TRANSFORMATIONS FOR commumtzes, (2) factors affecting the THE SURVIVAL OF transformations and survival of water• based communities, and (3) trends in TRADITIONAL WATER• transformations and capabilities for the BASED COMMUNITIES IN survival of water-based communities. The AMPHAWA DISTRICT, findings of this research should be useful for preliminary deliberations of the SAMUT SONGKHRAM appropriate policy recommendations for PROVINCE maintaining the uniqueness and the survival ofwater-based communities.

1 Wilawan Phamornsuwan Introduction Wannasilpa Peerapun, and Siriwan Silapacharanan2 Transformations are inevitably the natural phenomena occurring in developing countries where Western notions and Abstract culture have to be applied for their modernization (Moore [1963] and The water-based communities in Amphawa Eisenstadt [1973]). Transformations in District have evolved in their settlements Thailand have been evident since the over a long period of time. They all have launch of the First National Economic and specific and unique characteristics in Social Development Plan (NESDP) in terms of natural and cultural heritages. In 1961. The transformations had been the past, the communities have been especially predominant during the span of affected by various transformations and the first four NESDPs (1961 - 1981) which changes not only in the natural could be regarded as Thailand's major environment but also _through the direct transformation period. During those and indirect developments which have twenty years, intensive infrastructure been undertaken in the Mae Klong River developments had been undertaken, i.e., basin. Despite these changes, however, the land-transportation networks, water traditional water-based communities have resources management, industry, been able to adjust themselves for survival agriculture, public utilities and fac ilities, up to the present day. This study aims to etc., which had led to increasing describe certain issues which affect the modernization of communities within the survival of traditional water-based country. communities in Amphawa, i.e., (I) transformations of traditional water-based The traditional water-based commumties in Amphawa District have also been influenced by, inter alia, many direct and 1 Ph.D. Student in the Department of Urban indirect developments, including the and Regional Planning, Faculty of impacts of continuous changes in the Architecture, Chulalongkorn University, natural environment to which these Thailand. communities are highly sensitive due to 2 Associate Professors, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of their downstream locations on a river. Architecture, Chulalongkorn University, People living in these areas have Thailand. consequently learned to adjust themselves

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to live consistently with the changing classified as being in the brackish ecology environment in order to maintain their of the so-called 'bi-water' zone (Surajit, survival. In examining the overall present 2004: 44). This is the primary factor living conditions of these Amphawa affecting the formation of community communities, it has been found that these patterns, ways of life, occupations, and commumtles are essentially able to agricultural land use, resulting in certain maintain their traditional, water-based characteristics which distinguish these community characteristics. It is therefore communities from their surrounding areas. interesting to learn how these traditional Consequently, these communities have water-based communities have been able been renowned as unique trading centres to maintain their survival. and water-based agricultural communities (gardening communities) since the In this research, Rapoport's (1977) and Ayudhya era (Srisakr, 1993:54). Garnham's (1985) concepts in examining the specific characteristics which help In studying the characteristics of establishing a community's identity were traditional water-based communities in applied in contemplating the Amphawa District, it was found that the transformations and the survival of a areas covered ten sub-districts (), community. These include distinguished i.e., Amphawa, Bang Chang, Thakha, Suan geographical characteristics, prominent Luang, Bang Nang Li, Bang Khae, K wae activities and functions, and conveyance of Oam, Muang Mai, Wat Pra Du, and Plai symbols and meanings in a community. Pong Pang sub-districts (Fig. 1) (not Our research assumes that the levels of including two sub-districts, namely Yisam transformations in the major components and Praek Nam Dang, which are in the which collectively established the brackish zone and predominantly are areas community's identity and the living status for shrimp ponds and mangrove forests). or the survival abilities of a water-based Differentiated by their evolution and community are closely correlated with the transformation patterns, these water-based development or urbanization levels of that communities can be categorized into three community. groups, i.e., half-urban, half-garden water• based communities, fruit-gardening water• Traditional Water-based based communities, and coconut• gardening water-based communities. One Communities in Amphawa water-based community in each of these District three groups was selected for further detailed study in this research, i.e., Khlong The areas of Amphawa District on the Amphawa water-based community, lower Mae Klong River delta are Khlong Bang Khae water-based geographically influenced by a network of community, and Thakha water-based about a hundred canals which are community (Fig. 2). widespread over the entire areas and many of which connect directly to the . These canals, as well as Mae Klong River, are impacted by the flooding and ebbing of the tides, and, consequently, most areas in Amphawa District could be

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Key Factors Influencing Transformation

The results of this study indicated that the two most influential factors in the transformation of water-based communities were external, i.e. ,

1) Road development was the major factor which caused the deterioration, and sometimes the disappearance of the key components of the water-based ! Tb~~fof 'I commumtles, particularly in the \ Thailand A transformations of the water network. Such N changes subsequently affected the people's Figure 1: and ways of life m the water-based the Study Area in Amphawa District communities as they lost opportunities in utilizing the water and the water network. It was found that the locations and the alignments of new roads had notably resulted in extensive transformations of water-based community settlement patterns (Fig. 3). If a road was built adjacent to and in parallel with a water• based community, it usually caused the community to expand and shift its settlement from alongside the waterway to be along both sides of the new road at a faster rate than if the road was built otherwise. And if many roads were built to connect the waterfront with the main road, the community usually expanded and became more densely-populated. In addition, it was found that the rate of expansion of the new settlement and the f Khlong Amphawa: half-urban, half-garden traditional water-based community changes in the water-based community's 2 Khlong Bang Khae: fruit-gardening traditional settlement structure mostly varied with the water-based community urbanized characters of that community. Thakha: coconut-gardening traditional water• 3 based community 2) Dam construction on the upper Mae Figure 2: Three Traditional Water-based Klong River basin drastically changed the Communities as Case Studies ecological balances in the river-basin areas and in the water-based communities in terms of quality, quantity, and flow of water. The changes were particularly severe during 1977 - 1980 when the tides

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were quite high and the fresh water being new community roads so that trading stored behind Sri Nakarin Dam could not activities could continue. The adjustments be released to push back the sea water. were also due partly to the migration of What resulted then was the flooding of people from the water-based communities saline water onto coconut-plantation areas to work in Mae Klong urban areas or which subsequently suffered massive elsewhere. damages. Also, the quality and quantity of water became so deteriorated that it could As a result of the road-network not be utilized in as many activities as development during 1965 - 1977, roads before. had assumed more significant roles as compared with rivers and canals. In addition, water-based commun1t1es Community growths, previously centred in could also be significantly changed in the areas of Amphawa and the estuaries of other aspects by a number of other external other main canals, had shifted to the areas factors, such as capitalism production where land transportation became much system, industrial and agricultural more convenient, i.e., to Mae Klong urban development, public utilities and facilities areas. development, advances in technologies and communications, etc., as well as some Within water-based communities in rural internal factors such as the easy of areas (agricultural communities), the self• absorption of modem culture by the adjustments were made partially by community members. families shifting some of their members to work in non-agriculture sectors in order to Transformations of the Water• lessen the risks which were inherent in agricultural production. The production Based Communities systems in orchards were also readjusted to correspond with the limiting conditions of The results of the study indicated that there households and physical areas by shifting were two major types of transformations in from mixed orchards to planting cash the traditional water-based communities. crops such as pomelo and lychee trees. These were consequences of the radical 1) Transformations for the survival of changes in the ecological environment of water-based communities. These the river-basin areas which had been transformations included self-adjustments caused by dam construction during 1977 - which were made not only to maintain 1980. The high tides then had flooded the households' economic viability but also to agricultural areas of Amphawa and nearby maintain the status of being a "traditional regions with saline water, thus causing water-based community" up to the present extensive damages there to. day. The adjustments were caused mostly by the shifts of employment opportunities From the year 2003 up to the present, a due to road development. number of water-based communities have been newly transformed through the For water-based communities in urban regaining of people's ways of life, culture, areas such as those along Khlong and tradition which had been built on local Amphawa, the self-adjustments resulted wisdom and knowledge. Those cultural partly from the relocation of retail shops assets have been re-learned, re-applied, from the waterfronts to both sides of the

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Khlong Amphawa water-based community

2002 Dense settlement resulting from newly-constructed roads

Expansion of settlement along the main road and the expansion of 1977 new development away from the canal and towards the road

Settlement of the traditional 1954 community along Amphawa canal

Khlong Bang Khae water-based community

Settlement dispersal along the main road and expansion of newly-built houses away from the canal and towards the road

Expansion of newly-built houses away --.. 1987 from the canal and towards the road

Settlement of the traditional community along the canal and cultivated plots __., 1954 ,__

Thakha water-based community

Expansion of newly-built houses 2002 along the main road (relatively few)

Expansion of newly-built houses along the canal, and partly along the main 1977 road

1954 Settlement of the traditional community ---+ along the canal and cultivated plots ,~ N

Figure 3: Shifts in Settlement Structures ofthe Selected Water-Based Communities

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and reproduced in an endeavor to respond buildings, land uses, riverside landscape, to the current trends in tourism. Such and waterway systems. Also, the loss of "cultural reproductions" include the major components appeared to be greater renewal of water market at the mouth of in a more urbanized area. Amphawa canal, the renovation of Thai riverside houses for home-stay business, The study also found that the extent to the production of souvenirs made of local which a water-based community was materials, e.g., coconut shells and fruits, transformed depended largely on how and the increased use of boats in an early the new roads were built, the number assortment of activities, such as water• of secondary roads, and the road pattern market trading, waterway sightseeing, and within that community. In rural water• watching fireflies at night. based communities, i.e., fruit-gardening water-based communities and coconut• Although these transformations have just gardening water-based communities, the taken place over the past few years, they changes in terms of economic components have played a crucial role in easing the were more pronounced, especially the communities' economic problems. In changes in households' major production addition, they have also motivated systems. The loss of major components in community members to be more active in a rural water-based community also trying to preserve their environment and appeared to be much less. their cultural heritage. The Survival of Traditional 2) Transformations to conform with contemporary social and environmental Water-Based Communities conditions. These included the adjustments which resulted, both directly and In assessing the survival of traditional indirectly, from the foregoing water-based communities, three major transformations, e.g., adjustments of variables and thirteen minor variables, as household consumption, inter-community listed in Table 1, were selected as exchanges of products, adjustments of indicators for identifying a traditional people's ways oflife and social conditions, water-based community. Four survival etc. These transformations are diverse due levels were established for each variable, to the differences in their physical and and the assessments were carried out by social conditions, as well as the non• using questionnaires in field surveys. The contemporaneous impacts of external four survival levels are as follows: factors on these communities. • A score of more than 75% indicated Upoo reviewing the overnll transformations of that the water-based community was the water-based communities in Amphawa most likely to survive areas, it was found that the more urbanized • A score of 50% - 75% indicated that a water-based community was, the greater the water-based community was the changes would be in all key highly likely to survive components of that community. The • A score of 25% - 50% indicated that foregoing was particularly true with the water-based community was respect to physical components, e.g., moderately likely to survive, with community settlement patterns, residential some risks to chances of survival

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• A score below 25% indicated that the commodities and products, etc., water-based community was not substantially decreased due to poorer likely to survive, with a high risk to water quality in the canals and rivers such chances of survival that the water became unsuitable for consumption. Furthermore, the number of According to the study, the likely survival aquatic animals has also reduced, and of water-based communities in each areal more roads have been built for access to group directly varied with the levels of the communities. People have increasingly urbanization of those communities (fig. 4). turned to using cars for outbound travel instead of sing boats. Nonetheless, boats The fruit-gardening water..ffised con:m..mities and were still used for intra-community the coconut-gardening water-based traveling, especially in the Thakha water• communities were the most rural ones. based community. Most of the minor variables for these communities were scored with moderately The half-urban, half-garden water-based high levels of survival, especially in terms communities were quite highly urbanized of waterway networks and traditional with moderate chances of survival. Risks settlement patterns (more than 70%). On to future survival are perceived, especially the other hand, water utilization in some where there has been relatively high activities, i.e., consumption, food deterioration of water networks resources, outbound travel, transport of

Table 1: Variables for Assessing the Survival of Water-based Communities

Major variables Minor Details of minor variables variables

1) Waterway network 1 1) Endowments of waterway network in the community 2) Settlement pattern 2 2) Settlement pattern of traditional residences 3) Emphasis on fronting houses to the waterway 3) Community people's 10 Rivers and canals utilization in various activities: way of life 4) Consumption (drinking and cooking) 5) Bathing, washing, cleaning 6) Food resources and aquaculture 7) Agriculture, watering house trees 8) Travel in community and neighborhood 9) Outbound travel 10) Transport of commodities and products 11) Waterway trading or waterway-related occupation 12) Recreation or tourism 13) Utilization on special occasions (festivals, traditional ceremonies) Source: Researcher, 2005

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Figure 4: Evaluation of the Survival of Water-Based Communities in Amphawa at Present, Categorized by Areal Group.

Traditional half-urban, half-garden Traditional fruit-gardening Traditional coconut-gardening Water-based communities in water-based community water-based community water-based community Amphawa district (Khlong Amphawa) (Khlong Bang Khae) (Thakha) /::r~._ _; _,,~'

~ ~ .' ;::s - ~ 0 ~ '?' .....~ c;· """'"""' L ;::s c., \0 -....) ~ \-, """:

100.001'1_____ s. 100.00-."1 ------100.00 A ~ --, c., 10::

75.oo I' ~ ~ - m~r~ ..._ ,', ;.:.~ __, ~ -::-:-::Lt-:: ~ ' ~ II- ~ 25.00 25.oo t' II' • II ._...... ~ ~ - 0,00 It1 • I - - ... I .., 0.00 ..._~ 123456789 101112 13 12 3 4 56 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 12 3456789 10111213 I 2 3 4 56 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 ~ I ) Endowments of waterway networks in the community 2) Settlement pattern of traditional residences 3) Emphasis on fronting houses to the waterway 4) Consumption (drinking and cooking) 5) Bathing, washing, cleaning 6) Food resources and aquaculture 7) Agriculture, watering house trees 8) Travel in community and neighborhood 9) Outbound travel 10) Transport of commodities and products II) Waterway trading or waterway-related occupation 12) Recreation or tourism 13) Utilization on special occasions ~ ~ Source: Researcher, 2005 MANUSYA: Journal ofHumanities (Special Issue No.12 2006)

within the communities (44.5%). The originally local people in the communities water has not been utilized for irrigation as still maintain their traditional ways of life, in the past, but has been used as with river and canals and orchard community's sewage instead. At the same plantations, whilst there have been only a time, people's ways of life has been few outsiders who came in to live and to increasingly alienated from rivers and work here due to the lack of major canals. River and canal water is currently employment opportunities. used for only a few activities, e.g., cleaning, gardening, and recreation. The Future Survival Trend of the only traditional water-based feature which has been able to maintain its uniqueness Water-based Communities (72.55%) is mainly the look of residential buildings on both sides of Amphawa canal. With regard to the assessment of the likely survival of traditional water-based Overall, however, the traditional water• communities in each group, it was found based communities in Amphawa are quite that each areal group has different survival highly likely to survive, as the major characteristics. The more rural components of traditional water-based commumtles, i.e., the fiuit-gardening communities still largely exist. And the water-based communities and the coconut• transformations of these water-based gardening water-based communities, are communities have not yet changed nor more likely to survive than the urbanized destroyed their community structures nor ones. This is because the ideal components major components. In the meantime, most of a traditional water-based community people still maintain their cultural heritage, there have not yet been destroyed or to wit: fiuit-orchard plantations and radically changed. These include the traditional living patterns which still rely endowment of waterway networks, on river and canal water. traditional settlement patterns, and traditional household occupations. It can be concluded from the findings of Moreover, local people's livings are still this study that there are three key associated with rivers and canals. On the conditions for maintaining the traditional other hand, the likely survival of water• water-based communities in Amphawa based communities in the urban areas are areas, namely: 1) The water resources and not promising, and some of their key the waterway networks, both at the river• components are not likely to survive. basin and the community levels, are still Especially at risk now is the waterway richly endowed, and the ecological system system which is the most crucial is still balanced. This is regarded as the component for the survival of a traditional most crucial condition for maintaining the water-based community. In the future, other key components of water-based therefore, if the water-based communities communities; 2) The development of a do not realize the importance of the modem trading center did not take place waterway networks, if proper maintenance after the declining role of the commercial is not continuously carried out, and if community center in the lower Mae Klong construction of roads and buildings which River basin. This resulted from Amphawa obstruct water flow is freely allowed, it and the surrounding communities being would soon be impossible for people to overlooked by developers; and 3) most utilize the water and it's the waterway networks. Consequently, the gap of

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relationship between people and water will problems of water-based communities. On broaden and new settlements will be more the other hand, cultural reproduction could attracted to the roads. Houses will be become inferior or disadvantageous if it is fronted away from the waterways, and this carried out without an insight into, or will be followed by a decline in the role of understanding of, the fundamentals the river and canals, which will end up underlying the communities' cultures, thus merely being used for wastewater resulting in the cultures being manipulated drainage. Sooner or later the traditional or improperly used. There is a risk, water-based communities with historical therefore, of allowing tourism to encroach value and rich cultural heritage would quickly on water-based communities with gradually vanish and would soon become no management planning nor proper land communities which are simply controls as such transformations could situated on the river and canal banks. devastate the key components of water• based communities over time. In addition, it was found that tourism activities have begun to play key roles in In conclusion, the trend for the survival of the water-based communities, with water-based communities depends not only increasing positive responses from local on the present survival of such people. In particular, cultural reproduction communities but also on other major has progressively been used as a strategy external and internal factors, as for community-based tourism. This is summarized in Table 2. encouraging, as it can somewhat address the economic, social, and environmental

Table 2: Key Factors for Future Survival of the Water-based Communities in Arnphawa

Key Factors Details

1) Natural environment • Endowment and balance of water resources and waterway and ecological system networks \ 2) Proper economic status • Proprietary rights to land and residences of community members • Available jobs or options for other economic activities using community's resources • Market potential and decent return on investments 3) Proper social status • Continuity of social activities to the new generation • Socializing and participation by community members 4) External supports • Appropriate development policies, particularly road development and water resources management in the river- basin area. Source: Researcher, 2005

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Conclusion utilization of local resources, the maintenance of appropriate relationships The findings of this research indicate that between people and the existing water the survival of a water-based community is resources, and suitable means of passing indirectly proportional to the community's on the knowledge of and the close level of development or urbanization. relationship with the water resources to the Water-based communities with higher next generation. levels of urbanization are likely to incur more changes in all of their major The findings in this study can be components, which in tum pose more incorporated in the deliberations of threats to their survival in times of high appropriate policies and guidelines for risks. many community development measures in order to ensure the continuity of water• Theoretically, the research found that based communities and to prevent their Rappaport's (1977) and Gamham's (1985) undue transformations and untimely concepts were applicable to the destruction. For example, water networks investigation of the indicators of these should be taken into considerations in the water-based communities' identities. In planning of any land transportation addition, the concepts were also applicable facility, particularly in the construction of to the evaluation of their survival local roads within a community; the potentials based on their abilities in ecology of the existing water systems sustaining their major components. should be considered in the development and management of water resources both From applying the said concepts, the at the river-basin and the local levels. findings of this study indicates that there Other measures which may benefit from are three interdependent components the findings of this study include the which signify the identities of these water• promotion and renewal of local economic based communities, namely, (1) Unique activities, the formulation of regulations on geographical and ecological elements of waterway utilization and water-based land water resources and networks; (2) The uses, the promotion of activities which communities' economic activities which conform to the lifestyles and culture of result from using local wisdom to manage each water-based community, and the local resources, as reflected in people's development of intra-community and inter• occupations and activities in each community networks on the same river community; and (3) Local lifestyles which basin. are closely related to the different ways of utilizing the water-based resource . References

Thus, the survival of these water-based In English communities depends mostly on the efforts to sustain the major components of their Eisenstadt S. N. 1973. Tradition Change communities, namely, the conservation of and Modernity. New York: Wiley• existing water resources and networks, the Interscience. ability to maintain the households' Gamham Hany L. 1985. Maintaining the economic viability based on the concept of Spirit of Place: A Process for the sufficiency economy and appropriate Preservation ofTown Character.

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Mesa, Arizona: PDA Publishers Corporation. Moore Wilbert E. 1963. Social Change. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Rapoport Amos. 1977. Htunan Aspect Urban Form. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

In Thai Srisakr Walliphodom. 1993. Mae Klong River Basin: Evolution on Socity and Culture. : Phikanet Printing Centre. Surajit Chirawet. 2004. Khon Mae K.long. Bangkok: S. Asia Press (1989).

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