Canadá projetos em benefits to impacts of their because many of people, in what Heron describes as the desire (2012) comunidades de experiential project the course whatever form for development of individual países em learning such as proposals. readings that takes, is development workers, because it desenvolvimento increased civic Students wrote highlighted that equally as requires the participation of those engagement, grants to women’s income important. who may not have any desire for personal support the generating Another student development at all. Through this, efficacy, and following projects often fail noted that students could readily see how a social community- to transform the mainstream recipient’s mission and goals could empowerment identified traditional development be easily co-opted by the need to of students initiatives: gendered practices conform to certain ideological (Knapp et al.), pediatric care in dynamics of focused solely parameters, including specific visions the dominant Kenya; a fair households. The on economic of feminism and women’s equality model of service trade co-ed student also development articulated by international learning often carpentry considered the have hidden organizations. focuses on the cooperative in transnational costs, such as learning Zambia; an HIV process of increased time outcomes for youth peer consumption, as poverty for students “rather counseling one of the goals women and

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than the program in of the grant was increased school achievement of South Africa; a to help secure dropout rates for community Teen Vision guaranteed girls, who goals” (Stoecker Conference markets in British frequently take et al.). The focused on Columbia for over household traditional youth wooden responsibilities service-learning empowerment carvings. Were for their mothers model may and the right to they imposing who are provide benefits education in too much in the participating in only to the Zambia; youth grant application income students as well literacy by discussing generation as to faculty programs in what products, projects. These teaching the Zambia; and such as carvings students courses. sustainable food or chairs, would recognized that production and sell well in North empowerment teacher training American does not always programs for markets? Would take the form of women who are these products acquiring home schooling reify the economic orphans in Northern wealth, thus Zimbabwe. consumer’s implicitly image of critiquing the southern Africa? cosmopolitan Fair Trade models of global programs often citizenship and take a “charity” civic approach to the engagement that craft sector seek to (Hutchens), and "modernize” handicrafts from developing developing countries by countries are making them often marketed “more like us” in through rescue the Global North. narratives. Through the transnational feminist critique of economic

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globalization, students could see that the consumption of such products does little to challenge the neo-liberal basis of international development and leaves structural inequalities firmly entrenched. 1580 FTEACH – Tabela C48 p. 235 - C p. 237 - C p. 242 - C

Web technology and Web-related teaching have the potential to actualize some of the basic goals of feminism and feminist pedagogy . . . Web Jennifer Scanlon affirms the As Claudia Herbst cautions, the feedback technology gave our abstract connections between teaching and women receive from males online often academic endeavor a virtual “space” action in order for pedagogy to be truly reflects an “adversarial and combative, Disciplina that made it more “real” and more feminist. She indicates that feminist and sometimes violent and abusive, Eudey online sobre accessible than ever before . . . the pedagogies are designed to help communication style”, causing women’s EUA (2012) estudos das Web interface empowered students by students get beyond mere awareness voices to be silenced or devalued. mulheres freeing them from the often inhibiting of women’s oppressions and Students can be taught about such presence of authority figures . . . the contributions, preparing them to be communication styles and can consider Web has the capacity not merely to change-agents seeking empowerment how they might respond if they receive or challenge, but also to change, the and liberation. come across disempowering messages. structures of power in the classroom, and perhaps, the world at large. (188– 89)

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FTEACH – Tabela C49 p. 179-180 - ? p. 180 - ? p. 180 - ? p. 189 - ? p. 190 - S p. 191 - S

At its best, comentoring allows individuals to build The powerful group solidarity, moments we see, and solidarity then, are not Working in As Bona et al. gained from the ephemeral, but partnership, co- argue, co- If we agree that stance of power lasting. When mentors mentoring is not a In this final section, feminist with enables Charisse taps into empower one method but a we consider just comentoring plays shared Andrea’s another, work relationship, and as three of the an important role in empowerment — classroom as pro-active a relationship, conditions that fostering one’s making the whole experience, they agents, and comentoring is emerge as sense of value (i.e., stronger than its collaboratively enter into a associated with meaningful in the self-empowerment, parts — so that create a record of Co- more holistic partnership, case study — (1) agency, solidarity), both co-mentors the conversation mentoria relationship solidarity, having enough then individuals can Godbee gain from the and claims that numa rooted in a empowerment, and time to linger over recognize it as & relationship, even arise, and the turma de EUA common goal. agency — all issues, (2) writing important to their Novotny when those gains subsequent notes escrita In this way, co- important concepts as a practice of own and others’ (2013) are different in become the para mentoring takes for feminism and recording and positions in degree or kind. roadmap leading mulheres this concept of for anyone (men, extending what is academia and put Further, through Andrea through power over women, said as a means of time toward it (even shared support, her writing found in transgender, empowerment, and folding it into other partners engage in process. Further, traditional cisgender) (3) making time-demanding open discussion the writing serves mentorships asserting the right connections based tasks), rather than that can be as a means of self- and transforms to belong in higher on shared and being pulled away severely restricted empowerment it into power education and disparate identities. by all the other when one associated with the with (Meeks and other high-stakes demands on time. individual has confidence built Hult). settings. status/power over and agency another (e.g., asserted during the Darwin; Kochan conference. and Trimble; Meeks and Hult).

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FTEACH – Tabela C50 p. 113-114 - ? p. 115 - C p. 118 - C p. 120 - C p. 120 - S p. 130-131 - C p. 134 - ?

In the 2011 In this initial Take, for What Moyo’s Although the For example, meeting with meeting with example, the story means for Yale students transnational Sudanese Sudanese ASU model for universities is never used the feminist women in women, the a campus-wide this: universities term rhetorician Following Arizona, the Yale students innovation that would “empowerment” Rebecca Dingo Kuek’s advice, Yale students are enacting called ONEshot resist circulation in their talk with notes that ASU has echoed the and circulating Global to of problematic the Sudanese “women’s provided prevailing the neoliberal reduce representations women, they empowerment” training for the rhetorics of rhetorics of meningitis. [...] of students and did explicitly circulating in SSCAA board university women’s The ONEshot community connect their global policy members to microloan empowerment Global partners and work to the discourse strengthen the initiatives over that connect exemplar colonizing microlending might “stand women’s the past seven empowerment follows typical narratives of initiatives of for women’s empowerment years. It is and poverty aid charity change and Muhammad access to initiatives of its Discussões surprising, interventions models that empowerment Yunus’s health care, organization. de estudantes however, that to “personal “inscribe a must create Grameen Bank political action, An universitários even in a decisions or dehumanizing conditions, in Bangladesh, personal intercultural sobre Clifton situation where agency, doer/done-to forums, tools, which does agency, the inquiry into programas de EUA (2014) they needed the delinking relationship and practices invoke right to speak, women’s microcrédito e cooperation and wider cultural, between those for working with “women’s the ability to desires for financiamento collaboration of gendered, giving and students and empowerment” work outside pursuing voltado a small business economic, and those receiving community as a primary the home, the literacy minorias owners to get a political the aid” (Long, partners 1) to motivation and right to learning in new initiative off contexts” Fye, and critically goal of the maintain Maricopa the ground, the (Dingo) from Jarvis). The examine our program. Both cultural County has Yale students the decisions “one saves two” transnational the Elmseed practices—or also begun would portray an model upholds literacies about Enterprise Fund often some with adult themselves as entrepreneur a version of conditions and and the combination of literacy the ones makes. In “empowerment” outcomes of Grameen Bank all these” (2). learners and contributing contrast to a in which power globalization rely on a model More troubling literacy value to the feminist is “bequeathed (Dingo); 2) to of “self-help is that the sponsors partnership and approach to onto one from critically groups,” rhetoric of across the cast potential empowerment another” examine our organizing “women’s county. partners as the that considers (Dingo). The public literacies entrepreneurs empowerment” ones in need how broader stateside about values, into groups that can suggest a and without contexts students getting practices, and seem to positive and

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options. Where influence meningitis shots outcomes of suggest a pro-woman the Sudanese individuals, “save” the public life under feminist agenda but be women are the Yale African conditions of approach to “deployed to absolutely students’ meningitis belt, globalization; microlending. legislate concerned approach but the and 3) to practices that about the “reif[ies] the ONEshot collaboratively in fact are not pragmatic bootstrap Global team are construct empowering material ideology the ultimate performative and that may outcomes of popular in “saviors” in this public literacies further their business U.S. welfare proposal. The in contexts disenfranchise endeavors, the policies” university’s where students women” Yale students’ (Dingo) by endorsement of and community (Dingo). This is rhetoric reflects foregrounding this paradigm in partners true of terms a version of Westernized which student engage as and arguments “empowerment” notions of consultants are “agile related to that allows individual the “change- performers” activist them “to ignore choice in makers” who (Coogan 671) in capitalism as . . . actual addressing can extend intercultural well. material poverty. power to others inquiry, practices— or just as easily collaborative whether those take power problemsolving, practices are away—the and positive for power to be transformative [men or] women disease-free or social action or not” (Dingo). the power to that engage save a distant personal African aspirations and continent difficulties (Rowlands)—is alongside especially deeper pernicious. structural oppression.

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FTEACH – Tabela C51 p. 70-71 - p. 62 - ? p. 62-63 - S p. 63 - S p. 64 - S p. 65 - S p. 69 - C p. 72 - S S In having The pattern of GTA How did Also, Although students commitment experiences these GTAs although it there may be understand, to and feelings manage a was the no quick fix deconstruct, pedagogical of colonized case that for GTA and be open philosophies selfefficacy classroom GTAs in pedagogical Notable to this type of aligned with and terrain where the religion development While some emergent engagement goals of empowerme language and department in neoliberal GTAs themes method democracy nt differed accents were less times, this contributed to include (1) across and equality, across empowered likely to study offers a curriculum pedagogical academic caring, academic some while teach with place to development, philosophies disciplines, empowermen discipline. disempoweri faculty who begin a many reported anchored in most GTAs t and voice, GTAs from ng and held the discussion feeling decolonial expressed a understandin the religion marginalizing same that up until “disempowered feminism; (2) belief that g systems of department others? decolonial now has ” to make perceptions the power and had the most Some of the feminist received the suggestions Experiência of power and pedagogical privilege, access to GTAs gained pedagogy bare toward the Madde s de privilege in process of creating classroom insights from philosophie minimum of EU syllabus and n monitoria higher deconstructin spaces for instruction interpersonal s as scholarly A course (2014) na education; g and de- marginalized under faculty relationships compared attention. development. graduação (3) GTA self- centering voices to be supervision with faculty to the The Disempowerme efficacy and can be heard, shifts and mentors and faculty in illustration nt was often empowerme recognized in claims to scheduled GTA peers. the and analysis linked to nt; (4) as a human epistemic time for Others of women’s of the problematic complexity of activity and authority, critical these GTAs and gender interconnecte consequences pedagogical can collective feedback addressed studies d points of related to experiences; empower resistance via and their department systems of complexity of and (5) students to consciousnes pedagogical language and , both sets power and identity and pedagogical make direct s-raising, and mentoring. accents of GTAs privilege, implications for communities connections deconstructio Many GTAs immediately reported pedagogical GTA authority. of support. between the n of identified to the class feeling philosophies, work they do hegemonic recitation as and “put it out empowere selfefficacy across pedagogical the only time there” by d to teach and disciplines praxis results they felt stating that in front of empowerme and social in concluding empowered they lead nt, justice. that the to teach understood faculty. complexity of

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GTAs’ authentically their pedagogical pedagogical and from a language and experiences, philosophies politics of accents were and are anchored place—an perceived necessity of in decolonial empowerme barriers and pedagogical feminism. nt that many recommendin communities reported g students of support diminishing speak to illuminates when in the them the ways that lecture hall immediately if GTAs are and in the their accents pedagogicall presence of or word y and faculty. Yet, phrasing professionall GTAs from hindered y prepared in women’s student relation to and gender understandin the studies g. institutional (WGS) policies and reported the practices greatest where they feelings of work. empowerme nt in their classroom roles. 1590

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FTEACH – Tabela C52 p. 111-112 - C p. 112 - C p. 113 - S p. 114 - ? p. 114 - C

Feminist teaching has been largely defined as an A women’s center would “act of love” (hooks 187), provide a setting that characterized by fosters and facilitates developing community in As a feminist teacher, I safe and healthy classrooms, promoting interpret this to mean that relationships on campus active engagement, raising in my classroom, I and builds a strong awareness of power and facilitate students’ sense As a class, the sense of community. In privilege, and of empowerment by students determined using a strength-based contextualizing examples Community providing them with the which principles of approach focused on the that resonate with psychology space and tools to create community positive strengths of students’ social worlds defines itself as socially just change. psychology were individuals instead of (Robertson 11; a field Below I will illustrate how I applicable to their weaknesses Shrewsbury 8). It is a Turma de committed to organized my classroom claiming the need (Maton et al. 4) to bring Silva collective engagement psicologia EUA empowering first by utilizing Kurt and importance of our community together, (2015) where teachers often comunitária persons and/or Lewin’s (32) theory of creating a women’s the women’s center can relinquish some control to groups to small groups to help center at UWB. The serve as an empowering their students, empowering facilitate social facilitate this collaborative principles of settings, alternative setting. It them to create action action project and how sense of community, could function as a (Byrne 48; Shrewsbury (Rappaport 1). community psychology and empowering communal space to 10). In feminist can be used as a catalyst settings were facilitate discussions, classrooms, this “liberatory for change to create a selected. provide information environment” is both sense of empowerment regarding sexual health “ecological and holistic” within a college and education, and (Shrewsbury 8) where we classroom. promote gender equity, use it as a place to thereby making it an connect students to inclusive community current issues and equip space for all. them with skills that they can use to facilitate action.

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Continuação (Silva, 2015) p. 116 - S p. 116 - C p. 116 - C p. 117 - ? p. 121 - ? p. 121 - S p. 122 - C As seniors on the When an cusp of graduating empowering setting with a degree in is established, the community empowerment of psychology, my students increases students were drawn through peer-based immediately to the support, involvement concept of within the campus Utilizing the As a teacher, I was An empowering empowerment and community, and principles of apprehensive as to As other feminist setting on a empowering enhanced learning. setting, sense of whether or not I had teachers have noted, university campus settings. They felt The Cornell community, and provided them the a feminist classroom can encourage Above all, we strongly that a Empowerment Group empowering necessary tools and alters the learning students to be a hope that this setting that best defines settings, the class skills to be environment by community of article illustrates encourages a sense empowerment as “an worked successful. I was facilitating student learners who are how a class of community should intentional, ongoing collectively to fully supportive of empowerment — an empowered to “act project can be also be an process centered in design and their methods, but ideal that is highly responsibly toward used to develop a empowering one for a local community, implement a would the campus valued in the field of one another and the sense of its members. This involving mutual student survey community be community subject matter and to community and was particularly respect, critical and faculty receptive and willing psychology (Scanlon apply that learning to facilitate student important to them as reflection, caring, interviews to to participate? 9; Rappaport 8). As social action” (Byrne empowerment as college students, and group uncover how the Moreover, would someone who is 48). [...] An we learn to where they felt their participation, through UWB student this class be an committed to social empowering setting collaborate to voices should be which people lacking body envisions a empowering setting justice and action, it can benefit the improve the heard more an equal share of women’s center for my students, or is my hope in all of student in a number spaces in which regarding campus resources gain on campus and would it turn them my classes that of ways, from we live. growth and greater access to how such a center away from the field students uncover a personal growth to development. and control over could strengthen of community passion and want to improved learning Empowering settings those resources” (2). the core values of psychology be a part of change. environments. are unique in the This empowerment our institution. altogether? sense that they can be facilitated encourage through a women’s “individual center by providing development, the student body a community setting that not only betterment, and encourages positive social participation in their

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change” (Maton et community but also al. 5). introduces students to resources needed to live a fulfilling life both in and outside of campus. Kelli Byrne describes how women’s centers promote a variety of opportunities for students to actively participate in social action on and off campus by empowering students to engage in issues and situations related to the status of women’s empowerment (48). For my students, empowerment can be encouraged and facilitated by having a setting that builds on this sense of community, which could start with the women’s center.

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1600 FTHEORY – Tabela C53 País Referência Público/Objeto do Trechos estudo p. 334-335 - C p. 339 - ? p. 345 - C p. 348 - ? p. 349 - ?

The Third Way Postfeminist politics Jeannine Delombard manifesto explicitly adopts a similar describes this feminine conceives of its Third Way politics by alluding to Audre implied audience as perspective to Lorde’s famous precept, a group of reconcile feminist ‘femmenism is using the business-minded concerns with master’s tools to dismantle While critics have citizens who are female equality, the master’s house’ (1995: tended to dismiss looking for ‘the theoretical debates 22). Femmenism involves a these everyday I do not want to opportunity to on anti- reinscription of the acts of shopping as present become essentialism, language and meanings of instances of postfeminism as entrepreneurs’ media-friendly femininity whereby patriarchal the only feminist while also depictions of feminine signifiers are colonization, the ‘alternative’ nor do I admonishing the feminine reclaimed for a makeover paradoxical wish to write out of less ambitious and empowerment and and redefined in feminist possibility of ‘active feminism women’s market-oriented consumerist terms of liberation and consumption’ also struggles in other public that ‘the state demands of empowerment. Genz Movimento Reino contains the seeds parts of the world, should not row, but capitalist culture. Postfeminism’s (2006) pós-feminista Unido of a sexual micro- say the global steer; not so much This results in an resignification of femininity politics whereby South or the former control, as ultimately unstable is also exemplified by the women exert their Soviet bloc states, challenge’. political position renewed interest in consumer agency which would find it Accordingly, the where there are no domesticity and the figure to achieve difficult to relate to individual’s fixed rules for of the housewife. In a empowerment by postfeminism’s responsibility for subversion or chiastic reversal of the using their bodies consumerist and his/her welfare resistance, no home/work as political tools individualist notions cannot be offloaded guarantees of dichotomy,domesticity has within the of empowerment. on to the state but, political efficacy. been redefined as parameters of a somewhat The implications for ‘mystique chic’ (for capitalist economy. paradoxically, postfeminist politics example, Kingston, 2005). provides the are that backlash Whereas work outside the opportunity to and innovation, home is now an exercise his/her complicity and unavoidable economic rights and gain critique can never necessity for most women, empowerment in an fully be separated ‘homework’ has become

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employment-led but they are always the refuge of, what the society. The Third ambiguously June 2000 issue of Way thus entwined. Cosmopolitan referred to differentiates as, ‘housewife wannabes’ between its winners (Dutton, 2000: 164). and losers, between high and low performers, by segregating them through a managerialist grid.

FTHEORY – Tabela C54 p. 300 - ? p. 300 - C p. 303 - ? p. 303 - S p. 307 - S p. 307-308 - S p. 308 - ? p. 308 - C

Using an CCWP I make no Activists find One option to CCWP One of the But when it empirical embodies a claim that the that resolve the activists hope main comes to case of specific experiences prisoners problem of to form a difficulties more feminist brand of of members internalize giving voice to consciousnes that activists contentiou activism, I feminist of CCWP are problems of women s-raising face in their s issues, indicate the activism representativ prison life prisoners, group with attempt to CCWP prospects for based on the e of feminist and blame rather than to women empower activists political needs and prison themselves the prison prisoners in women feel torn action when visions of activism, or instead of system, could order to prisoners between Coalizão structural women feminist understandin be in forming empower comes from their desire de obstacles to prisoners. activism in g what a type of them to a sense that to Whitehea mulheres EU empowerme The stated general. activists see consciousnes become they are objectively d (2007) prisioneira A nt make the mission and Instead, as social s-raising active in aware of the represent s da creation of purpose of drawing from problems. group to resisting the power women Califórnia politically CCWP is to Michael Activists empower oppression differential prisoners’ conscious ‘raise public Burawoy’s understand women they between voices, and collectivities consciousnes (1998) model this prisoners to experience ‘women on their goal based on s about the of the ‘apolitical’ see how behind bars. the outside’ of equality cruel and ‘extended tendency in hegemony However, and ‘women empowerin highly inhumane case terms of works, thus forming a on the g women improbable. I conditions method’, I three primary releasing the consciousnes inside’; as a to see their shall analyse under which consider issues grip dominant s- raising result it is situation as a specific women in CCWP expressed ideologies group proves difficult to a part of a case in prison live practice as a and have on to be a quite balance larger

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which and advocate theoretically confronted women daunting task exposing system of feminist for positive important by CCWP prisoners’ for two women patriarchal activists face changes... context in activists. self- reasons. First, prisoners to oppression significant [as well as] which to From understanding activists are alternative barriers to promote the analyse the activists’ . not sure how ways of achieving leadership of potential point of view, to overcome understandin politically and give limitations of prisoners their relative g the world conscious voice to feminist tend to position of without collectivities. women theories of ‘misrecogniz power over converting I draw from prisoners, political e’ structural women them to the conflicts former activism that causes for prisoners so activist ways and tensions prisoners, are based on imprisonmen that they can, of thinking. that one and their an uneasy t, sexual as Diana put feminist families’ relationship abuse from it, come up prison (CCWP between guards, and with a activist group pamphlet). revolutionizin the problem ‘common in San Members of g of patriarchy articulation’ of Francisco, CCWP hope consciousnes outside the the problem of California, to provide a s and prison prison life. experienced platform to changing system. The Second, in their empower society. result is an efforts to have efforts to women While CCWP unresolved the kind of empower prisoners to activism may conflict for relationship women actively fight not be CCWP: how that could prisoners to against the representativ can they fulfil result in a fight the oppressive e of what their goal of common patriarchal prison feminist empowering understanding oppression system. activists are women are virtually of the prison doing in prisoners by impossible system, and general, it is giving them given the analyse an exemplary voice when structural prospects for context from the prison barriers of the feminist which to system prison that resistance analyse the seems to be separate when prospects for speaking women projects for feminist through prisoners from women’s political them? the outside empowerme action when world. nt are the possibility

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thwarted. for Such a empowermen formulation t is bleak at should be best. useful for those who believe empowerme nt is a laudable political goal, as well as those who doubt empowerme nt as a strategy or foundation for political resistance. Continuação (Whitehead, 2007) p. 308 - S p. 309 - S p. 310 - ? p. 310 - S p. 311 - S p. 311-312 - S p. 312 - ? p. 312 - S We need to talk In this Given these These tensions Perhaps these Feminists still However, the The about what we conversation it structural and conflicts that tactical strategies committed to the concept of ambivalences and come in [to is clear that impediments, members of provide a brilliant project of tactical strategies ambiguities that prison] with and CCWP members of CCWP face foundation for empowerment does not members of what we come activists CCWP often feel provide a perfect political action and class necessarily avoid CCWP feel as out [of prison] recognize that paralysed and opportunity to without formation might productive power. they try to both with. What is they have ambivalent about evaluate how empowerment. see Clearly, one empower women the point of the more power how to actually social context While some empowerment as limitation of these prisoners to visits? If the than women achieve their matters in the women prisoners the answer to types of tactical speak from their concern is not prisoners to goal to empower debate over the may not ‘feel’ a reclaiming ‘docile strategies is that own experience just social work, decide the women prospects for sense of political bodies’. [...] If they still imply of oppression and how can we core issues for prisoners. political change efficacy, or have a ‘empowerment’ that someone or change the look forward women Moreover, their grounded by macro-perspective describes how some group structure of prison and focus on prisoners, and uncertainty about empowerment. on patriarchal women become would have life indicate the these issues? this makes how to proceed While the goal of domination, they conscious that enough foresight need for feminist Women on the CCWP’s with the goal of empowerment may have an they are to actually theory to

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inside need to project to empowerment may make sense understanding that oppressed as a develop conceptualize know that we empower affects their in circumstances goes to the core of class, perhaps strategies that empowerment, need them to women efforts to reform where it is what Michel the concept of would be less not as a universal contribute to the prisoners the prison feasible to form a Foucault (1982: empowerment is likely to have prerequisite for newsletter and without overtly system and consciousness- 216) imagined actually born from long-term, feminist political other key issues inculcating address raising group, the when he wrote: the type of negative action, but as a that they think them with their patriarchy in very structure of 'Maybe the target productive power consequences. potential goal for should be ideas general. Because the prison system nowadays is not to of categorization Thus, avoiding political projects included. I think extremely activists see makes inequality discover what we that dominates empowerment that do not face this is a way for difficult. prisoners’ an unavoidable are, but to refuse women in the first does not such contexts visiting to make consciousness precondition to what we are . . . place. necessarily erase with rigid us and them as a foundation forming any kind The conclusion inequalities impediments to feel more for political of political would be that the among women. forming political empowered... action, they are collectivity political, ethical, This is consciousness. not sure how between women social, particularly true in they will proceed on the inside and philosophical the case of with contentious women on the problem of our prison-type issues, such as outside. The days is not to try contexts where sexual inequality to liberate the barriers to relationships between women individual from the representing between inmates prisoners and state, and from oneself and one’s and guards, nor activists outside the state’s needs are are they clear of prison walls is institutions, but to extremely difficult about how to not going to go liberate us both or impossible to represent away, so we have from the state and overcome. Many prisoners’ voices to figure out how from the type of have pointed out in a way that will to work within it. individualization the difficulty in both improve As the which is linked to creating some prisoners’ experiences of the state.' If kind of objective everyday lives, CCWP suggest, empowerment is assessment of while at the same the value of essentially a which time addressing empowerment strategy for knowledges interconnected depends on the women to come from a issues of context of the discover what ‘we’ position of patriarchy. systems of are, maybe resistance, and inequality within practical which ones do which individuals strategies, such not. In the case of must work. Thus, as ‘getting one CCWP activism, it may be best for over’, could be on what bases do

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feminists to view utilized as we evaluate the empowerment as strategic refusals extent to which one possible to take up the women prisoners tactic among categories that and CCWP many for social may ultimately activists are change given oppress us. actually particular empowered? The contexts. difficulty with answering this question comes in terms of finding a contextual, localized standard for evaluating whether particular viewpoints are ‘true’ or ‘false’.

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p. 63 - S p. 71-72 - S p. 72 - S p. 73 - S

The ways in which women experience their embodiment in selling sex – some as feeling powerful by using their bodies for profit, some as The women who participated feeling violated and estranged in this study clearly The focus of this paper provides from their bodies, represent demonstrated a resilience that a mechanism to challenge this ‘contradictory feelings of resisted straightforward notion by exploring women’s For this research, powerlessness and notions of passive compliance, sense of (dis)embodiment, and theoretical empowerment’ (Wesely, 2002: and demonstrated agency, by by problematizing the discourse approaches to 1185). Two women in this taking courses of action that of empowerment at a Prostituição embodiment were study specifically identified Coy Reino maximized the resources psychosocial and structural level. e vivência sought that selling sex as enhancing their (2009) Unido available to them. This Where women’s relationship do corpo acknowledged confidence. Both were discourse of empowerment is with, and sense of ownership of, tensions between engaged in street prostitution often cited within frameworks their body is disrupted by selling violation and a sense and chaotic drug use and had of prostitution as employment sex, there are significant barriers of empowerment. histories of sexual abuse, as evidence that women can for gender equality and ending although their ages at the time use constructions of violence against women of abuse, their relationship with sexualization and femininity for agendas. the perpetrator and the details financial gain (Sanders, 2006). of their abuse varied. They linked self-worth to an ability to attract men (as sex buyers) and satisfying them with their bodies.

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Participatory models To frame our Our analysis of of development Our use of the analysis, we focus these documents communication context, technology, primarily on one of has revealed a concern themselves and gender model to the critical areas of We affirm that focus on ICTs as a first and foremost with focus on UN policy concern that development of (already issues of documents is emerged from the ICTs provides understood) tool for empowerment and important here, United Nations’ 1995 enormous empowerment for thus are more likely to because the UN and Fourth World opportunities for women. The focus on the the WSIS are the Conference on women, who should documents’ foci on processes through primary and most Women (FWCW): be an integral part education in and which less recognized funders the inequality in of, and key actors, access to ICT for empowered groups (and thus shapers) of women’s access to in the Information women presume become involved in worldwide and participation in Society. We are that such actions will creating and development in the media and committed to enable women to implementing areas of gender and information ensuring that the participate as equals Cooks & Fórum sobre programs that address information and technologies. We Information Society to men in their Isgro tecnologia da Suíça their articulated communication use the context of enables women’s societies. Yet, as (2005) informação community needs. technologies. As our the FWCW and the empowerment and other feminist These approaches to analysis Platform for Action, their full participation development power among those demonstrates, the as well as the WSIS, on the basis of theorists and traditionally without overriding emphasis because these have equality in all practitioners have voice, however, are within the documents a common agenda spheres of society pointed out, access not without their analyzed is on for women’s and in all decision- to education and problems regarding development through empowerment. Also, making processes. technology often design (who technology. Thus these conferences To this end, we has a backlash determines the need women’s and UN documents should mainstream effect resulting in for voice and how empowerment and have served as a gender equality the further such needs should be global equality “powerful perspective and use discrimination and met?), implementation through access and informational and ICTs as a tool to abuse of women. (who participates and the necessary organizational that end. Moreover, the under what infrastructure are forums for feminists unproblematic focus circumstances?) and presumed. from all over the on ICTs as a tool for assessment (how world.” the betterment of

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should participation be society has been defined and critiqued by evaluated? how numerous scholars. should the goals of the Moreover, the program be assessed, unproblematic focus if at all?). on ICTs as a tool for the betterment of society has been critiqued by numerous scholars. Throughout the discourse on the new information society imagined by the planners of the Geneva summit, we find a utopian perspective of technology; one that envisions technology as the means to empowerment and equality for women.

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As the previous work of Understanding the most Lyndall Ryan and others has basic, most mundane, and At an intellectual and shown, although Protector ultimately most complex of personal level, this issue Like Dianne Bell, George Augustus Robinson relationships—that which was further developed a Cowlishaw’s experience succeeded in removing some takes place within the number of years ago when I demonstrated that of the women and their domestic arena—enables a attended a family funeral Aboriginal women had children from their homes, he theory of cross-cultural and met my father’s cultural practices, both also encountered systematic interactions that moves cousins. Like my father, secular and religious, that resistance. This resistance beyond the simple binaries of these men were of were not necessarily suggests that the women black and white, native and Aboriginal and European shared with the men. She were far from hapless victims newcomer. This journey that descent; their maternal implied that the division but were capable of began with a simple and yet great-grandmother was a between men and women exercising autonomy, as well challenging interrogative Pallawah (Aboriginal meant that among the as being openly disobedient moment at my grandmother’s Tasmanian) woman who groups with whom she and hostile. The sealing funeral has demonstrated lived on the Bass Strait had worked, there was on women openly and Russell Mulheres that “family” and “home” can Austrália Islands and undertook occasion outright rejection consciously engaged with the (2007) aborígenes mean different things at sealing activities with her by Aboriginal men of opportunities that arose from different times. It has also European “husband.” I “women’s business.” In colonialism, even though revealed that our naively characterized her as this sense infanticide these limited opportunities contemporary understanding a victim of the colonial might well be seen as sometimes effected violence of human relationships is not encounter and, as I recall, self-empowering: that the and disempowerment. always relevant to the even used the term “slave.” sealing women continued Through a maintenance of historical period. This was seen as insulting to practice such traditional activities (hunting, Consideration of the role that by her descendants, who autonomous infanticide etc.) and practices (including the home played in both the pointed out that such a suggests levels of ceremony), the teaching of colonial project and the characterization resistance and autonomy native languages to the men empowerment or disempowered her and that at first appear absent and their children, and the disempowerment of the ascribed the status of “slave from previous discussions creation of a new society that Aboriginal women who dwelt owner” to their great- of frontier domesticity. centered around their homes within enables a much grandfather. and families, these women denser view of the processes ensured their cultural and of colonialism. physical survival.

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For example, This is so much Our projects In comparison, We should be community the case that a have included a technology is never deeply suspicious development number of social nine-part mentioned explicitly in of participatory block grants, a movements workshop series the mission statement practices that key strategy in spawned in the called the of OKOP, which has displace government US in the past “Women’s lasted from 2005 to the macrosocial devolution since fifteen years— Economic To achieve this, present. Instead, the analysis, neglect the 1980s, were including Empowerment group members mission statement of the extra-local, justified by environmental Series”; two must be able to OKOP concentrates eviscerate the arguing that justice, major share their more on a democratic state’s program funding community workshops on experiences process, leaving the commitment to is more effective supported the theme of with other specific content of focus social welfare, or and efficient agriculture, fair “Women, people who of our organizing more heighten when decision- trade, Simulation and occupy similar or less open: "Our emphasis on making is shifted reproductive Social Change”; social locations. Knowledge, Our Power personal or to more local justice and a community For example, draws on values of individual Métodos levels (a key independent role-play one of my respect, local expertise, responsibility Eubanks participativos premise in media—have simulation of the favorite grassroots process, and EUA under the guise of (2009) de pesquisa grassroots arisen with the Reform moments of the true democracy to make “empowerment.” nas C&Ts participatory specific goal of Organization of 2001 Women’s real, meaningful change Though the organizing). The challenging Welfare Economic in the terribly unfair and participatory Personal technocratic (ROWEL)’s Empowerment exploitative system of practices I discuss Responsibility decision-making Exploring the Series involved public assistance in here, like popular and Work in areas as State of Poverty; a woman New York State, which education and Opportunity important to building a coming to keeps people participatory Reconciliation human life as community consciousness dependent and poor. action research, Act clean water, technology of her shared We try to counteract the arose from radical (PRWORA— breathable air, laboratory at the position within alienation and lack of social movements otherwise known safe food, human YWCA; the structural power respect that public the world over, in as welfare rights to creation of a relations. assistance recent years, the reform) communication, Women’s “beneficiaries” libratory potential reframed social and ability to self- Resource encounter by sharing of participation welfare in terms determine one’s Database; a information and has often been of individual reproductive two-day resources to bridge the unrealized or empowerment destiny. Although “summer gap between public rerouted. and personal participation can intensive” assistance recipients

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responsibilities become its own workshop on and in order to justify form of extractive surviving the workers/politicians/the state withdrawal "tyranny," many social service general public. We from providing participatory fora system; the believe we can bridge for the social feel empowering, production of a this gap by drawing on welfare of its develop valid and short public our collective power to: citizens, timely service empower people most rejecting the call sociostructural announcement directly impacted by the of new social critique, and about social service movements for counter forms of surveillance in system;enlighten recognition of domination by the welfare people about their rights group rights and providing system; the in the system; provide entitlements. alternatives to development of tools for navigating the hierarchical forms a set of twelve system; help with the of intellectual “Welfare application process; production. Information facilitate knowledge- Cards” intended sharing; and share our to combat the needs, challenges and misleading aspirations with other information that members of the is often provided community." about social assistance entitlements; and, more recently, a project focused on gathering testimony of economic human rights violations of people struggling to meet their basic needs in the Capital Region.

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While household bargaining models have made women’s reproductive In their assumption of household labor and conflicts around domestic homogeneity, feminist bargaining work and other household issues models also shore up policy arguments more visible in development circles, that paid work liberates women, Finally, these models are based on a there are significant drawbacks to because it gives them bargaining particular understanding of simply adding gender relations to power at home. Such arguments only empowerment as something that existing economic methods of hold, however, if one presumes that all happens through interaction with the mathematical modeling and rational households were inequitable global market, which allows choice individualism. As Drucilla patriarchies before these jobs arrived. development policy-makers at the Barker has pointed out elsewhere, Further, development researchers and World Bank to rewrite the script of this move elides a broader policymakers have used the language capitalism saving women using the investigation of how neoclassical of bargaining power and labor market scientific language of economic modeling and rational choice integration to discount the idea that modeling. As Drucilla Barker suggests individualism naturalize power women who do engage in paid labor in this volume, feminist economists’ Trabalho do relations in ways that make capitalism face a double burden of work, because attachment to formal modeling has cuidado seem beneficent. And indeed, these paid work allows these women to therefore resulted in the circulation, Bergeron (caring household models form the EUA bargain with their previously interpretation, and reinscription of their (2009) labor); conceptual basis for arguments uncooperative male partners to share work in ways that are likely at odds with trabalho regarding the empowering effects of in household tasks. This is troubling their intention. In contrast, an doméstico globalization and integrating women because even if this modernization tale interpretive account of reproductive into paid labor in the global South. In of capitalism as liberating were true for labor, which acknowledges how the recent studies of women working in the heteronormative households under social construction of care has been export floriculture in Latin America, for study, the argument that “men will pick powerfully shaped by normative ideas instance, household models are used up the slack” fails to explain the about sexuality, could better recognize to support the argument that work in empowerment or care burdens of those women’s multiple and contradictory the flower industry is empowering in other domestic arrangements, such relationships to social reproduction. It because it gives women leverage to as women in femaleheaded could also challenge the break the system of patriarchy at households, who are drawn into the heteronormative discourse of gender home. Those who have used more paid labor market. But the concerns of and development policy instead of interpretive, intersectional frameworks these others are pushed to the margins underwriting it. to study the impact of capitalist in such modernization narratives, which expansion on women’s rest so heavily on investments in empowerment, however, highlight its sexual norms. varied and complex effects. In certain cases, work in export manufacturing

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does allow women to bargain for increased authority in the household; in other cases, women’s work in export manufacturing firms has been shown to rely upon and even strengthen patriarchy in the home. FRONT – Tabela C60 p. 170 - S p. 175 - S p. 176-177 - S p. 177 - S p. 190 - S

Thus, in the logic of The continuum between If using the access the postfeminist and postfeminist power to existing the “Girlie,” the self is feminism and third-wave institutions of power In differentiating affirmed. In this “girl power” is made clear for ending gender themselves from the account of the world, in the definition of oppression or Thus, a significant second wave by because feminist “girlhood” provided by changing the very problem with the decrying “victim ideals are women’s Baumgarnder and nature of those postfeminist girl power feminism” and birthright and they Richards. Girlies are both institutions is, position is that it reclaiming traditional know it, the primary “those preadolescents ultimately, the goal confuses a femininity as positive obstacle preventing who are climbing trees of the third wave, determined and empowering, women from fully and playing with Barbie” then it will be borne reclamation of postfeminists in the taking control of their and “those grown women out as both feminist femininity with a 1990s were engaging own lives is continued on Sex in the City who in and political. If this feminist statement on some of the second victimization rhetoric. their independence, their access is used for agency. While Showden "Novos" wave’s arguments Instead, women bonds with female friends, other types of EUA wearing lipstick and (2009) feminismos more directly than should focus on their and their love of feminine projects, then we miniskirts might feel others. One obvious individual fashion invoke a sense of can say that the third empowering and case is the “sex empowerment and eternal girlhood.” But if wave is political and freely chosen, such wars,” a schism choice: wear makeup girlhood “is more a state could be feminist if freedom and within feminist or don’t; have of being than an age,” more attention is empowerment are movements over the whatever sex you then one might stop to given to often—at least to questions of whether want or none at all; be ask, why not rearticulating and some degree—illusory women can have an for or against “womanhood” instead? defending the new given the individual’s independent sexuality legalized abortion. But How empowering can “girl ground of feminism. inability to control the under conditions of this deceptive rhetoric power” be if it has to be Ultimately, I think reading of her actions. discrimination or of choice fails to cut down to size; made there is political oppression. consider constraints juvenile; stripped of the promise in the on different racial, connotation of emotional fifteen-year-old sexual, or class maturity and adult movement known as positions. In an era personal and political third-wave feminism,

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when the United responsibility that but it will take more States is witnessing womanhood denotes but than empowering the dearth of both girlhood elides? While cultural messages to accurate sexual third-wave feminists say realize this potential. education in most that they have more fun, public schools and what are the political and women’s health clinics social costs of privileging in most areas of the fun over or instead of United States, for political and economic example, this Girlie clout? How is Girlie, then, ideal of a all that different from the smorgasbord of infantilizing dismissal of equally viable sexual, women’s complex adult career, and family subjectivity— prevalent in options is inadequate previous generations and to challenge the still very much part of the political realities of culture today— that most women’s lives. second-wave feminists were fighting against? How is the “Girlie” girl politically empowering in a way that womanhood is not, and why the assumption that women can’t have fun, too? “Girlie” denotes an unthreatening, submissive, easy-to- control femaleness—as opposed to a fully formed adult subjectivity and political prowess— combined with an emphasis on“sexy dressing” and “ironic” participation in women’s sexual objectification.This Girlie chauvinism narrows rather than expands

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models of women’s adult subjectivity and sexuality. What remains is a hypersexualized collusion with the gender status quo. 1620 FRONT – Tabela C61 p. 143 - C p. 144 - ? p. 157 - C p. 157 - S p. 157-158 - C p. 159 - S p. 161 - C

Through Fourth, I Community IFWG New social A passion to The interactions explore the groups like the activities relationships extend narratives of with similarly ways in IFWG foster the are created in assistance to Filipino situated women which Filipino empower development interacting with others suggests marriage in community women use immigrant of personal other members empowered migrants groups, Filipino their women in confi dence, of IFWG. For abilities. and their marriage involvement Australia. With create new example, the Empowerment membership migrants share in immigrant embodied social drop-in days are and identity are in women’s their women’s multiple relationships, designed, intrinsically groups like experiences on groups in identities based promote according to an connected in the IFWG in migration and negotiating on race, awareness of interview with exercise of any Australia, Ativismo de settlement and spaces to ethnicity, and Australian Lilia McKinnon action and, however, mulheres devise ways to empower gender, citizenship, in 2001, “for according to suggest filipinas que effect change in themselves notwithstanding and support women who are Marjorie Miller, “lived migraram Bonifacio their lives. I and the public transnational not part of any the identity of activism” as para a Austrália (2009) further argue transform imagery of the ventures. classes like the empowered a form of Austrália that this their lives “mail-order” Participation dressmaking, person is practicing para situation within bride, Filipino in IFWG glass painting “sufficiently fluid citizenship. casamentos becomes systems of marriage activities or knitting.” and Participation arranjados “collectively domination. migrants helps Women at drop- multidimensional in personal,” in In particular, exercise develop the ins have lunch to take account community- that marriage the personal confidence of together and, of the based migrants share facilitative agency to Filipino Lilia McKinnon complexity of activities, common avenues of negotiate or marriage explains, the our situations.” many of grounds as “lived resist migrants. opportunity to Experience of which are racialized wives activism” constraining Jamila, a “come to talk migration and patterned and immigrants through the practices as community and see their intercultural on and process IFMWG racialized leader, friends or marriage are traditional within underscore wives or what I states, “it exchanging life-altering activities in themselves the the refer to as builds up what they cook changes that the

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ways to unrecognized “lived activism” one’s self- or what they shape individual Philippines, negotiate their form of that traverses esteem.” The shop.” As I capacities for reflect their marginality. practicing the private- development observed these action. subtle ways Consciousness- citizenship public divide. of self- drop-in days of raising through among “Lived activism” confidence is during my stay empowering shared Filipino reflects the often viewed in Australia, the themselves experiences marriage confluence of as a “pre- Filipino women to change “empowers migrants marginality and requisite for seem to their own women not only that, in many empowerment, effective construct a personal to recognize the instances, is of recognizing citizenship” familial space in situation as sources of their also oppressive and activism, which everyone well as to oppression but transnational. practices at which gives is help other also to create home under a an acknowledged similarly women-friendly dominant white “empowering as friends with situated environments.” husband, and effect” to many things to women. “Lived activism” of finding ways individual share: is at the core of to improve their women. This, children’s their lives as lives amidst Ruth Lister accomplishment women and as intersecting argues, in school, best citizens. systems of contrasts bargai shops, domination. with “more the latest formal kinds gossip, of political personal activity which stories, news can be more from home, and alienating a lot more. The than unstructured personally nature of the empowering.” drop-in days simultaneously allows these women to care for their children and empower themselves with new knowledge or a better understanding of issues

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affecting them as citizens through informal dialogue and interactions with other women. FRONT – Tabela C62 p. 123 - C p. 133 - C p. 133-134 - S

The basketball players were also able to Using oral histories of the Chinese use sport and the Chinese Playground Playground women basketball as a means of empowerment, in part In the words of one city employee, the players, this article analyzes how they because of mainstream America’s Chinese Playground completed the defined their version of femininity perceptions of sports and ethnicity. In Mulheres “fine work of Americanization.” Although through sport. In doing so, it highlights mainstream culture in the United States, sino- the city government saw the Yep how women from marginalized sports are seen as tools for assimilation americanas EUA Playground as an assimilation tool, it (2010) communities counter social into the national “American” fabric. The jogadoras de inadvertently created a free space for inequalities. Basketball was used to city government allowed the Chinese basquete the mostly working-class Chinese carve out an empowering space Playground to flourish precisely because American women to develop a sense of against the context of poverty, racism, offi cials believed that basketball taught collective empowerment. and the multiple forms of patriarchies Chinese American kids to perform and in their lives. embody “American” ideals of democracy, discipline, and hard work.

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Empowerment of Research on From 2007 an Empowerment According to Wolfgang Sachs women has the assessment is an elusive Amartya Sen, and Tilman become a empowerment was concept. It has empowerment Santarius By frequently cited of women undertaken by been is best seen as identify three collaborating goal of farmers in the researcher conceptualized, a process of basic principles with the most development. In Syria is that evaluated for instance, as “replacing the of self- marginalized agricultural important the impact of an ongoing domination of determination: and poor development, because of its the ppb process of circumstances “recognition,” farmers, ppb empowerment is intrinsic program on change in and chance by “distribution of addresses considered interest in a the power the domination resources,” and their agro- essential in order region where empowerment relations. of individuals “access to ecological, for farmers to there is a of the newly Power relations over chance opportunities.” geographical safeguard their relative involved are often and “Recognition” and livelihood paucity of women concerned with circumstances.” here is sociocultural interests and research farmers over a rules that Naila Kabeer understood as needs. PPB seed-based agro- literature on period of four legitimize some also focuses on acknowledgment also has been biodiversity. any aspect of years (2007– voices and empowerment of the roles recognized as Galié Fazendeiras Empowerment is women in 10). Th is discredit as process, individuals freely Síria an approach (2013) na Síria also considered agriculture, article reports others. The defined in her choose to take in that can to enable small and the findings of empowerment perspective as society. It refers support farmers from particularly this discourse itself the process of both to farmers’ marginal areas to because of its assessment is not exempt acquiring the selfawareness of empowerment. participate in potential to and addresses from concerns capacity to inner ontological “Increased research as more improve the the question: over who has make strategic transformations self- esteem” equal partners relevance and can the power to life choices and and to and “enhanced alongside efficacy of participation in decide, in this exercise recognition of knowledge” scientists, development the ppb case to decide influence. Both these are some of thereby work. This program what views transformations the specific increasing the article enhance “empowerment emphasize by others. benefits effectiveness of presents the women’s means” and empowerment “Distribution of mentioned by agricultural findings of an empowerment, “whose as a means to resources” farmers research. assessment and if so, empowerment enhance relates to the involved in ppb Empowerment of of changes in how? Th e counts.” The individuals’ right to self- projects. the most marginal the challenges very concept of capacity for determination farmers, and rural empowerment encountered in “women’s self- because women in of twelve farm the research empowerment” determination— resources are

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particular, is women from give rise to a has been people’s ability the material considered three rural number of criticized as to live lives that expression of important to villages in reflections on produced by they have recognition and provide these Syria. the meaning of feminist reason to value. the necessary most vulnerable empowerment ideologies in means of groups with the and how this the global north survival. means to voice concept can and transferred “Opportunities” their needs and be measured to the global are necessary desires and to and south. But it for individuals to take action so understood by has also been make use of the that they can researchers, claimed by resources they influence rural as well as by feminists from access and to and agricultural the women the developing actualize their development for and men world for their right to self- the improvement concerned in struggles determination. of nutrition and this case. against gender- The approach food security. based proposed by Sen Nobel Prize injustices. and Kabeer, winner Amartya Given that focused on Sen empowerment empowerment demonstrates in is also as a process, his book Poverty conceptualized has been and Famines how as a means to adopted by this hunger stems self- study, together from determination, with the three disempowerment, the question of principles of self- marginalization, who defines determination and poverty. women’s identified by empowerment Sachs and is a pertinent Santarius. one to which we return in the analysis and discussion. 1625

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Continuação (Galié, 2013) p. 61 - ? p. 61 - S p. 61 - ? p. 62 - ? p. 62 - C p. 64 - ? p. 68 - ? p. 80 - S p. 81 - S Applications of In 2008 an Sen and The findings In the any concept of International Kabeer both suggest that discussion we empowerment The impact Farmers see the correlation return to these within the The impact assessment Conference empowerment between Over the last conceptual Muslim world assessment was organized was as a process to access to two decades, issues. Here, takes on a comprised a in three stages organized by enhance information activist in order to particular set of over 2007– 8, icarda to individual’s and scholars have render the character. participatory 2009, and provide a capacity for opportunities also explored more abstract Elizabeth W. exercises, This research 2010, each platform for self- and human the potential to conceptual Fernea, for participant examined four lasting fifty farmers determination. capital is not enhance discussion example, observation, indicators of between five (fourteen For Kabeer necessarily gender justice amenable to discusses the and individual empowering and seven women and empowerment linear and can and women’s applications in differences and group processes: months, with thirty-six thus starts with be empowerment the field, we between discussions, “recognition of regular weekly men) and the exercise of misinterpreted through now turn to “Western performed women as field visits. The twelve “agency”— the unless the religion. how indicators feminism” and repeatedly in farmers,” “access first stage researchers ability to define context is well Monika Arnez, of the three stages to and control of (2007– 8) was (seven men goals and to act understood. for instance, empowerment movements for over four livelihood a baseline and five upon them to The findings draws might be women’s years (2007– resources study, carried women) achieve the further attention to derived. equality in the 8, 2009, and particularly good out in all three from nine chosen suggest that how women in Andrea Muslim 2010) in order seed and villages. countries to outcomes. any simple Muslim Cornwall and countries in to monitor and information,” Stages 2 and discuss Andrea applications of countries are Nana Akua terms of what assess “access to 3 (2009 and issues of Cornwall and the concept of reinterpreting Anyidoho she calls ongoing opportunities for 2010) relevance to Jenny Edwards empowerment Islamic argue for “family changes in selfdetermination,” consisted of the farmers speak of also may give sources to development feminism.” identified and “intra- repeat and show empowerment rise to increase the of indicators Fernea argues indicators of household interviews to the value of as increasing erroneous legitimacy of that are locally that, while empowerment decision- making.” assess farmers’ agency by judgments, gender meaningful for Western that focused changes in the knowledge “extending the given that a equality women feminism on “change” selected for horizon of decrease in demands in themselves prioritizes as a process indicators of agricultural possibility, of human capital Islamic and for the women’s (rather than an empowerment research what people seems to be cultures. specific productive role outcome). over the two and plant imagine linked in this development over their years. breeding. themselves study to an activity of biological and The event being able to be increase in interest. reproductive and its and do.” These awareness

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roles, family evaluation transformations and agency on feminism provided in turn are the part of the reasserts the additional related to the women. value of the information concept of multiple roles on the “recognition” of women in empowering put forward by the family and potential of Sachs and their participation Santarius. involvement in in ppb. complex systems to raise the next generation and reproduce culture. Th is article explores the complexity of socialization that a women inclusive ppb would need to take into account.

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1630 Continuação (Galié, 2013) p. 81 - C p. 82 - C p. 85 - C p. 85 - C p. 86 - C p. 86 - C p. 86 - C p. 88 - C p. 89 - C Part of the At the same Many scholars Mike Kesby Cornwall and Also, the This article Women’s empowerment time the find in Islam speaks of the Anyidoho findings indicate argues that increased literature experience of sources to importance of challenge that a gender- empowerment access to looks at the legitimize “other spaces” many of the sensitive of women information The definition of power as a International women’s that are women’s evaluation of farmers is and empowerment as struggle Farmers empowerment provided by empowerment empowerment increasingly knowledge argued in this between Conference and to define participatory approaches can help refine important in through ppb, paper can individuals shows that and methodologies adopted by ppb strategies countries and through transcend with the increased operationalize where “normal mainstream and reduce the where the their specific models conflicting visibility of the the concept in frameworks of development risk of negative feminization of participation in of life and rest on interests to young ways that are privilege are institutions as impacts. After agricultural discussion individuals’ paths gain the unmarried compatible circumvented “saccharine” in the incident of labor is groups to self- power held by woman from with Muslim by the their depiction the wrong seed making focused on determination. Its others, in a Souran was societies’ discourses of women as a delivery, for women various operationalization zero-sum followed by a norms and and practices homogeneous example, the farmers key aspects of in development game. By decrease in cultural of equity, free group of ppb started to participants in empowerment, projects, looking at her social expectations. speech, and saviors or deliver seed the agricultural thus might be however, copower, status and Although this collaboration.” victims. They directly to each development seen as an engages with others draw reprimands would seem to These spaces argue, rather, participating of smallscale entry point to predefined attention to from her set Islamic typically are for farmer rather farming. The enhance change pathways the power mother and traditions of organized development than relying on findings women’s self- adopted to produced by brother, who empowerment through action workers to one farmer in reported here awareness, to achieve planned relationships blamed the against the in material adopt a the village to show that the support critical outcomes and and by woman for models and sites where grounded deliver the seed adoption of a thinking and impacts. This collective the ostracism pathways women’s approach that to the other concept of dialogue, and raises two further action to the family identified in knowledge, places women participants. empowerment to enhance a issues: first, how address the was western skills, and in their After the as a process process of to operationalize common experiencing. development performances context. The incident of the of self- learning about the process of concerns of In the case of models, can be valued findings show young woman determination what different empowerment; groups. the five empowerment and that despite and her transcends life and second, Collective women from conceived— expressed as the apparent unsupervised specific opportunities accountability action— the Lahetha the as in this equal to those homogeneity trip to Aleppo, “modes of life.” might exist for and risk. voluntary conference study— as a of men. in roles, the ppb program They also women in a action taken only positively “process and However, opportunities, discussed the show that a rural village in by a group to affected their means for self- Kesby adds and needs of event with its women- Syria. achieve image in the determination,” that the major women staff from a proactive ppb

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common village. The rather than as challenge farmers in gender can provide interests— difference an outcome, faced by any Syria, perspective and opportunities has been between could be said participatory important decided to and set in analyzed as a these to transcend practice that interhousehold involve actively motion a powerful experiences specific enables and a larger group of process strategy for could be due religious empowered intervillage women from the toward securing the to age, contexts and performances differences same village to women’s needs and status, and specific is to exist, support individual and interests of cultural “modes of life” “normalize” grounded in collective group group context, since by opening the these sociological participation. empowerment, members. the former space for performances patterns of Yet, based on based on their was young, achieving any in everyday age, gender, these own definition unmarried, preferred life spaces. The and marital experiences, of self- and from an path. This contribution of status and this article determination. environment approach also the ppb affected by concludes that In so doing, generally provides a way program might other there might exist such efforts considered out of rest in sociocultural unpredictable can enhance conservative, discussion of providing factors such circumstances the relevance while the who has the otherwise rare as household that transform of ppb and its latter were authority to opportunities composition an opportunity outputs. older, married define for women and family intended to be Empowering or widows, empowerment farmers to be cultural empowering into strategies that and from a because it recognized in background, a negative are grounded religious rests on the their as well as the experience. This in the group (Druze) assumption productive capacity of opens two contextual generally that through work, to individual questions: specifics of the considered the very participate in women to whether such participants more liberal. process of improving negotiate their negative and that Consideration empowerment varieties, to identities and experiences are facilitate the of these individuals will access roles within to be considered collective contextual define their relevant seeds their spheres integral steps of action of factors seems own path to and of influence. any farmers are essential in self- information, Each of these empowerment less likely to order to determination. and to make differences in process and result in develop decisions. its own way whether ppb failure. By effective However, affected the gender- including both empowering unless a success of the sensitive effectiveness strategies. conducive ppb program activities are and equity These two institutional in involving the best understood concerns, the

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experiences environment women as opportunities ppb might be also suggest supports these farmers and for able to satisfy that empowerment providing empowerment— two main opportunities processes, it empowering rather than as objectives: to that are felt is unlikely that opportunities. empowering reach more as empowered opportunities— women and to empowering performances that carry risks reach more by the women are that the marginal and are normalized in participating farmers. perceived daily spaces. women need to positively by be aware of and their family to decide to members (as take. This article in the case of argues that a Lahetha) women- might proactive ppb contribute to can provide copower by opportunities increasing the that enhance power of all the household empowerment members; of participating conversely, farmers, thereby opportunities increasing their that are capability to considered to participate in the negatively program, voice affect the their needs, household make decisions (as in the regarding crop case of development, Souran) and benefit from might weaken project outputs. women’s This can position and arguably strengthen increase the that of the relevance of ppb most powerful as a process members, and of its

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thereby outputs to the contributing stakeholders to the “zero- and reduce the sum power risks of game.” unsuccessful impacts. As a matter of fact, some of the respondent women argued that with the information they had received through the ppb, they felt more able to make autonomous decisions and be accountable for them.

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Moreover, personal ideas about The striking parallels between the mvu By examining failure, it is possible to freedom and individualism within the and the Miss Chinatown USA pageants see how the diaspora is redefining logic of neoliberalism can be extended reveal that both involved men in the success through principles of to discussions of gender particularly in organizational structure who neoliberalism. These acts of failure on the era of postfeminism. According to encouraged women to shed clothing, the part of both the queens and the Imigrantes Yvonne Taskler and Diane Negra, while justifying these intentions with the organizers mark significant shifts in vietnamitas postfeminist culture “works in part to feminist call for sexual liberation. the world of beauty pageants, as well Lieu participantes de EUA incorporate, assume, or naturalize Accordingly, covering the body as little as the cultural and social values of (2013) concursos de aspects of feminism; crucially, it also as possible for the sake of relentless the diaspora. First, these problems beleza works to commodify feminism via the competition in the neoliberal context demonstrate the diaspora’s unclear figure of the woman as empowered thus would yield high returns. stance toward and inability to grapple consumer.” Aligned with neoliberalism, Accommodating to these demands, with female sexuality. Second, beauty postfeminist culture emphasizes choice pageant contestants embraced this pageants deploy the postfeminist (professional and educational postfeminist logic of self-empowerment language of female empowerment to opportunities) and individual freedom through sexuality but had to cautiously emphasize choice and women’s

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particularly through physical and sexual maintain a fine balance so not to risk liberation to further social practices empowerment. With the intent of being overexposure and crossing the line of that rely on women’s bodies without fully engaged in discussions about moral respectability. challenging the patriarchal gender gender in modern America, Vietnamese ideologies that guide them. Finally, American beauty pageants refl ected wealthy members of the diaspora these shift s in their organizational have turned the pageants into slick objectives. While the pageants were productions that give awards not to marketed as communal events, women who best represent organizers promoted them as affable “traditional values” but to “beautiful” sites where each contestant could feel women whose looks and bodies can good about herself as she forged be sufficiently competitive in friendships with other women. American and international contests. However, the reality of these competitions is that only one woman can emerge as the beauty queen. The sole winner would be rewarded with material goods, as well as gain symbolic capital as a spokesperson for the community. She might also be granted modeling opportunities with sponsors that would open up paths for further success, leaving all others behind. Despite these contradictions both pageant organizers and contestants themselves deployed the neoliberal language of choice, opportunity, and female empowerment to defend the competitive process whereby female bodies would be displayed and judged. In line with postfeminist rhetoric the collective acts of objectification and commodification went unchallenged as young women “chose” to enter the pageants with high hopes of a successful outcome.

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1635 FRONT – Tabela C65 p. 85 - ? p. 97 - S p. 101 - S p. 109 - S

While they often feel empowered behind the wheel This research begins to fill a Mirroring men in classic of a ’Cuda or Charger, single significant gap in the current muscle car culture, the white, Although married women women do not often consider literature by turning to the Christian, middle-class, and often assume roles in themselves rule breakers or voices of real women. It heterosexual boomer and classic muscle car culture challengers to the established provides insight into the postboomer women that conform to cultural gender order. They do not view meanings ascribed to the interviewed for this project gender prescriptions of owning a muscle car as a automobile by those who identify ideologically as either family, they do not consider political statement;rather, they often participated in the moderate or conservative. themselves powerless. recognize it as something they golden age of car culture by While the women in this Rather, the women can do now that was not standing on the sidelines. It Mulheres group recognize the construct themselves as possible in the past. To aging offers an alternate que advances women have empowered persons by single women of the boomer interpretation of the classic Lezotte competem achieved over the past forty- claiming individual generation, the ability to own muscle car by those once EUA (2013) em torneios five years and regard ownership of a classic and drive a muscle car has less forbidden to drive it. It de muscle themselves as men’s equals, muscle car, as well as to do with the attainment of presents an alternative cars they do not think of muscle drawing an association women’s rights than with framework to classic car ownership as a disruption between themselves and personal or individual feminism as a way to of gender boundaries or a the fast and powerful cars achievement. The single consider women’s lives. And statement of female they drive. Through the women interviewed for this it demonstrates how women empowerment. Rather, they personal choices they project view the classic are able to construct consider the classic muscle make about cars, married American muscle car as a themselves as equal car as a means to exhibit women claim their own vehicle that represents not only participants in muscle car power and gender equality spaces in classic muscle the teenagers they used to be culture—and thereby within the boundaries of car culture. but, more important, the become empowered as conservatism. accomplished, self-sufficient, drivers— while remaining and mature women they have true to conservative values. become.

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FRONT – Tabela C66 p. 135 - S p. 140 - C p. 141 - S p. 143 - C

Commercial reproductive labor possesses a clear political geography that is marginalized within surrogacy’s imagining, eclipsed by the logic of neoliberalism and notions of Within popular US discourse the enterprising and gestational surrogacy is autonomous self. In the widely articulated as a Newsweek concurs, placing rhetorical constituting of the mutually beneficial Surrogacy is often altruism and self-esteem at complex relationships woven relationship, primarily between optimistically posited as the heart of the matter: by surrogacy practices, two women, that yields a way out of poverty, a “empowerment and self-worth western audiences are affective and/or economic means of individual [are some] of the greatest Mulheres que invited to understand benefits for everyone empowerment for Indian rewards surrogate mothers Fixmer- servem de gestational surrogate involved. The narrative women and their experience. ‘I felt like, What Oraiz barriga-de- EUA mothers within and across promotes commercial families. In other words, else am I going to do with my (2013) aluguel a borders as agents of surrogacy as a form of “global surrogacy is consistently life that means so much? . . . I estrangeiras individual empowerment in sisterhood,” highlighting framed as a remedy for, do not want to go through this choosing surrogacy, albeit for individual acts of agency and rather than a reflection life meaning nothing, and I distinct reasons. While Indian altruism that work to transform of, social and economic want to do something surrogate mothers are differential forms of injustice. substantial for someone rhetorically constructed as choicelessness and despair else.’” empowered to lift themselves into empowerment and and their families from happiness. poverty, US American surrogate mothers are cast as good Samaritans, citizens committed to serving those “less fortunate,” and humanitarian aid laborers for infertile couples abroad.

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Continuação (Fixmer-Oraiz, 2013) p. 145 - S p. 147-148 - S p. 148 - C p. 149 - C p. 151 - ? A gradual rhetorical shift in labeling the process itself— from “birth mother” to “surrogate mother” to While some narratives “gestational mother” to Specifically within the context gesture briefly toward the Choice is, in fact, precisely “surrogate,” and now, most of reproductive politics, choice potential for surrogate that which allows “global commonly, “gestational feminism collapses our relationships to go awry and sisterhood” to pass as equal carrier”— reflects and capacity to both perceive and cite known instances in which exchange between intended enforces a severing of interrogate what Shellee Colen Thus, whether exhibited power struggles and and surrogate mothers and gestational labor from the has termed “reproductive by US surrogate mothers fundamental disagreements as an unproblematic form of definition of motherhood or stratification,” or “the power selflessly serving infertile troubled (and in some cases empowerment for Indian kin. This, in concert with the relations by which some couples at home or entirely dismantled) surrogacy surrogate mothers: "The contemporary geography of categories of people are abroad or by intended arrangements, the focus single-pointed focus on surrogacy, rearticulates empowered to nurture and parents offering Indian remains on those “choice” occidentalizes Indian maternity in ways that reproduce, while others are surrogate mothers relationships that exemplify surrogacy work. . . . It support the nuclear family as disempowered.” “Choice” is unprecedented the “best” that surrogacy has obscures the injustice behind well as traditional hierarchies increasingly and relentlessly opportunity for individual to offer: mutuality, these choices: the reality of race, class, and nation. enmeshed in the dominant economic empowerment, empowerment, kinship, that,for many women, Debates regarding surrogacy logic of late capitalism; what altruism is figured as kindness, hope, the gift of life contract pregnancy is one of as empowerment or began as a claim to “our exclusively western. and love. In the context of the few routes to attaining exploitation aside, often bodies, ourselves” has been commercial surrogacy we are basic social goods such as overlooked are the ways in readily absorbed and invited to imagine the housing, food, clean water, which motherhood and family appropriated by markets and possibility for the foundation education, and medical care." are collectively imagined and consumerism. of a global sisterhood. rhetorically reinscribed through public negotiation of technological innovation and concomitant surrogacy arrangements.

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Tecnologias My analysis of Whereas, under the While these These reflexive risk These narratives Additionally, my Myers de these narratives conditions of first choices may be society and are often cast in analysis has EUA (2014) reprodução illuminates the modernity, subject experienced as governmentality terms of identified ways in assistida discursive positioning in terms of empowering, frameworks increasing gender which narratives of

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(arts) construction of social categories like even as they productively egalitarianism. freedom of choice privileged gender, class, and remain limited expand the Likened to sperm and candidates for occupation rendered by institutional feminist analysis of banking— which empowerment— reproduction and life theoretically stable and cultural arts by allowing for was pioneered in which have been so modes of family and predictable, constraints, they the critical the late 1950s— integral to the fight formation. under the conditions also produce assessment of egg freezing is for women’s access Further, I identify of second modernity uncertainty, narratives of said to move to abortion, the central role these normative contingency, empowerment and women closer to contraception, and that reflexivity trajectories become and an choice. These “reproductive basic knowledge of plays in the increasingly flexible. awareness of frameworks allow autonomy” and control over journalistic Although this risk. In risk us to address the because it their own bodies— construction of increasing flexibility society risk ways in which “empowers can serve ends that these can be perceived as becomes greater freedom of women so they’re run counter to many technologies, liberating and inescapable and choice and not controlled by core feminist values which is best empowering for those omnipresent; empowerment to their biological when applied to understood in privileged enough to every choice choose, though clock.’” In other some arts. When relation to risk have access to these becomes laden laudable goals, words, egg applied to egg society literature newfound choices, it with the generally speaking, freezing permits freezing, for on reflexive can also be potential for may not always women to example, these modernity. disorienting and gains and produce unalloyed achieve greater narratives serve to Finally, I identify unsettling. The use of losses, benefits goods, but may in parity with men encourage women the ways in which arts in relation to age- and harms. some cases as rational, toward extensive narratives of related fertility produce new forms calculative liberal outlays of time and reproductive concerns is an of oppression. subjects and money and choice and exemplary case of the responsible exposure to risks in empowerment type of risk central to colonizers of their a manner that are co- opted in risk society theory as own future. reifies the relation to arts to age-related infertility paramount serve neoliberal and its treatment importance of rather than both, in part, arise childbearing and feminist ends. from and become the hierarchical constitutive of the valuation of the detraditionalization of genetic life course trajectories contributions of and the proliferation affluent, of reproductive choice professional-class, for certain privileged White women over groups. those of lower- income, working-

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class, and poor women and women of color. While in no way discounting the importance of the fight for women’s reproductive choice, empowerment, and right to self- determination, my analysis underscores the ways in which these narratives are particularly amenable to cooptation by neoliberal frameworks that often run counter to central feminist values. By incorporating a theorization of arts grounded in risk society and governmentality literatures, a feminist analysis of reproductive technologies is better equipped to identify and combat this cooptation.

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FRONT – Tabela C68 p. 128 - C p. 129 - C p. 135 - ? p. 144-145 - C

From the 1970s to the mid- Feminist activists made 1990s immigrant and refugee clear theoretical As Moo states: "Some women fell between the connections among refuge workers held a cracks of welfare paternalism women’s autonomy, great deal of prejudice and feminist paper promises Feminist women’s refuges collectivity, and women’s about migrant women. of empowerment through were distinguished from refuges as safe homes. As They believed that many participation and collectivity earlier approaches to Barbara Younger, a migrant women did not between women. Both domestic violence in three member of the Halfway really want to break away collective and hierarchical main ways. First, as both House Collective, told a from their husbands, that decision- making structures of Suellen Murray and Ludo national conference in they were closely refuges excluded immigrant McFerrin have pointed out, 1985, the goals of feminist connected to a male- and refugee women. the feminist model sought to refuge collectives were to dominated society. They Women’s refuge program politicize violence against change social attitudes and saw migrant women as policies tended to close down Mulheres women and children by practices; to break down difficult and believed that immigrant and refugee Murdolo refugiadas bringing it into a public and Austrália male power, specifically in efforts to support and women’s accommodation (2014) da political sphere. Accordingly, the patriarchal family; and empower migrant women options. Immigrant and Austrália feminists created the term to empower women to take were wasted, as they refugee women were domestic violence and action in their lives. Tor tended to go back home sometimes traumatized and theorized it as a symptom of Roxburgh described to an abusive partner. alienated by their stays in women’s oppression. In this refuges as “a safe and Internally, refuges refuges and in such sense refuges were more supported environment,” experienced difficulties in circumstances were more than a “shelter” for women where women could talk dealing with migrant likely to return to violence. experiencing domestic with other women, both women. Many refuge The status of immigrant and violence; they were intended workers and other workers didn’t know how refugee women as a group to besites of control and residents, who had the to relate to migrant with “special needs” empowerment. potential to provide women women and did not marginalized their interests "a unique opportunity to employ migrant or and maintained their reorganise [their] life in bilingual workers." subordination in relation to relative peace and safety." the normalized group of women.

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FRONT – Tabela C69 p. 161 - ? p. 162 - S p. 164 - C p. 165 - S p. 168 - ? p. 181 - S p. 183 - S p. 183 - C p. 186 - S

With state For Prominent Some This is not Because Elder These oral recognition Indigenous social have to say that the women in histories accomplish communities movement attempted the restoratio the Hayes demonstrat ed, creating theorists to name movement n of community went on to e how Re- Occaneechi power Verta Taylor and define became matriarch such as suggest Membering activists involves and Nancy a family- necessaril al tradition Jeffries- that lifting begins with would shift undoing some Whittier based y is one of Logan, up our the act of their of the discuss the activism antistatist the Jeffries- female collectively attention damages of appropriatio and to either; premises Lopez, leaders is assuming away from colonialism, n of situate it rather, the defining Richmond, the key to the power the state an effort more feminism’s within state was the Whitmore- getting to define and begin commonly “personal as existing no longer ideologica Penner, and more tribal one’s to focus on known as political” by political considere l Watlington involveme community healing the decolonizatio lesbian action d to be the framework describe the nt. This is without the Mulheres wounds n. One of the separatist discourses most of the traditional precisely permission da tribo colonization foremost movements. . Norine important obsn role of what of or occaneec and goals of They clarify Verberg site for movement women as differentiat negotiation Jeffries hi assimilation colonialism that in order argues empoweri itself, an es with the EUA (2015) (indígena had left on has been to for personal that the ng the reliance empowering Indigenou state. The s the divest actions to goal of community on one, an s feminists Occaneechi estadunid community. Indigenous constitute a activism in , and it no alternative honor they from the teach us enses) The peoples from legitimate these longer forms of are proud to mainstrea that this act ultimate their land and social spaces is consumed activism carry. m; that is, of self- goal of to diminish movement, still to the energy that do Occaneechi the goal of empowerm these the potential the group bring or not storyteller empoweri ent is efforts is to for Indigenous boundaries, about resources directly and activist ng women carried out restore and solidarity and shared social of the engage Angela is largely empower a resistance to symbols, change movement patriarchal Huskey intertwine through Yesáh white group and will . Instead state Davis d with the family- identity and settlement. consciousne eventually Occaneec institution explains foremost based and presence in The traumas ss, and necessitat hi activists s can be a that this goal of community the state. created by political e policy whom I political matriarchal any activism Yesáh this often resistance reform. In interviewe choice role is people, and resists literally brutal history that define his book d cite their because misundersto survival. the translates have collective Family homes, alternative od due to tv mainstream to “the contributed to action must Activism: immediate forms of shows like political

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people” in the ongoing be present. Empoweri families, protest Gunsmoke agendas, the Tutelo- disempowerm The ng Your and local that are that portray which are Saponi ent of community Communit communiti carried Native founded in language. Indigenous of activists y es as out in women as colonialist communities. featured in Beginning primary intimate subservient politics. Decolonizatio this article with Your sites for spaces to male n is a shares a Friends their interrupt leaders; movement language of and activisms, the similar centered on Indigenous Family not the persistent perceptions addressing liberation author and courthous legacy of influence these and renowned e. While colonialis ideas about traumas. empowerme Latino feminist m; in Native nt, indicating change scholars other women that the agent remind us words, within community Roberto that the women feminism. represents a Vargas family working to social writes serves as empower movement about the a state the culture power and institution, communit according to potential protest at y to Re- this of family this level Member definition. activism to is ancestral create conceptua power social lly distinct without change. from directly Although taking consulting not an power the state academic through resist the theory, his direct legacy of ideas confrontati political involve the on against efforts by abstract the state. the state assertion and that federal grounding governme the family nt to environme externally nt in love, regulate respect, Indigenou

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and s reciprocity communiti can es and transform public society. expressio Perhaps ns of tribal more identities. relevant to this study, Vargas writes that building strong support networks within the Mexican American familia can combat the day- today struggles created by interperso nal and institutiona l racism. 1650

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GEN&SOC – Tabela C70 Referência Público/Objeto País do estudo Trechos p. 699 - C p. 699 - C p. 701 - C p. 701 - ?

In addition to illuminating the role of traditionalist religions as flexible resources in women’s As I will demonstrate, efforts to pursue their But while these works Many of the current the profoundly domestic interests, many may have successfully studies on women and ambiguous and conflict- of these works have problematized the religious traditionalism ridden consequences of emphasized the conventional views of have been notable for evangelical religiosity for empowering and liberating traditionalist religions their concern with women that I reveal in functions of traditionalist and the passive model highlighting the my study— religions for women. of women’s religious dimensions of consequences that are Research on American engagement, I contend resistance and as oppressive as they Orthodox Jewish women that this fruitful attention empowerment in the are liberating—obviate (Davidman 1991; to the dimensions of acts of submission to any facile interpretations Kaufman 1989), for resistance and religious patriarchy on of the women’s actions example, has highlighted empowerment in the part of women. Mulheres or situations as the unexpected ways that women’s engagement Chong Although this line of evangélicas Coréia do Sul empowering or orthodox religious beliefs with religious patriarchy (2006) analysis has been sul-coreanas subversive. While it is and practices serve as a has, at the same time, invaluable in bringing necessary to recognize vehicle of empowerment served in some crucial attention to aspects of the dimension of for women, particularly ways to deflect attention women’s religious resistance in Korean through feminist away from other central engagement that have women’s actions, the reinterpretations of dynamics of this been largely ignored, Korean case calls traditionalist ideology that engagement. Of special this focus has led to the attention to the need to valorizes womanhood and importance are the elision of other important refocus our attention to reaffirms female power. problems of patriarchal dynamics of women’s the issues of patriarchal Outside of the American power and domination, religious engagement, power and, furthermore, setting, works on Latin and the particularly especially the tensions to women’s continued American Pentecostal thorny issue of women’s inherent in women’s cooperation with women (Brusco 1995; assent to patriarchal religiosity. patriarchy. Burdick 1993; Gill 1990; structures and authority. Maldonado 1993) have been especially notable for emphasizing the “liberating” potential of

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traditionalist religions, especially as a resource for raising female status and subverting patriarchal relations within both domestic and religious arenas. Continuação (Chong, 2006) p. 702 - C p. 711 - S p. 711 - S p. 712 - C p. 713-714 - C p. 720 - ? According to my For many women, The final aspect of the research, one of the however, church conversion process that major sources of Women, in most participation is more is pivotal to the healing psychic injury for churches, are not only than just a coping and coping efforts of Korean women is the kept from positions of mechanism; it is an The Korean case Korean evangelical problem of emotional authority and decision important instrument of illustrates how, despite women is the experience deprivation in marriage, making but are gender resistance as Recent work by Julie these liberating and of divine love. In especially the felt generally relegated to well, especially against Ingersoll (2003) empowering functions of evangelicalism, to be absence of marital support-level tasks male control and represents an women’s faith, women’s reborn signifies a love, intimacy, and within the church, where restrictions imposed by exception. In this work very efforts to cope with reconstitution of identity, spousal respect, set they are regarded the family system. focusing on gender their personal dilemmas most importantly, as especially against primarily as helpers (do- Church involvement conflicts within through religious beliefs someone who learns to women’s expectations eum baepil) and service can become an obvious evangelical also result in live in the knowledge for conjugal love. For workers (bojoja). weapon of resistance Christianity in the consequences that are and experience of God’s many women, the Regardless, church against male authority United States, she highly oppressive for love. While the experience of God’s participation, for many and control when a takes issue with the women, namely, the experience of divine love love can be women, serves as a woman becomes so currently popular effective redomestication can be meaningful for transformative and crucial vehicle for involved in the church interpretations that for of women to the any believer, it has, in healing both by experiencing autonomy that she practically conservative religious Confucian family system the Korean context, alleviating emotional and empowerment, abandons her home women, submission is and, by extension, the particularly profound pain and by providing a particularly by and husband, somehow “really” perpetuation of the ramifications for women, kind of ongoing, facilitating the creation becoming “Jesus- empowerment. current gender/family especially by fostering a empowering of an autonomous crazy.” God may arrangements. sense of empowerment experience that helps women’s sphere and replace the husband as and deep internal transform their sense of opportunities for utilizing the central object of her transformations that self. This can help to nondomestic talents devotions and source promote the healing rebuild a sense of inner and abilities. of her authority, process. confidence and self- intensifying marital worth that better equips discord but

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them to deal with their empowering the wife to domestic situations and transcend internally her defend against oppressive situation. emotional harm.

1655 GEN&SOC – Tabela C71 p. 366-367 - p. 360 - C p. 361 - C p. 362 - ? p. 365 - C p. 368 - ? p. 372 - C p. 372 - C ? While Far from the In this article, Women’s The City The There was, FWHCs services empowerme we examine Health brochure developmen however, began as originally nt the origins of Resources adopted t of the nothing in this part of a centered on envisioned the HWHC also sought FWHC pavilion new model social contraceptio by the concept and to empower language, concept that movement to n and feminist its women to stating that signaled a challenged empower gynecology women’s manifestation be the center shift away existing women and (and in health into four participants represented from beauty norms change the some movement, primary in their own a “holistic, women’s and much that way health cases, current models: care. preventive decision encouraged care was Centros abortion), critics see programs, Women approach to making and the delivered. feministas education HWHCs pavilions, weighed women’s control over medicalization Economic de focused on colluding centers, and themselves, health care.” their bodies of trends in tratamento women’s with popular medi-spas. could read Rejecting to their appearance. It U.S. health Thomas & de saúde EU bodies and culture and We provide their charts, women’s comfort, reinforced the care soon Zimmerma da mulher A health media case studies and were health as reflecting notion of created n (2007) incorporado beyond images to of each given 20- to simply what beauty as a conditions s por reproductive manipulate model and 30-minute reproductive Noonan central that, with the hospitais issues. The women and illustrate how appointment issues, the (2000) has criterion for help of (HWHCs) goals of exploit their various s for routine brochure termed “the evaluating marketing these bodies and concepts of care. also stated, mauving of women, experts and FWHCs health feminist care Providers “women medicine.” contradicting entrepreneur included (1) (Davis-Floyd were conversed want more While earlier feminist s, carried the demystifyin 2004; appropriated with information affluent principles of women’s g medical Ratcliff by the patients about their women empowerment. health center processes, 2002; hospitals and fully clothed bodies, seeking The luxurious concept into (2) Sullivan used as and seated knowing a care may setting the empowering 2001; Weitz marketing on the same woman’s have targeted mainstream. women 2002; Wolf tools. In level. Other body is appreciated women with Recognizing through 1991). What addition, we procedures much more the new time and women as

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education is missing detail three —such as than a décor and money, not the the main and from critics’ specific Saturday reproductive free gifts, uninsured or users and support, (3) accounts, mechanisms and evening system.” [...] this model medically brokers of providing however, is of the co- hours, child Yet program did little to underserved. health care, services a systematic optation care, model empower While the hospitals set that were analysis of processes: prompt centers often them, nor Women’s out to women the (1) the return and limited did it Wellness capture centered mechanisms redefinition of explanation women’s increase Institute was them. and through the meaning of lab empowerme access, run by female accessible which this of “women- results, and nt due to the demystify, OB/GYNs and to a variety shift from centered” prices selectivity of demedicaliz offered many of women, empowerme services, (2) quoted in the e, or in any medical and (4) nt to a co- the advance— information other way services, it advocating opted, transformatio served as offered, the change should be for women market- n of “symbols of absence of health care noted that and driven model empowermen respect” for female delivery. medi-spas are women’s took place. t, and (3) the patients physicians, often run by health Using case shift in locus (Rynne the targeting plastic issues (Fee examples of control. 1985a, 63- of insured surgeons 1983; and We conclude 64; 1985b, women, and and/or Ruzek qualitative with a 15; 1989). the lack of dermatologists 1978; interviews discussion of real change , are focused Thomas with hospital how these in the way only on beauty 1999; executives notions might women were treatments, Zimmerman from HWHC apply in other treated in and are not 1987). staff, we settings. health care affiliated with provide such encounters. hospitals. This an analysis Their priority represents a here. was further co- marketing optation and physician commodificati and hospital on of the services ideals of (Rynne feminist care. 1989).

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Continuação (Thomas & Zimmerman, 2007) p. 377-378 - p. 374 - C p. 374 - ? p. 374 - C p. 375 - C p. 377 - C p. 377 - C p. 377 - C p. 377 - C p. 380 - C C Fearing Our goal was A key marker Empowermen HWHCs have Empowerment Finally, The term The they might to illustrate of co-optation t was the also also came FWHCs “empowerme processes be missing this process was the shift cornerstone appropriated from breaking were based nt” was described an by showing in the focus of feminist these goals down on the idea appropriated here are not important how the from women- health care. It as part of systematic that by HWHCs limited to the Definition of target hospitals’ centered to has been a their barriers to empowerme and was case of “empowerme market, use of revenue- basic feminist discourse. care and nt occurs removed from women’s nt” - Feminist one feminist centered strategy since Yet while personalizing when its feminist health Model: Kansas concepts services. the patients may care. FWHCs women are roots to centers and Informed, City–area promoted FWHCs were development be given were located treated as become a could active, hospital goals that motivated by of information, in older homes though they market- certainly be decision opened a contradicted a vision of consciousnes they do not or smaller can make oriented tool. applied to making new their original women- s-raising necessarily office buildings choices that The term other through women’s meaning and centered groups in the become in easily are right for tapped into situations in comprehensiv health purpose. care, “a style late 1960s. In agents of accessible them and women’s which the e education center in There are of practice the feminist control. parts of town. are growing driving force and support; 1996. three based on model, Elements of Staff and supported in interest in of change is Change in According significant principles of empowermen empowermen providers were those health care, revenue power to the indicators of feminism and t is a process t are referred to by choices. but it was production dynamics - director, this process: empowermen (Merzel 1994, strikingly first names Women are used to rather than Hospital "The (1) the t” (Shelley 410) through different in and did not empowered promote the gender Model: reason for redefinition 1999, 11). which one FWHCs and wear lab at HWHCs goal of equity. Choose the center of the Positioning gathers HWHCs. For coats. to make bringing Rothschild among was meaning of women as information, example, Appointment choices women into and existing primarily “women- experts about makes educational times ranged about their the Ollilainen services, marketing. centered” what health choices, and materials at from 15 to 60 health care, mainstream (1999), providers, We services, (2) care receives FWHCs minutes to but these medical comparing treatments; thought the decisions are support in a included allow time for choices are system, thus egalitarian Power we could transformatio right for dignified and mainstream questions. typically contradicting workplaces dynamics be missing n of them, respectful medical Staff members limited to its original with unchanged out on empowerme comprehensi environment. information often went out services purpose and businesses who was a nt, and (3) ve education Empowermen plus self-help into the available depoliticizing utilizing potential the shift in focuses on t challenges and community to through the the concept. Total Quality user, so locus of giving a basic power alternative offer programs hospital and Education Managemen we control. We woman the relations treatments. to those who its programs. and t techniques,

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decided to will briefly full range of (Bookman Information might not Empowerme information found that take the discuss each information and Morgen was given to normally nt within this were limited concepts of ‘deciding of these. with which 1988, 4) and women access the altered to approved empowerme for the she can provides a during exams health care context of materials. nt were family’ make means of or system meaning is Services similarly co- approach informed resisting the procedures, (Thomas more about became an opted; the and choices and passive and and women 2000). being end to language market to take care of dehumanizin were often HWHCs did allowed to themselves used was them. herself. g role encouraged offer make rather than a the same, [We] did assigned to to participate community choices than transformativ but their not want patients in in their programs but about e experience. practices to the health exams (for generally in genuine Power were quite compete care system. example, their own autonomy dynamics different. with the The locus of through a space, thus and control. remained The stated medical control shifts cervical self- encouraging essentially goal of staff, but from provider exam), thus women to unchanged. redistributin we wanted to client giving women come to the Empowering g power a (Thomas more hospital. women meant between centralize 2000, 143). autonomy HWHCs also simply workers and d location and control. made efforts to encouraging managemen that was The materials deinstitutionali women to t was diluted attractive we saw at the ze the look of participate in by the to women. HWHCs their facilities mainstream overriding . . . We tended to be and make medical care, purpose of really exclusively them more not to increasing wanted an from welcoming. challenge it. profits. ambulator mainstream However, the Stratigaki’s y care medical essential (2004) work center sources, power shows that with the including dynamics even when luxury pharmaceutic between gender services al providers and equity that companies. If patients concepts women this was not remained are initially were true when a largely important, wanting." center unchanged. priorities This quote opened, it may shift as shows became economic how increasingly demands

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complete true over change. the co- time, as in When profits optation of the case of are the feminist Women’s motivation, concepts Health strategies had Resources. that become. challenge Priorities existing shifted so structures dramatical are quickly ly toward diluted and revenue change that there ultimately was becomes nothing illusory. left to Thus, in our challenge study, the or change changes in the way HWHCs care was were delivered. primarily Women about style no longer or form want to be rather than empowere substance. d to care for themselve s; they want to be pampered.

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GEN&SOC – Tabela C72 p. 779-780 - ? p. 781 - ? p. 782-783 - ? p. 794 - C

Ideologically, rural BPO While my interviewees projects represent a hybrid certainly do not espouse This article extends the of an older brand of state- any collective politics, literature on the middle Feminist scholars have driven social development however, they do classes in India by problematized this programming and newer represent a shift from a highlighting the ways in discourse of the “global models of “knowledge for norm of little to no which aspiration is not girl” and economically development” through the education for girls to a simply modeled on elite empowered woman. For liberalized market college degree and a job lifestyles, but is produced as Skeggs (2004), social (Radhakrishnan 2007). within the space of a Bourdieu’s “practical mobility and individuality Subsidized by state generation. The relevance anticipation of objective are “resources” that are governments,4 “rural of this shift in their limits” within particular unequally distributed; BPOs” epitomize the close everyday lives is clear gendered small-town lower- some groups—that is, relationship between the IT when they insist on their middle-class social locations working-class women— industry’s elite architects fundamental difference and stages of life. At the must remain fixed so that and the developmental from their mothers’ same time, I extend feminist others can move (Massey state (Evans 1995). As their generation. In this context, Mulheres approaches to aspiration by 1994). Yet, at the same employment can be framed drawing on the symbolic indianas showing how, even if the time, women and girls play Vijayakumar as “women’s resources of a dominant trabalhadoras Índia future holds uncertainty, the a key symbolic role in the (2013) empowerment,” women ideology of women’s de empresas act of aspiring itself can help global economy: “Upward have become central to empowerment and globalizadas produce gendered class mobility becomes a central positioning rural BPOs on aspiration, even if it is distinction in this smalltown trope of class/ification, this middle ground, as both narrowly individualistic, setting. Flexibility allows for where women and the social development and may allow young women dynamism and future qualities ascribed to profitable enterprise space to challenge some change while expressing a femininity have a central through access to aspects of patriarchal demure, pliable small-town place” (Walkerdine 2003, “untapped” low-cost labor social structure in the femininity. A focus on young 242). Thus, as Shu and (especially since young short term, as women is particularly Marini (2008, 29) point women are less likely to Annapoorna’s insistence relevant here, because elite out, “futuristic orientation migrate to cities than are on women’s newfound representations of the acts as an effective means men). Media reports about ability to “stand on their knowledge economy’s of social control,” rural BPOs inevitably feet” and “speak up” inclusive potential often especially among those showcase smiling, suggests. They use ideals hinge on representations of most disadvantaged in the “empowered” young women of rural middle-class young women’s present. as the knowledge domesticity to critique “empowerment.” economy’s latest social neoliberal individualism, achievement, and articles and neoliberal

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on the website of the individualism to critique National Association of domesticity. While these Software and Service young women’s flexible Companies (NASSCOM) articulations of the future celebrate “ruralshoring” as are never separate from an initiative that “ensures gendered social empowerment,” in which dynamics, they may still “women take the lead.” create some space for Though NASSCOM maneuver. estimated the existence of just 50 rural BPOs in India, mentions of rural BPOs were peppered throughout a 2010 impact report, appearing in sections on “generation of employment,” “contributing to regional development across India,” “impact on rural areas,” and “bridging the gender divide.” Focusing on young women workers in rural BPOs thus provides insights into key instabilities within the imaginaries of social mobility associated with the Indian IT sector and the transnational knowledge economy.

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GEN&SOC – Tabela C73 p. 656 - ? p. 660 - C p. 660 - C p. 662 - S p. 665 - ?

In the years before During those 30 Like Susan Sontag’s Commonly referred to as Cathy died, I learned years, the breast (2001) concern that “Pinktober,” the more about breast cancer movement patients suffering from blockbuster month of cancer both from her helped to make a particular disease October boasts celebrity experience and from a breast cancer a are somehow and style, from the Hard local advocacy group national priority, raise characterized as Rock Cafe to the By the early 1990s, called Capital Region awareness and funds, having a kind of National Football the increased Action Against Breast galvanize social exceptional humanity, League’s pink cleats, to presence and visibility Cancer (CRAAB!). support, and impact the “culture of the hot pink frosting on of resources, changes Two feminist the direction of survivorship” the cupcakes at my local in public policy, biologists founded the research. Women surrounding breast grocery store. The new increased funding for group, so my entrée were on the forefront cancer carries a breast cancer research, and into breast cancer as of information survivor identity awareness is about pink heightened media a social problem sharing, activism, and steeped in femininity, visibility and symbolic exposure elevated História came with a critical, patient optimism, and gestures, while breast cancer’s social e cultura feminist science empowerment. personal encouraging consumers status. Dr. Susan do laço perspective. I learned Treatments improved empowerment to treat themselves to a Love’s Breast Book rosa about biomedical incrementally, and (Ehrenreich 2001; vast selection of pink Sulik (2014) EUA (Love 2005), called sobre o uncertainty and the breast cancer Goldenberg 2010; King products, services, and the “bible” for newly câncer etiology of breast mortality rates 2006; Sulik 2011a, “cancertainment.” In the diagnosed women, de cancer, scientific declined overall. By 2013e). No figure name of empowerment, set the stage for a mama controversies, political these indicators, the brings these elements a carefree pink ribbon new level of patient underpinnings, and breast cancer together better than lifestyle may include empowerment. Love feminist goals of movement was a the “she-ro,” the having the courage to helped to form the empowered decision success. But by the protagonist of the epic take off your shirt and National Breast making. I always early 1990s, the focus breast cancer story. run topless through Cancer Coalition, a shared what I learned of the mainstream She exists in many Westin Hotels and network of hundreds with Cathy. She movement started to iterations: in Resorts. Or you can get of organizations wondered why she’d shift, as did the magazines, “tied to the cause” with oriented to advocacy never heard it before. general perception, advertisements, news celebrities like Mary J. and public policy. We concluded that that the way to solve stories, and awareness Blige (PR Newswire information like this the breast cancer events. She is a 2003). A four-page ad in was omitted not only problem was, quite superwoman who Self magazine (2004) for from health simply, to buy and courageously, the $30 “The Cure Card” communication and display pink (Belkin passionately, and entitles shoppers to self-help materials but 1996; King 2006; aggressively battles discounts at

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from support group Leopold 2014; Sulik disease. She faces participating stores (for a discussions and 2011a). tremendous difficulties. limited time) and gives a awareness With style and percentage of proceeds campaigns. Imagine optimism, she learns to two charities (amount that. from her experience, is not disclosed). The transformed, and message that pink shares lessons consumption is the best learned. She is the way to solve breast triumphant survivor cancer is coupled with who fights breast an aesthetic that cancer and wins (Sulik focuses on “doing good 2011a). for a good cause with status and style.” Meanwhile, the industry thrives. 1665 GEN&SOC – Tabela C74 p. 99 - C p. 100 - S p. 103 - ? p. 103-104 - ? p. 104-105 - C p. 117 - C

In this Employing Feminist Specifically, I This article As discussed narrative of Butler’s (1999) scholarship examine how emerged from a earlier, women’s and West and highlights how context-specific larger study that dominant education, the Zimmerman’s Muslim women structures of examined how a structures Instituto de parhi likhi (1987) concept create and gender, class, womancentered sometimes educação subjectivity of gender as an recreate their Islam, and transnational benefited the paquistanês- instilled in interaction and gendered women’s development participants by americano e women the a performance, identities in education enter organization that I distinguishing sua mannerisms I examine how complex ways, into the gender call the Institute them from Khurshid perspectiva and values Islam, as it such as through performances of for Education and “other” women Paquistão/EUA (2015) sobre central to them intertwined with attire, social participants as Literacy (IEL) in the mulheres becoming class, gender, relations, and a they make defined, community and com maior “good” and educational domestic/public claims to the developed, and enabling them grau de Muslims as categories, division of labor parhi likhi implemented to act in their instrução well as shaped the day- (Huisman and subjectivity. This policies and own self- (parhi likhi) productive to-day lives of Hondagneu- parhi likhi practices to interest. Thus, members of the participants. Sotelo 2005; subject position educate and embedded their families This focus on Hutson 2001; provides empower women agency for the and the lived Killian 2003; insights into from marginalized participants in communities. experiences of Marshall 2005; gender communities in this context

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This parhi likhi educated Predelli 2004; performance Pakistan. [...] The meant subjectivity Muslim women Read and and gender organization also deployment of provides complicates the Bartkowski empowerment piqued my education to insights into a prevalent 2000). For these as constitutive interest because claim discourse narrative of women, Islam of multiple its approach to empowerment where being modernity, becomes a levels of women’s within, rather educated, which presents flexible resource contestations, education and than against, seen as women’s (Predelli 2004) contradictions, gender the institutions synonymous education and and a “dynamic and tensions. empowerment of family, with being a gender tool kit” For instance, resembled the community, and good Muslim, empowerment (Bartkowski and Muslim women prevalent cultural Islam. is validated as an Read 2003) used in countries like perceptions of through the expression of to activate, Pakistan have women’s performance of individual reinforce, and become the education as a middle-class women’s choice subvert gendered subject of global reflection of mannerisms. and free will boundaries. This modernity middle-class and In a global against the context-specific projects, which Islamic morality. context where oppressive engagement with present For example, education is frameworks of Islam to define education as an IEL’s strategy is seen as a family, gender avenue for to develop a universal tool community, and empowerment is entering into quality education to empower religion. captured in labor markets model Muslim ethnographic and escaping comparable to women, the accounts of oppressive middle-class experiences of Muslim women’s institutions of private schools in parhi likhi participation in family, Pakistan instead teachers offer diverse Islamic community, and of simply important movements Islam. increasing the insights into (Mahmood 2005; Participants number of the Rinaldo 2013). claimed modern schools or the intersections womanhood enrollment rate of between through female students. education and acquiring IEL served gendered, education: communities that class-based, However, they often did not have and religious also engaged in access to schools subjectivities specific for girls. among Muslim struggles women from regarding issues

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rural such as communities in employment, Pakistan. mobility outside of the home, and participation in decision- making processes within, rather than against, their families, communities, and Islam.

GEN&SOC – Tabela C75 p. 2 - C p. 3 - C p. 3-4 - C p. 4 - C p. 5 - C

Sociological theories We begin by These findings Resources, or the of gendered power discussing how advance our “preconditions” of within marriage tend empowerment relates understanding of empowerment, When women have to focus on women’s to women’s exposure gender systems in include material, social resources— levels of autonomy, to IPV, and how Myanmar, a economic, and social such as proximity agency, and control social conditions at geopolitically central resources (Kabeer of natal kin—they Mulheres no over resources within time of entry into country in Asia with a 1999, 437). When are less likely to período de already established marital unions dearth of accurate men hold economic experience abuse transição partnerships as influence women’s social data due to and thus social power within the home Miedema, para o indicative of women’s levels of decades of global within the household, (Lanier and Shwe & casamento e level of empowerment. Using isolation (Steinberg they may use Myanmar Maume 2009), Kyaw sua empowerment data from Myanmar, 2010). At the global physical abuse to highlighting the (2016) exposição à (Kabeer 1999; we show how the level, the findings maintain control over multiple violência por Komter 1989), as period prior to underscore the need wives and children components of parceiro well as how this women’s transition for more when other incentives resource allocation íntimo (IPV) power affects into marriage serves comprehensive fail to produce with regards to women’s risk of as a pivotal time theories on desired outcomes women’s experiencing intimate during which social empowerment and (Goode 1971). While empowerment in partner violence forces influence IPV that consider how we would expect that marriage. (IPV) (Goode 1971; women’s access to social and economic women’s greater Heise 1998). [...] We relative sources of conditions affect access to resources assess the extent to economic, sexual and women’s transition would reduce risk of

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which women’s social power, the into marriage, with IPV, the evidence is assets during the nature of their consequences for mixed. transition to transition into marital power and marriage—or lack marriage, and subsequent IPV risk. thereof— subsequently their “precondition” levels exposure to IPV. of empowerment within marriage, and subsequently limit women’s ability to negotiate and to avoid instances of partner violence. Continuação (Miedema, Shwe & Kyaw, 2016) p. 5 - C p. 5 - C p. 6 - C p. 6 - C p. 13 - C p. 13 - C p. 14-15 - C Overall, the Women’s economic In this article, we draw In sum, the Elaborating on literature on and social on qualitative data characteristics of existing gender Resources as a gendered resource conditions prior to Collectively, these from the women’s transitions theories of women’s source of power allocation, agency, marriage affect the direct and indirect underresearched into marriage empowerment thus become and achievements gendered structure pathways of setting of Myanmar to demonstrate the (Kabeer 1999), we distinct from the act and women’s risk of and women’s empowerment map how social forces negative effect of found that women’s of making a choice IPV tends to focus bargaining power suggest that the of gender inequality social inequalities trajectories into regarding use of on power within the family conditions of intersect with norms on women’s control marriage tended to resources (Kabeer distribution within (Malhotra 1997; women’s entry into around women’s over this pivotal life precondition 1999). These data already established Quisumbing and marriage may sexuality and women’s event. Gender patterns of suggest that partnerships. Yet, Hallman 2005). have more socioeconomic inequality, empowerment in measures of social conditions, Early age at substantial conditions to constrain socioeconomic their future empowerment such as gender marriage constrains implications for their transitions into vulnerability, and marriages. using women’s inequality, also women’s education women’s marriage. The nature norms around Although social engagement in affect women’s and employment resources, agency of women’s transition women’s sexuality inequalities directly wage work as transitions into opportunities and into marriage constrain women’s affect IPV risk indicators of power marriage in ways (UNICEF 2014), achievements, “preconditions” her options in the period throughout must also take into that have whereas later age and subsequent levels of immediately prior to marriage (Gelles account the implications for of marriage leads to IPV risk, than empowerment within marriage, excising 1985; Heise 1998; gendered patterns women’s greater economic previously marriage, and alternative choices Yount 2005), we of financial decision empowerment and empowerment theorized. subsequently affects and preventing focus here on how making in the exposure to IPV within marriage women’s exposure to women from social forces act family. risk within marriage. (Yount, Crandall, IPV risk. These meaningful decision upon the transition

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and Cheong, findings, in light of the making, a core to marriage. forthcoming). literature described component of above, suggest that a women’s renewed focus on empowerment within women’s life intimate conditions immediately partnerships prior to marriage (Kabeer 1999). would enhance extant theories on women’s empowerment and IPV risk within marriage. Further, little evidence exists on how structural gender inequality, sexual norms, and the institution of marriage operate to constrain or enhance women’s opportunities, power, and control in Myanmar. 1670 Continuação (Miedema, Shwe & Kyaw, 2016) p. 15 - S p. 16 - C p. 17 - C p. 17 - C p. 19 - C p. 20 - C Here, psychological Notably, power One woman from Sociological research on the For this reason, we abuse was instrumental fluctuated across time Mawlamyine notes that social mechanisms that encourage the As we will see, in maintaining the power and life conditions of she draws substantial shape women’s enhancement of extant agency as an differentials between women’s narratives. In emotional support from empowerment and affect global sociological element of husband and wife, even communal societies like the women’s community her risk of exposure to IPV theories of gendered empowerment in when the wife is able to Myanmar, the level of center staff: “I want to tend to focus on women’s power within marriage the Myanmar achieve a level of women’s agency (as a come here a lot, as I empowerment within to more systematically context may be economic success function of know I can disclose all already established consider and measure more appropriately through business. It is empowerment) may be my feelings.” The relationships (Gelles 1985; women’s life conditions defined in terms of notable that the more accurately gauged importance of social Goode 1971; Kabeer 1999; during the pivotal community, rather respondent appeared to through her social networks for women’s Schuler et al. 1996; Yount period prior to than solely at the internalize the status networks and communal empowerment prior to 2005).Conversely, marriage as a key individual level. inferiority. Indeed, the action on her behalf, and during marriage demographers quantify how predictor of women’s limited exposure to rather than through suggests that women’s life conditions empowerment and

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ingredients of individual-level empowerment in during the marriage exposure to abuse in empowerment during characteristics (Kabeer Myanmar may rest transition affect gendered marriage. the transition to 2011). within the individuals, power structures within the marriage may affect but also within collective family (Malhotra 1997; internal self-confidence action among groups of Quisumbing and Hallman and prevent women women (Sardenberg 2005; Yount, Crandell, and from acting agentically 2008), with implications Cheong, forthcoming). Here, during the course of for overall risk of abuse we demonstrate the link marriage (Yount, (Lanier and Maume between these two veins of Crandell, and Cheong, 2009). scholarship. forthcoming).

GENISSUES – Tabela C76 Referência Público/Objeto País do estudo Trechos p. 27 - C p. 30 - ? p. 32 - S

The fact that the women in This paper has presented the Toldot Aharon scrupulously way the women in an extreme obey the severely restrictive religious group in Jewish society modesty regulations imposed on perceive and cope with the them leads them to consider severe modesty norms imposed themselves on a higher religious on them. The findings of the Thus, it seems that the level than the women of other study show that there are a practices of head-shaving and groups, and sometimes even variety of voices among the wearing a black kerchief, which Mulheres the other groups see the Toldot Toldot Aharon women, ranging are regarded in Western hassídicas que Aharon women this way. Their from the perception that these society as a clear example of passam pela unique appearance empowers practices are favorable, ‘‘fun,’’ Zalcberg Jerusalém the regulation of women’s prática de the women, giving them the desirable, and normative, (2007) (Israel/Palestina) bodies and a form of patriarchal raspagem dos collective identity of an elite through the perception that they oppression, might paradoxically cabelos após o group, and creates a clear have an important religious be seen by the women of casamento distinction between themselves, meaning and empower the Toldot Aharon as an who they see as belonging to women, to the perception that expression of empowerment the ‘‘top of the top,’’ and those they are not easy for the women, and superiority. outside the group, including the damage one’s attractiveness and women in other ultra- Orthodox cause great pain. The existence groups. Thus the severe of these different voices attests modesty requirements are a to a lack of unanimity among the mechanism for isolating the women with regard to these group from society in general. practices, as with religious

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practices in other areas of life. This means that even the most extreme religious groups are not monolithic, and the women within them see their world in different ways, as is true in any social system.

GENISSUES – Tabela C77 p. 27 - ? p. 27 - ? p. 27-28 - C p. 28 - ? p. 28 - C p. 28 - ?

In the past, the Using in-depth A sizable volume Indeed, the cultural What is missing in this scholarship had interview data of research has and structural type of analysis is how been somewhat collected from debated in the changes immigrant dis/empowerment in I propose that polarized between thirty first- past decade or women experience different dimensions of one way to studies (e.g., [9, generation Korean so whether paid through their daily life interplay with each address this 16]) emphasizing immigrant women, labor empowers lives during other, and how women challenge is to women’s I examine their immigrant settlement experience such recognize that increased multi-layered and women with processes are interplay as lived the bargaining power shifting definitions greater often paradoxical realities. The crux of dis/empowering vis-à-vis their of work and autonomy. What and the theoretical dilemma dualism is a lived spouses as a motherhood. The has come out of dis/empowering. I here is two-fold. One is Mulheres reality, result of income analysis finds that the discussion is am using the term that the analytic coreanas embedded in production, and women’s a growing dis/empowerment separation of different imigrantes women’s daily Park those who focus interpretations of recognition to emphasize the dimensions of women’s com o EUA routines in work (2008) on immigrant work, income, and about coexistence of experiencesfrequently intuito de and the family. women’s roles in the family simultaneous conflicting forces leads to an artificial trabalhar The crucial piece disadvantaged are intimately operation of which empower split of women’s lived nos EUA often missing in labor market connected and disempowering them in certain realities which may be existing studies location and the hinge upon one and empowering ways but in fact experienced as is the idea that continuing another, and that forces that exacerbate their connected, albeit immigrant patriarchal women weave shape immigrant oppression in other conflicting at times. The women are the ideologies within together conflicting women’s lives. ways. As the above second problem is that agents in charge immigrant forces of According to this authors (i.e., [6, 7, the analytic separation of their own communities (e.g., empowerment and new way of 26]) argue, is often followed by everyday [4, 5, 12]). More disempowerment thinking, many of complex elements standardized and realities. recently, a growing into inter- the changes of empowerment essentialized critique [6, 7] has connected realities immigrant and interpretations of key argued that we by exercising women face disempowerment theoretical themes,

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need to address agency through after migration are not mutually thereby simply simultaneous interpretation. entail both exclusive, but juxtaposing forces of empowering and concomitantly empowerment and empowerment and disempowering integrated into disempowerment as disempowerment elements [6, 7, immigrant women’s parallel forces. For as an integral 20, 26, 29, 30]. multi-faceted post- example, income is reality of For instance, migration interpreted as an immigrant women while paid work experiences. The empowering factor, and under multiple may allow challenge then is traditional gender systems of immigrant how to theorize ideologies in the family inequality. [...] women to gain and analyze the are defined as a Furthermore, greater dynamics of disempowering force. women’s active economic dis/empowerment Less often questioned involvement in independence as lived realities, in the literature is constructing and from men, the and move beyond whether income reacting to various needs for merely juxtaposing production is indeed empowering and income conflicting interpreted by disempowering simultaneously conditions befalling immigrant women as realities has been make women immigrant women. empowering, or often overlooked, more dependent traditional gender rendering women on their paid dynamics in the family as victims rather work and are experienced by than agents of therefore prevent women as uniformly change in their them from disempowering. own life course protesting plans. unsafe and unlawful working conditions in their jobs [26]. Foner [7] argued that while wage labor may give immigrant women better bargaining power in decision-making and housework sharing, it fails to

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change much in traditional gender ideologies and role patterns that still lock immigrant women into subordinate domestic responsibilities. In these studies, the seeming contradiction between empowering and disempowering forces is conceptualized as a fundamental reality for women. In line with this view is Feree’s caution [6] against imposing monolithic frameworks that assume consistency in working women’s lives which may be, in reality, fundamentally inconsistent. 1675

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Continuação (Park, 2008) p. 29 - S p. 29 - S p. 31 - S p. 32 - S p. 33 - S p. 34 - S p. 35 - ? p. 35 - S In carrying out their To highlight this Studies on "I think I had been While women "Money was Thus, these various everyday lives proposition, I immigrant somewhat ignorant generally important issues circumscribed by examine a women most and naive [Before understood that then, because simultaneously conflicting forces, sample of often associate coming to the their income we were framed the women construct Korean positive United States]. I was essential in broke. The interviewed their own immigrant meanings to had known very sustaining the new business women’s attitudes interpretations of women, women’s little of the world family, bringing we had about their work dis/empowering focusing on income- outside my home. in income was started did not and income, Thus, work in conditions and their narratives generating But now, I want to not immediately generate any producing Korean ethnic organize meanings about work, the capacities make my own and readily profit. So, ambivalent and business was strategically to lay family, and their through living. I would like perceived as money was fluid interpretations. not readily out paths to changing class employment to continue to work empowerment very tight. The Most importantly, considered as adaptation into the locations outside the until I get very old. I as illustrated in fact that I was downward mobility, an new society. Thus, through home, however, feel a great joy the case above. selling this income, job empowerment as lived realities, immigration. My the ways in when I realize, ‘‘oh, There are item to make statuses, and by many of the income-producing analysis adds which Korean I was capable of additional money, not as relative earning respondents, work and women’s the following immigrant doing this kind of reasons why some kind of power are all and instead roles in the family theoretical women in this work!’’ These days, earning income promotion, but inseparable from was often are unlikely to be insights to the study interpreted when I visit Korea, I was not readily to do the women’s described with perceived by existing their work were know that I am not and uniformly sales with the interpretation of a somewhat women as dialogues on far from crazy about Korean received as urgency to work as self-denigrating disparate realities; immigrant monolithic. For society. I would not empowerment make living...it empowering or term, ‘‘mak-il,’’ rather, these facets women’s work. my respondents, have liked it there by women. In was so disempowering. which meant are likely to be First, work was neither [had I stayed]. My general, humiliating." This points to the unskilled or low experienced as empowerment empowering nor friends in Korea do immigrant Her memories need to understand status physical repeated and is not inherent disempowering nothing. When I women’s about her first dis/empowerment labor that did somewhat in immigrant by definition, but meet them, all they income is most work in the as complex not require continuous women’s work, rather had talk about is how often directly United States processes linking, education. everyday practices. but rather malleable they enjoy going to used to cover are thus rather than In the daily interpretations meanings which gyms, and saunas. basic living framed mostly separating, construction of their of work are hinged upon That’s their expenses such by economic different aspects of experiences, contingent upon several issues lifestyles. But I as food, difficulties, women’s pre- immigrant women other factors including cannot identify with housing, and guilt for her migration and post- create their own such as class economic them. Even if that car payment for children, and migration ‘‘definitions of identities and downward kind of lifestyle the family, her sympathy experiences. [...] In situations’’ [31], women’s mobility, cultural symbolizes their allowing little for her this sense,

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and it is through perception of perception of wealthy statuses, extra buying husband who women’s income their own multi- ideal service work, oh, I could not live power beyond experienced a production, albeit cultural motherhood, and childcare. like that. After a few necessities. It is significant insignificant and far perspectives that and are Depending upon days, I find myself simply hard to status loss. from empowering women interpret constantly how women really wanting to feel empowered This was at first, was still work, family, and negotiated and perceived the come back home. I when your hardly an viewed as a deposit motherhood as renegotiated by connections want to work as paychecks are empowering toward an upwardly empowering or women between work long as I can. I instantly used to experience for mobile trajectory disempowering themselves. and these don’t think about an barely keep the her. which later realities. For issues, their early retirement." family afloat becomes a crucial example, income attitudes about Like this woman, above poverty. framework for from work outside work fluctuated. many women’s empowering the home is most narratives interpretation of often illustrated shifting their work. conceptualized as perceptions on paid an improvement, or work over time, source of with varying degree empowerment by of scholars; however, dis/empowerment newly immigrant associated with women who are their identity as adhering to working mothers. traditional ideals of The meaning of mother as full-time work was, then, caregiver may not something that feel that their women in my income offsets their sample had to compromised roles renegotiate over or decreased time. autonomy as mothers. For these women, their attitudes about their paid work are fundamentally ambivalent, and cannot be clearly separated from their reduced

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presence in and influence on their children’s lives and on the family dynamics. Hence, simultaneous dis/empowerment is not an external force that entraps women, but is a flexible reality negotiated through women’s relations to their changing locations within social structures. In this sense, women’s agency is involved in the construction of dis/empowerment for immigrant women.

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1680 Continuação (Park, 2008) p. 36 - S p. 36-37 - S p. 37 - S p. 37 - S p. 38 - S p. 38 - S p. 39 - S p. 39 - S p. 39 - S The "It was really "[...] In According to my "I would swear Thus, several Similarly, for My analysis of The respondents’ hard to go to America, we data, the key that I won’t bet women in my many of the Korean transition emotions to work leaving my are told not to issue which everything on study respondents, immigrant from more and children behind. send kids to mediated the my kids, explicitly working hard women’s negative interpretations I would bring school if they changing however I expressed to achieve experiences and perceptions of paid work them to a don’t seem perspectives subconsciously conscious economic interpretations of work into were babysitter who well, and if was the wish that my awareness of stability of paid work positive and intimately was an old they get sick imperative of children would their became a supports that more connected to Korean lady at school, the upward mobility. live differently contribution central income empowering their definition living across the school would In my study, the than I did. I think to provide for component of producing work, ones also of ideal apartment call to tell me majority of the networking their children, being changing class reflect the mothers. building. My 4- to take them respondents through schools whether they immigrant statuses, reconciliatio Being a year-old son home. Before expressed and earned parents. In this mothering, and n of work mother was was a bit [I cut my work overall status communities is separate context, many children’s future and mother the single mature, but my hours], I was loss or very important in paychecks or of the are experienced roles which most daughter was completely downward this country just co-operated respondents as connected, had been important only one. In torn when one mobility as the as it is in Korea. a family found and the perceived as identity among Korea, all she of my children defining event of I tell my son, business. empowerment interpretation of antithetical the majority of knew was got sick. I their immigration and also say in Ironically, in otherwise one shapes and to each my sample; mommy. She couldn’t leave experiences. my prayer, to these women exhausting is shaped by the other at the 61% of the used to be with my sick child They, however, become a found work. Work others. Korean beginning of respondents me all day long. home alone, believed that leader. By this, I empowermen outside the women’s the picked Being separated nor send what they had mean going into t as mothers home was complex settlement ‘‘mother’’ as from me was her/him to lost by the mainstream, through their thus accepted relationships to process but the most very difficult for school immigrating rather than work by by the women work revealed later important her. She would knowing would be simply making redefining as an that work became identity label cry, and I [about] the compensated lots of money." themselves alternative to involved multi- understood they struggled to turn illness. We for by children’s Thus, the as providing the traditional layered, as associated my back to go to used to have access to better interviewed mothers. mothering dis/empowering inseparable. with work. Every only one car opportunities in women often such as being meanings for themselves. single day was and my the United projected their there to greet Korean Given this, the like that. It was husband and I States. In other children’s future children from immigrant ways in which very tough on worked at two words, the success onto school, women, but in women me. I cried too." different respondents’ their current helping with time, it has viewed work This was a places. At that own disempowermen school work, come to be as heart-breaking time, neither disempowermen t as immigrants and making viewed as

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empowering experience of of us was t and sacrifices and mothers; home-made generally or disempowermen easily were believed to the ultimate snacks and so positive. The disempowerin t as a mother for excused from be necessary for empowerment on. Hence, by shift from g were closely Sungok. She work in the the children for the parents, linking their reluctance and related to how confessed that middle of the whose life would then, is none work to their disempowermen these women she did not like day to pick up be better off, other than renegotiated t to general defined the work for this a sick child at being raised in achieving their roles as acceptance and motherhood, reason, and did school. It was America. ‘‘American mothers and positive and how they not seem to so difficult to Dream’’ by the to ‘‘vicarious meanings of perceived remember if she endure. I second empowerment’ work was their work as appreciated at would tell my generation. [...] ’ through mediated by contributing to all the income children not to Here, their children, the women’s or distracting she was call me even if disempowermen respondents redefinition of them from bringing home. they get sick t as the displayed paid work, class fulfilling their at school. It traditional agency in statuses, and versions of the was so hard." mother—i.e., the creating new motherhood as ideal mother. These two stay-at-home positive well as their women’s caretaker and meanings for acculturation accounts and academic work within into ethnic others in the supervisor—is the contexts of culture and the study being replaced immigrant particular epitomize how by the new family. socioeconomic disempowerin parental circumstances g immigrant imperative of of Korean women can financial support immigrant feel as which is communities. As mothers when perceived to be such, the they are essential for definition of separated improving work was not from their children’s life simply children by chances in the empowering nor long work United States. disempowering hours. in and of itself, Interestingly, but constructed for most of the and interviewed reconstructed women, this through conflicting women’s feeling about endeavors to

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work did not create meanings last forever. of their lives in Rather, many the contexts of reoriented immigration. their cultural values and adapted to their new circumstances as working mothers. GENISSUES – Tabela C78 p. 146 - C p. 149 - S p. 150 - C

Because the project welcomes mentors from many different social backgrounds, Working with refugee and low-income including those having ‘‘higher status’’ in pregnant women, who often experience U.S. culture, it facilitates the close the most severe forms of Pre and post-test evaluations of encounter between the disadvantaged marginalization, the project aims to 29 completed cases this year and the advantaged, the latter of which intervene in their lives and improve their Programa de measure indicators of successful often being ignorant of her unwitting health and well being as well as that of Clifton, saúde voltado self-empowerment in the areas of complicity in the marginalization of lower the next generation. It not only Cadzow a mulheres de preventive and emergency status women. Compassionate though EUA intervenes, though, it also helps equip & Rowe baixa renda healthcare use, nutrition and diet, unknowingly condescending at the women with the tools to become (2009) (The Priscilla community resources knowledge, onset, the mentor becomes strikingly empowered in their own lives and Project) family planning methods aware of the humanity, dignity, and communities, to successfully navigate knowledge, and general competence of her mentee. This change the resources available to them and to satisfaction. in the mentor sparks feelings of establish healthy relationships as well as empowerment in the mentee as well as transform existing relationships into a new wave of attitudes toward healthy ones. impoverished women in the mentor’s community.

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GENISSUES – Tabela C79 p. 39 - S p. 40 - S p. 49 - S p. 52 - S

One way women might experience power through The SIPS assesses the their sexuality is in terms of subjective feeling that gaining power over men. One women can gain power over example of this can be seen men through their sexuality. in a recent book in which Although being an object of This set of beliefs may be young women are instructed male desire is a traditional one that many young women to use their ‘‘erotic capital’’ in role for women, most feel as though they are order to advance in the male associate chastity and The notion of sexual supposed to endorse as our dominated business world [9]. women being sexual empowerment is a thorny culture sends the message This type of power may be gatekeepers with traditional Validação de issue that has been the that they are supposed to be particularly important for femininity [23]. However, it uma escala que center of much recent sexually active, agentic, and women, as members of an has been argued that the mede o quanto debate [11–13, 19]. This empowered [6, 21]. However, oppressed group, because image of the sexually Erchull mulheres debate revolves around even if women do receive a women have fewer other active woman who desires & Liss acreditam que a EUA whether girls and women sense of power from their sources of power. When and feels empowered by (2013) sexualidade traz who claim that they feel a sexuality, it is important to women experience multiple sex has been presented as poder (Sex is sense of power through recognize that this power is sources of marginalization the new feminine ideal [6]. Power Scale - their sexuality are focused only on the self and (e.g., socio-demographic Thus, women who SIPS) experiencing true or false is likely to connected to disadvantages) the need for subjectively associate sex empowerment [11, 12, restricted social norms this type of power may be with power may also 19]. associated with women’s further enhanced [2]. endorse other traditional sexuality and beauty [12]. Feminists generally see this beliefs about women, and The SIPS can help type of power as problematic this is supported by our researchers and theorists [22]; however, that does not data. better understand the necessarily mean that women predictors and consequences do not report subjective of holding beliefs connecting feelings of empowerment one’s sexuality to power. through using sexuality as a source of power. 1685

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GENISSUES – Tabela C80 p. 198 - C

Even though our finding may not necessarily be the same in other parts of Ghana, it corroborates the findings of similar studies done in parts of rural East Africa (see for instance [10, 14, 21]). We therefore argue that out-migration of males have consequences on the left-behind in the household and must be addressed. It is recommended that policies formulated to support the economic empowerment of rural women must pay particular attention to left-behind women. For instance, the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection in Ghana must collaborate with other non-governmental organizations and have special programmes for such women. These women should be encouraged to form self-help groups that could be supported. Considering the fact that the majority of these women have little or no education, skills Wrigley- Mulheres chefes de training programmes such as soap-making and sheabutter processing should be initiated. Linking up these Asante & família após o êxodo Gana women with external marketing avenues and the provision of micro credit schemes will go a long way to Agandin rural dos homens support them economically. To achieve this successfully, these programmes should be supported with (2015) education and sensitization programmes at the community levels in order to address patriarchal attitudes and change societal stereotypes such as perception and image of women in general and migrant wives in particular. The emotional needs of the women must also be addressed by providing counseling services in addition to the economic empowerment programmes. Most importantly, discussions of the health burdens of women must be broadened to include psychosocial problems that women experience out of what many may consider as ‘trivial’ social and economic circumstances. Indeed, the national migration policy currently being formulated must take into consideration the economic and psychosocial issues surrounding left- behind women particularly in rural areas.

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1690 GENISSUES – Tabela C81 p. 164 - ? p. 164 - ? p. 164-165 - S p. 165 - ?

However, the existence and understandings of this new discourse, the alpha girl, are In this current post-feminist under-researched; further, landscape, McRobbie [22] there is little scholarship that argues, it is not as simple as looks at how these particular a backlash that is the girls negotiate the undoing of feminism, but empowerment discourse in rather a context in which which they are enveloped on a popular concepts like girl daily basis. [...] This paper empowerment and alpha engages in discussions that With the passage of Title IX, However, some scholars girls invoke an unfettered reveal the tensions and the second wave of the have been cautious landscape of choice for girls. contradictions that exist feminist movement, and the about this rewriting of This new (false) meritocracy between the macro girl empowerment movement girlhood [5, 14, 15, 22] as now suggests that all girls discourses—those that of the 1990s, many girls now Meninas empowered. They have and women’s success and suggest young women are the live new markers of Bettis, adolescentes worried that the media failures are merely that of harbingers of this new normative girlhood, which Ferry & de escolas portrayal of girls’ their own doing, their own feminism and state of EUA have come to include Roe públicas dos successes has belittled choice, as it centers the equality—and the day to day participation in sports and (2016) EUA (alpha the complexities of girls’ individual and maintains a experiences of young girls— community arts programs, girls) lives, particularly in culture absent of social which reveal the influence of assumption of school marking out the andsystemic critique, patriarchal gender scripts leadership positions, and differences of race, especially for discussions of infused in girls’ identities and claims of self-assertiveness ethnicity, social class and gender equity. Thus, the thinking. Using interview and and self-confidence [10, 14, sexual orientation. alpha girl, though touted as a observation data, the authors 15, 22]. new subjectivity of examine how supposed alpha empowerment and equality, girls and their middle school might also signal another teacher make sense of and way in which feminism has live this notion of been co-opted within a post- empowerment. We argue that feminist, neoliberal the experiences of these two landscape (for other groups both complicate and examples see [13, 22, 32]. reify the alpha girl discourse, showing that although young girls may conceptualize empowering forms of female

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subjectivity, adherence to traditional feminine gender norms coexists.

Continuação (Bettis, Ferry & Roe, 2016) p. 167 - ? p. 168 - C p. 169 - S p. 170 - ? p. 174 - S p. 179 - ? Discourses help shape Not surprisingly, the What these and When asked to Complicating popular the decisions and focus on girl Kindlon’s iteration of describe today’s ideal gender discourses such thinking that are made by empowerment has also girl empowerment miss girl, these 14 girls as the alpha girl requires In the following youth and teachers in resulted in several is that other groups of talked generally about researchers, teachers, sections, we share classrooms and, as critical portraits of girls face a very an independent, and youth alike to first findings stemming importantly, the very contemporary girlhood, different set of choices assertive and name the discourse, the from our data questions that are asked such as the mean girl due to their thoughtful young assumptions that analysis to detail how and thus can be [38] and the phallic girl socioeconomic status, woman. Absent from undergird it, and how it the discourse of girl understood as central to [22]. For example, the race, ethnicity, and their comments is any might be infused in their empowerment and both students’ and ‘mean girl’ uses sexual orientation. mention of physical daily lives, in habits of the alpha girl is teachers’ identities. We relational aggression to Currie et al. [10], Harris appearance or the thought and ways of woven into the fabric attempt to untangle the forge her own interests [14, 15], Walkerdine et prominence of speaking. What does the of the daily life for 14 discursive practices of in peer groups and al. [35], and McRobbie heterosexual romance. embodiment of this girls considered girls who are embedded school popularity [24]. [22] have written This absence once discourse look and act alpha as they in the institutionalized Similarly, the ‘phallic extensively about how again suggests that like? Why are all of the participated in their power relations of girl’ is one who adopts this focus on white while the alpha girl heroines in The Hunger 8th grade language classrooms amidst talk of certain behaviors of supposedly empowered discourse and the Games, Frozen and arts/social studies girl empowerment and masculinity, such as a girls, as if they are the postfeminist landscape Divergent, white and classroom. success. Feminist predatory and standard for all purport the heterosexual and why do poststructuralism also exhibitionary sexuality girlhood, has serious empowerment of all they physically embody helps us navigate the (think of Girls Gone consequences on the women, it is instead traditional feminine body

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conceptual binaries in Wild media lives of millions of girls only certain kinds of proportions? Further, the which American girlhood productions) in the who are not all women and young girls social, political and is situated, variations on name of equality, while necessarily living the who express the economic contexts in the good girl and bad girl simultaneously doing life of the alpha or appropriate behaviors which this particular split; the alpha versus at little to challenge gamma girl. McRobbie who may get to be discourse operates must risk discourses are a few notions of hegemonic [22] maintains that this included. be interrogated. Why this research attempts to masculinity or focus on young alpha girls now, at this disrupt. patriarchy [22]. While women’s choice and time, and in this place? the mean girl and freedom, both in We continue to live what phallic girl tropes are economic and sexual Carol Tavris [33] calls associated with white realms, has created not ‘‘good, old fashioned privileged girls, they are only the assumption American historical often situated as the that feminism is amnesia’’ (p. B9), which antithesis of the alpha unnecessary, but also lets us continually recreate girl. As such, these that gender subjugation gender concerns and girls—mean, crass, and is over for all girls and binaries, albeit in new sexually provocative— women, and that all forms. The current are usually associated girls’ lives are changed discourse of girl with the term ‘at risk’ for the better. empowerment in the form and characterized as of the alpha girl girls whose ‘choices’ inappropriately concerning education, simplifies/reduces what romance, and child has always been complex, bearing are considered relational, and struggled problematic [15, 22]. over and will continue to be so.

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GENISSUES – Tabela C82 p. 98 - ? p. 99 - ? p. 104 - S p. 108-109 - ? p. 109 - ? p. 115 - S p. 116 - C

In this paper, In spite of the Our model holds Lerner et al. …Because The Second, our we first explain multiple that the [37] emphasize you are the competencies model offers that we ground oppressions development of that ‘‘a major first, like, in the existing unique insights our model in that women of a critical source of Black PYD model do for the two theoretical color consciousness diversity in female…you not address construction of frameworks: experience, is fundamental developmental know you’re this complexity girls’ groups, critical race Wing in order for trajectories are not, like, an in risk, whether formal feminism and emphasizes adolescent girls the systematic employee protective or informal, as positive youth that the of color to fully relations that here, you’re factors, or the environments development. essence of realize the adolescents just like a ability to utilize in which adult Next, we detail women of color potential of the have with key person that self-righting allies (applied how we are re- ‘‘is also central people and we can go to, tendencies in researchers positioning the characterized competencies of institutions in like, that response to and positive youth by a multiplicity the PYD model. their social means a lot. adversity and practitioners) development of strength, We envision context; that is, Well to me it forms of can nurture the Clonan- model to fit love, joy… and critical their family, does, and I discrimination. development Roy, adolescent girls transcendence consciousness peer group, know it Our model of the adapted Adolescentes Jacobs of color by that flourishes as a core school, matters to all emphasizes PYD negras e EUA & presenting our despite competency workplace, the other girls that critical competencies latinas Nakkula descriptions of adversity’’ [72]. through which neighborhood, because consciousness and girls can (2016) each CRF [critical the other community, we’ve never mediates the empower one competency race feminism] competencies of society, culture, had a Black competency of another in a complemented intentionally the PYD and niche in woman that’s resilience by critically by qualitative places women framework are history’’. Thus, like, ‘‘You empowering supportive data from our of color and mediated to adolescent know, you youth to manner. research. their form a more girls’ notions of are critically Because Finally, we experiences of complete and character are empowering, examine the mainstream explain the adversity and culturally intimately tied you can do roots of the education implications of perseverance authentic model to the character this, you can adversity they often values this model for at the center of of development traits that their do that, you face, rather White, middle practice and its analysis. In for girls of color. families, can do than class cultural scholarship, addition to Adolescent girls cultures and anything that internalizing capital, girls’ with an analysis, of color often sociopolitical you set your such adversity groups can emphasis on critical race experience contexts value. mind to.’’ It’s and attributing serve as supporting and praxis is a part ‘‘multiple Sometimes mostly like, it to oneself. spaces that empowering of CRF. marginalities,’’ these White males Critical value girls’ of

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adolescent girls Through the cultural contextual telling you consciousness color funds of of color. CRF lens, dissonance, and value systems what you can enable knowledge and praxis is role confusion, can be should and girls to critically culture, defined as which can problematic or should not use resources promote ‘‘seeking to prevent the disempowering do, in this to promote understanding identify ways to development of for girls of color, community. their resilience: of the social empower a positive sense like the So, thank ideally, girls contexts in women through of identity [60]. practices you. - would develop which they law and other Developing the upheld in Jennifer, 10th the skills to develop, and disciplines’’ skills to critically Rocio’s family. grade, talking navigate examine the [71]. question and with Author 2 relationships specific forms analyze power during a one- with school of oppression relationships in on-one personnel, that they the social world, interview family, and experience and more subtle peers to seek [21, 46]. and interactional out the support forms of that would gendered and nurture their racial/ethnic existing marginalization, strengths and will empower allow them to adolescent girls overcome of color to periods of navigate these hardship. multiple marginalities. 1695

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GENAMAZONIA – Tabela C83

País Referência Público/Objeto do Trechos

estudo p. 74 - C p. 75 - C p. 75 - C p. 79 - C p. 79 - C

“Os movimentos de Neste sentido, e O conceito de mulheres e considerando que os empoderamento feministas e sua recursos pessoais tornou-se eixo É com esta filosofia atuação no avanço acumulados e o padrão central dos debates que as feministas das carreiras de representatividade sobre os temas da brasileiras femininas nos social, que constroem Desse material, inclusão/exclusão interagem com os espaços de poder atuando nos foram extraídos os dos sujeitos sociais movimentos político” projeto movimentos de conteúdos para aspirantes a uma articulados de proposto pelo mulheres e em suas elaboração do identidade mulheres e GEPEM/UFPA ao bases locais de artigo Histórias de construída mediante implementam suas CNPq-SPM (2008- moradia, podem ser Mulheres, a participação no práticas de 2011), ressaltava fatores de incentivo Empoderamento e poder público, discussão da/na um problema para possível carreira Ativismo Político, no avaliando-se os esfera pública e transnacional - sub- política, o core deste qual, por meio de déficits das mulheres Participação sobre o conceito de representação das projeto dados estatísticos e no âmbito do poder, das mulheres político. Nessa Álvares mulheres nos objetivou/intencionou de relatos quer no plano formal nos espaços Brasil acepção, será (2013) espaços de decisão identificar a contribuição particulares, serão das normas de poder no demonstrada a política – e uma dessas organizações, analisadas as duas institucionais, quer Pará polarização das avaliação, entre relativas a capacitações fases do processo no da cultura. Nas agendas de outros objetivos, de suas associadas, metodológico usado últimas décadas, articulação das sobre os caminhos estimulando-as ao na pesquisa, houve generalização mulheres para o dos debates dos empoderamento e relativo ao trajeto desse conceito na tempo da conquista movimentos de interesse para a social e acesso das esfera internacional, de espaços, nos mulheres e competição eleitoral. E associadas dos nacional e local para lugares da decisão feministas no Pará, com base nessa movimentos de contemplar, primeiro, política, e de considerando os problemática, foi mulheres ao a exclusão da melhorias da acordos de Beijing formulada a hipótese de empoderamento. pobreza nos países qualidade de vida (1995) e as atuais dependência: a atuação do sul asiático, por meio das ações Metas para o dos movimentos de seguindo-se a de empoderamento. Desenvolvimento do mulheres e feministas, situação das Milênio (MDGs) entre as suas mulheres (cf. J. pelas Nações associadas, incentiva-as ROWLANDS, 1997

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Unidas, com uma na formação de uma apud LÈON, 2001). assertiva e duas cultura de questões: a)os empoderamento movimentos de estimulando mulheres têm candidatarem-se aos registrado/ cargos parlamentares contabilizado e/ou majoritários numa presença competição eleitoral. significativa nas demandas e no controle das políticas públicas conquistadas, com ênfase em agendas estimuladoras ao empoderamento feminino. Continuação (Álvares, 2013) p. 79-80 - C p. 80 - C p. 81-82 - C p. 82 - C p. 83 - C p. 86 - C A ampliação do uso do Desses temas, dois se Para detectar essas Os resultados O Simpósio conceito diluiu seu situaram na política nuances, em maior apontam “Democracia e significado e criou Considerando que o processo formal e foram menos ou menor percentuais abaixo Participação ambivalências e de empoderamento converge mencionados, embora intensidade, entre dos que foram Política nos contradições, visto que a para a demanda pela informação presentes na os objetivos da dados aos assuntos Movimentos de pressuposição desse qualificada que assegura às considerada “faixa pesquisa, foi de ênfase do Mulheres e conteúdo refere-se à mulheres o maior conhecimento nobre”, ou seja, entre priorizada a cotidiano na Feministas no conquista do poder. Dessa sobre a autonomia, ou seja, a os que ultrapassaram identificação de comunidade. Tema Pará: cenários, forma "empoderarse capacidade de elas decidirem os inscritos numa quais temas/formas como Democracia e práticas de significa que las personas sobre outra perspectiva de de discussão Cidadania (47,37%) empoderamento e adquieren el control de sus questões/aspirações/objetivos recolher capital social subsidiavam o presentifica-se nos espaços de vidas, logran la habilidad de que lhes interessam alcançar/ para fortalecer o entendimento, debates que se decisão política” hacer cosas y de definir sus concretizar, foram elencados 20 empoderamento pelas associadas realizam sobre os reuniu, em um propias agendas. Al temas de múltipla escolha, perspectivado (o da dos movimentos de direitos da mulher e espaço da UFPA, relacionarse con los supondo-se a possibilidade de dimensão tangente às mulheres, sobre os 20 tópicos 22 movimentos de intereses de los estarem na agenda de demandas aos cargos empoderamento, sugeridos para mulheres do desposeídos de poder, el discussões das associadas. de decisão política): de modo a apontar quais os Estado do Pará. As término se toma como participação política e pleitearem acesso que mais registram sessões foram expresión de un cambio o direito de as aos cargos de uma demanda de dedicadas à

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deseable, sin ahondar en mulheres se elegerem representação capacitação entre exposição dos las especificidades que tal aos cargos políticos; parlamentar e as associadas relatos das cambio implica; es decir, sin eleições, campanha, majoritários, podem incluir esses experiências das precisar su filiação e militância entendendo-se o dois conceitos. O associadas e suas significado(MAGDALENA partidária. As processo tópico sobre formas de ativismo. LEÓN, 2001, p. 96)." Esse informações dos diferenciado para Partidos Políticos se Algumas processo de questionários foram essa situação nivela ao anterior apresentaram em empoderamento referido, fundamentais para específica. (47,37%). vídeo as imagens incluindo o consolidar/entender a Sequencia-se do trabalho que autorreconhecimento do definição de política e Participação Política fazem em sua poder adquirido na processo de (44,74%); Política associação e conquista de capital social, empoderamento partidária (42,5%); outras trouxeram subsidiou a elaboração e inscritos nas Eleições (42,98%); seus materiais de aplicação das questões demandas do II Campanha eleitoral formação e os relativas à trajetória pessoal PNPM, “Capítulo 5 – (36,84%); produtos por elas das associadas dos Participação das Empoderamento fabricados no movimentos de mulheres mulheres nos espaços das mulheres para capítulo referente à enfocados na pesquisa, de poder e decisão: os cargos de política de geração assim também a avaliação objetivos, metas e decisão política de emprego e das estratégias e técnicas prioridades” –, no qual (34,21%); Política renda. Seus utilizadas pelos movimentos também se inscreve partdária (34,21%) ; relatos são para capacitação política um “Plano de ação” e Reforma do sistema representativos de formal por meio de eventos se detalham as político brasileiro uma história temáticos com esse carências que atingem com base nos I e II singular de enfoque. Assim também, as mulheres, PNPM – SPM/PR trajetórias, outras questões delinearam ocasionando que (25,44%); Reforma possibilitando o cenário, a cena, os sejam do sistema avaliar o enfoque e bastidores e os atores subrepresentadas nas eleitoral(19,30%). as práticas dessas sociais responsáveis por diversas instâncias de mulheres para essas atividades de decisão política, e criarem maneiras formação. desse modo, de historicizando a empoderamento cultura sexista nas arenas da causadora da política formal. ausência desse Neste sentido, gênero nos cargos enfatizam uma parlamentares e trajetória cotidiana executivos, e da baixa de ativismo que as insistência delas em conduz às

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competir. demandas de políticas públicas, por meio do enfrentamento contra a pobreza e a violência de gênero, assim também campanhas pela melhoria da comunidade onde vivem. É o que se constata nos depoimentos a seguir. 1700 Continuação (Álvares, 2013) p. 92 - C p. 95 - C p. 96 - C p. 96 - C p. 97-98 - C p. 98 - C "O empoderamento Se entre os objetivos Em suas falas e nas Entretanto, na Finalmente, a síntese E ainda como registro das mulheres nós originários para a respostas ao perspectiva da equipe para esta conclusão é a final, convém propor: - decidimos dizer assim: construção do projeto questionário, não se de trabalho da de que: - as associadas a)revisão das formas de - chega de ser rabo e intencionava-se avaliar percebe a aproximação pesquisa houve dos movimentos de empoderamento com a vamos ser cabeça. O quais ações os com o partido político, reconhecimento de que mulheres estão inclusão de mais uma que quer dizer isso? movimentos de embora quase 60% há estratégicas de cumprindo as metas do ênfase, inclusão de Que antigamente era mulheres realizavam delas sejam filiadas, empoderamento milênio (ODM-ONU) ao discussões sobre as só secretária, vice de para cumprir as metas sejam chamadas para representativas dos criarem suas temáticas específicas conselho fiscal, agora dos protocolos integrarem as cotas de tipos de atuação que estratégias de aqui reveladas e que se não, nós estamos assinados pelos gênero e partidária em emergem para a empoderamento; - elas acham empobrecidas de partindo pra que nós governos e previstas tempo eleitoral, além de superação das privilegiam as debates; - b) vamos ser presidente, na Plataforma de fazerem o serviço de desigualdades necessidades básicas sensibilização dos coordenadora e ser Beijing, em recentes campanha. Esse detalhe enfrentadas. E os de demandas de outras partidos políticos à cabeça, sabe, nos convenções e nos I e II é indicativo de que a mesmos se acham mulheres de sua presença das mulheres estamos lutando, PNPM, objetivando organização partidária permeando tanto as comunidade e da filiadas e a criação de nesse ano agora 2010, influenciar a superação não é vista como respostas recolhidas própria comunidade; - a uma agenda de 2011, nos elegemos da desigualdade de elementos de primeira nos questionários política formal não está formação para as três companheiras participação das necessidade em suas quanto as intervenções nos seus planos não só mulheres independente importantes pra nós mulheres em cargos maneiras de que fizeram durante o porque as evidências do tempo eleitoral; - c) dentro do município legislativos e empoderamento para a simpósio recente e, de situações hostis de fortalecimento de que foi no Sindicato executivos da política formal. Outro principalmente, quando enfrentamento como a candidaturas femininas

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Rural dos Médios democracia eleitoral, agravante para pensar o se constata que dentre pobreza e a violência sem que isso represente Produtores Rurais, na as questões motivaram distanciamento entre as associadas doméstica se a obrigação das cotas ou STR, que é a a equipe a investigar movimentos de entrevistadas somente constituem numa linha serviço partidário para segurança dentro do que maneiras de mulheres e partido uma delas fora eleita de fogo para atingir a uma integração com as trabalho dos vigilantes. empoderamento político é que as num cargo parlamentar superação; - não são suas demandas nessa Aonde nós lutamos só estavam sendo criadas temáticas específicas municipal em 2008. estimuladas à área, sem esquecer as tinha homens não tinha de modo a capacitar as para capacitação ao competição eleitoral, básicas pelas quais elas mulheres, mulheres parceiras para o empoderamento de sentindo-se tanto lutam. - Criar não podiam ser enfrentamento ao indicativo político são discriminadas pelas responsabilização para vigilantes nos primeiro status quo que definia pouco representativas lideranças dos partidos avaliar a relação partido fomos pra justiça pra a política como “prática para elas, também na escolha de filiados & mulheres & poder, poder colocar vigilante masculina”. esboçadas nos dois homens vistos com hoje, e enfrentar os lá, agora nos temos instrumentos usados mais prestígio; - o resultados sem medo de uma presidente da SIT para o dimensionamento partido político não se perdas eleitorais. lá dentro. É luta do da situação. E nas suas importa, visto não Mulheres são a maioria nosso movimento lá, falas, há uma ausência investir, numa formação do eleitorado no Brasil! - então com isso vê incondicional de política para essas Um lema para tratar temos muitas brigas referências aos partidos. mulheres dos esse assunto de jurídicas, nosso movimentos, muito empoderamento e movimento não tem mais interessados em mudança de regras seria assimO fazer o “jogo” de alterar a cultura política. empoderamento das articulação política com mulheres nós a “cara masculina” em decidimos dizer assim: tempo de eleição. - chega de ser rabo e vamos ser cabeça. O que quer dizer isso? Que antigamente era só secretária, vice de conselho fiscal, agora não, nós estamos partindo pra que nós vamos ser presidente, coordenadora e ser cabeça, sabe, nos estamos lutando, nesse ano agora 2010, 2011, nos elegemos três companheiras

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importantes pra nós dentro do município que foi no Sindicato Rural dos Médios Produtores Rurais, na STR, que é a segurança dentro do trabalho dos vigilantes. Aonde nós lutamos só tinha homens não tinha mulheres, mulheres não podiam ser vigilantes nos primeiro fomos pra justiça pra poder colocar vigilante lá, agora nos temos uma presidente da SIT lá dentro. É luta do nosso movimento lá, então com isso vê temos muitas brigas jurídicas, nosso movimento não tem assim." GENAMAZONIA – Tabela C84 p. 177 - C

Tais estratégias perpassam por fatores já mencionados, ou seja, a situação das trajetórias femininas com propensão de benefícios à formação do capital político. O fortalecimento desses recursos pessoais é a razão pela qual um partido quebra o padrão de elegibilidade existente nos municípios paraenses. Neste sentido, foi pertinente a discussão de Duverger (1970) sobre o poder das Sousa Filho Participação de mulheres lideranças partidárias, visto que são estas que percebem os laços estabelecidos entre possíveis & Álvares como candidatas na eleição Brasil candidaturas e o nível de sedução circulando na comunidade na hora do pleito eleitoral. É nesse (2013) municipal de 2008, no Pará momento que se dá a importância de as mulheres que alcançaram as listas eleitorais. Estes vínculos motivam as possibilidades de obtenção de votos pelas mulheres empoderadas e sua indicação para concorrer e, no seguimento, garante-lhes um financiamento de campanha com possibilidade da vitória independente da participação no ativismo político de movimentos sociais.

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HYP – Tabela C85 p. 101 - S p. 103 - S p. 103-104 - S p. 105 - S p. 106 - S p. 107 - S

Over the last In what follows, I Before addressing To the extent that One woman told me century, with will examine the the relationship the midwifery how seeing the fetus the relationship between technology model aims to by ultrasound helped development of between a good and a good birth, it redress the her husband engage modern birth and the use may be helpful to mind/body and more fully in the obstetrics and of technology. To explore what it maternal/fetal But let us pregnancy, which in the dramatic this end, I might be that makes dualisms that consider another turn enhanced the changes in investigate the a birth good. What erode an example. Prenatal experience for both of birthing way in which immediately comes understanding of ultrasound, in them. We have been practices it has female shame is to mind is agency— woman and fetus which a moving reminded, of course, engendered, reinforced by the power and the as interdependent, picture of the by a number of many women dominant strains presence to preside its goals are fetus may be feminist moral have sensed of birthing over one’s own indeed critical to viewed, has been theorists of the that something practice—both experience of giving woman, pregnant criticized as importance of has been hospital-based birth. The and pregnable. If alienating and interpersonal “amiss” obstetrics and alternative, the alienation of disempowering as relationships. Experiência (Rothman midwifery—in alienation from mind from body well. Barbara Although such do parto e Lyerly 1991, 30), that attempts to pry one’s labor, renders a birthing Duden, for experiences as the sua relação EUA (2006) the experience apart demeaning including “loss of woman’s example, lovely inner com a of giving birth practices from the control . . . of the emotional needs describes how in sensations of fetal tecnologia has not been use of technology productive process either secondary viewing the movement can never the per se. In order to itself,” has been or dangerous, she ultrasound, the be truly empowering, do so, I attend fi identified in general is unlikely to feel woman becomes communicated to fulfilling event rst to mainstream as a source of empowered or “a participant in another, the pregnant that it should feminist disempowerment for connected in the her own skinning, woman does not exist be. While the arguments, which women (Bartky birthing process. in the dissolution in a vacuum, but sources of locate culpability 1990, 101). [...] Furthermore, of the historical rather, as Annette women’s for women’s Dignity, too, seems practices that frontier between Baier has discontent are disaffection with to me a crucial derogate these inside and emphasized, her many, themes modern birthing element of what needs are likely to outside” (1993, individuality as a of lack of practices in makes a birth good. diminish women— 78). human being agency, dignity, technology. Next, Whereas giving birth to communicate to “develops out of a and alienation I recapitulate and can be transforming them the series of in the then identify and empowering, insignificance of dependencies and experience of weaknesses of women giving birth their personae as interdependencies, labor and major critiques of are inherently women and and responses to

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delivery are obstetrical care, vulnerable and, as significantly them” (1987, 49). often the form as well as the Bartky has noted, reinforce the Thus, to the extent that their model proposed more prone to shame of that technology allows protest takes as women’s hope feelings of shame embodiment and loved ones and (Young 1984; for a ‘good birth’ than other women. sexuality that others to engage Rothman and thus the A third element of a pregnancy may more fully in a 1991). rationale for good birth that evoke. Finally, to woman’s experience mandating a comes to mind is the extent that the of pregnancy, it is not rejection of connectedness—to separation of necessarily the medical one’s spouse, birth woman from fetus fragmenting force that technology in the attendant, or even a renders a its critics describe it to birthing process. nurse. The pregnant woman be, but rather may Based on Bartky’s alternative, either dangerous enhance her discussion of abandonment, then, to her fetus or experience as a shame, I elucidate would undermine invisible, the pregnant woman how practices in the experience of a maternal embedded, as she is, both obstetrics good birth. A good empowerment, within a web of and midwifery can birth, therefore, connectedness, relationships. Thus, reinforce the would likely be one and dignity critical again, we see a more disempowering characterized, at the to a good birth are complicated picture of and destructive very least, by unlikely to technology—one that affective agency, dignity, and characterize her may be experienced attunement she connectedness. birthing as either empowering describes. Finally, experience. or alienating, and as I offer an fostering either unity alternative or separation. analysis of and approach to birthing that does not locate culpability in technology itself, but rather in its misapplication, and which provides for a wide range of possibilities for a good birth,

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regardless of the location (home, hospital, or birthing center) or degree of technological intervention. Continuação (Lyerly, 2006) p. 108 - C p. 109 - S p. 111-112 - S p. 112 - S p. 113-114 - S p. 114 - S p. 114-115 - S p. 116 - S Ultimately, We have identified For instance, Second, the In reflecting on Consider, for She had such Given that the power and though shame that the example I instance, the delivered in a exhaustion can technology does presence to anesthesia as Bartky describes have just midwife who local community lead to the not unequivocally preside over one’s traditionally is corrosive and provided, one encourages hospital, with need for have the own birth as administered self-reinforcing could argue that it women to forgot epidural assisted alienating, important to the often rendered due to the way is indeed anesthesia and anesthesia and a delivery. Relief disempowering definition of a good the woman that it technology in the have a “natural” midwife who of the pain effect that its birthing experience. passive, I have disempowers hands of actors birth. With the sensed that associated with critics have In fulfilling the argued that its those who are within a “natural” birth Diane needed labor through, claimed, women masculinist ideal sensitive shamed. “The patriarchal society held as the ideal, her presence, but for instance, who embrace it and insisting on application can experience of that is at the root the decision to almost nothing locally are not control of the actually shame,” she of women’s use anesthesia else. And so, administered necessarily emerging fetal enhance a argues, “may shame associated can be invited and anesthesia excluded from head with forceps, woman’s ability lend legitimacy to with birthing. Dr. experienced as a enabled to such as the the possibility of however, Dr. P to engage the structure of P’s use of failure. Women preside over her epidural may experiencing a repeatedly more fully in authority that forceps, not to anticipating labor own delivery, and rejuvenate and good birth. alienated women her birthing occasions it, for mention his will say, “I am with dignity and empower the Agency, dignity, from their experience. the majesty of justification for going to try my connectedness to woman in and reproductive labor. Thus judgment is acting so best to deliver my brother more labor. It may connectedness Bartky has argued withholding affirmed in its irreverently, naturally.” For than anyone give her the are not that the anesthesia, or own capacity to undoubtedly those who else, Diane chance to rest, exclusively disempowerment even worse, injure” (1990, resulted from the change their pushed beautiful even sleep, as peculiar to births that characterizes advancing 97). Patients’ medicalization of mind or fi nd Jessica into her her labor without such alienation ideologies that shame would, in childbirth and themselves in a husband’s hands progresses and technology, and, serves as “a equate its fact, reinforce the thus the situation in which and into their life. replenish her in fact, may be prohibition on the acceptance structures of legitimization of a “natural” birth is She has since, energy for the enhanced by development and with failure, domination and obstetrical not possible, who for the first time physical technology itself. exercise of has an impact oppression that practices. need anesthesia in her life, begun demands that capacities, the similar to Dr. occasioned it and However, to or a cesarean an exercise

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delivery entails. exercise of which is P’s placement women would blame technology section, there is program, but thought essential to of forceps. It thus feel it is to miss the often a sense more importantly, fully human potentially imperative that point. Important to that they just she carries existence” (1990, alienates the they return to the note is that it was didn’t have what herself—her 115). In the setting woman from same not, in the it takes, embodied self— of labor and the pain-free disempowering aforementioned physically or with a new sense delivery, such a birth she arena for future situation, mentally, to have of pride and prohibition might desires, obstetrical care. obstetrical a child the way empowerment. manifest as imparts a assistance per se their Having perceived sense that she that was grandmother did. demonstrated limitations to what is incapable of categorically This sensing too, how giving birth one is capable of participating in disempowering as apprehension can endorse accomplishing, an empowered and thus of self as inferior women’s sense producing, or birth, and, reinforcing of or defective, can of shame, we see enduring with one’s ultimately, shame. Rather, I be just as too, in Diane’s mind and body. reinforces would argue, disempowering experience, what female shame. such assistance as the shame it can do to can contribute to induced by the undermine a woman’s sense antics of a shame’s impact. of alienation from masculinist man A good birth may her labor when it wielding therefore be a is used as a technology as Dr. unique means to shift the P did. Yet this opportunity to locus of agency— shame is a result counter the of control over a of what is thought shame that delivery from the to be an Bartky argues woman to the empowering pervades female attendant. birthing subjectivity. movement for women. How can this be? 1705

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HYP – Tabela C86 p. 77 - C p. 78 - C

Despite all its problems, if deliberative communication is a viable future means of enhancing participatory politics and shifting policy as outcome through a process where different procedural mechanisms ensure the presence of groups hitherto excluded, then we can also begin to assess how the inclusion of women (as individuals and as part of a group) in PRIs could influence other levels of politics. Would, as is beginning to happen, women in rural India insist upon the redistribution of land, reviving Negotiations with and challenges to the state then questions of mobilization for better working conditions and become an important part of the deliberative strategy if access to social and financial resources (Karat 2005)? democratic politics is to thrive and political actors are to This could require a focus on an “empowered citizenry” exercise agency. David Marquand, for example, has within strengthened institutional frameworks for which argued that only an empowered and active citizenry Participação na procedural measures, such as the power of veto, can progress toward social equality (in Phillips 1999, política “threshold representation,” and “weighted control over 15). The two aspects need to be held together, Rai (2007) institucional por Índia agenda-setting,” might be considered. What deliberative sometimes in tension, to understand the nature of mulheres processes based on political redistribution of resources change through institutional politics. Despite the slow indianas should allow for is a combination of recognition (of process of change at local levels of governance in difference through quotas) as well as redistribution India, women’s increased participation in panchayats is (through enhancing capabilities as part of the equation of an important part of creating an active citizenry that deliberation, procedural mechanisms, and information includes both men and women and challenges the exchange) to empower representatives to influence policy dominant relations of social power. outcomes as well as change the nature of the debates themselves (Keck and Sikkink 1998, 3). Finally, would deliberative politics allow representatives to go beyond the group identities with which they started—especially in the context of quotas based on recognition of historical exclusions of groups—to become “empowered citizens” through the process of deliberation, through “rooting” as well as “shifting” their “original positions”?

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1710 JWHIST – Tabela C87 País Referência Público/Objeto do Trechos estudo p. 138-139 - C p. 139 - C p. 139 - ? p. 145 - C p. 152 - C p. 152 - C

These Women’s Within this At a time when While they communities, historians have system of American women shared this The vow of with all their become protected were unable to element of obedience procedural and attentive to participation, vote or hold constrained mandated social intricacies, Catholic women women’s office in the world empowerment, submission, but it are examples of religious, empowerment of civic politics, however, the also created women’s political demonstrating was tempered nineteenth- political culture of space for an cultures. In that as teachers, by the century women Catholic women even greater conjunction with nurses, and expectation that religious created religious sphere of Protestant and protosocial they would and implemented remained distinct. empowerment for secular women’s workers, sisters submit their an active and Sisters some women— organizations, exercised an individual voices participatory participated in a the ability for they illustrate that active and to the will of God system of self self-governing Freiras officers to nineteenth- visible public and the good of governance. community católicas do command great century American role and were the community, Work on requiring lifelong século XIX e authority. This women empowered by an expectation, nineteenth- membership, one Adelman comunidades authority was EUA developed their their however, that century that enshrined (2011) em que tempered by own systems of membership in even the Protestant the divestment of exerciam expectations that governance and an order. [...] In prescriptive women’s self in political papeis officers would act community. order to better literature benevolent and action and políticos as God’s These women understand how recognized as reform unquestioning intermediaries, neither mimicked communities of difficult to organizations obedience that therefore men’s structures women religious ensure. illustrates that communities exercising God’s nor shared in a shaped Community women in these retained from the power rather universal nineteenth- documents organizations tradition of than their own, women’s political century social outlined an also enacted Catholic religious but community culture. Rather, welfare and why electoral system their own political life. This political documents groups of women so many young where women cultures— culture offered recognized that charted their own women were voted selflessly electing officers, opportunities for officers would be paths, developing drawn to in accordance holding office, empowerment for tempted to stray and religious life in with God’s will conducting women religious, from this ideal. implementing this period, it is and accepted business, and although in unique systems necessary to the majority’s confronting carefully

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of community understand the vote as evidence divisions among prescribed and governance and potential for of divine the women mediated forms, social interaction. empowerment intention. based on class and shaped the Women religious and equality and social status. life and sought to find a offered by this These governance of balance between lifestyle, one organizations communities, democracy and facet of which also offered providing the obedience, was the women an foundation for between communities’ opportunity for sisters’ public egalitarianism internal political empowerment, work. and hierarchy—a culture. These while frequently task fraught with communities veiling or contradictions, offered women containing tenuous the chance to challenges to equilibriums, and exercise nineteenth- tensions that authority and a century gender occasionally political voice; norms by broke through the however, they creating male surface. Their did so within advisory boards systems of boundaries and justifying government circumscribed by their work as demonstrate a gender, religion, extensions of dynamic political and class, women’s role in culture of female restraining these the domestic self-governance, women’s voices sphere. one that was and actions simultaneously within the “safe” empowering for confines of a the women male hierarchy, involved and dictates of constrained obedience and within limits submission, and imposed by their a class-based religion and internal social contemporary ordering. society.

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JWHIST – Tabela C88 p. 119-120 - C p. 120 - ? p. 121 - C p. 122-123 - C

This tendency to mobilize on Educated and wealthy the basis of race first is still middle-class Hindu, Muslim, evident amongst the vast and Gujarati women founded majority of women’s the Indian Women’s Society organizations in Fiji today. of Suva (later renamed Stri In addition to empowering Indeed, the question that Sewa Sabha) in 1934. In line women economically, the needs to be posed is: how do with the post-indenture Indian Women’s Society of “traditional and rural-based reformism that was taking Suva played a critical role in organizations concerned with place during this period, lobbying government to During their 1926 Annual the welfare of women within women from this society change marriage laws for Conference, the women the ethnic and customary attempted to alleviate poverty Indians in Fiji. Kelly states that advised that: “a school for context” with close by fundraising to feed the the 1916 Marriage Bill was girls should be opened but associations with the church needy and destitute and controversial because colonial that this could only offer part- contribute to the encouraging women to authorities opted to keep time education in order to empowerment of organic flexibly combine domestic “Indian custom” out of attract a greater number of women? Development work with income-generating Ativismo do marriage laws in Fiji. girls whose mothers would studies scholar Regina activities such as sewing or Mishra movimento “Administrators readily permit them to attend classes Scheyvens’s response is that: Fiji cooking. Economic (2012) de mulheres codified versions of for shorter hours.” Rather “Collective networking empowerment was the de Fiji indigenous Fijian custom as than being a working through the church provides cornerstone of women’s laws but refused to grant women’s union (which was opportunities to share ideas activism during this period. legitimacy or authority to the the tradition of worker’s and identify strategic Left-wing activist Peni Moore customs of Indians that came movements globally) this interests, and allow time out summarizes the relationship to Fiji as ‘coolies’ and organization focused from mundane everyday between women’s economic plantation labor units.” primarily on legislating for the activities.” Women are empowerment and women’s Practices like child marriage, educational empowerment of provided opportunities to oppression: “Unless women polygamy, and bride selling girls. discuss commonalities and are economically were not accepted as valid differences and attend social independent, they cannot forms of Indian custom, functions where they remove themselves from neither were they recognized exchange ideas that violence and related issues. in Fiji’s laws. “encourage a sense of Women’s rights are about dignity, a desire for literacy economic rights.” To put this and a broader horizon.” argument differently, Shameem adds to this “economic activity is the key discussion: “The moment to improving women’s status.” women organized activities in

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associations and organizations in the village they were negotiating a separate space for themselves.” Continuação (Mishra, 2012) p. 123 - C p. 124 - ? p. 131 - ? p. 131 - C p. 134 - ? p. 136 - ? To a large extent, the We can argue further Fiji Women’s Crisis that by learning the Rokotuivuna criticizes Center (FWCC) patriarchally-defined women’s organizations continued the skills of white women in the 1980s for transnational discourse (such as cooking and engaging less in espoused by the Fiji Y in sewing) indigenous Surely feminism is all ideological discussions the sixties and Fijian women about political, social, Promoting an alternative about women’s seventies. This NGO empowered and economic way of doing things, and empowerment and was established in Suva themselves contestations. It would be presenting the idea of concentrating more on in 1984 by “expatriate The challenge ahead economically. The impossible to fully justice and political singular development women and teachers, for Fijian women is to participation of discuss the complexities relations based on issues or the Beijing nurses and social continue all aspects colonized women in of feminisms without sorting out economic and Platform of Action. workers from Fiji.” Its of these collaborative “colonial enterprises” taking into account social relationships, Slatter argues similarly: main objective was to efforts and to gave them the women’s political women have taken the “We went through this respond to the high continue to talk opportunity to learn agendas, the social leadership roles and are period between 1975 incidence of sexual about women’s skills that enabled them construction of gender, doing the consciousness- and 1985 when a lot of assaults (namely, rights, economic to earn an income and or the subordination of raising.” Baghwan-Rolls the women’s domestic violence, empowerment, survive in a market- women because they are similarly argues: “The development initiatives sexual harassment, and democracy, and driven economy. not economically post-2000 crisis for improving the status child abuse) and the peace using Whether the money empowered. On the empowered a lot more of women actually were lack of support services networks and spaces was used to put their whole, Hooper fails to younger women—women taken over by agencies for women who were available to them. children through accept that there are who never really and donors.” While this survivors of violence. In school, build a bus- many strands of feminist belonged to the Fiji change was crucial to this way, FWCC shelter, or lavatory for thought and levels of feminist movement.” women’s development pioneered what was to members of the village, consciousness. economically, Slatter become a specific women were helping to contends further that, to discourse against improve the living some extent, “it violence as it worked standard in their depoliticized women.” towards empowering communities and meet women and helping their immediate needs. them to remove

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themselves from violent situations. Women from the Center summarized their objectives in the following way: “We work on the principle of the empowerment of women. We believe that all forms of violence against women are a violation of women’s human rights, and that no one has the right to inflict violence on a woman or child under any circumstance.” 1715 MERID – Tabela C89 País Referênci Público/Objet do Trechos a o estud o p. 2 - ? p. 2 - ? p. 18 - S p. 19 - S p. 19 - C p. 22 - S p. 25 - S

This paper will Emerging The The final The final In spite of the It was a joy to describe the research on the concept of construct that theme of various explore the lives of seven impact of resiliency the women assertiveness challenges striking women within poverty, lack of was described was and that the similarities and the Indo- resources, and significant that of increasing women in this genuine Mulheres da Caribbean the systematic to this empowerment awareness study faced, differences of Guiana e de community, disempowermen group of . Employment added a they managed the Despot Trinidad que EUA their t of Asian Indian women. opportunities complex layer to maintain a participants in (2016) emigraram experiences of women has Women offered all to the remarkable comparison to para os EUA immigration, consequently used words participants understanding amount of my own life ways of challenged like positive of resiliency. history. My coping, and beliefs about the “survivor” to feelings of empowerment Women used involvement their feelings “submissive speak about self-worth for the Indo- empowering with this study regarding Asian Indian themselves (Work gives Caribbean words such as led to a empowerment woman” (Bhugra and made you a sense of women in this “strong,” deeper

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. and Desai 2002; statements value): “That’s study. Some “independent, understanding Thiara and Gill such as: the thing, women, ” and of experiences 2010). “You are when you’re typically “survivor” to that I have the one working and women who convey their encountered making all making your did not have feelings about as a woman of the own money children, their triumphs within the money and you don’t have stood by over the Indo- doing to depend on statements obstacles they Caribbean everything anyone.” such as: experienced. community, in the Having a job “Don’t take At the same including house. You afforded nonsense time, they sexism, are a very women the from nobody, redefined subordination, strong opportunity to somebody did challenges and misogyny. woman” reject something to such as The women’s (Being a dependence you, you don’t increased role experiences very strong on others and like it—you strain also mirrored woman). provide for speak up.” In (provider, my own The women their families. contrast, mother, wife) aspiration for reframed “I have married to reflect their self- role strain money. I can mothers strength as understanding as a be struggled with minority, and familial positive independent. I this idea, immigrant piety. I was experience can help my especially in women. In struck by the because, family.” regard to accordance women’s although Participants standing up to with Rokach’s resilience and they now also talked employers. 1999 findings, their desire to had to passionately When asked Trinidadian improve their become about their to elaborate and circumstances providers as desire to on their Guyanese . Moreover, well as improve their responses, women their yearning housewives lives (Making the married gravitated for education, , their new things better mothers toward self- greater ability to for yourself ). indicated that development employment earn money This idea was they had been and opportunities, left them repeated by socialized to understanding and feeling nearly all please others. to help them empowerment empowered participants They also felt cope. Religion helped me even while and was too and social recognize my stressed. evident economically supports were position of

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whenever insecure to significant power and participants take a stand sources of privilege talked about with their strength for relative to their desire to employers. these women these women. obtain more However, in as well and education, to certain should be persevere, situations, the further and to work married investigated. toward change mothers and progress. believed they Participants could take a also believed stand: “I can’t that have empowerment somebody could be come in and achieved rule my through children and interactions tell me what with others to do. I say (Learning from ‘No.’ I couldn’t others): “I was take stupid and somebody naïve and telling me didn’t see the that.” One world like I do divorced now. You mother added learn that she had something once felt from different similarly to people.” the married mothers, but had eventually become more assertive: “I can answer back now, before I couldn’t

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answer back.” In all, the women’s responses underscored the need to have a contextualize d understanding of their situations and experiences.

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No caso de dona Antônia, é possível No grupo de mulheres perceber que as mudanças ocorrem Em nossa pesquisa, constatamos acompanhado por nós, percebemos e que algumas modificações na vida que a inserção da mulher no que a entrada da mulher no das mulheres pobres advêm para mercado de trabalho remunerado mercado de trabalho trouxe uma que elas vivenciem uma experiência Análise de desencadeou um processo de série de vantagens à vida das de empoderamento e de liberdade. possíveis mudanças que afetou a vida das mulheres e para suas famílias. No entanto, essas vivências não mudanças na mulheres por nós analisadas. Um Podemos destacar as estratégias de acontecem de forma isolada, elas Izquierdo & vida de um dos aspectos desse processo diz empoderamento expressa em ações fazem parte de um processo de Rodrigues grupo de Brasil respeito ao acesso dessas mulheres de poder usadas para se proteger mudança de ordem social (ELIAS, (2014) mulheres após a diversas redes sociais de da violência física e simbólica dos 2011). Esse processo se dá de a sua entrada conselhos e de fofocas. Percebemos homens. Um dos aspectos forma lenta e gradativa, e perpassa no mercado de que essas redes funcionam como resistência da vida dessas mulheres a capacidade individual. Embora trabalho. meios de transmissão de ideias, as se revela por meio de conselhos. As seja de ordem social, ele induz os quais colaboram para que as mulheres mais velhas afirmaram indivíduos a substituir, mulheres vivenciem experiências de que aconselham as suas filhas das paulatinamente, comportamentos de empoderamento. vantagens e desvantagens da vida uma ordem por outros, de casada, incentivando-as. possivelmente, opostos aos

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anteriores. No caso de dona Antônia, é possível perceber como ela foi substituindo a atitude de submissão, por uma tomada de consciência de si e da sua situação de pobreza e abandono, situação essa que precisava ser mudada pelo bem dela e da sua família. No entanto, sair de casa para trabalhar acarretou uma série de dificuldades. Seu marido se opunha a que ela trabalhasse e sua mãe questionava o fato de deixar as crianças em casa e de contestar as decisões de seu marido. No entanto, o apoio para perseverar no trabalho que era negado pelo seu marido e sua mãe, ela o encontrava em algumas colegas de trabalho e na alegria das crianças quando conseguia comprar o que elas precisavam com o dinheiro que ganhava na fábrica.

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GENERO – Tabela C92 País Referência Público/Objeto do Trechos estudo p. 156 - C p. 156-157 - ? p. 161 - C p. 162 - ? p. 162-163 - C p. 163 - ?

Com isso podemos Do volume de A importância da Dissemos O modo como A despeito das responder quais são dados coletados perspectiva de anteriormente que “empoderamento” possibilidades de as estratégias de pelos diferentes gênero está para nosso uso aparece definido em diferentes arranjos desenvolvimento procedimentos de relacionada à “gênero” é um análises feministas, entre gênero, poder adotadas pelas investigação democratização conceito ancorado tal como a de e teoria social, políticas públicas e adotados, das relações na teoria pós- Magdalena León entendemos que de que modo elas selecionamos uma sociais entre estruturalista e (2000), já incorpora há possibilidade estão informadas questão pontual homens e afirmamos também na própria teórica e política de pela tradição social para este artigo: mulheres, partindo que, de uma conceituação um articular o conceito ou objetivam problematizar o do entendimento perspectiva conteúdo crítico às de empoderamento mudanças. Em enfoque de gênero de que estas são normativa– relações de poder com o pós- outros termos, incorporado na relações de poder, conduta esta muito que geram estruturalismo. devemos interpelar PNAS e no PBF conforme Joan presente nas opressão, Entre o as experiências de tendo em vista Scott (1990), as análises feministas submissão e posicionamento de Mulheres políticas públicas, suas implicações quais estruturam –, estamos subordinação e rejeição ao participantes de forma a para o sistemas de interessadas em defende uma essencialismo e um Mariano do Programa Brasil questionar se seus empoderamento desigualdades interpelar a concepção de poder projeto de (2008) Bolsa Família propósitos das mulheres. A sociais. Quando capacidade de o sob as influências empoderamento na cidade de caminham com o hipótese que orientadas por PBF contribuir para do pensamento de das mulheres, não Londrina - PR objetivo de se iluminou nosso essa concepção, o empoderamento Michael Foucault. há uma relação beneficiar das trabalho centra-se as proposições de das mulheres Podemos asseverar, necessária e, do funções na compreensão projetos e políticas pobres. então, que o mesmo modo, tradicionalmente de que essa públicas implicam Entendemos que conceito de também não há um atribuídas às incorporação vislumbrar estes dois empoderamento, de tensão intrínseca. mulheres, o que ocorre de modo a impactos nessa referenciais – pós- acordo a No entanto, ao representaria a modificar o sentido estrutura de poder, estruturalismo e perspectiva aqui tratar de políticas “funcionalização” da categoria visando, com isso, empoderamento – adotada, de combate à das mulheres; ou gênero tal como promover o se articulam e se compartilha da pobreza, como, por com o objetivo de construída no empoderamento combinam em um mesma base crítica exemplo, o PBF, contribuir para o âmbito do das mulheres, de mesmo campo presente nas defrontamo-nos “empoderamento” pensamento forma a abalar e teórico. Da abordagens com sérios das mulheres e para feminista. Desse superar as conjunção entre feministas pós- obstáculos que a promoção de modo, a noção de relações de ambos destacam- estruturalistas. colocam em

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mudanças nas “tradução político- subordinação se a compreensão Todavia, não existe questão a própria relações sociais cultural” da (MARIANO, 2001). de relação necessária possibilidade de entre homens e categoria gênero, descentramento, entre a rejeição ao associá-las a mulheres, alterando tomada de tanto do sujeito essencialismo e ao objetivos de padrões sociais que empréstimo de como do poder, binarismo e um conquista de produzem e Sonia Álvares bem como a projeto de cidadania, com reproduzem a (2000), é perspectiva empoderamento das rebatimentos subordinação orientadora de relacional e mulheres. Esta inescapáveis feminina. nossa reflexão. contingente.7 relação certamente também para os Nessa leitura, o é contingente. No objetivos de próprio processo que se refere à empoderamento. de construção de prática política dos Entendemos subjetividades, agentes, é razoável empoderamento significados e supor que nossa como o processo diferenciações é perspectiva não é a por meio do qual os atravessado por única forma de sujeitos adquirem a relações de poder. conceber uma capacidade de Dada a relevância noção de autodeterminar-se, fundamental do empoderamento. de controlar suas “poder” como Assim como vidas e de definir categoria “gênero”, suas próprias constitutiva das “empoderamento” agendas na defesa relações sociais de também é um de seus interesses gênero, a conceito que pode (MARIANO, 2003). combinação da buscar ancoragem crítica pós- nos mais variados estruturalista referenciais contra toda forma teóricos. Portanto, de fixação, empoderamento essencialismo, pode ser combinado naturalização e também com teorias binarismo com a essencialistas que defesa do naturalizam as empoderamento diferenças entre das mulheres homens e mulheres representa uma e entre masculino e importante feminino. Nesse estratégia para o eventual arranjo, é pensamento possível buscar

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feminista. modificações nas condições de hierarquia entre os gêneros sem, contudo, rejeitar os sistemas dicotômicos de análise e a perspectiva essencialista. Continuação (Mariano, 2008) p. 163 - C p. 166 - C p. 167 - C p. 167 - C p. 178 - C p. 180 - C p. 181 - C p. 184-185 - C Na medida em Na mesma linha de Por outro lado, Diferentemente O que há de Estudos da década Pensar na Esta experiência que as abordagem, o Perfil pensar no das abordagens influência do de 1980, cidadania das ilustra a reivindicações das Famílias empoderament presentes nas segundo empreendidos por mulheres em situação sobre a por Beneficiárias do o das mulheres pesquisas enfoque pesquisadoras termos de incorporação da empoderament Programa Bolsa com base em mencionadas, adotado pelo feministas sobre as empoderamento perspectiva de o têm-se Família, com base parâmetros de propomos pensar Banco Mundial organizações , autonomia e gênero nas constituído em nos dados de consumo e de de modo diverso encontra-se na comunitárias de independência políticas um dos março de 2007, autoestima é, a ideia de prioridade de mulheres, já – expressões públicas num principais declara: "Seguindo em nossa “melhoria das se destinar os apontavam os costumeirament contexto em que temas da as evidências opinião, um condições de benefícios para mesmos dilemas aqui e invocadas a categoria agenda política levantadas em modo bastante vida das as suscitados. Contudo, para tratar dos gênero dos experiências de complicado e mulheres”, mulheres/mães àquela época impactos extrapolou os movimentos implementação de enganador pautando-nos . Tal prioridade depositava-se a esperados por círculos de sociais, com políticas sociais no quando pela assenta-se na expectativa de que programas domínio destaque para Brasil e no exterior, associamos problematização tentativa de tais experiências estatais – feminista e os movimentos que indicam que as empoderament dos papéis promover a pudessem incorporar requer, passou a ocupar de mulheres e mulheres são mais o e cidadania. sociais “autossuficiênci enfoques que necessariament espaço nos os feministas, seletivas no gasto e Dessa forma, tradicionalmente a econômica visassem à e, a redução mais diversos torna-se privilegiam as sobra pouco atribuídos a das mulheres”, redefinição dos das setores sociais relevante o demandas de toda dos mulheres e como meio de papéis tradicionais e responsabilidad e instituições questionament a família, o MDS argumentos do homens e pela “satisfazer as à redistribuição de es das tarefas estatais. Como o sobre a recomenda que a MDS que busca de necessidades poderes entre reprodutivas têm apontado contribuição, mulher seja podem nos empoderamento básicas da mulheres e que recaem algumas ou não, das cadastrada como auxiliar nesta das mulheres, casa”. Isto homens.20 Isso sobre as estudiosas ações estatais responsável legal tarefa. assim como resultaria na implicaria mulheres. Neste feministas, nessa direção. pela família. Os Todavia, revisando a autonomia das desembocar em aspecto, sobretudo Sonia

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Entendida resultados vamos trilhar importância dada famílias e na ações que dessem Elizabeth Jelin Alvarez (2000), desse modo, a preliminares da outros ao repasse independência ênfase às argumenta que muitas vezes noção de pesquisa “O caminhos e preferencial às das mulheres. necessidades/interess o acesso aos essa empoderament Programa Bolsa refletir sobre mães. Nesta Ocorre, no es estratégicos, serviços fora de incorporação se o se entrelaça, Família e o questões tarefa, vale entanto, que os juntamente com as casa – público, dá por formas portanto, com Enfrentamento das diferentes destacar dois valores necessidades/interess comunitário ou variadas de a noção de Desigualdades de dessas pontos de repassados a es práticos. Desse de mercado – é tradução cidadania, de Gênero”, realizada colocadas pelo partida. título de modo, o mais político-cultural, forma que a pela AGENDE, com MDS, Primeiramente, benefício pelo empoderamento das determinante afastando-se presença de apoio do MDS, em buscando estamos de PBF são mulheres seria que a das influências uma é 10 municípios outros ângulos acordo com demasiadamen percebido de uma redistribuição das teorias e condição para brasileiros, mostram que nos Chantal Mouffe te baixos para perspectiva crítica em de tarefas no práticas o o acerto de tal permitam (2003) quando efetivamente relação aos papéis interior do feministas e desenvolvimen estratégia. Dentre problematizar esta afirma que produzir o produtivo e domicílio entre atingindo um to da outra. É os efeitos positivos o que nem toda resultado reprodutivo e os membros da nível de mera sob essa do Programa para consideramos diferença deve esperado. Se o abarcaria as família (JELIN, adição no perspectiva “empoderamento” empoderament ser celebrada, valor médio dimensões política, 1995). A oferta vocabulário que nos das mulheres, o, cidadania e pois algumas nacional econômica e cultural. por parte do técnico de propomos a encontram-se: democratizaçã delas podem transferido por Trata-se da mercado planejamento. analisar o acesso ao crédito; o das relações reforçar sistemas família é de capacidade de obviamente não Tal PBF. previsibilidade da de gênero. de subordinação, cerca de R$ politizar as questões altera a desencadeamen renda; o que, 72,00, relacionadas às situação das to subverte a planejamento consequentemen incluindo as desigualdades de mulheres reivindicação orçamentário; te, desfavorece muitas famílias gênero. pobres. Estas das feministas, “melhora da auto- as mulheres e que recebem o dependem, uma vez que estima” das devem ser valor mínimo sobremaneira, estas entendem mulheres; redução questionadas por de R$ 18,00, é dos serviços que a da dependência uma política impossível públicos e incorporação de com relação ao democrática supor a comunitários. gênero não se parceiro e redução radical. Adotando “autossuficiênci Portanto, isto dá apenas por dos conflitos esta perspectiva, a econômica”, poderia se adição, mas domésticos, que a maternidade seja das constituir em principalmente leva à diminuição pode, em mulheres ou uma verdadeira por revisão dos da violência contra algumas das famílias. política para fundamentos as mulheres. circunstâncias, Ainda que, famílias, o que tradicionais. (MINISTÉRIO DO representar sem dúvidas, significaria Este quadro DESENVOLVIMEN mecanismo de estes valores atender conduz à TO SOCIAL E perpetuação da contribuam necessidades interpretação COMBATE À condição da para garantir a dos membros cética em

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FOME, 2007, p. mulher ligada às segurança da unidade relação às 59)" tarefas de alimentar das familiar e aliviar, possibilidades reprodução, pessoas ao mesmo de que ações reforçando, beneficiadas, tempo, a carga estatais como o assim, suas ele é de obrigações PBF, do modo responsabilidade insuficiente das mulheres. como está s maternas e para promover sendo familiares. Este autonomia e orientado, risco não exclui a independência. possam possibilidade de A satisfação de efetivamente que em outras necessidades contribuir para circunstâncias a tão mínimas ampliar as maternidade não gera meios condições de possa ser de se participação e utilizada de modo minimizar a empoderamento estratégico pelas despossessão das mulheres, mulheres em psicológica, a com vistas à defesa de seus despossessão consolidação da interesses. No social e a cidadania e entanto, quando despossessão conquista de falamos de política, logo, uma democracia “estratégia” não podem radical. Todavia, estamos produzir uma invocando empoderament reorientação no elementos o. futuro é sempre políticos que possível – ainda orientem que hoje as conscientemente forças políticas a ação. Este não não sejam é o caso, a priori, favoráveis – e o das mulheres grau de atendidas pelo cobertura PBF, pois a atingido pelo associação PBF poderia, dessas com a hipoteticamente, função de mãe e ser aproveitado de esposa é, para uma antes de tudo, tematização heterônoma. crítica em torno

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da construção social das diferenças sexuais, contribuindo para a mudança da condição dessas mulheres atendidas quanto às desigualdades de gênero. Para tanto, experiências locais inovadoras, quando existentes, poderão sinalizar novos rumos para a política de assistência social e para as políticas de transferência de renda. 1725

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GENERO – Tabela C93 p. 79 - C p. 82-83 - C p. 83 - C p. 89 - C p. 89 - C p. 89 - C

Manfred Max Neef Para este autor, “não Portanto, a Para que sejam Narayan (2002, Cabe ressaltar (1986) sugere que são os indivíduos, motivação assegurados apud Estrada e que o processo de se fale de mas as unidades primária consiste canais para que Barba, 2006, p. empoderamento é “pobrezas” no domésticas que são na superação da as mulheres 299) aponta visto como plural, pois, cada ‘pobres’, a própria pobreza, que por pobres possam quatro elementos estreitamente necessidade pobreza deve ser sua vez exige a participar nas chaves para o relacionado ao de humana redefinida como um tomada de instâncias de empoderamento participação. fundamental não estado de consciência, definição, institucional: Experiências em satisfeita, gera desempoderamento” principalmente implantação e acesso a diversas partes do uma pobreza (FRIEDMANN, 1996, por parte das monitoramento informação; mundo têm humana: a p. 50). As mulheres mulheres pobres, de políticas inclusão e mostrado que pobreza de pobres são excluídas de seu poder públicas, o participação; processos de subsistência, de dos direitos mínimos social, político e conceito de prestação de participação proteção, de afeto, porque suas famílias psicológico. No empoderamento contas; e possibilitam de conhecimento, não tiveram ou não combate à institucional capacidade de processos de Mulheres de participação têm acesso ao poder pobreza, o cunhado por organização empoderamento e pobres entre outras. Este social para melhorar empoderamento Deepa Narayan local. Iorio (2002) que estas atendidas Lisboa autor associa o as condições de vida orienta-se para a (2002, apud propõe que os metodologias por CRAS Brasil (2012) processo de de seus membros; conquista da Estrada e Barba, governos devêm favorecem o de “desenvolvimento elas não têm acesso cidadania, isto é, 2006, p. 298) assegurar canais estabelecimento Florianópolis alternativo” com o ao poder político a conquista da permite analisar para que as de políticas e - SC empoderamento porque não plena capacidade a relação das pessoas e os práticas de das mulheres, compartilham as de um ator mulheres com grupos de desenvolvimento propondo a tomadas de individual ou Instituições pessoas vivendo que contemplam desconstrução do decisões; não coletivo de usar formais e na pobreza, as necessidades paradigma de possuem o poder da seus recursos informais. principalmente as das pessoas desenvolvimento voz, nem o da ação econômicos, Empoderemento mulheres, vivendo na centrado na coletiva. Da mesma sociais, políticos institucional, possam fazer pobreza. É riqueza, para forma, não têm e culturais para para a autora “é parte de importante a incluir a afirmação, acesso ao poder atuar com uma mudança instâncias de promoção e a a valorização e a psicológico que responsabilidade nas relações definição, implementação de capacitação das decorre da no espaço desiguais implantação e processos mulheres que ao consciência público na defesa formais (estado, monitoramento participativos na longo da história individual de força e de seus direitos, setor privado, de políticas mais gestão das foram mantidas manifesta-se na influenciando as sociedade civil) e gerais (como políticas. Por isso, como invisíveis e autoconfiança. Em ações dos informais(redes orçamento o

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não como sujeitos suma, não são governos na de parentes e participativo, “empoderamento” do consideradas distribuição dos vizinhos)” conselhos de é indicado como desenvolvimento. cidadãs. serviços e (Narayan 2002, políticas sociais, passo inicial de O autor parte do recursos. p. 18). As segurança um processo mais pressuposto de políticas estatais alimentar, amplo de que o e cultura previdência, conquista da “desenvolvimento” institucional conselhos de cidadania, que tem a ver com moldam as saúde, deve ser facilitado pessoas e não ações sociais e é educação) e de através da com objetos, importante levar programas de participação em rompendo com a em conta que os combate à projetos com lógica que coisifica pobres merecem pobreza e à vistas a propor as pessoas e as instituições que exclusão. A demandas de relações. os escutem e os participação é um políticas públicas. tratem com elemento respeito. As constitutivo das mudanças nas estratégias de relações empoderamento. institucionais dependem em parte da gestão, mas também da presença e pressão de cidadãos bem informados e organizados.

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PWQ – Tabela C94 1730 Público/ País do Referência Trechos Objeto estudo p. 296 - ? p. 298 - C p. 299 - C p. 299 -C p. 299 - C p. 300 - C p. 300 - C p. 301 - C

Empowerme Although The The Many of the nt. The there were thematic prominent story prominent a analysis feature of endings Other feature of substantial revealed the evinced endings with The three this theme, number of themes of empowerme participants’ the major themes which was story gendered nt theme doubt that empowerme drawn from The included in endings that sexuality, was vividly their sexual nt theme this analysis, thematic 37% of story expressed interperson described desires and explicitly described in analysis endings, is a the al concerns, physical decisions ruled out detail below, concentrate description empowerme and resistance to would be, or calling for were d on the of physical nt theme empowerme the man’s even could help, gendered beliefs, resistance to with this nt sexual be, taken acknowledgi Mulheres sexuality, values, and the man’s kind of throughout assault seriously. ng those que interpersonal norms sexual energy, for participants’ attempt, These same Masters, responder concerns, and conveyed in assault example, story sometimes beliefs may interpersona Norris, am o que empowerment the endings. attempt, “I’d kick him endings, along with make l concerns in Stoner & fariam em EUA . The first Three major often but not in the balls and the screaming women a different George um author coded themes were always along and then pattern of for help from especially way: “I bite, (2006) cenário all of the story drawn from with mention break his contrasting friends. vulnerable hit, and kick. de abuso endings; this analysis: of screaming nose and elements Although a to sexual What I don’t sexual because gendered or calling for then wake observed in substantial coercion do is themes are sexuality, help from the up my the content number of and scream, I not mutually interpersona friends friends and analysis story aggression, don’t want exclusive, an l concerns, upstairs in maybe I’d was present endings and Susan to ending may and the story. call the here as expressed changing know what is have been empowerme Many of the cops or well. the them may happening, coded with nt. endings that maybe I’d Although empowerme be a target along with more than displayed kick his a∗∗ researchers nt theme in for her one theme. this theme some saw an angry, intervention. roommates.” were notable more,” this unambiguou action- However, a . for their vivid theme was s rape packed substantial and visual also attempt, prose, it was portion of writing style expressed many also story

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and their in a calmer women expressed endings palpable and style. Some seemed to less revealed often participants see a dramatically, that profanity- contrasted relationship with some participants laced anger. their actions that they participants were ready with other were contrasting to fight back concerns responsible their need and that that also for for defensive they arose for managing, action with believed them, as with roles to their their when this a large concerns resistance woman extent about would be wrote of dictated by ruining the successful. disregarding traditional relationship Inasmuch interperson gendered with the man as this al sexual or feelings of sense of relationship scripts, and having “led empowerme manageme with him on.” The nt might nt concerns coerced sex presence of energize and being only themes of assertive reputation one of many gendered resistance preservation pitfalls to be sexuality or to an actual needs to avoided. interpersona rape, it is a defend Many l concerns positive sign herself: "I women also did not for possible feel the seemed preclude the rape ‘fight or completely presence of prevention. flight’ rising confident the Helping up in me that they empowerme women to now . . . I would not nt theme. develop the am not only fight The belief that going to let back thematic they can him rape physically analysis defend me. I am against a revealed themselves only afraid sexually women against of not being aggressive simultaneou assault and able to stop male sly enacting training him at this acquaintanc and them to do point. I am e, but also critiquing the so should

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not worried triumph gender roles be an about what over him. dictated by effective he or my standard intervention. friends will sexual think of me." scripts, maintaining concern about relationships , and keeping themselves ready to fight sexual assault should they need to do so.

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PWQ – Tabela C95 p. 288 - ? p. 291 - ? p. 292 - C p. 292 - C p. 294 - C

Mental health professionals working in the area of same- sex IPV should Mental health educate themselves professionals were about same-sex described as most relationship dynamics helpful when they and same-sex IPV. In explicitly addition to knowing The narratives We also examined acknowledged the about these Counselors should described how the strategies of abuse, encouraged dynamics, providers provide the mental health counseling that were mothers to see that should be able to necessary resources professionals used as reported by the relationship “was identify the strengths for clients to draw worked with the the participants. Key unhealthy” (April) and of same-sex Mulheres lésbicas their own options, women and words were then guided rather than relationships and e sua percepção decisions, and whether these Oswald, used to label the directed the mothers incorporate these sobre solutions, clients found it Fonseca type of intervention. to seek a solution. For strengths into aconselhamento encouraging self- helpful. Counseling & EUA For example, one example, Angela, treatment plans. The profissional empowerment. Self- strategies included Hardesty participant reported amother of two sons, next step beyond recebido em casos empowerment is explicit rule setting (2010) that the mental felt her mental health empowering an de violência por crucial for abuse with abusers, health professional provider was “very individual client parceira íntima survivors because indirect exploration was “very empowering. She would be to promote oftentimes they have of the abuse, and empowering,” so the didn’t try to solve it for social justice and been stripped of their empowering clients strategy was coded me. You know she just advocate for change own personal power to leave the as empowering the gave me some of the in the therapeutic (Walker, 2000). abusive client. tools and just let me community to ensure relationship. sit with it for a week or that the needs of two weeks, however abused lesbian long our [time mothers are being between] sessions met, which is in would be.” accordance with the advocacy model that Morrow and Hawxhurst (1989) outlined.

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For example, Dworkin, Exner, There is also evidence Melendez, Hoffman, and Ehrhardt internationally that the (2006) recently evaluated an incorporation of empowerment intervention program that was issues into interventions has been conducted with women in New successful in decreasing women’s York City who reported risk for HIV infection. A heterosexual activity in the past randomized trial of the Songachi year. The intervention program Project with sex workers in took an established intervention northeastern India provided model (the AIDS risk reduction The current theoretical framework also evidence of the success of this model), which uses three steps to leads to some direct suggestions for approach (Basu et al., 2004). This encourage behavioral change in intervention efforts aimed at approach to HIV interventions risk behavior, and added the preventing HIV infection through focuses on empowerment by elements of discussing and heterosexual transmission. It points to working not just with sex workers, challenging gender norms and the need to empower women by but also with people who have the scripts generally accepted in Risco de specifically addressing force, resource power and influence to promote society that can lead to risky Rosenthal transmissão do HIV control, social obligations, and the rights of sex workers, such as heterosexual behavior. Women & Levy a mulheres em EUA consensual ideologies as bases for “madams” and brothel owners, who participated in this intervention (2010) relacionamentos imbalances in power. Because this police officers, and politicians. The felt stronger and more confident in heterossexuais theoretical framework identifies power intervention resulted in increased being able to discuss protection at multiple levels working in concert, condom use by the sex workers at with male partners, decided that intervention recommendations include follow-up assessments over the they would not tolerate being efforts at more distal levels such as course of 16 months. These controlled in their relationships with institutional and societal, which may findings emphasize the way that men, and even ended relationships not appear to be directly related to an understanding of institutional they felt were negatively affecting individual HIV risk. power and women’s lack of their lives and their risk behavior resource control can be used to (Dworkin et al., 2006). They implement strategies that will attributed these positive changes promote behavioral change. This specifically to having addressed is only one example of the many issues of gender norms and possible ways that an women’s empowerment. This understanding of power’s influence particular intervention is a notable on heterosexual risk behavior can example of the way that previous create more successful intervention strategies can be interventions. improved by incorporating a focus

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on empowerment. Indeed, the issues of institutional and interpersonal power inequalities have begun to be included more often in interventions recently (e.g., Marín, 2003; Romero et al., 2006). Although the particular focus in the intervention evaluated by Dworkin et al. (2006) was mostly on consensual ideologies, it can provide a model for attempting to incorporate the additional issues of resource control, force, and social obligations into future interventions. PWQ – Tabela C97 p. 430 - S p. 433 - ? p. 434 - ? p. 434 - S

Study 2 provided an Although theorized as a causal Female psychology The priming manipulation experimental test of the model, the correlational design of undergraduates were was designed to activate role of body guilt in our first study limits our ability to recruited via an online a state of body women’s self- draw any firm conclusions about advertisement on the objectification or a state objectification. Specifically, the role of body guilt in women’s psychology department’s of body empowerment we used a scrambled selfobjectification.Study 2 extends website to participate in a using The Scrambled sentence task to prime a this program of research by study on verbal proficiency Sentence Test (Srull & state of body providing an experimental test of and college health. Upon Wyer, 1979), following a objectification or body body guilt within the objectification arrival, consenting similar method Experiência empowerment to test theory framework. Past research participants were implemented by Roberts Calogero de culpa em Reino whether body guilt would has demonstrated that subtle randomly assigned to one and Gettman (2004) to & Pina relação ao Unido increase when the concept exposure to sexually objectifying of three priming manipulate self- (2011) corpo por of self-objectification was cues (vs. bodily empowerment conditions: (a) body objectification. This mulheres activated. The inclusion of cues) via lexical priming increases objectification, (b) body manipulation was a neutral condition with women’s appearance focus and empowerment, or (c) body presented as a 20-item nonbody-focused primes feelings of shame, disgust, neutral. In a same-sex test of language allowed us to examine appearance anxiety, as well as testing session facilitated proficiency and instructed whether exposure to body decreasing the appeal of physical by a female experimenter participants to create a objectification or body sex (Roberts & Gettman, 2004). (for whom the condition grammatically correct empowerment primes We relied on a similar priming was masked), three to five four-word sentence from increased or decreased methodology to test whether participants were five words presented in body guilt. We experimentally activating a state administered the scrambled order. For the

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hypothesized that body of body objectification versus a respective paper-and- two priming conditions, guilt (along with state of body empowerment pencil Scrambled 15 of the 20 items selfsurveillance, body would increase women’s body Sentence Test (Srull & contained a target word shame, and eating guilt, thereby providing causal Wyer, 1979) in a separate related to body restraint) would be higher evidence for the link between self- envelope from the other objectification or body in the body objectification objectification and body guilt. In materials, ostensibly as a empowerment. In the condition compared to the addition to body guilt, we separate experiment on body objectification body empowerment or hypothesized that priming a state verbal proficiency. condition, the target neutral condition. We also of body objectification would words included sexiness, tested the same increase selfsurveillance, body weight, attractive, objectification model with shame, and eating restraint glamour, slender, body guilt from the first compared to priming body thinness, appearance, study with a state measure empowerment. beauty, physique, of self-objectification in the shapely, figure, posing, second study. desirable, proportional, and elegant. In the body empowerment condition, the target words included playing, fitness, health, stamina, coordinated, endurance, strong, wellness, feeling, survival, vitality, powerful, durable, balanced, and energetic. In the body neutral condition, the target words included here, tasty, together, silly, fine, crossed, honesty, music, interesting, similar, truthfulness, car, happy, crunchy, and trainer.

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1740 Continuação (Calogero & Pina, 2011) p. 434 - ? p. 434-435 - ? p. 435 - ? p. 435 - ? p. 435 - ? p. 436 - S A priori planned comparisons were used All dependent variables to test our hypotheses were analyzed using a for group differences one-way, three-level across the four outcome ANOVA with priming variables. Results condition (body indicated that women in Data from these five A oneway analysis of objectification, body the body objectification participants were variance (ANOVA) We relied on the same empowerment, and condition reported excluded from analysis, revealed a significant effect path analysis procedure neutral) as the between- significantly more body leaving a total sample of the manipulation, such that was used in the first subjects variable (see guilt than women in the size of 80 across the that women in the body study to test the Table 3). Effect sizes body empowerment Mere exposure to three conditions of body objectification condition objectification model in are reported for all condition, F(1, 52) ¼ sexually objectifying objectification (n ¼ 28), responded with more the second study. analyses, indexed by 12.78, p < .001, r ¼ .44, words increased body empowerment (n appearancebased Because our purpose eta-squared (Z2) for the and the neutral women’s levels of ¼ 26), and attributes to describe was to compare bodily omnibus F-tests and by condition, F(1, 52) ¼ self-surveillance, neutral/control (n ¼ 26). themselves on the TST (M objectification to bodily r for the planned 6.37, p ¼ .015, r ¼ .32. body shame, and The four dependent ¼ 1.54, SD ¼ 0.92) empowerment, and for comparisons (Rosnow Compared to the other they reported measures were identical compared to women in the ease of interpretation, & Rosenthal, 1996). As conditions, women dietary restraint as to the first study: the body empowerment we only included the expected, the priming exposed to body well, whereas Self-Surveillance (body condition (M ¼ 0.81, SD ¼ two experimental condition had a objectification primes exposure to words function; a ¼ .89) and 0.57), F(1,52) ¼ 11.99, p < conditions in our significant effect on also reported higher that emphasized Body Shame (a ¼ .87) .001, Z2 ¼ .19. Thus, the analysis. Participants in body guilt, F(2, 77) ¼ self-surveillance (body bodily subscales of the manipulation confirms that the body objectification 5.17, p ¼ .008, Z2 ¼ empowerment: F[1, 52] empowerment did Objectified Body women were more self- condition were coded as .12, as well as on self- ¼ 10.47, p ¼ .002, r ¼ not. Consciousness Scale, conscious about their 1 and participants in the surveillance, F(2, 77) ¼ .40; neutral: F[1, 52] ¼ the Body Guilt Scale (a physical appearance after body empowerment 5.43, p ¼ .006, Z2 ¼ 4.41, p ¼ .04, r ¼ .28) ¼ .87), and the the body objectification condition were coded as .12, and body shame, and higher body shame Restraint subscale of prime compared to the 1. F(2, 77) ¼ 4.80, p ¼ (body empowerment: the EDE-Q (a ¼ .93). body empowerment prime. .01, Z2 ¼ .11; however, F[1, 52] ¼ 7.07, p ¼ the overall effect for .01, r ¼ .34; neutral: eating restraint was not F[1, 52] ¼ 7.99, p ¼ significant, F(2, 77)¼ .007, r ¼ .36). The body 2.77, p ¼.09, Z2 ¼ .06. objectification condition also increased eating restraint compared to

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the body empowerment condition, F(1, 52) ¼ 5.37, p ¼ .02, r ¼ .30, but not in comparison to the neutral condition, F(1, 52) ¼ 2.48, p ¼ .12, r ¼ .21. The body empowerment condition did not differ from the body neutral condition across any of the study variables: body guilt, F(1, 50) ¼ 0.26, p ¼ .62, r ¼ .07; self- surveillance, F(1, 50) ¼ 1.29, p ¼ .26, r ¼ .16; body shame, F(1, 50) ¼ 0.01, p ¼ .92, r ¼ .01; eating restraint, F(1, 50) ¼ 0.25, p ¼ .62, r ¼ .07.

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PWQ – Tabela C98 p. 592-593 - C p. 593 - ? p. 593-594 - ?

Although survivors made attempts to influence their interactions with the legal and medical systems, it is important to acknowledge that often these efforts were not successful. Future research could build upon Many survivors who cooperated in In addition, it is important for Konradi’s (2007) research in which order to achieve justice did not do so, advocates to be aware that she identified factors, such as social and survivors who tried to alter the sometimes survivors desire opposing support and prior experience and/or legal system’s response were goals and that pursuing one (e.g., knowledge of the legal system, which typically unable to bring about self-protection via not participating in caused survivors to participate more change. It is even possible that some the system) may greatly diminish actively in their cases. What other of their efforts backfired and their ability to achieve another resources can help survivors to negatively impacted their ability to (e.g.,justice). Ultimately, this type of navigate these systems? What alter the response to their case. To Greeson & Mulheres interaction would empower survivors systemic characteristics (e.g., norms, create broader change that both Campbell sobreviventes EUA by providing them with information actions, organizational policies, and empowers survivors and helps (2011) de estupro about the types of choices (and structures) facilitate survivors’ agency? systems effectively process cases, potential trade-offs) that are available Which systemic characteristics community stakeholders who respond to them during their interactions with constrain it? How do characteristics of to rape will need to consider the system in advance. By sharing survivors (e.g., race, SES, sexuality, implementing systemic and/or information about survivors’ agency, drug use prior to the assault) influence structural changes. One possible advocates can help give women potential options for expressing their strategy is implementing a vertical ideas about how they can pursue agency? Answering these questions advocacy model, in which a rape- their own agendas within these could help identify ways to empower victim advocate (e.g., from a rape powerful systems. survivors during their interactions with crisis center) trained on the medical these systems. and criminal justice system response works with a survivor throughout the entire process—from medical/ evidence collection and reporting through to the trial.

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PWQ – Tabela C99 p. 39 - ? p. 39 - S p. 40 - ?

Based on her analysis of media Gill (2007a) describes three images, Gill (2007a, 2008) discusses contemporary ‘‘postfeminist’’ a recent change in how women are constructions of women that represented in advertising wherein emphasize this female sexual representations of women as fairly empowerment: exposure of the passive sexual objects are young, heterosexually desirable increasingly replaced by ‘‘midriff’’ (mid-torso); the vengeful representations of women as active woman set on punishing her partner subjects (Goldman, 1992). As such, or ex-partner for his transgressions; advertisers increasingly frame and the ‘‘hot lesbian’’ displayed images of women as liberated and in entwined with another beautiful control. However, the mode through woman. The most dominant of which women’s control is displayed these, the ‘‘midriff,’’ portrays ‘‘a Furthermore, Gill argues that their in this new breed of advertising is in young, attractive, heterosexual humor and irony may make these ‘‘the commodification of their woman who knowingly and images more appealing to women. Mulheres appearance’’ (Gill, 2007a, p. 89). In deliberately plays with her sexual However, it is still women’s sexual Halliwell, submetidas a um part, this approach can be seen as a power and is always ‘up for it’ (that attractiveness that is central to the Malson & experimento com Reino response by advertisers to feminist is, sex)’’ (p. 41). These midriff image. This new representation, Tischner imagens de Unido criticisms of the depiction of women images are objectified images in that despite its connotations of (2011) propagandas as passive objects of male desire they typically focus on ultrathin, empowerment, must conform to all sexualizadas (Gill, 2007a; Goldman, 1992) such White, young female bodies, yet in the same constraints and efforts of that more ‘‘post-feminist’’ contrast to traditional passive constructing beauty as traditional advertisements now represent images, they emphasize women’s images wherein the woman’s value women as actively sexually agentic. presumed empowerment and sexual remains solely physical. This analysis is consistent with confidence. These images Levy’s (2005) critique of shifts in represent, therefore, ‘‘a shift from contemporary culture whereby objectification to sexual women are now encouraged to subjectification’’ (p. 41). Rather than display their liberation and women being displayed as objects of empowerment through their own male desire, in the new sexualization. She argues that the representations women are emergence of ‘‘raunch culture’’ is not portrayed as actively choosing to commonly understood as signaling display themselves sexually in order the failure of feminism, but instead as to demonstrate their independence a result of the achievements made and liberation (Gill, 2007a). The four through feminism. This rationalization key characteristics of midriff images

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of raunch culture argues that women are that they focus not just on are now liberated enough to take women’s bodies but also on their pleasure in presenting themselves as sexual agency, autonomy, and sex objects, for example through empowerment. Often this framing is reading porn or taking lap dancing achieved through the use of classes. There is evidence that these humorous and ironic slogans. Young changes have an impact on women’s women read these images in behavior. Research shows that complex ways and, to some extent, viewing sexually objectifying they are viewed as entertaining, but depictions of women in the media is at the same time, these models’ positively related to young women’s power is understood as being limited likely participation in self-sexualizing to their sexual appeal (Malson, behaviors (such as taking part in a Halliwell, Tischner, & Ru´do´lfsdo´ wet t-shirt competition or attending ttir, in press). This paradox is pole dancing classes) and their consistent with feminist analyses of acceptance of such behaviors in postfeminist cultures (e.g., Amy- other women (Nowatzki & Morry, Chinn, 2006), illustrating that these 2009). images cannot be viewed ‘‘as wholly ‘good’ or wholly ‘bad’’’ (Malson et al., in press). Continuação (Halliwell, Malson & Tischner, 2011) p. 40 - S p. 40 - S p. 40 - S p. 43 - ? p. 43 - S In many contemporary Our study, therefore, In our study, the passively It would have been Despite these limitations, our representations, women extends previous literature objectifying representations informative to, and future study is informative because appear to actively court the because it is the first known of women were research should, include an it indicates that agentic, male gaze and yet, at the study to examine how the operationalized through the additional condition where sexualized representations of same time, they also appear framing of advertising presentation of images of advertisements featuring women in the media are to have internalized the images to emphasize women in their underwear nonsexualized framings of associated with equivalent perspective of this male gaze women’s presumed sexual framed by slogans women are used. This levels of weight as their own. This empowerment or passivity emphasizing their physical addition would allow us to dissatisfaction as passive, internalization is central to impacts women’s reactions, appearance. In contrast, the disentangle further the impact objectifying images and are understandings of self- specifically, state self- sexually agentic of viewing thin idealized more strongly associated with objectification. In this sense, objectification and weight representations were models per se from the self-objectification. The such contemporary dissatisfaction. We included operationalized by framing impact of viewing these empowerment displayed in representations may be more state weight dissatisfaction these same images with models framed as sexualized contemporary images powerful in leading women to because it focuses slogans emphasizing the in various ways. Indeed the remains rooted in women’s internalize an outsiders’ specifically on women’s woman’s control, substantial evidence that appearance and their (masculinist) viewpoint and evaluation of their weight empowerment, and sexual media exposure leads to conformity to cultural ideals of

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thus to engage in state self- rather than their appearance self-confidence. Our first negative body evaluation beauty and sexuality. objectification. However, more generally and has hypothesis is that, because (e.g., Grabe et al., 2008) Therefore, the sexual agency these contemporary been shown to be the characteristics of points to the powerful impact implied in these images depictions of women (as particularly affected by idealized beauty do not differ of viewing any images of represents a form of pseudo agentically rather than media exposure (Halliwell & between the images, women idealized beauty. The current empowerment and does not, passively sexual) may also Dittmar, 2008). will report higher levels of study focused on sexual in fact, have an empowering be more difficult to challenge, weight dissatisfaction after empowerment. There are, of impact on young women; particularly because the new viewing images of ultrathin course, alternative rather it seems to be more figures of sexual agency models, regardless of representations of damaging than passively appear to offer empowerment framing than after viewing empowerment (e.g., Zerbe- objectifying representations. and a welcome shift away control images (not featuring Enns, 2004) that have not In sum, what on the face of it from passive representations women). In contrast, the been examined here. Clearly, appears to be a positive step (Gill, 2008). It is important, additional emphasis on advertising communicates forward toward empowering then, to investigate women’s sexual empowerment in multiple messages about the women consumers of evaluation of these images as agentic images may well construction of femininity and sexualized advertising well as the impact they have have a stronger impact than women’s reading of and actually appears to be a step on women’s body image and passive representations on responses to these backward. self-objectification. women’s levels of self- messages will be equally objectification because such complex. The value of the portrayals increase striving current research is in for an idealized appearance demonstrating that agentic, (Spitzack, 1990). Hence, our sexualized framings of second hypothesis is that idealized beauty may be state self-objectification will more damaging than passive be higher after exposure to representations. the sexually agentic framing compared to the objectifying framing or control images. Finally, we will examine women’s evaluation of each of these advertising images. Due to the apparent empowerment represented in the sexually agentic framing, our third hypothesis is that the sexually agentic framing will be rated more positively than the passively objectifying framing.

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PWQ – Tabela C100 p. 133 - C p. 134 - C p. 134 - C p. 135 - C

The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM), introduced in the In addition, as an index 1995 HDR, is a composite intended to measure index that was part of the women’s decision-making UNDP’s effort to address power, the GEM largely the status of women assesses public decision The 2010 HDR introduced around the world. It is making. Women’s ability the GII (UNDP, 2010), composed of three to make decisions within a which assesses inequities dimensions: the extent of household (e.g., in three dimensions, women’s political consenting to sexual Gender Empowerment including reproductive participation and decision intercourse with her Measure (GEM)a: health (as measured by making (measured by husband, having a say in Includes (a) women’s maternal mortality and women’s share of the allocation of familial percentage shares of adolescent fertility), parliamentary seats), financial resources, parliamentary seats; (b) empowerment (i.e., economic participation choosing to be pregnant) women’s percentage female/male ratio in Else- Medidas de and decision-making is critical to empowerment, shares of executive (i.e., parliamentary Quest & avaliação de power (i.e., women’s but it is not measured by EUA positions as legislators, representation and Grabe desigualdade share of executive and the GEM. Although the senior officials, and educational attainment at (2012) entre gêneros professional or technical GEM remains widely managers) and or above secondary jobs), and the power regarded as a global professional or technical level), and labor force exerted by women over indicator of women’s positions; and (c) participation. The GII has economic resources (i.e., empowerment, some have women’s and men’s the advantage of being gender ratios in estimated argued that it actually estimated earned available for a greater earned income; for assesses the outcomes of income number of nations (n = technical details on women’s empowerment, 140) than the GEM (n = calculating the GEM, see or gender equality (Grabe, 109). To date, it has not UNDP, 1995, 2009). 2010a). We include it in been used in empirical Despite its widespread our discussion here psychological research. use, the GEM is limited in primarily because it has its utility to psychologists been used extensively in because it relies so psychological research as heavily on economic and a measure of gender political domains. A critical equity. concern is that the GEM has an urban elitist bias

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(UNDP, 2010) and therefore does not reflect the empowerment of a nation’s women generally, but rather the empowerment of upper- class women specifically. That is, given that elected officials tend to be highly connected to politically powerful families and organizations, the election of a woman to a parliamentary seat may reflect those political connections more than it reflects a cultural value of women in decision- making positions. Similarly, the economic indicator used in the GEM measures the degree to which women are represented in middle- and upper-middle class jobs, not the degree to which they can earn and control an income. Thus, in a sense, the GEM reflects women’s progress in penetrating the glass ceiling. 1750

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Continuação (Else-Quest & Grabe, 2012) p. 137 - C p. 137 - S p. 138 - S p. 140 - S p. 140 - C p. 140 - C p. 140 - S However, In their examination Bina Agarwal (1994, Within the field of Empowerment has In sum, although a Our article assessing the of the gender 1997) has argued that international been examined by growing sample of establishes clear wage gap is stratification women’s ownership of development, feminist and studies has value in the problematic hypothesis, Else- assets (in particular which was largely community integrated nation- application of insofar as the Quest et al. (2010) land) leads to responsible for psychologists, who level gender equity nation-level value of examined women’s improvements in facilitating global have conceptualized it indicators in gender equity measuring gender representation in women’s welfare, interest in and as a sense of freedom traditional indicators for gaps in earned careers in research productivity, equality, measurement of and personal agency psychological psychological income rests on and science in and empowerment; gender equity, or mastery over issues methods, few have science, and the several untenable relation to findings from a small some social that are important in produced findings research reviewed assumptions adolescent math but growing body of scientists have one’s life (Grabe, that clearly link the here suggests that (Cueva Beteta, attitudes in 69 research support her assumed that 2011; Rappaport, personal and these indicators 2006). One such nations. They argument. psychological and 1987; Zimmerman, political in a are linked to a assumption is that reported that Demonstrating the interpersonal 1990, 1995) and as theoretically host of gender women have the women’s share of links between the mechanisms enabling women to meaningful or differences on freedom to spend research jobs political context and mediate the effects draw upon skills and transformative psychological their own income. predicted the personal experience, of gender equity on resources to cope with way. Thus, we constructs. A woman’s magnitude of in Kerala, India, as women’s well- stress or trauma argue for However, we urge freedom to spend gender differences many as 49% of being. For (Johnson, Worell, & researchers to psychologists to independently in math attitudes, women who did not example, Nobel Chandler, 2005). employ a more expand the use of earned income is including math own property suffered laureate and Although early explicitly feminist gender equity critical to her selfconfidence, longterm physical feminist economist conceptualizations and and emancipatory indicators to empowerment but value, intrinsic and violence from an Amartya Sen’s investigations of model in which the investigate the cannot be extrinsic intimate partner, (1990, 1992) empowerment within breadth and utility psychosocial assumed from motivation, anxiety, compared with women influential work on psychology gave of nation-level processes wage earning self-concept, and who owned either land ‘‘missing women’’ limited attention to measures are (a) involved in because husbands self-efficacy. In (18%) or a house maintains that context and focused expanded and legitimating and frequently control nations with more (10%) and those who parental preference primarily on individual developed, (b) maintaining power how household equitable owned both assets for sons over psychological used in a differentials that income is representation of (7%; Panda & daughters and components (Perkins theoretically threaten women’s allocated and women in such Agarwal, 2005). [...] intrahousehold & Zimmerman, 1995; consistent manner wellbeing and spent (UNIFEM, careers, boys and Grabe(2010b) decision-making Riger, 1993), to index critical psychological 2010). Even girls reported more replicated and account for cultural empowerment theory mechanisms, and functioning. In among similar attitudes extended these variations in now explicitly links (c) aimed at particular, an interventions than in nations with findings in a women’s economic subjective well-being studying and expanded frontier aimed at less equitable quasiexperimental value and with larger social and fostering political of psychological

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increasing representation of study among two empowerment. political contexts change to bring science that women’s women in research groups of women in According to Sen (Perkins & about the examines how economic jobs (Else-Quest et rural Nicaragua (1999, p. 194), Zimmerman, 1995; empowerment of structural empowerment via al., 2010). In other (landowners and ‘‘The impact of Zimmerman, 1995). women and girls inequities are loans, only partial words, when career nonlandowners) and greater Through the use of worldwide. related to evidence opportunities in found that landowning empowerment and nation-level gender processes demonstrates science were women reported lower independent equity indicators, surrounding women’s control available to and levels of domestic agency of women psychologists can women’s over their income. occupied by violence than landless thus includes the begin to investigate empowerment For example, 63% women, girls felt women—explained, in correction of the how structural could make a of female loan more positively part, by differences in inequities that inequities are related much-needed holders in about their own women’s blight the lives and to processes of contribution to a Bangladesh abilities and future. psychological well-being of women’s growing literature reported having In this way, the empowerment. Her women vis-a`-vis empowerment. That is, and foster social partial, very well-being of girls findings indicated that men.’’ This psychologists are well change. limited, or no at the individual or land ownership was theorizing situates positioned to provide control over the micro level directly linked to women’s empirical support for loans they had mirrored the gender ideology, empowerment as processes that have procured (Goetz & empowerment of which was related to the critical been theorized in the Gupta, 1996). women at the women’s interpersonal mediating variable international literature national or macro power and control in achieving gender but not fully examined. level. Such a within the relationship, equality. Such As processes of pathway is which explained why empowerment globalization continue consistent with our and how owning land processes can— to intensify, and issues thesis that the contributed to lower and should—be such as the political and levels of physical, examined by feminization of poverty personal are linked sexual, and psychologists. and women’s risk for and that feminist or psychological violence HIV persist, the need emancipatory from intimate partners. for psychologists to models can be investigate the examined by consequences of integrating nation- structural inequities on level variables with women’s well-being is more traditional gaining increasing psychological imperative. methods.

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1755 PWQ – Tabela C101 p. 41 - C p. 43 - ? p. 43 - ? p. 45-46 - ?

Significant differences Care needs were assessed between the four needs using an interview profiles were found with especially developed for The first class of respect to symptoms of our study. We considered participants was named depression and PTSD. needs on the following 12 the High Needs class (see The high needs class was domains: housing, Figure 1). In this class, characterized by serious finances, daily activities women expressed the mental health problems, (assisting with searching highest care needs in specifically, symptoms of for suitable education, almost all life domains (on The third class comprised severe depression. A one- work, or volunteer work, average in 8.4 of the 12 of women with a need for way ANOVA showed that etc.), household and self- domains). Practically all help with psychological CES-D scores differed care, relationship with the women wanted help with issues and empowerment, significantly among the abuser, social contacts, housing-related issues, thus named the classes, F(3, 174) = relationship with the mental health, Empowerment Needs 15.35, p < .001, with a children, physical health, empowerment, and help class (see Figure 3). On moderate-to-large effect Mulheres mental health, safety, with their relationship with average, these women Jonker, size (Z2 = .21). sobreviventes empowerment their children (e.g., reported they needed help Sijbrandij Hochberg’s GT2 indicated de abuso e Holanda (assertiveness, self- information about further in 4.9 of the 12 domains. & Wolf that the high needs class moradoras de defense courses, etc.), and help for them, referral to All women wanted help (2012) showed significantly more abrigos spiritual and cultural habits. other institutions, and with their mental health symptoms of depression The response categories advice about how to and almost all reported than women in either the were based on the format manage and raise help with their empowerment needs of the Short Form Quality children). This class had empowerment. None of the class (Mdiff = 9.47; 95% of Life and Care (QoLC) the highest care needs women formulated care CI [3.62, 15.32]) or Index by Wennink and Van with regard to social needs with regard to women in the low needs Wijngaarden (2004). For contacts. Two thirds of the cultural and spiritual class (Mdiff = 13.47; 95% each domain, two women in this class habits. CI [7.84, 19.09]). [...] questions were asked (‘‘Do wanted advice about Hochberg’s GT2 indicated you want help with . . . ? possibilities for meeting that women in the high and ‘‘Do you get help with . other people, about how to needs class showed . . ?’’), resulting in a total of discuss problems with significantly more 24 questions across 12 others, and about how to symptoms of PTSD than domains. All questions ask for support. women in either the were coded 1 (yes) or 0 empowerment needs (no). class or women in the low

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needs class. In addition, women in the practical needs class reported significantly more symptoms of PTSD than women in the low needs class. Continuação (Jonker, Sijbrandij & Wolf, 2012) p. 47 - ? p. 48 - ? p. 48 - ? p. 48 - S p. 48 - ? p. 49 - ? Hochberg’s GT2 Significant differences The aims of our study Finally, our study indicated that women in were found with the were to construct needs showed that the need Finally, the Low Needs the high needs class Hochberg’s GT2 profiles of 218 shelter- for help with mental The Empowerment class resembled the reported ‘‘no needs’’ in indicating that women based women in the issues was endorsed in Needs class practical needs class in fewer domains than in the high needs class Netherlands and to both the high needs and predominantly their emphasis on help women in the expressed more compare these needs the empowerment expressed the need for with practical issues, empowerment needs ‘‘unmet needs’’ than profiles with respect to needs classes, whereas help with psychological such as finances and class (Mdiff = 2.32; women in the practical women’s background in all classes, most issues and housing. Women in this 95% CI [3.03, 1.61]) or needs class (Mdiff = characteristics, mental notably in the high empowerment. They class reported fewer the low needs class 1.70; 95% CI [0.85, health functioning, needs and practical showed fewer symptoms of (Mdiff = 3.75; 95% CI 2.55]), the general life satisfaction, needs classes, symptoms of depression depression and PTSD [4.47, 3.04]). In empowerment needs and the attuning of the selfreported levels of and PTSD than women than the high needs addition, women in the class (Mdiff = 2.57; shelter services to the depression and PTSD in the high needs class and practical needs practical needs class 95% CI [1.62, 3.52]), or needs reported. In our symptoms were high. In but did not differ in this classes as well as expressed ‘‘no needs’’ the low needs class study, a four-class addition, our finding that respect from the other higher levels of in more domains than (Mdiff = 2.73; 95% CI typology was supported. women in the classes. The selfefficacy and self- women in the high [1.77, 3.69]). The High Needs class empowerment needs empowerment needs esteem than in the high needs class (Mdiff = Hochberg’s GT2 also was characterized by class show lower levels class reported needs class. Similar to 2.04; 95% CI [1.40, indicated there were high levels of needs, of depression and experiencing the empowerment 2.67]) and in fewer significant differences both practical (e.g., PTSD symptoms than unrequested needs class, the low domains than women in with respect to women housing and finances) the high needs class interference with needs class reported the low needs class with ‘‘met needs.’’ and psychological (e.g., does not imply that respect to the shelter relatively more (Mdiff =1.72; 95% CI Women in the high mental health issues, professional help to services offered more unrequested [2.50, 0.93]). Women in needs class reported empowerment, reduce these symptoms often than the high interference than the the empowerment ‘‘met needs’’ in more parenting issues, and should be withheld from needs and the practical high needs and needs class also domains than women in help with cultural and this class because needs classes. practical needs reported ‘‘no needs’’ in either the practical spiritual habits). This symptoms levels of classes. fewer domains than needs class (Mdiff = class consisted of many depression and PTSD women in the low 1.10; 95% CI [0.27, migrated women from a are still substantial. For

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needs class (Mdiff = 1.92]) or the low needs non-Dutch background. these women, 1.44; 95% CI [2.28, class (Mdiff = 2.67; Relatively high levels of psychological 0.59]). Hochberg’s GT2 95% CI [1.74, 3.61]). In depression and PTSD interventions are also indicated that addition, women in the symptoms were found, appropriate, but how women in the high practical needs class but with limited personal should these mental needs class reported expressed ‘‘met needs’’ resources to address health issues then be significantly less in more domains than them as reflected in addressed? Women’s ‘‘unrequested women in the low their relatively low levels shelters in general do interference’’ than needs class (Mdiff = of self-efficacy and self- not provide a women in the practical 1.58; 95% CI [0.56, esteem. specialized service needs class (Mdiff = 2.60]). The women in focused on decreasing 0.92; 95% CI [1.52, the empowerment symptoms of depression 0.32]), the needs class also and PTSD (Hughes & empowerment needs reported ‘‘met needs’’ Jones, 2010; Johnson & class (Mdiff = 1.17; in more domains than Zlotnick, 2009). Such 95% CI [1.84, 0.50]), or women in the low specialized services the low needs class needs class (Mdiff = could be provided either (Mdiff = 1.89; 95% CI 1.79; 95% CI [0.69, by formalized [2.57, 1.21]). 2.89]). cooperation with external agencies, such as mental health care institutions, or by offering mental health care in the shelter environment. Which option is preferred, may depend on many local factors, such as the size of the shelter and its proximity to specialized mental health care. Mental health care offered to abused women should preferably be based on randomized clinical trial evidence or should be evidence informed. Studies show that PTSD

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may effectively be treated with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT; Bisson, 2007). Johnson and Zlotnick (2009) recently described a CBT variant for female victims of domestic violence, focusing on stabilization, safety and empowerment, and teaching women skills to manage their PTSD symptoms (Johnson, 2006; Johnson & Zlotnick, 2009). Preliminary pilot results with this treatment are encouraging (Johnson, 2006).

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PWQ – Tabela C102 p. 10 - ? p. 13 - ? p. 18 - S p. 19 - S p. 20 - S p. 20-21 - S p. 21 - C p. 22 - S

In Study 2, We return to Thus, We found that A similar However, a A sizeable we explored what we see although a a minority of process of growing minority of the as a critical minority of women who sexual body of women experience feminist our have kissed subjectificatio research is described itself from question: Are participants other women n appears to critical of the bonding We end with the these felt a sense felt a sense of be happening true benefits with their a perspective behaviors of empowerment, in these that self- friends and consideratio of women instances of empowerme whereas a college sexualization feeling n of involved. By women’s nt as a majority felt parties: some can bring. In sexual qualitative using sexual result of sexually women the same empowerme findings that qualitative empowerment engaging in objectified or subjectively study, nt while can speak to analyses, (women same-sex exploited. feel Nowatzki kissing the we hoped to acting as kissings, a However, we empowered and Morry other interpretatio begin to agents of their greater do not wish to through an (2009, p. women. For ns of this Mulheres understand own sexuality) proportion set up a false ostensibly 106) these behavior as heterossexu women’s or are they of women dichotomy objectifying concluded women, instances of Yost & ais que motivations instances of felt wherein a display of that ‘‘self- although either McCart tiveram EU for sexual objectified sexual their bodies sexualizing they are women’s hy experiências A engaging in objectification and behavior can for others’ behavior unequivocal sexual (2012) homossexua a behavior (women degraded only be enjoyment. may be ly objectificatio is em festas that is subverting because of objectifying or However, as misconstrue performing n or de faculdade ostensibly their own engaging in empowering, feminist d as for men, women’s counter to desires and these but not both. In scholars,we empowering their empowerme their sexual performing behaviors. fact, Gill (2008) wonder what when in subjective nt. identificatio sexually for Many has recently these reality the sense is Responses n and to men’s further proposed an feelings of focus of the that these relevant to understand enjoyment)? indicated a interesting new empowermen behavior is encounters objectificatio the social To address sense of construct, t really mean. not on are n and context this resignation ‘‘sexual It could be women’s intrinsically empowerme surrounding distinction, we that this will subjectification, that, similar sexual motivated nt were these drew on happen ’’ which is a to the media subjectivities and yield explored. behaviors. responses again middle ground depictions, but rather benefits that We were that regardless or a women are their only ultimately suggested of their lack combination of embracing subordinatio sometimes interested in that women of desire to empowerment their n through depend on systematical felt participate; and sexuality in societal men’s

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ly assessing empowered this lack of objectification an agentic objectificatio approval. whether by the ability to that may help way but still n.’’ Other However, these experience. determine explain our draw on recent the more behaviors This one’s own findings. objectifying research has common represent a consequence future Whereas in the images in found that portrayal new form of could be behaviors is past, women’s order to do the was of women’s demonstrated troubling. In bodies were so. This enjoyment of women sexual through the end, we clearly interpretation sexualization engaging in empowerme comments found objectified, would was a behavior nt (as some focused on stronger involving no suggest that associated that they third-wave the power that empirical hint of sexual if women had with sexist themselves feminists comes from support for empowerment, a wider range beliefs and did not find have inciting sexual feminist now Gill (2009) of sexual with negative pleasurable claimed; desire or a scholars to notes an imagery on eating or desirable, e.g., motivation to be emphasis on which to behaviors but that they Baumgardn engage in this concerned an draw, some (Liss, perceived er & behavior for about these ‘‘empowered’’ would Erchull,& as enjoyed Richards, sexual behaviors sexual subject choose other Ramsey, by men. 2004) or experimentati than to who means for 2011). These whether on. This first celebrate deliberately sexual findings, in they criterion them. displays her empowermen conjunction indicate a yielded 37 sexuality in an t that were with the new strain women who active, playful, not harm that the of an old described the and flirty simultaneous majority of tune— experience in manner. ly women in women’s this way. Although in objectifying. the present participation However, we some respects, It is also study in their own decided this the new media possible that experienced objectificatio could only be depictions that women’s when feeling n for men’s deemed an Gill analyzed interpretation objectified, enjoyment example of represent a s of their caution us (e.g., Gill, empowerment positive move behavior will against 2008). if it occurred away from change over labeling this without feeling sexual time; upon experience a pressured by objectification further genuinely other people. (where women reflection, feminist, Adding this had no agency these women empowering criterion at all), Gill may one. reduced the (2008) reconceptuali

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number of questions ze the women who whether sexual experience spoke of the subjectification and no experience as is truly better longer view it empowering than that which as to 12 (16% of it replaced. empowering. the sample). Similarly, We saw hints others have of this trend, questioned the such as presumably women in liberating their senior nature of these year of new depictions college who of female spoke about sexuality, given only kissing that the end other women result as first-year continues to be students, but objectification; longitudinal the only research difference is would be that women needed to now claim fully explore freedom of this idea. choice (Evans et al., 2010). Gill has been particularly critical of these representation s, arguing that they continue to present sexist images of women, with a new twist: ‘‘Not only are women objectified (as

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they were before), but through sexual subjectification in advertising, they must also now understand their own objectification as pleasurable and chosen’’ (Gill, 2008, p. 45). Indeed, in a direct test of the effects of sexually agentic (or subjectified) media representation s, Halliwell, Malson, and Tischner (2011) found that exposure to such images resulted in increased weight dissatisfaction and increased state selfobjectificati on. This finding supports Gill’s critical stance toward sexual subjectification.

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1760 PWQ – Tabela C103 p. 333 - C

Our work carries a number of implications for women’s mentoring practices and disordered eating practitioners to improve women’s lives. Given the many possibilities for postural constriction that occur in actual behavior (e.g., sitting in a tight space), symbolic behavior (e.g., eating and talking less), and internalized views of the self (e.g., body image concern), our results may underestimate the long-term effects of feminine stereotypes to be small on restrained eating. It is possible that young women develop Allen, Interação entre postura habits to become and be viewed as taking up less physical space, such as wearing form-fitting, corset-like Gervais & corporal e restrição EUA sculpting undergarments and tight clothing (e.g., Spanx shapewear) or engaging in fat talk with their peers Smith (2013) alimentar em mulheres (Gapinski et al., 2003; Salk & Engeln-Maddox, 2011). These behaviors may reinforce the social rewards obtained for possessing a smaller, more compact body and thus lead to habitual patterns of body constriction. However, female mentors may advocate awareness of this culturally prescribed phenomenon and its negative consequences and instead encourage female mentees to behave in a more empowered manner, requesting a larger chair, opting to wear looser clothing, or consciously uncrossing their legs and arms in order to practice expanding their bodies outward.

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PWQ – Tabela C104 p. 363 - S p. 363-364 - S p. 364 - S p. 364 - S p. 364 - S p. 364 - S

Despite the However, Masturbation It is important to Conceptualizing Considering the pervasiveness of feminists in actually precisely define masturbation, a extent to which the this behavior, psychology have complicates the construct of frequently solitary norms and psychological begun to focus McClelland and sexual behavior, as one messages of a research has more attention on Fine’s (2008) empowerment, that has the woman’s culture only just begun the importance of framework especially potential to feel are in a continual to investigate women’s sexual because it could considering that empowering to interaction with her women’s pleasure for their be argued that feminist theorists women adds a psyche, I theorize motivations for, overall well-being, nothing about continue to new layer of that a woman can and emotional and, in the last 15 masturbation is struggle with its complexity to the still experience a responses to, years or so, ever ‘‘required’’ definition (Lamb, current debates feeling of sexual masturbation female from the start. 2010; Lamb & surrounding sexual empowerment (Fahs & Frank, masturbation has On the other Peterson, 2011; empowerment. even if there is no 2013). been increasingly hand, perhaps it McClelland & Fine, Most of the other person for Furthermore, as viewed as an is this very 2008; Peterson, thinking about her to have ‘‘power many theorists acceptable quality of 2010; Tolman, girls’ and women’s over.’’ In the Relações have contended, means for women masturbation 2012). Is sexual process of living das Bowman masturbation has to achieve that makes it all empowerment best empowerment has day to day in a mulheres EUA (2013) the potential to autonomous the more understood as an been decidedly male-dominated com a feel sexually sexual pleasure excessive and internal experience interpersonal and objectifying masturbação empowering to (Coleman, 2002; potentially of agency and (Lamb, 2010; society, women women Fahs & Frank, empowering. power (i.e., feeling Tolman, 2012). may begin to (Coleman, 2002; 2013; Tiefer, When a woman or experiencing That is, sexual internalize the Dodson, 1996; 1996). Because masturbates, she empowerment)? empowerment has socially prescribed Hite, 1976; this quest for experiences her Or is it a concrete been viewed as a norms they Tiefer, 1996), yet pleasure does not sexuality in a measure of a construct that must encounter to the the nature of rely on or answer way that does person’s ability or be negotiated point at which they these feelings of to a partner, not conform to power to alter between sexual participate in sexual female dominant social and political partners. For intimate self- empowerment masturbation can expectations of arrangements (i.e., example, sexual surveillance has not been be femininity or being empowerment has (Bartky, 1990; evaluated. Using conceptualized as female sexuality. empowered)? been conflated Foucault, 1990). a feminist resistance to She is not Some theorists with (or at least [...] Thus, it is sociocultural traditional concerned with distinguish ‘‘power correlated with) possible that lens, the purpose feminine norms producing to’’ (an internal sexual self-efficacy genital self-image of my (Friday, 1993; offspring, nor is sense of self- (Peterson, 2010), may also be

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investigation was Rich, 1980; she concerned efficacy or which ismeasured related to women’s to explore some Tiefer, 1998) and with preventing selfesteem) from in relation to a feelings of sexual of women’s may feel pregnancy. She ‘‘power over’’ sexual partner. But empowerment potential empowering to feels sexual (actual control over what happens to from masturbation. motivations for, women (Tiefer, sensations that decision making the concept of In a society that and feelings 1996). are not provided and resources; sexual co-opts women’s about, their by a partner, Hollander & empowerment sexualities through masturbation, as and, because no Offermann, 1990; when no partner is neoliberal well as to partner needs to Riger, 1993; Yoder present or commodification explicate how be present, she & Kahn, 1992), necessary? and pornification of feelings of sexual need not whereas others women’s bodies empowerment concern herself have simply (Lamb & Brown, may be related to with anyone’s referred to the 2007; Paul, 2005), women’s pleasure but her former as on one hand, and reasons for own. In this way, subjective and the maintains the ever- masturbating. the ‘‘excessive’’ latter as objective present prude/slut nature of empowerment dichotomy, on the masturbation (Peterson, 2010). other (Phillips, may be related Though there 1999; Tolman et to feelings of continues to be a al., 2005), simply sexual lack of consensus feeling entitled to empowerment regarding which and able to for some women. form of power experience sexual constitutes sexual pleasure (with or empowerment, my without a partner) study attempted to is an expression of understand sexual women’s own empowerment. experiences of sexual empowerment as an aspect of masturbation, regardless of whether these beliefs translate to observable shifts in power relations.

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Continuação (Bowman, 2013) p. 364-365 - S p. 365 - S p. 365 - S p. 369 - S p. 370 - ? p. 370-371 - S p. 371 - S p. 371 - S p. 373 - S Although The purpose of Factor 1 Hierarchical Results of the In my study, I Beyond simply projects of my project, included high multiple hierarchical sought to feeling more accounting then, is to loadings from regression multiple understand comfortable and explore the responses: was used to regression are why women with The theoretical psychological women’s guilty, gross, analyze the presented in masturbate, masturbating lens presented outcomes are motivations to ashamed, and predictive Table 6. The how (evidenced by here presumes illuminating, masturbate as disgusted. This potential of RfM factors masturbation the reporting of that women’s they gloss over a step toward factor, which women’s were entered makes women talking to feelings of women’s lived understanding accounted for various in Model 1, feel, and how friends about sexual experiences how these 36.68% of the Sexual reasons for and together women’s masturbating, empowerment (Fahs & Frank, reasons may variance, was empowerment, masturbating explained 31% reasons for not thinking from 2013), failing be related to labeled however, on women’s of the variance masturbating masturbation is masturbation to explore why feelings of ‘‘Shame.’’ The showed a feelings of in sexual may relate to selfish, etc.), likely depend women decide sexual second factor normal sexual empowerment. their feelings the current on the reasons to masturbate. empowerment was labeled distribution of empowerment. [...] The total of sexual study also why women Furthermore, for women. For ‘‘Sexual responses (z Pearson’s variance empowerment. demonstrated choose to are certain the present Empowerment,’’ score correlations explained by All that sex- masturbate, reasons why study, I began because it skewness between the model interpretations positive and whether or women by asking: (a) included high =2.07), and feeling sexual was R2 ¼ of my findings women may not these masturbate Why do women loadings from also empowerment 0.33, F(8, 476) should be experience reasons more closely masturbate? the responses: accounted for from ¼ 31.372, p < undertaken feelings of challenge tied to and (b) How powerful, a large masturbation .001, meaning with an sexual gendered experiences of does strong, sexy, percentage of and potential that 33% of understanding empowerment sexual norms. sexual masturbation independent, the variance in independent the variance in that the from Women’s empowerment make women and satisfied. the factor variables are feelings of women who masturbating motivations to than others? A feel This second model presented in sexual took my (recall that the masturbate, small set of emotionally? factor explained (20.30%). Table 5. The empowerment survey were construct of then, may be work has Because 20.30% of the demographic from very likely to ‘‘sexual closely tied to begun to women’s variance. variables of masturbation have generally empowerment’’ experiences of address these reasons for Finally, a third age, can be positive here and sexual questions, and masturbating factor was education, explained by attitudes about throughout the empowerment. in some cases, are likely labeled ‘‘Fears sexual the final their sexuality. discussion women’s related to their of Selfishness’’ orientation model. [...] The Any woman refers to the motivations to feelings of because it (dummy coded standardized who is willing clustered items masturbate sexual included high where 1 = regression to participate from the factor can be empowerment loadings from heterosexual coefficients in a study with analysis:

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understood as (Tiefer, 1996), I the responses: and 0 = provide clues ‘‘sexuality’’ in powerful, potentially then further ‘‘selfish gay/lesbian, as to the the title strong, sexy, sexually examined this because I’m bisexual, and relative probably independent, empowering. relationship by taking the ability queer), and importance of already feels a and satisfied). [...] asking: (c) to provide religiosity (M = the predictors, certain degree The results of Masturbation Which of pleasure away 1.85, SD ¼ indicating that of comfort with my study can also be women’s from my 0.87) were not the RfM factor themes suggest that empowering to reasons for partner’’ and associated of learning (b surrounding women are women by masturbating ‘‘selfish with sexual = 0.32, p < sexuality. more likely to providing a are most because I’m empowerment, .01) may have Additionally, feel sexually means for closely related taking time to so I did not a bigger my sample’s empowered by learning more to feelings of spend on control for impact on high average the fact that about their sexual myself’’ these feelings of scores on they bodies, empowerment? (hereafter this variables in sexual genital self- masturbate if desires, and Finally, factor will be the regression. empowerment image, sexual they report sensations, because sexual referred to as from efficacy, and being more because this empowerment ‘‘selfishness’’). masturbation sexual sexually type of sexual has been [...] than sexual entitlement efficacious, exploration linked Substantively, pleasure (b = support this have higher among women theoretically to this analysis 0.21, p < .01). notion. So genital self- is socially sexual efficacy, identified three Learning and although the image, and undervalued entitlement, clear patterns in sexual current study masturbate for (Thompson, and self- the potential pleasure may reports the sexual 1990; Tiefer, esteem (Lamb responses to also be more highest rates pleasure or to 1996). Women & Peterson, the question important than of female learn more who 2011), I asked: ‘‘How does the genital self- masturbation about their masturbate (d) Do feelings fact that you image (b = in the bodies. may have of sexual masturbate 0.12, p < .01) literature, Women with increased efficacy, sexual make you and sexual these findings higher levels of sexual entitlement, feel?’’: shame, efficacy (b ¼ should be genital self- confidence and/or genital sexual 0.11, p < .01), interpreted in image and and comfort self-image empowerment, especially light of the sexual efficacy with their predict feelings and afraid of considering specific could be bodies of sexual acting selfishly. that these characteristics considered because they empowerment psychological of my sample. more sexually are able to related to variables empowered (or gain more masturbation? added just 4% sex positive) in knowledge of additional general, and about their explained so it is not

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genital variance to the surprising that anatomy and final model. these women sexual also tended to response feel sexually (Dodson, empowered by 1996; Hite, masturbating. 1976). Although it makes theoretical sense that several of these reasons for masturbating could be conceptualized as sexually empowering, no known research to date has examined whether any (or all) of these potential reasons actually predict feelings of sexual empowerment in women. Furthermore, no known empirical work has explored whether some reasons for masturbating

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are more closely related to feelings of sexual empowerment in women than others. 1765 Continuação (Bowman, 2013) p. 373 - S p. 373 - S p. 374 - S p. 374 - S p. 374 - S p. 375 - S p. 375-376 - S p. 376 - S p. 376 - S It may be the The data These narrow It was Similarly, Although the Perhaps most Importantly, The research case that this presented here and unrealistic surprising that although I findings from important, evidencing presented here phenomenon support the representations the RfM factor predicted that my study however, is what theorists provides a varies idea that the of adult of release fell both sexual provide a rich the lack of a and clinicians unique lens on depending construct of women’s out of the final entitlement foundation for contextually have long sexual on whether a sexual genitals in regression and sexual understanding nuanced and supposed empowerment in woman has a empowerment pornography model after efficacy would female socioculturally (Coleman, sex-positive male or in sex-positive may help the help to explain masturbation informed 2002; Dodson, women. female women can still explain why psychological sex-positive and its relation exploration 1996; Hite, Because partner make many women predictors women’s to sexual into women’s 1976; Tiefer, masturbation is because of conceptual feel that the were added feelings of empowerment, potential to 1996), often a solitary the power sense even look, feel, and (although this sexual a number of feel masturbation behavior, dynamics without the smell of their variable still empowerment limitations individually has now been exploring the inherent in presence or genitals are approached from deserve sexually linked to ways in which male–female necessity of a somehow significance, p masturbating, mention. [...] empowered feelings of sexpositive sexual partner. That abnormal or = .051). the final Additionally, through sexual women partnerships is, sexual unattractive Release was regression the masturbation. empowerment experience (Rich, 1980). empowerment (Braun & a significant model showed correlational Understanding in women. feelings of However, the need not be Wilkinson, predictor in sexual efficacy nature of the how women’s Though we are sexual dominant theorized as 2001; Davis, the initial to be the only relationship reasons for still unable to empowerment in discourses solely 2002; Hite, model, significant between masturbating say whether relation to that place interpersonal. 1976; Reinholtz indicating that predictor of the sexual are related to masturbation masturbation expectations The 5 items & without the two. Though empowerment feelings of causes allows us to on women to composing the Muehlenhard, additional the distinctions and sexual feelings of expand the be selfless in factor labeled 1995, Schick, psychological between masturbation empowerment sexual construct of sexual ‘‘sexual Calabrese, predictors, sexual does not allow within a empowerment, sexual encounters empowerment’’ Rima, & release entitlement, for causal restrictive feminist theory empowerment to apply provide clues Zucker, 2010). contributed to sexual claims. Indeed, societal would suggest encompass regardless of for However, the explained efficacy, and the current context is thus that feelings of noninterpersonal

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the sex of understanding women who variance in sexual study cannot necessary in sexual experiences. I women’s this frequently are able to feelings of empowerment explain order to further empowerment have argued that partners. solitary form of overcome or do sexual remain murky whether explore other likely arise contextualizing Moreover, sexual not subscribe empowerment in the certain masturbation- from a these irrespective empowerment: to these narrow from literature, it is reasons for related woman’s experiences of of the sex of powerful, prescriptions masturbating. nonetheless masturbating questions. For perceived sexual women’s strong, sexy, and who feel However, the surprising that make example, ability to enjoy empowerment partners, independent, comfortable, significant sexual sexpositive because very her sexuality within a Western when women and satisfied. and even psychological entitlement women feel few women in on her own society that are These prideful about predictors of was not more my study terms values male responding emotions, their genitals, genital included in the empowered, reported (McClelland & pleasure and only to their although they are selfimage and final model and/or whether feeling Fine, 2008). reproduction to own whims may often refer unsurprisingly sexual because it more ashamed of Therefore, the exclusion of and wishes, to another— more likely to efficacy makes empowered their clinical female pleasure masturbation someone to feel sexually seemed to be conceptual women tend to masturbatory practitioners and exploration has the have power empowered by better sense that the masturbate for practices, should allows us to potential to over, someone the fact that explanations more entitled a these reasons. future consider begin to see why feel sexually to be stronger they of this woman feels to However, research could encouraging women may feel empowering. than, someone masturbate. variance than sexual because investigate women to sexually to be sexy for, These are release. The pleasure, the women were sexual masturbate as empowered by someone to be women who, release factor more she responding to empowerment a means for the fact that they independent despite the was would feel the question in addition to accessing this masturbate. from— are not (c)overt cultural composed of sexually ‘‘How does the shame (Arafat sort of However, further necessarily or messages that items referring empowered by fact that you & Cotton, autonomous, study is required always women’s to seeking masturbating masturbate 1974; and perhaps to explore these interpersonal. genitals are physical and for that sexual make you Greenberg & even motivations Instead, these disgusting psychological pleasure feel?’’ it seems Archambault, empowering, more precisely. words can refer (Braun & relief, such as (Horne & plausible that 1973; sexuality. Do women to simply Wilkinson, masturbating Zimmer- women who Laumann et recognize their feeling capable 2001; Reinholtz for a boost of Gembeck, felt sexually al., 1994). masturbatory or efficacious & energy or to 2005; empowered behaviors as (see Spence, Muehlenhard, fall asleep. Thompson, did so because political Helmreich, & 1995), have Perhaps these 1990). [...] they were resistance to Stapp’s, 1975, found a way to constructs are Despite the thinking about restrictive Personal appreciate their not as closely partnered ‘‘the fact that feminine norms Attributes genitals. These related to focus of these [they] (Bartky, 1990)? Questionnaire women may be feelings of subscales, I masturbate’’ Or is a political for an example more likely to sexual suggest that (as prompted awareness of these sorts freely engage empowerment the latter by the unnecessary? If

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of items in masturbation as those that construct is question). women do see referring to because they more directly more closely Additionally, their personal isolated see nothing challenge the related to because behaviors as individuals). wrong with their cultural feelings of masturbation political, how genitals from requirements sexual has been tied does that the start and, in of female empowerment to feelings of change the doing so, could sexuality. [...] because it entitlement to nature of their experience Although refers to taking sexual experiences of feelings of masturbation action on one’s pleasure, sexual sexual in general can own behalf. sexual empowerment? empowerment. certainly be Therefore, a efficacy, and In a patriarchal considered sex-positive sexual culture that ‘‘excessive,’’ if woman who selfreflectivity places so little the reason for feels able to (Horne & value on female masturbating name her Zimmer- sexual pleasure, is not needs and Gembeck, a woman who sexuality then take care 2005), future feels capable related, it is of them herself studies might and justified in perhaps (demonstrating consider providing herself unsurprising sexual framing with her own that these efficacy) is masturbation sexual pleasure reasons would more likely to in terms of and learning not predict feel sexually mental or opportunities feelings of empowered by emotional may truly be sexual the fact that health. [...] The demonstrating empowerment she modified confidence, (the masturbates. snowball agency, and, composite of method also indeed, sexual which yielded a empowerment. included the sample that item ‘‘sexy’’). tended to be sex positive, potentially making the construct of sexual empowerment more readily detected.

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PWQ – Tabela C105 p. 321 - S p. 322 - C p. 322 - ?

A possible mediating route of the relationship between high depressive symptoms, low quality of life, and high levels of self-silencing is learned helplessness occurring subsequent to repeated traumatic and disempowering experiences (Filson, Ulloa, Runfola, & Hokoda, 2010). Several ongoing or previous HIV Women who self-silence may have behavioral interventions for women an attributional style characterized by The Intervention with Microfinance infected with HIV and women at risk for feelings and thoughts that desirable for AIDS and Gender Equity infection seem particularly relevant in outcomes are unlikely to occur, (IMAGE) program provided South that they emphasize gender pride and aversive outcomes are highly likely to African women with small loans to Mulheres assist women in developing skills to occur, and that there is no point in conduct income generating projects afroamericanas e become empowered interpersonally Brody self-advocacy. In a study of women and included sessions on gender hispânicas com and economically. For instance, Sisters et al. EUA in domestic violence shelters, roles, domestic violence, and HIV HIV e em risco Informing Sisters about Topics on (2014) feelings of powerlessness predicted infection. Women participating in para contrair o AIDS (SISTA) is an evidence-based both concurrent depressive IMAGE experienced greater vírus five-session intervention program that symptoms and depressive symptoms empowerment in areas such as targets heterosexual African American 6 months post-shelter visit, after challenging gender norms and women, with two of the sessions controlling for previous levels of improving financial confidence (Kim focused on ethnic and gender pride depressive symptoms (Campbell, et al., 2007). and selfassertiveness skills training Sullivan, & Davidson, 1995). It is also (DiClemente & Wingood, 1995). probable that being depressed renders it more difficult for women to assert power, to advocate for themselves in their relationships, and to engage in self-care behaviors, and it may also make them more vulnerable to abuse and low quality of life.

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In Study 2, liberal feminist beliefs were less effective in response to benevolent sexism because women with strong and weak feminist beliefs did not differ in anticipated condom use after exposure to this form of sexism. Thus, Liberal feminist beliefs—which are widespread among empowering women with the feminist beliefs measured in Mulheres e a women in the United States and reflect endorsement of the present studies may be less fruitful when it comes to Fitz & relação entre ‘‘core,’’ or ‘‘basic,’’ feminist principles including women’s more discreet manifestations of sexism. In conjunction with Zucker suas crenças EUA empowerment and gender equity (Henley et al., 1998)— other work highlighting the pernicious corollaries and (2014) feministas e o may be one such factor that women can utilize to consequences of benevolent sexism (Barreto et al., 2010; bem-estar sexual combat and reduce the impact of sexism on their sexual Becker & Wright, 2011), the present research suggests that lives. benevolent sexism may be particularly insidious in that factors that promote women’s sexual health in the context of hostile sexism may be less effective in response to this more inconspicuous form of sexism (cf. Dardenne et al., 2007). 1770 PWQ – Tabela C107 p. 380 - S p. 395 - S

The Enjoyment of Sexualization Scale (ESS; Liss, Erchull, & Ramsey, 2011) also examines women’s attitudes about selfsexualization. This scale includes The purposes of our research were to explore items such as ‘‘I feel proud when men compliment how I constructs and to develop measures, not to evaluate look,’’ ‘‘I want men to look at me,’’ ‘‘I love to feel sexy,’’ theoretical positions. Of course, theory guided our and ‘‘When I wear revealing clothing, I feel sexy and in choices of criterion variables. Our goal here was simply control’’ (Liss et al., 2011, p. 57). This scale correlates to demonstrate discriminant validity. We provided Mulheres e sua modestly with SBS scores (r = .38; Liss et al., 2011), evidence to support validity and reliability of scores Smolak, relação com a suggesting a possible divide between attitudes and associated with the SSBQ–W, although not for a Murnen & própria sexualidade EUA behaviors. In addition, the construct of empowerment is measure for men. We do not claim to have tested or Myers e estratégias para integrated into some of the questions (e.g., ‘‘I feel evaluated theoretical models or debates about women’s (2014) se sentir sexy empowered when I look beautiful’’), combining selfsexualization, clearly possibilities for future assessment of selfsexualization with the perceived research. Indeed, an essential value of the new SSBQ– consequences of those attitudes (Halliwell et al., 2011; W is its potential to help address the debates Lamb, 2010a, 2010b; Lerum & Dworkin, 2009). The concerning the relationship of selfsexualization to self-sexualization measure we introduce in the present empowerment and oppression in women’s sexuality study, in contrast, asks only about behaviors (not their and other realms. perceived consequences), and it examines behaviors in which emerging adults would be likely to engage or

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consider on an everyday (or at least a routine) basis.

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País Referência Público/Objeto do Trechos estudo p. 280 - C p. 281 - C p. 281 - C p. 281 - ? p. 282 - ? p. 282 - S

In 1993, one-third One promising but Instead of relying Rose and Miller But what are the Some of the seats in problematic exclusively on state (1992) define implications for Foucauldian panchayati raj theoretical agencies to carry technologies of participants scholars do not institutions approach that has out development rule as “the when directly (PRIs), elected been recently goals, the complex of technologies of address these rural councils, applied to the government adopts mundane rule successfully questions. were reserved for political what O’Malley programs, reach them? From their women through incorporation of (1996) labels “a calculations, Should EWRs vantage point the seventy-third marginalized responsibilization techniques, and gram sabha on participatory Constitutional groups is that of strategy” that apparatuses, members be processes, Amendment, governmentality. enlists state documents and seen merely as they observe Análise which also Corbridge et al. agencies to procedures disciplined how the will to foucaultiana strengthened the (2005) draw on the activate individuals through which subjects, empower is da role of PRI. The theoretical work of and organizations authorities seek speaking an actualized Everett participação Índia idea was that Michel Foucault in the private sector to embody and internalized through (2009) de mulheres training programs (1991) to provide toward these ends. give effect to script? Does technologies of na política de would teach nuanced The Indian governmental their rule which suas women how to perspectives on government, in its ambitions” involvement “extend comunidades negotiate local governance neoliberal (175). benefit them, as relations of politics and reforms in India. incarnation, targets Cruikshank well as fulfill power and become They assess the women and the (1999), argues governance government” empowered by extent to which poor, attempting to that “the will to objectives? Are (Cruikshank election to participatory shape their conduct empower may there instances 1999, 82) to reserved seats in governance so that they be well when they talk the previously PRI. Elected projects empower become what the intentioned, but back to excluded. women the rural poor, as government calls it is a strategy government? Cruikshank representatives claimed by “empowered for constituting Sharma (2006) argues that the (EWRs) would government citizens,” who act and regulating suggests that a instilled not only be from boosters, or to further Indian the political “productive subjectivity

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forward castes, mainly serve to economic subjectivities of question to ask consists of as seats would extend state rule development by the is what kinds of self- be reserved for over citizens, as improving the empowered” subjects are government, women from dalit, claimed by critics operation of local (68–9). being produced as the will to adivasi, and other such as James government so that by the use of empower has backward caste Ferguson (1990). corruption is empowerment constituted the communities reduced and and the resulting political. The (OBCs) based on education, social increase in implication is their proportions welfare, and interfaces that questions in the local infrastructure between about the ways population. services are subaltern in which Village men and improved. women and citizens women more state agencies” respond to generally would (81). technologies of participate in rule are not gram sabhas important (village because all assemblies) held possible several times a responses are year to express subsumed their views on under self- panchayat regulation. In a priorities, and in similar manner, some states, Cooke and such as Kothari (2001) Maharashtra, answer government affirmatively to resolutions the question mandated that posed by their women’s gram edited sabhas be held collection, before the Participation: general gram The New sabhas. Tyranny? We call this viewpoint a strong Foucauldian perspective.

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Continuação (Everett, 2009) p. 282-283 - ? p. 283 - S p. 283-284 - S p. 284 - ? p. 286 - S p. 286 - ? p. 286-287 - ? p. 292 - C This paper will Maharashtrian The processes In this section, At the level of In Maharashtra, investigate the government described above we use governance and the production of relevance of officials explicitly undertaken by material from democratic Kesby asserts empowered rural strong and weak articulate their goal government the interviews practice, several that “a women has been Foulcaudian of empowering agencies and conducted scholars using a Foucauldian undertaken by perpectives in rural women NGOs directed and the weak understanding of Yashwantrao making sense of through PRIs. The toward women’s documents Foucauldian power can and Chavan Academy If the will to rural women’s Minister of Rural empowerment can collected to perspective point must encompass of Development empower is a political Development be seen as answer the to the spatial a central role for Administration useful way of incorporation in writes, “Our technologies of question, dimension of conscious (YASHADA), the understanding Maharashtra. In responsibility does rule intended to “What kinds of participation, as reflective agency” state the myriad of some cases, the not end by giving incorporate rural women sites for (2046). While development activities will to empower them reservation, women into the citizens are democratic acknowledging administration directed at is hijacked by but we have to political system. produced by practice. Kesby that “agency is staff training producing active lower-level strengthen them by The PRI training the will to (2005) argues partial” (2046), academy; district women government giving training and programs and empower?” that the Kesby argues that administrators; members of officials, building their skills mobilization of We have “discourses and “the current and NGOs panchayats from dominant and make them the grassroots NGOs created a practices obsession with working the points of groups, and people’s to build women’s “middle- constituting deconstruction separately and in view of men, and representatives” political capacities range” empowerment and resistance association with government and women are not (Patil 2002). For are instances of typology to are likely to be obscures the each other. This NGOs, what are incorporated these officials, the will to categorize the embedded in, central role that is a multi-layered the results of into local women’s empower. These women’s and be reconstruction phenomenon, these efforts politics. In other empowerment technologies of responses in constitutive of, and extending from from the points cases, the will to means creating rule all attempt to table 1. We particular empowerment international to of view of rural empower responsible create intend these material sites play in explaining local levels, women? The reaches rural women knowledgeable, categories as and spaces” how change sometimes next section women, instilling participants, first active women with a heuristic (2055). Cornwall actually occurs in operating solely explores this in them a desire by instituting participatory skills device to and Coelho practice and how within question. to participate reservations for and a commitment encourage (2006) perceive transformation government or and increased women in a to economic further the new might realistically within NGO capacities to do revitalized development. The thought about democratic be facilitated” networks, and so. The ways in panchayat system differences in the the agency of arenas as (2049). more often which these and second by content of the actually spaces for involving both desires and enlisting experts to programs have to existing citizenship sectors.8 capacities are run PRI training do with what types women in education. In

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used to follow programs and of knowledge and rural India. contrast, the instructions ensure women skills are scholars using a of government participate fully in emphasized and strong officials, talk gram sabhas. The the strategies of Foucauldian back to the idea is that these economic perspective, such government, or mechanisms will development as Cooke and subvert instill into women advanced. Kothari (2001), programs for the subjective conceptualize either desires and such sites as progressive capacities to work “front stages” purposes or toward the nation’s where personal gain economic performances will be explored. development goals are enacted. The along the lines the implication is that government has there is only the sketched out. appearance and not the reality of participation at these sites. 1775 Continuação (Everett, 2009) p. 295 - C p. 295 - ? p. 295 - ? p. 297 - C p. 298 - ? p. 299 - C There seems to be a Although illiteracy, A strong Foucauldian Sharma (2006) argues that Most of the BAIF and AFARM developmental housework, and income- perspective offers women’s increased governmentality began in the 1960s, process occurring with earning responsibilities insights into the engagement with the state literature focusses on providing technical many EWRs learning may prevent the processes of can be seen as “both advanced industrial assistance in about the content and participatory women’s political promising and precarious” nations, but a number of agriculture and have process of local technologies of rule from incorporation by (82). On the basis of her scholars have utilized a added women’s government and fully incorporating many showing how case study of women governmentality empowerment politics. In cases rural women, this does neoliberal activists in a feminist NGO perspective in their programs. AFARM where the not mean the women governance linked to the government in studies of India. In (Action for Agricultural technologies of rule are free. Rather they are approaches attempt Uttar Pradesh, Sharma is addition to Corbridge et Renewal in are hijacked by male enmeshed in to create citizens optimistic, concluding that al. (2005), these include Maharashtra) family members, social/cultural/ economic whose actions are the “governmentalization of Gupta and Sharma interviews took place dominant groups in systems of gender, aligned with those of empowerment” may produce (2006) and Sharma on March 31, 2005, in the village, or caste, and class that government. But this women who fight for justice (2006) who discuss Pune. BAIF (Bharatiya government officials, may be more analysis is (82). Our case-study findings women’s empowerment Agro Industrial Fund) the results are prescriptive and incomplete because are more ambiguous in their in terms of neoliberal Development generally sham or disempowering than it does not consider implications. Many types of governmentality. Research Foundation

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corrupt citizens except neoliberal how particular women citizens can be seen interviews took place in a few cases where governmentality. women respond to among the EWRs on April 1, 2005, in reformist citizens the will to empower. interviewed in Pune District. Pune. RSCD is a protest. When the will It is also misleading: The proxy representatives, development to empower does giving the impression under the control of male collective launched in reach EWRs, their that there is greater relatives, are sham citizens. 1994 to work with responses run the coherence and But overall, reservations for NGOs in five gamut from consistency in the women in PRI have Maharashtra regions compliance to technologies of rule increased women’s to empower the rural assertion and than is likely the knowledge about politics, poor and in 2001 subversion. case (Larner 2000). spatial mobility, and created the Mahila “[C]onscious reflective presence in local politics. As Rajsatta Andolan agency” (Kesby 2005, a result, some EWRs have (MRA or women’s 2046) is apparent in at become active citizens, governance least some of the raising questions about campaign), a EWRs we interviewed. corrupt practices, organizing statewide network to In these cases, active citizens against liquor, and promote women’s role participants have been hoisting flags on Republic in governance. produced through PRI Day in their villages. and associated Younger EWRs seem the technologies of rule. most active and enthusiastic. The women carry out Political engagement is government schemes, changing women, who in attempt to hold local turn are changing local officials accountable, politics in small ways. A and contribute their process of political education ideas to the political has begun among women. It process. is too soon to know how it will play out.

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The examination of Notwithstanding the caregiving is an importance of their The Aboriginal established findings, Chandler and participants in the CII intellectual tradition in Lalonde lament that project affirm Kershaw’s political science their epidemiological finding (2010a; 2010b), internationally. This analysis is hampered influenced by Collins topic receives by the dearth of (1994), that particular attention in multiple variables available to modes of caregiving can related literatures, measure cultural be a political act of In contrast to the including scholarship rehabilitation across citizenship. The womenof In this article, we colonizing about the ethics of Aboriginal the CII study make clear support the position practices implicit care, which has communities. They that caregiving for that at least some in much important origins in therefore suspect that identity has potential to “private” caregiving scholarship, the Relação the work by Tronto their “collection of empower community for identity is political decision to entre a (1993); the feminist marker variables is only members to contest citizenship because empower the posição de citizenship literature, a subset of what is existing power structures it contributes to a community Kershaw cuidadora e as engaged with by undoubtedly a much on behalf of themselves population’s partners with & a Lister (2003) among larger array of such and the broader Canadá empowerment and fiduciary Harkey identidade others; the literature protective factors.” The populations of which they politicization. We do responsibility (2011) em on gender and insights shared above are part. When time to so by learning from aimed to mitigate mulheres welfare regimes by Mary, Jenny, Rene´, care is resourced at the caregivers who rear the power de origem initiated by Langan Leslie, and Rebecca community and children in the wake differentials that aborígene and Ostner (1991), confirm their point, household level in line of the Indian typically favor Lewis (1992), Orloff because these CII with the policy residential schools university partners (1993), Williams participants alert us to recommendations above, (IRS) system in when (1995), and others; a community protective “private” caregiving has Canada. collaborating with and a literature that factor that has not yet potential to empower communities. explores the politics been measured communities because it of empowerment quantitatively: child represents a central among minority caregiving strategies context in which ethnocultural women, which empower Aboriginal parents and which Collins (1991) community members to community members influenced resist misrecognition by self-define through story- considerably. In this providing children with telling and story- article, we contribute a positive rejecting. to these literatures by counternarrative about

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sharpening the their own culture; one understanding of that will serve child and what is political about parent alike as a caregiving in order to resource when the enrich the study of outside world power. denigrates their identity. SOCPOL -Tabela C110 p. 104 - ? p. 106 - ?

Take the example of Turkey. The Turkish state is becoming involved in care policy at a time when most European countries are also doing so, yet issues that are driving the concern with care, such as population aging, the empowerment of women, stagnant fertility rates, and the This history can be better understood by tracing the eclipse of the male-breadwinner model, are largely absent Políticas do proliferation of at least three different notions of the in Turkey. Thus neoliberal care-at-home oriented care Candas cuidado e sua private and two different notions of the public: [...] policies are arising in an entirely different demographic, & Silier relação com as Turquia (Cultural) Private III: The emergence of a institutional, social, and cultural setting. In different (2014) mulheres na sublimated set of traditional or reinvented family contexts, the same policy means different outcomes for Turquia neoliberal values and religious values (empowerment of women, and especially poor women (Ungerson 2004). As a community). result, what amounts to an impoverishment of women in the European context (Lister 1990, 450–451), in Turkey might signal the official rejection of gender equality as a social policy goal and reassertion of the traditional gender roles alongside with the impoverishment of women.

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Fostering There have been Given that These An important This article has women’s three critical women targeted reporting success of these attempted to entrepreneurship reflections on this by these requirements organizations was approach is also “smart articulation of the development produced the ability of their discourses of economics” relationship initiatives usually tensions officers to form entrepreneurship because it can between cannot among the field personal in development contribute to women’s outsource officers. First, connections with programs economic entrepreneurship, household work, this was extra the beneficiaries. targeting efficiency and empowerment, the kind of work, eating They were able to women’s growth (Razavi and other businesses they away not only see the problems, empowerment 2012). development are likely to at their limited from the latter’s and poverty Furthermore, goals. The first establish are time, but also perspectives. This reduction by women are critique focuses limited by their that of the mere looking at them expected to on the tendency time poverty beneficiaries, acknowledgement on the ground, in become to limit (Warren 2003) and thus created an their relational Programas de empowered discussions of along with their raising incentive to go context. desenvolvimento because gender equality restricted access questions through stages Development Altan- econômico voltados entrepreneurship to market terms to economic and about their that otherwise programs Olcay Turquia à ideia de increases their (Elias 2013; educational contribution to might have been highlight (2015) "empreendedorismo control over Simon-Kumar capital, and women’s regarded as women’s feminino" money and 2011) and to market empowerment. redundant. entrepreneurship enables them to normalize a experience. In a One field Nevertheless, the because they exercise more vision of vicious cycle, the officer later officers utilized can contribute to power in entrepreneurial limited success showed me a this proximity in a gender equality, household and responsible of their six-page form guarded fashion: as well as decisions (Goetz citizen remunerative that they made they also wanted facilitate poverty and Sen Gupta subjectivities. economic the women fill to make sure that reduction and 1995; Hashemi, This approach activities can out anyway. they could retain social inclusion. Schuler and expects exacerbate Now both their distinction What this Riley 1996). All individuals to these workers and from the women approach misses in all, access to take care of circumstances. beneficiaries whom they is the fact that monetary themselves and The problem not had a slew of served. As a the figure of the resources is operate only pertains to new result, discourses successful expected to successfully class differences documentation, of entrepreneurial create a under among women, which required entrepreneurship woman emerges “virtuous spiral” competition but is also workers to sit and from the very

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(Mayoux 1998, (Murray Li 2002, intersectional down with each empowerment, inequalities that as cited in 2007; Rankin (McCall 2005). beneficiary. etc. appeared to these programs Mayoux 2001), 2001, 2002). This To that end, She joked that work in public. It are expected to as a result of market-based international everyone was not alleviate. This which, women logic evades development would be necessarily the imaginary gain the ability to histories of programs cannot befuddled by transmission of a entrepreneurial challenge economic generate the end of it all. common-sense woman has gendered restructuring and sustained links Second, for the logic that was already made it, cultural practices fails to between international happening here. due to a and renegotiate problematize the women’s agency, the combination of social and divestment of entrepreneurship women’s resources and political state and stories needed structural inequalities. responsibilities empowerment to have a advantages that toward citizens because they “marketable”, are unavailable (Karnani 2009; are unable to positive feel not only to the Roy 2010; Weber address class about them. targets of 2004). It fails to and ethnic Many of these development take into differences women led programs, but consideration (Ferguson difficult lives, also to the how pervasion of 2010). but the majority of global capitalism audience was women in the has deepened rather world. inequalities of interested in gender, race, stories of hard class, and nation work, (Peterson 2012). determination, self- responsibility, and achievement potential. For the field officers the question was how they could “sell” the web exposure to the women. They anticipated

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resistance, because people would not want to appear to be begging for money. The office staff seemed to agree with these potential hesitations. SOCPOL -Tabela C112 p. 610-611 p. 612- p. 617- p. 619- p. 611 - ? p. 611 - ? p. 614 - ? p. 618 - ? p. 619 - C p. 621 - ? - ? 613 - C 618 - C 620 - C One such To As many Two Cultural In 1992, Although In terms Moore One developm investigate have ethnogra practices Lawrence there has of provides young ent of how such argued, phic are Summers been commons a closer woman great changes in feminist example everywher , then the general ense look at named importanc internationa NGOs s e chief parity theories the Bridget, a e has l law and promote illustrate (re)invent economis between of process. teenaged been the organizatio ideas and the ed, t of the boys’ and “translatio This was mother of internation nal policy ideologies implicatio variable World girls’ n,” these not an twins, Significad al differentiall that are ns of this and Bank, primary workshop unexpect rehearse os e Gal, discourse y affect the relatively approach changeabl declared schooling s would ed d her traduções Kowal of “human lives of novel for e. Those that in Uganda be the outcome, testimony em ONGs Ugand ski & rights” as women even in understa who argue educating since spaces or simple during transnaci a/Índia Moore a legal worldwide, the nding against girls 2006, the where “mistransl the girls’ onais (2015) basis for researcher internation feminist women’s “yields a teenage girls’ ation” of workshop voltadas a gaining s attempt to al activism: rights on higher pregnanc empower girls’ . Her mulheres social track the agencies The first the rate of y rate ment was empower story justice for circulation that often is a grounds return remains “translate ment. began people of underwrite multinati that rights than any one of the d”—made During with the against— discourses them: onal violate other highest in locally the girls’ death of rather and human NGO long- investme the world: relevant workshop her father than practices rights, and its standing nt according —for this and through— from the domestic Ugandan restriction available to the Ugandan eleven- ended the nation declaration violence, subsidiar s of in the 2009 girls. Plan year old with her

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states of s of and y that “culture,” developin census, Internatio had been dropping which they internationa HIV/AIDS, supports are using g world,” one in nal had coached out of are l for the the term (1992, every four sub- by the school, citizens, organizatio instance, empower “culture” 132). girls is contracte gender working and the ns, to are ment and to Summers pregnant d specialist in subseque policy concerns educatio authorize ’ by the leadershi s, who nightclub nt framing recommen dateable n of girls their own argument time she p of the themselv s, of dations and to the last (Moore, privilege converge is workshop es were becoming women’s resolutions, thirty in prep.). in d with a eighteen. s to its echoing pregnant rights as to efforts years The contests growing Thus, the subsidiary — with part of that put (Moyn second over consensu connectio in although twins, human these 2010). is a north change. s in the n Uganda not and, rights initiatives The job of Indian This internatio between and to exactly eventuall (Bunch into effect making NGO critique is nal girls’ other, replicatin y, finding 1990). through these that cogent developm schooling smaller g— the NGO United social issues offers and ent and Ugandan nationally that had Nations movements widely counseli crucial, industry decrease NGOs. circulatin brought conferenc , advocacy recognize ng to well which, d fertility [...] In g public her to the es on networks d and women supported over the is a workshop health workshop women’s and accepted in cases by much past two universali s and (and had rights intervention is a of anthropol decades, zing claim preceding media previousl have programs. central househol ogical has that is not the public discourse y followed, Most interventio d evidence. poured actually festivities, s provided including strikingly, n of conflict, However, billions of universal. the surroundi other the scholars NGOs, including Merry dollars The gender ng “sugar training prominent have often domestic (2006a) into broader specialist daddies,” and Beijing focused on described violence then global goal of s elicited the term resource Declaratio the leading as taking (Kowalsk proposes “girls’ Moore’s girls’ used in s for her). n and role played “global” i 2014). that we empower research views Uganda It is Platform by discourses The two understan ment” was about for older important (1995), transnation to “local” organizat d the campaign therefore their lives men who to note and its al contexts. ions tension s to and gift or pay that such continuing nongovern The differ in between intended examine futures. for sex facts activist mental rendering many universali to break what girls For with could be programs. organizatio of central ways, zing the cycle actually example, younger told in In parallel, ns (NGOs) terms but both claims of learn the girl women many the in framing such as are and their poverty. through participan (Parikh ways. Internation agendas, “rights,” feminist diverse These participati ts were 2011). The al proposing “empower NGOs in contexts campaign on with asked to The shaping

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Monetary policy, and ment,” and Ferree’s as a s, run by NGOs, discuss gender of Fund and implementi even (2006) problem NGOs from the specialist Bridget’s the World ng “AIDS” in sense of of headquar whom, causes of s used narrative Bank have women’s the aiming translation tered in and how teenage dialogical became supported rights and relevant for between the global the NGO pregnanc - evident investmen empowerm languages gender “local” and North, itself y and to pedagogi when a t in ent is one equality. “global” are organizes post the cal male women’s programs. major ideas, inspired “empower results of technique specialist and girls’ task. For oddly by long- ment” their s to guide steppedin education this effort, abandonin standing activities. discussio the group at the and the staff of g her research n on toward a end of “empower such earlier that brightly shared the story ment,” NGOs critique of correlate colored understan to coach arguing must be of just this s the index ding of her: that they diverse distinction education cards what “Okay, contribute linguistic . Phrases of taped to could be Bridget, if to the and and adolesce the wall. claimed you can overall cultural concepts nt girls The as also talk advancem backgroun like rights with “causes” problems about ent of the ds, in part or overall they facing what you developin different domestic decrease reported girls. want for g world from that violence s in were These the (The of must be birthrates parental technique future. . World client/targ adapted . negligenc s involved .What do Bank et to fit e, affirming you 2012). population “local” “teasing” and want? s and from ideologies (sexual recasting What donors as about harassme participan kind of well. family, nt), and ts’ help do harm, and rape. response you empower Plan s during want?” ment Uganda group Bridget (2006a: had hired conversat replied: 136–7, journalists ion, which “The help Levitt and to record allowed I want is Merry these gender only for 2009). response specialist my This is s and to s to children, carried reprint delimit cause

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out, she them as the way they have argues, by part of a issues no father. “intermedi “Children’ and I am the aries who s hence father translate Memoran self- and the global dum,” a presentati mom.” ideas into document ons The local the girls would be request situations were to formulate for further and present to d in the help retranslat the speeches made e local governme being Bridget ideas into nt as the rehearse seem a global capstone d for the good framework to the public “investme s,” (Merry Day of Day of nt” for 2006a:13 the Girl the Girl governm 4). These event. event. ent and translators However, NGO seem to the audience be merely “cause” of s: not conduits. teenage only Merry pregnanc already assures y that “improve readers ended up d” by that: “The being NGO basic featured interventi assumptio by ons, but ns about journalists still in the values , need of of choice, emphasiz financial autonomy, ed by help, and equality, NGO not likely and the leaders, to be a protection and financial of the rearticulat drain or body ed by lost remain girls as cause unchange they because

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d,” spoke she was (2006a:21 publicly to already 6, 2006b). governme on the In Merry’s nt road to terms, represent empower when a atives ment. rights- was girls’ based purported category propensit is y to trade “vernacula sex for rized” it money should— and gifts. and in the During a best speech to vases Uganda’s does— Commissi subsume oner of or replace Youth, other, one perhaps eleven- less year old progressiv described e the cause strategies of for teenage interpretin pregnanc g and y as intervenin follows: g in harms “Loving to women. gifts for This is a sex. good Some of example we girls, of the we accept approach gifts from we reject. strangers. For if someone

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gives you a gift, ba nange (my god), they will ask: ‘Where have I removed it from?’ Instead of saying: ‘Please leave me alone, I’m not taking that.’”7 At a workshop that was intended to politically activate young women to make claims for better reproducti ve health services and improved education opportunit ies, young women

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ended up publicly blaming themselv es for having sex for money. What happened ? SOCPOL -Tabela C113 p. 73 - S p. 73-74 - S p. 74 - S p. 74 - S p. 78 - ? p. 79 - C p. 80-81 - S

Under this regime, Loïc Similar While the In sum, while By observing A closer writes Michel Wacquant dynamics emerging WIC is one of counseling examination of Foucault, the ideal describes show up in literature on many U.S. sessions and WIC’s literature political subject is this alteration other U.S. aid “people- federal nutrition interviewing WIC and promotional “an entrepreneur of in the use of programs for changing” state assistance staff and clients, I materials himself . . . being state power the needy. aid programs programs, it was able to reveals for himself his own as a shift Jennifer illuminates these differs from other examine the habituation’s Implicaçõ capital, being for from “people Randles programs’ programs— mixture of compatibility es das himself his own processing” (2013) ideology and particularly practical and with the políticas producer, being for to “people describes the mechanisms, SNAP, the ideological neoliberal baseadas himself the source changing” welfare- most empirical largest of these approaches WIC processes of em E of his earnings” (2010, 203), funded studies in this programs—in staff deployed to empowerment Mason diretrizes U (1982, 226). At its wherein aid “relationship area have three important effect change in and (2016) da ONU A core, the neoliberal programs skills” classes focused on ways, their clients, as responsibilizatio para subject is self- now actively aimed at programs that possessing: (i) a well as the n. In California, mulheres reliant and create the encouraging target emotional biomedical, risk- meanings that local WIC offices e crianças productive, subjects for a poor men to or attitudinal based both parties distributed (WIC) unbeholden to neoliberal marry the change. In classification attributed to pamphlets society. To create society. mothers of contrast, WIC system; (ii) these carrying the this subject, Recent their children; emphasizes restrictive food interactions. slogan, “Feel the neoliberal regimes sociological like job skills bodily change allowances; and Counselors Love, Feel the enact the related scholarship classes, alongside mental (iii) a primary favored an Power: Make processes of shows the however, readjustment.Ho focus on approach that Healthy empowerment and proliferation these classes w might neoliberal, combined formal Choices.” These responsibilization. of this also work on empowerment people-changing nutrition materials

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Empowerment, “people- the and nutrition education with emphasized argues Barbara changing” subjectivity of responsibilizatio education. As I habituation—a mothers’ Cruikshank, is a function in their n, the pillars of will discuss in my repetitive responsibility for political strategy programs participants, neoliberal findings, these process by which their own health that aims “to act targeting a “modif[ying] people-changing features knowledge is and that of their upon others by wide swath men’s policy, manifest contribute to the internalized, whole families, getting them to act of issues in behavior by in a program processes of embodied, and urging clients to in their own low-income transforming whose aim is not habituation, made to feel “enjoy physical interest,” thus populations, their identities financial uplift, empowerment,an second-nature activity breaks” eliciting the including as men into but health? And d (Bourdieu [1977] and “choose enthusiastic addiction responsible how, if at all, responsibilization 1984). They healthy drinks.” participation of (Haney husbands might this focus I observed at pursued this While mothers subjects— usually 2010), and fathers on health and WIC. approach by should learn to poor or marriage and and by the body shape presenting health “enjoy” healthy marginalized relationship binding them both andbody activities by populations—in skills to a set of bureaucratic management to reconditioning some social norm (Randles social strategies for clients as their bodily or duty 2013), and expectations people-changing empowerment habits and (Cruikshank 1999, work that and participants’ and by preferences, 68). Empowerment placement encourage receptivity to positioning doing so, the is also a means (Hays 2003; them to work such change? themselves as slogan toward achieving a Korteweg harder and helpful allies— suggests, is also second goal: 2006; earn more not bureaucratic a way for responsibilization. Woodward money” authorities—in mothers to feel Responsibilization 2008). In (Randles that mission. This empowered and emphasizes place of 2013, 865). In move to frame express love for “responsibility, direct constructing staff–client their children. In [which]—in material aid, idealized relationships as Florida, signs contrast to mere these masculinity horizontal, rather posted near the compliance with programs thus, the than vertical, also entrances of rules— emphasize state pursues supported WIC’s WIC offices presupposes one’s personal its own efforts at cautioned, care for one’s responsibility material responsibilization “Parents are duties and one’s and interests . My children’s first un-coerced empowerme (shoring up conversations teachers.” application of nt as the working-class with clients These signs certain values as a path out of men’s revealed that implied not only root motivation for poverty and investment in most women that parents action” (Shamir dependency. the formal were receptive to should monitor

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2008, 7). Under labor market this approach, children’s neoliberalism, and cutting which, they felt, nutrition, but responsibilized welfare signaled genuine also that they subjects adopt self- enrollments) support for should alter their interest and through a mothers’ own own diets to competitiveness as discourse of choices and model healthy guiding moral responsibility, authority. lifestyles for principles. Yet, empowermen However, their children. In despite an t, and self- suchconversation combination, appearance of esteem. s also these materials greater occasionally establish an egalitarianism— revealed the idealized moral responsibilization, limitations of subject who is for example, WIC’s support: frugal, rational, replaces top-down despite the and health- regulation with a appearance of conscious, and network of self- personalized who takes regulated care and responsibility for individuals in attention, herself and her horizontal biomedical and family. relationships—both bureaucratic empowerment and norms at WIC responsibilization supported only constitute those choices techniques of state that optimized power. health and limited spending, while making relatively little allowance for mothers’ personal tastes or the material and bodily limitations that many women faced. 1785

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Continuação (Mason, 2016) p. 81 - S p. 81-82 - S p. 82 - S p. 83 - S p. 83 - S p. 84 - C p. 85-86 - S p. 87 - S p. 88 - S Like other Unlike other Although Enlisting As Johnston As India’s The practices Instead, WIC Previous studies neoliberal “people- gender norms clients into and Swanson story that Tina, provides an of neoliberal people- changing” position this people- (2006) note, suggests, Annie, Gita, alternate U.S. welfare changing programs like women as changing the precise some and Paz pathway toward demonstrate the programs that TANF, WIC “naturally” process definition of women find adopted at the respectable centrality of utilize policy gives staff responsible requires staff “good this vision WIC office biological empowerment responsibilizatio members no caregivers, to cultivate motherhood” jarring or reveal citizenship. To and n, this strategy power to WIC clients’ sensitivity to varies, and— difficult to complexities in low-income responsibilizatio also acts as a sanction clients other clients’ when asked reconcile WIC–client mothers who n in people- cost-saving for demographic classed to offer their with their relations: even adopt WIC- changing measure. WIC noncompliance. characteristics circumstance own own parents’ as all four approved programs for the assistance is Out of necessity, —particularly s. WIC clients definitions— methods, women nutritional poor, ranging time-limited by then, WIC their youth (my tend to be women tend and WIC expressed practices, WIC from job definition, counselors tend interviewees single to emphasize counselors appreciation offers placement to covering only to cultivate averaged mothers, the practices must bridge for WIC, they recognition as marriage pregnant and relationships twenty-six often juggling or ideologies the gap. Joy, also “good mothers” promotion. Such breastfeeding with clients that years old, in appointments they have a developed and programs mothers, are more line with WIC at multiple aid adopted. grandmotherl strategies for responsible, encourage infants, and horizontal than trends programs and Breastfeedin y Black resisting the empowered participants to children up to vertical: while nationwide), trying to g and nutrition intrusive, subjects: adults become self- age five. By stepping back poverty, and support their overseeing counselor in biomedically who care about regulating urging clients to from overt racial families on a child nutrition California, inspired their children subjects and to view health as a displays of backgrounds— limited are common addressed a surveillance make healthy internalize site for power, are often used budget. For ways to class of new they choices, and neoliberal empowerment counselors invite to stereotype these women, assert status mothers at encountered set guidelines values of profit, —and by using clients to view them as participating as a good WIC on this there. These for family health competitiveness biomedical changes in diet irresponsible, in mother, but subject, strategies and nutrition. , and self- techniques of and exercise as bad mothers. government they are not saying, aimed to Closer analysis sufficiency. WIC habituation and empowerment. To counteract assistance the only “Grandma is preserve a of WIC’s not only risk-mitigation to Responsibilizati these programs— values going to tell space of methods, incorporatesthe reinforce on is the central stigmatizing many of women you privacy and however, se tactics but specific health aim of WIC’s discourses, which have emphasize. something autonomy for reveals some also—by virtue practices—WIC approach, and WIC staff rigid, When women different. mothers who important of its de facto pushes clients empowerment, I members bureaucratic experience Your did feel caveats. First, policy of to make argue, provides treated even guidelines for setbacks in girlfriends empowered to WIC does not reframing staff changes that an unusually very young enrollment— these areas, are going to make good provide the vast as allies (rather

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will carry over effective mothers as is a they may turn tell you choices for array of than into their post- technique for responsible potentially to other something their families, technoscientific authorities)— WIC lifestyles achieving that adults, while disempowerin indicators of different. even when treatment invests in them and, it hopes, aim. Critically, positioning g experience. “good Your spouse that meant options that more fully than lead to lower WIC seeks to themselves as [...]Facing a motherhood” will tell you deviating from middle- and do programs health expenses empower and empowering mother who to preserve a something WIC upper-class like TANF, in the future. responsibilize allies. Robin, a was impatient positive self- different. But guidelines. subjects can where staff clients as good white, sixty- to leave so image when it goes Those use to manage retain punitive mothers. As two-year-old that she could (Marshall, badly, who choices— health risks and authority to Ladd-Taylor and counselor in feed her Godfrey, and suffers? You whether giving meet the sanction or Umansky Florida, hungry, Renfrew and your a traumatized demands of remove explain, the described the screaming 2007). Thus, baby.” Joy child a pacifier biological participants. My cultural figure of care she takes infant, Mei WIC thus framed or returning to citizenship; interviews with the “good when Mei reinforces WIC as the work instead despite its clients point to mother” remains suggesting responded, mothers’ arbiter of of emphasis on the successes powerfully linked changes to her “Wow, you’re investment in modern, breastfeeding personal choice of WIC’s to discussions clients, saying, an amazing child nutrition good care: —reflected and approach: most about women’s “The majority mom. You’re by linking it to an mothers’ empowerment, mothers place in society, are receptive, so concerned broader empowering recognition WIC recognizes equated WIC- but the classed especially if about your cultural ally for that optimal only a narrow approved and racialized you approach it child, and I definitions of mothers’ nutrition is range of low- health- and barriers to well—don’t love that. And “good efforts at only one of cost choices as body-care “good” accuse them of so I’m going motherhood,” giving their many things a the “right” or practices with motherhood are being a bad to get you out empowermen children the child needs. “healthy” ones. autonomy, many [...] mom . . . of here fast. t, and best start in Second, while empowerment, because no I’m going to responsibility. life. the previous and good one wants to help you right literature on motherhood. hear that.” now.” In this biomedicalizatio way, Mei Mei n and subject defused an formation tends emotional to focus on situation and sophisticated interpellated medical her client as a techniques and “good,” their political empowered consequences, mother, WIC eschews identifying the high-tech (and underlying high-cost)

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attitude solutions in (concern for favor of the child’s sophisticated health) that discursive she sought to counseling reinforce. techniques for crafting its ideal biological subjects. Continuação (Mason, 2016) p. 88 - S p. 89 - S p. 89 - S p. 89 - S Ultimately, while formal program rules like VENA guide staff members’ In this way, WIC policy and practice deployment of responsibilizing and facilitated the neoliberal processes of empowering discourses, the success responsibilization and empowerment: of WIC’s people-changing efforts program discourses encouraged depends on staff members’ informal Finally, unlike work placement mothers to take responsibility for their emotional labor to bridge the gap programs in TANF that posit a families’ health and—countering between WIC’s biomedical ideology genderless, autonomous worker as popular images of welfare mothers as of personalized risk management In conclusion, WIC differs from other the ideal neoliberal subject “bad mothers”—framed them as and the reality of WIC’s support for a people-changing welfare programs (Korteweg 2006), WIC’s focus on empowered adults capable of meeting limited number of health and by eschewing punitive sanctions in bodily self-surveillance and that responsibility. Yet these same bodycare practices. More than other favor of staff–client relationships that management accords with policies drastically limited the range of popularly studied welfare programs, encourage responsibility and traditional norms of feminine health- and body-care practices WIC WIC shows that a program can be empowerment. However, WIC is embodiment (Young 1990): before endorsed. Thus, when clients like Tina disciplinary without being punitive. distinct from these programs in a poor women were pathologized as and Paz opted not to breastfeed or Second, WIC’s approach is geared second respect: it aims to change dependent and urged to work on used a pacifier, WIC staff members toward “typical” WIC clients: poor, not only clients’ hearts and minds, themselves to fulfill a neoliberal were unsupportive. These stories young, inexperienced mothers. While but their bodies as well. This vision of empowerment as workers reveal the underlying contradiction mothers who were older (like Tina) or difference matters. or committed spouses, they were between WIC’s nominal efforts at highly educated (like Annie and Gita) taught to work on their bodies in empowering mothers’ personalized sometimes chafed against WIC’s pursuit of desirable, controlled body-care choices and its commitment limited options and strict oversight, femininity. to biomedical health and lifestyle other clients welcomed the chance to optimization. Given this contradiction, be—and be recognized as—good, why do more women not report feeling, responsible mothers. For such as Tina did, “browbeaten” byWIC? women, who described feeling invisible or stigmatized in other

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settings, sacrificing some privacy and autonomy seemed a small price to pay for WIC’s caring attention.

WSQ – Tabela C114 1790 País Referência Público/Objeto do Trechos estudo p. 107 - C p. 107-108 - ? p. 108-109 - ? p. 116 - C

For women of color who Wendy Harcourt, an Many individual women Kendall’s ethnography on want to connect globally Australian feminist outside any formal the online community across diasporas— what researcher with the Society political organization BlueSky is informative on Chela Sandoval refers to for International experience the Internet this point. While BlueSky is as “U.S. third world Development, a as a “safe space” for relatively inclusive, and feminism” (2000)—the nongovernmental resisting the gender certainly not “racist” (or cyberfeminist practice of organization (NGO) based oppression that they “sexist”) in any overt way, online organizing and in Rome and the author of encounter in their day-to- the inclusiveness is discursive space takes on Women@Internet: Creating day lives offline. In her predicated on social added significance. New Cultures in edited volume On structure in which “white Gajjala’s (2003, 2004) Cyberspace, is a leading Shifting Ground: Muslim middle-class men continue writing about South Asian proponent of this view. She Women in the Global to have the power to Cyberfeminismo diasporas online is a summarizes this stance Era, Fereshteh Nouraie- include or not to include Daniels e novas formas EUA case in point. Her work when she writes that there is Simone (2005a) includes people whose gender, (2009) de ativismo combines critical, “convincing evidence that essays about the sexuality or race marks theoretical analysis with the Internet is a tool for importance of global them as other” (Kendall years of hands-on creating a communicative information technology 2000, 272). BlueSky’s practice building e- space that when embedded for women living in and textonly nature facilitates spaces, such as SAWnet, in a political reality can be resisting repressive greater inclusiveness the women-only South an empowering mechanism gender regimes. Nouraie- across differences of Asian Listserv. Gajjala for women” (1999, 219). The Simone’s description of gender, sexual orientation, points out that if notion that the Internet is a the importance of the and race, yet the cyberfeminist agendas “tool” to be picked up and Internet is noteworthy: predominance of white are to “produce “used” by women for “For educated young men simultaneously “limits subversive “empowerment” is a Iranian women, the inclusiveness to countercultures or to metaphor that is employed cyberspace is a liberating ‘others’ who can fit succeed in changing repeatedly in the literature territory of one’s own—a themselves into a culture

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existing technological about global feminist place to resist a by and for those white environments so that they organizations and the traditionally imposed men” (272). BlueSky, like are empowering to Internet. subordinate identity while the queer online spaces women and men of lesser providing a break from that the QLBT women in material and socio- pervasive Islamic Bryson’s study seek out cultural privilege the restrictions in public and the pro-ana spaces world over, it is important physical space. The that many young girls find to examine how virtual nature of the empowering, are individuals and Internet—the structure of predicated on an communities are situated” interconnection in assumption of whiteness. within the global political cyberspace that draws Unlike either the economy (2003, 54). participants into ongoing cyberracism of white discourses on issues of supremacists online feminism, patriarchy, and (Daniels 2009) or the gender politics, and the white, masculine desire for textual process of self- community expressed by expression without the neoconfederates on Dixie- prohibition or limitation of Net (McPherson 2000), the physical space—offers whiteness that Kendall new possibilities for describes in BlueSky is women’s agency and very much like whiteness empowerment” (2005b, in the offline world: an 61–62). unmarked category that is taken for granted in daily life. Race matters in cyberspace precisely because “computer networks are social networks” (Wellman 2001) and those who spend time online bring their own knowledge, experiences, and values with them when they log on (Kolko, Nakamura, and Rodman 2000, 5). The fact that race matters online, as it does offline, counters the oft- repeated assertion that

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cyberspace is a disembodied realm where gendered and racialized bodies can be left behind. WSQ – Tabela C115 p. 38 - ? p. 52 - C p. 53 - S p. 54 - S p. 56 - ?

Advocates urged Twentieth-century women to throw American men themselves into generally did not need Websites provided remaking dull rooms to justify an interest in powerful recognition as personalized picking up tools. While building for self-made After 1990, big nests: “You might be individual men might repair celebrities such corporations and living in a house that prove incompetent at as Heidi Baker and women entrepreneurs just doesn’t make Nevertheless, distinct manual work or Eden Jarrin, who capitalized on rising you happy. The good corporate shifts choose not to perform launched a multimedia rates of female- news is you can reinforced the it, society linked “home empowerment” headed households change that, and acceptability of masculinity to tool use business selling and home ownership when you change female skill. Home through shop class, women work clothes, as marketing your home, you Depot copied the job training, Boy História do tools, repair books, and opportunities. Home change your life.” Be message of female Scouts, hobbies, and encorajamento videos. In their online renovation shows Jane promised that tool empowerment, father-son das mulheres a community, “Janes of Bix made repair women removing scars from using emotion- apprenticeship. se envolver com EUA all trades” shared (2009) celebrities; they dining-room panels oriented Women, on the other mecânica e excitement about tools’ combined solid would inspire more advertisements in hand, had to assert conserto de transformational magic. technical information comfortable guests to which a “shy, new rights to tool use, equipamentos A Tennessee woman with emotional appeal sparkling single mom, trying to under the rationales of wrote, “If a scrawny to sell other women conversation. make it” spoke about 1920s modernization, girlie-girl with spaghetti on tool use as a Installing bedside renovating her own 1940s war need, and arms can drive a vehicle for material dimmer switches home in honor of her 1990s investment and roofing nail in with two pleasure, self- could instantly fan late handyman empowerment. Inside hits, then anyone can . expression, and “the fragile father. the home, the . . an adrenaline rush personalized connection needed traditional feminine that nothing can empowerment. for romance” (Baker sphere, women could compete with. Be and Jarrin 2006, 1, stake a claim on male- fearless” (Baker and 104). Self-indulgent dominated skill. Jarrin 2006, 7–9). women could convert Statistics of women’s bathrooms “from blah tool use are difficult to to spa in just a quantify; we have no

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weekend” by good method to replacing standard discover how many fixtures with massage replaced their own showerheads. fuses in 1930. Yet the Women should compelling cultural approach such tasks dialogue around not as a chore, women’s repair work Kavovit ordered, but shows tools as a site as experiential for negotiated revitalization: “Enjoy performance of the process. Be gender roles. mindful. . . . With every stroke of the brush . . . you are improving your room and your life” (Kavovit 2005, 35– 37). Merging tool empowerment with democratic luxury, advocates told busy modern women they were entitled to relax on a plush headboard, even if they first had to build it.

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WSQ – Tabela C116 p. 150 - C p. 151 - S p. 153 - S

Feminism, however, is a politics. And, as such, feminist poststructural theory must posit a way to transform its theoretical concepts and analytic tools In other passages, hopes for future At other times, political meaning was into positive action for social change. gender-role changes were also created through talk of “hopes” that a How does knowing these contradictory positioned as the result of mothers’ woman’s status as breadwinning forms of positioning the breadwinning acts and identities of breadwinning: mother would have a positive effect mother subject help us tocontinue to “Oh, gosh, my girls have such a on her own children’s future. For move toward feminist goals? As strong father figure at home. . . . That instance, being a breadwinning Weedon suggests, “Conscious that is going to make such a Mulheres mother and performing a awareness of the contradictory nature difference in their lives. . . . You just provedoras de nontraditional work and family of subjectivity can introduce the can’t put a price on that. I mean, I Medved suas famílias e arrangement was positioned as a possibility of political choice between EUA know they’re getting, they’re going to (2009) a construção political act in and of itself through modes of femininity in different be strong girls because I’m a strong desta particular discourses. Consider the situations and between discourses in mom that believes they can do identidade passage “I like telling people we’re which they have their meaning” (1987, whatever they want to.” A strong different from the norm, and just 87). Indeed, incidents of political sense of self as a breadwinning making people aware of things like positioning across these texts did mother is constructed as having a that.” This way of making sense of evidence consciousness and a sense of direct affect on children’s lives in this breadwinning experiences can be empowerment to create change. excerpt. And this passage can be read read as both personally empowering However, it is not enough to as an empowering aspect of a and a means of encouraging change. deconstruct these differences; we must breadwinning mother’s subjectivity. actively support forms of consciousness-raising that embrace the contradictory and fragmented nature of subjectivity. 1795

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WSQ – Tabela C117 p. 236-237 - C p. 246 - C p. 252 - C

Corporeal entrepreneurialism is both necessary premise and response to Despite drawing on Wacquant’s work the market, and self-governance and on bodily capital, I want to divert from the colonization of one’s body are some of Wacquant’s rather As “entrepreneurs of the self,” effects of market dynamics. Despite deterministic notions around women empower themselves, being successful corporeal corporeal entrepreneurialism, which pursuing their own project of entrepreneurs, however, sex considers corporeal entrepreneurs advancement, but the harsh workers have not yet gained social solely as victims of capitalistic competitive dynamics of the recognition as speaking subjects. exploitation who have internalized market produce conditions that are Tijuana’s sex workers are still the marketdriven language of Mulheres not favorable to the establishment without a public voice and exploitation (Wacquant 2001). This Hofmann prostituídas of supportive relationships. representational power. The EUA/México perspective overlooks the complex (2010) na fronteira Competitiveness is what makes exchange of commercial sex at the ways in which bodily or erotic capital EUA-México selling sex in Tijuana’s red light US-Mexican border is founded on can function as a means of self- district a very lonely experience; gendered, sexualized and racialized empowerment for the socially and many women I talked to inequalities that persist in late economically deprived or highlighted that it is difficult to capitalism, alongside the self- marginalized. Instead, I want to establish friendships because they empowerment of corporeal argue that bodily capital as well as get drawn into competitiveness entrepreneurs. Following a dream of erotic capital has the ability to level even if they don’t want to. social advancement, disadvantaged existing social hierarchies, and thus and marginalized subjects become they both function as resources of agents as corporeal entrepreneurs, the disadvantaged. unable to escape the global politics of neoliberalism.

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1800 WSQ – Tabela C118 p. 132 - ? p. 138 - C p. 145 - C

Because of the prolonged civil war, during which Cambodia’s economy The success of Blue Mekong can collapsed, the country was fertile be explained by a number of ground for any investments or causes, social, economic, and including religious ones. The NGOs psychological factors. The key is have been enjoying the support of the that through fashion production international donor community because the organization has been able to of their ostensible democratic modus provide the local community both operandi; because they claim to Blue Mekong is a local fashion- with material and social champion strategic social, cultural, producing NGO, which, to avoid development, effectively environmental, health, gender, and trouble from corrupt officials, contributing to local community Mulheres economic causes; and because they operates within the Stung Treng building. The entire community trabalhadoras de were established, at least on paper, to Women’s Development Center. It Medvedev has profited from the female ONGs da empower local citizens. But was launched by Nguon Chantha & Reef Camboja workers’ economic and social indústria fashion Cambodia’s autocratic and corrupt and her husband, Kim Dara (2013) empowerment, and, do Camboja, pós- government also puts up with them Chan, in 2001 with the purpose consequently, sexual and guerra do Vietnã because they allow the country’s of fostering the educational and economic violence against leadership to delegate the economic empowerment of women has been considerably responsibility for solving a series of destitute and traumatized local reduced in the area. With the pressing social and economic problems young women. economic success of Blue to NGOs. In essence, as in other Mekong, its female workers were developing countries, privately- and able to transcend their former internationallyfunded NGOs have stigmatization as sex workers and replaced government services in the traditional social and gender certain areas; however, “NGOs not barriers that are still prevalent in dependent on state aid are the the country. exception rather than the rule” (Robbins 2002, 129).

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WSQ – Tabela C119 p. 165 - ? p. 173 - S p. 175-176 - S

Similarly, wearing the white wedding Sutured into a discourse of romantic gown initiates our expectations of the love, the white gown signifies a sense bride’s performance while this of female autonomy to young embodiment troubles the neoliberal As a hallmark of Maoist China, the Chinese woman who read the script of female agency as the bride revolutionary impulse to eradicate performance of femininity through strives to redefine her subjectivity previous styles of dress, and marriage as indicative of the against that nation-state’s agenda to especially those deemed bourgeois cosmopolitan, liberated female self. marshal femininity for its own economic and feminine, and in their place Throwing off cultural traditions and benefit. Her “Inappropriateness” promote a desexualized uniform donning a white gown marks a young suggests “I am like you in that I wear the became a key strategy to challenge woman’s entry into an urban dress that situates me in the Mulheres and displace the trappings of modernity unlike anything her mother transnationally comfortable story of chinesas e gendered forms of class inequality. would have experienced. This romance and heterosexual marriage, but sua relação Rather than lamenting any lost fashionable uniform connects her to a I am different because of my McWilliams com o China empowerment that might have globalized imaginary of women as generation’s tentative exploration of what (2013) consumo de been attached to the transgression unfettered female subjects while an empowered femininity might look moda of gender boundaries, my concurrently encasing her in a like.” This slippage—the ocidental interviewee underscored how heteronormative, patriarchal inappropriateness—in the meanings discourses of nationalism (i.e., discourse that circumscribes her associated with both these figures writes socialist construction) violently subjectivity. Echoing in tone although into the cultural and social landscape erased feminine markers of identity not style the prospects for women who are aspiring to be actors in and fashion (and along with them empowerment and the condition of the cosmopolitanism of China, and yet certain experiences of femininity) vulnerability inscribed in the qipao, because of the Chinese context from that had preceded Maoist strictures the white wedding dress which they emerge, their stories of about fashion and identity. simultaneously symbolizes female femininity and agency have yet to be independence and susceptibility to written from within (and against) the China’s neoliberal postsocialist dynamic national and transnational culture. registers that they are encountering and provoking.

1805

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WSQ – Tabela C120 p. 165-166 - p. 157 - ? p. 159 - C p. 160 - S p. 163 - ? p. 164 - ? p. 164 - S S Over two By marching The poster for Begun in 2001 The haute I do not claim The denial of decades ago in under the SlutWalk as a woman- couture lighting that exploitation the January banner of “slut,” Edmonton friendly, “indie” renders their SuicideGirls and 1992 issue of the protesters 2011 features community of nudity angelic assumes the continuing Ms. magazine, take the poison an alarmingly sexually and virginal, mantle of emphasis on Rebecca Walker out of the word, high stiletto, empowered but they lounge feminism. The positive, called for a Third to change social which not only women (never back and are company in empowered, Wave of feminist attitudes about contradicts the mind that the positioned as fact rejects the grassroots consciousness. women’s bodies idea of models are supine and on “feminist” label porn Walker was and to empower marching but referred to as all fours to (Tomlin 2002). perpetuates incensed by a women with the also reaffirms “girls”), highlight their But it the myth that collocation of potential of their the co-opted SuicideGirls breasts and successfully the events hinging own sexualities. notion that six- sells access to thighs and co-opts cultural employees of on race, gender, Women wrote inch high heels nude images of buttocks. With codes of SuicideGirls Movimentos and class messages on are “alternative” some feminism are sexually de ideologies. With their arms, legs, empowering, beauty on its exceptions, because liberated participação Shannon Liss, chests, and not physically website, their tattoos postfeminism women, Nguyen feminina na EUA she mobilized a faces. Others incapacitating. Facebook, and piercings and Third unfettered by (2013) era pós- collective and carrying A quick search Twitter, and are more often Wave feminism the strictures feminista: foundation to placards of news Tumblr pages; than not depoliticize of social SuicideGirls promote voting declaring: “Stop reportage of the company incidental, women’s codes, e SlutWalks rights, Slut Shaming,” the various also organizes faintly gesturing sexuality by conservative education, wage, “Don’t Tell Us Walks reveals traveling to a punk or extolling the sexual and prison How to Dress,” images of burlesque anti-glam virtues of mores, and reform. They “This Is What a women shows, sells aesthetic. The individual self- feminist provided those Slut Looks marching in video setting, which expression problems. In in need with Like,” and “I am bras, mesh demonstrations is meant to through truth, they emergency Not a Slut but I shirts, (“How to Roll a evoke their consumerism. are young funding for Like Having microshorts Joint” and so spunky Culturally women abortions, Consensual and miniskirts, forth) that are individuality conversant with working at women-led Sex.” As such, dominatrix collected in a and the seductive minimum- projects, and these collective outfits, G- DVD called empowerment, lures of wage jobs reproductive voices strings, pasties SuicideGirls’ recedes to empowerment (Ashleyrae, rights activism countermanded to cover Guide to Living, fuzzy backdrop and free Chanel, (Walker and Liss normative nipples, and and schedules because choice, Casper) or

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2012). Although gender politics stilettos, as their models for photos are SuicideGirls students she coins the that police and well as guest cropped to takes (Arete, term, Walker is denigrate topless.3 appearances on bring the advantage of Leilani, less interested in women’s These radio and reality viewers’ eyes this Cadence). developing a sexuality. Only a performances television to the models’ depoliticization As Mooney coherent, new few protesters do little to shows. breasts or of women’s admits, these feminist theory highlighted the disturb social buttocks at the sexuality for young than in building confluence understanding center of the corporate gain. women are coalitions with between of a “slut”— picture. The illusion of green and other social pervasive instead, they free choice is unworldly: justice leagues rhetorical beliefs reify and evidenced, for “The girls through the and widespread concretize the instance, by mostly work Third Wave sexual assault concept of the rigid in coffee Foundation. by holding signs “slut” as corporate shops and Hers is a confessing, “I scantily clad, guidelines that record feminism of Didn’t Report It. sexually are established stores, and a intersectionality, He Was My immoral for photo lot had never but one that also Boyfriend” and women. shoots, left their proffers self- “Survivor.” Moreover, aesthetics, home towns empowerment, these actions image, and, before this lived experience, ultimately importantly, [burlesque] and the plurality displace the ownership of tour” (Metz of pleasure. To somber and the 2005). Be Real, an deadly issues photographs. Hence, anthology of of rape, although stories and domestic these young testimonials from violence, women women and sexual abuse, choose men, reflects the and street SuicideGirls confessional and harassment. for the individualist promise to drive of the Third find a Wave. womancentered community, and some for the possibility of fame, they find

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themselves in a situation in which they are exploited by a company that turns their pleasure against them. WSQ – Tabela C121 p. 129 - ? p. 133 - S p. 139-140 - S

More than just a compromise made as a condition of belonging or a way of This essay excavates the memories proving one’s loyalty to the revolution, and affects of women in the ISA who the active participation of women in were willing to give their lives for the practices of gender sameness freedom in Iran. How did they fashion Within the parameters of gender reveals a set of affects otherwise themselves as revolutionary subjects sameness, some women experienced illegible within the anti-imperialist within the left diasporic subculture? novel feelings of empowerment and framework of the day. These affects How did they challenge sexism within belonging. Soosan came to the United index gendered histories, injustices, the ISA and empower themselves States in 1978 and quickly became and aspirations, evidence of precisely História das through their visible, public immersed in the Iranian student Left in those differences that gender mulheres do participation in the movement? Why Berkeley. After the revolution, she sameness explicitly aims to subsume. movimento did they willingly acquiesce to rigid Nasrabadi would spend almost a year in prison in As the interview excerpts above have estudantil anti- Irã codes of behavior and bodily (2014) Iran and narrowly escape execution. shown, the experience of Iranian regime pós- comportment? Relying heavily on the Soosan remembered her participation women in the diasporic Left appears revolução voices and reflections of former ISA in the ISA as “really one of my best to have been as much one of iraniana members as an alternative archive to times that I had in my life.” She smiled empowerment as it was one of the extant literature, I investigate here when she recalled “that passion of subjugation. Fanon’s analysis of the contradictions between feminism, doing something” collectively. “We women in the Algerian revolution nationalism, and socialism that were were so equal,” she said. “I could be captures the liberatory aspects of this raging within U.S. social movements news leader or a man could be.” dynamic. He celebrates “this woman by the late 1960s and that were who was writing the heroic pages of already manifesting as a major crisis Algerian history” and who was, “in so for postcolonial nations around the doing, bursting the bounds of the world. narrow world in which she had lived” (1965, 107).

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1810 WSQ – Tabela C122 p. 293 - ? p. 298 - C p. 302 - C

The new “socially conscious” Pope Francis immediately denounced as slave labor the working conditions in Bangladeshi garment factories (“Bangladesh ‘Slave Labor’” To return to the example of 2013). A year later, at a American Apparel, what are other conference convened by the modes in which the consumer International Labor Rights Forum might be motivated to act? What if called “Women’s Rights in the the American Apparel campaign Apparel Industry: Ending foregrounded its own factory Violence, Empowering Voices,” a Read against this backdrop, workers rather than the participant declared, “We want to exercising the “right” to bare the Bangladeshi body? Perhaps this take these women out of body signifies an act of would draw attention to the fact slavery.” The head of the empowerment for the Muslim O conceito de that American Apparel workers National Organization for woman, whose “natural” state is solidariedade e are actually not unionized and the Women, in a rousing speech, understood to be covered or sua relação com a company has notoriously resisted Siddiqi also condemned as slave labor behind the veil. Such rights are visão de EUA/Bangladesh efforts at unionization. Garment (2014) factory work in places like presumably not available to those "salvação" de workers in Los Angeles, in other Bangladesh and Honduras. It is whose are still Muslim or women mulheres do words, are not allowed to forge not my intention to caricature still in the geographical space of Terceiro Mundo solidarity with other workers or individuals or impugn their Bangladesh. By uncovering, Maks with garment workers in other motives. I do not doubt the appears to make a symbolic break parts of the world. For that matter, sincerity of individual concerns, with the coercion of community despite Whole Foods’ touting of feminist or otherwise. My interest and religious norms. women’s empowerment rather is in the work of the trope “elsewhere,” and giving “back” to of slavery. Like trafficking and the planet, its workers cannot forced labor, slavery performs a unionize and in fact are coerced specific discursive-ideological into working on Christmas Day function. Its persuasive power under the threat of being fired. lies in representing “extremes” such as the Rana Plaza collapse as being outside the legitimate liberal capitalist system rather than constitutive of the system itself.

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