Medievalism in George R. R. Martin’s Selected Forms and Functions

Diplomarbeit

zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades einer Magistra der Philosophie

an der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz

vorgelegt von Leonie RIEKEN

am Institut für Anglistik Begutachter: Prof. Mag. Dr. Werner Wolf

Graz, 2019

I 1. Introduction 1 2. Medievalism and Neomedievalism 4 2.1. Medievalism 4 2.2. Neomedievalism 5 2.3. Martin’s blend of Medievalism, Neomedievalism and Historical Fiction 7 2.4. Literary functions in A Song of Ice and Fire 9 3. Medieval Romance and Anti-Romance 11 3.1. Medieval Romance 12 3.2. Martin’s Anti-Romance 15 3.3. Selected Elements of Romance and Anti-Romance 19 3.3.1. Structural Similarities between Martin’s Books and Medieval Romance19 3.3.1.1. Episodic Organisation and Plot Interlacement 19 3.3.1.2. The Narrative Situation 22 3.3.2. The Classic Romance Hero and The Romantic Hero 23 3.3.2.1. Example one: Eddard Stark 25 3.3.2.2. Example two: 27 3.3.2.3. Example three: Brienne of Tarth 30 3.3.3. The Fair Unknown 32 3.3.3.1. Example one: The Knight of the Laughing Tree 33 3.3.3.2. Example two: 34 3.3.4. Chivalry and Knighthood 37 3.3.4.1. Example one: 38 3.3.4.2. Example two: 39 4. Fictionalisation of History 41 4.1. Parallels to Medieval British History 42 4.1.1. The War of the Five Kings and The Wars of the Roses 42 4.1.2. The Red Wedding and The Black Dinner 45 4.1.3. The Wall and Hadrian's Wall 46 4.2. Parallels between Characters and Real Historical Figures 48 4.2.1. Cercei Lannister and Margret of Anjou 49 4.2.2. /Lannister and Edward of Westminster 51 4.2.3. Daenerys Targaryen and Henry VII of England 53 5. Religion 55 5.1. The Faith of the Seven and Medieval Christianity 57 5.1.1. Common elements between the Faith of the Seven and Medieval Christianity 58 5.1.1.1. Common Imagery and Symbolism 59 II 5.1.1.2. Common Rituals and Practices 61 5.1.1.3. Organisation of the Church 63 5.1.2. Parallels between the history of the Faith of the Seven and Medieval Christianity 65 5.1.2.1. The Arrival of the First Men and the Andals and Medieval Christianity 65 5.1.2.2. The Targaryen Conquest and Medieval Christianity 68 5.1.3. The Role of the Church in the Seven Kingdoms compared to the Role of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages 69 5.1.3.1. The Relationship between the Church and the Crown 70 5.1.3.2. The Importance of Religious Power 72 5.2. Other Religions in Westeros and Essos and their Parallels to World Religions in the Middle Ages 74 5.2.1. The Old Gods and Medieval Paganism 74 5.2.1.1. Common Imagery and Symbolism 76 5.2.1.2. Common Rituals and Practices 77 5.2.1.3. Historic Parallels between Medieval Paganism and the Faith of the Old Gods 79 5.2.2. Worship of R’hllor and Zoroastrianism 80 5.2.2.1. History and Prophecies in Zoroastrianism and the Faith of R’hllor 81 5.2.2.2. Common Imagery and Practices 83 6. Conclusion 86 7. References 89

III List of Abbreviations:

ACoK - ADwD - AFfC - AGoT - A ASoIaF - A Song of Ice and Fire ASoS -

IV 1. Introduction George R. R. Martin’s book series A Song of Ice and Fire as well as the TV Show based on it, Game of Thrones, have become widely successful and popular around the world. Readers and audiences enjoy the well-rounded characters, the story lines full of unexpected turns, as well as the elements of foreshadowing that allow them to come up with theories and feel like they can participate in the story. He tells an epic story that, so far, centres around the rightful inheritance of the recently unexpectedly vacated Iron Throne, and the question of the rightful ruler of the Seven Kingdoms on the continent of Westeros. In his book series Martin has created a fantasy world that relies heavily on material from the Middle Ages and other people’s representation of the era. He looks to the Middle Ages for inspiration and mainly looks to other so-called ‘medievalist’ authors to create a contrast to their work to add layers of meaning to his own. He frequently criticises his contemporary fantasy authors to create representations of the medieval that are ‘disneylandish’ and escapist and intentionally makes his medievally inspired world darker. This means that his world is not only full of castles, knights, and noble ladies but also incorporates the dark and violent aspects of the Middle Ages which are frequently also called the ‘Barbaric Age’ or the ‘Dark Age.’ Authors that incorporate elements from and get inspired by the Middle Ages in their writing create so-called ‘medievalisms.’ This thesis will explain how such medievalisms are created and attempt to answer the question why the author chose certain elements from the medieval while leaving out others. The question why and how authors do things in and with their writing is closely related to the idea of literary functions. Functions of literature go beyond simple entertainment. Through their writing, authors have a voice that they can use to convey subtle messages and exercise criticism. They can also aim at the reader directly and provide teaching moments or inspire a critical examination of the issues brought up in their story. Literary functions, unless explicitly stated by the author either in the work itself or in interviews, can only be speculated about by readers and scholars. Such a speculation, the compilation of function hypotheses and an analysis of the text in regards to them, is the aim of this thesis. With the right argument, a vast variety of function hypotheses can be made about George R. R. Martin’s work, especially because of its length and complexity. However, even an attempt to come close to analysing all functions realised in his work would go far beyond the scope of a thesis like this one. Therefore, only three function hypotheses will be made. The three proposed functions are: 1.) George R. R. Martin criticises the supposedly naive portrayal of the Middle Ages in other medievalist and fantasy literature and claims to have created a more realistic representation of the medieval in his work. Therefore, the first hypotheses is that he uses selected elements of

1 of 94 medievalism to realise his subjective perception of the ‘real’ Middle Ages in the medievalist world he creates in his writing. 2.) In interviews, the author frequently talks about the predictability of stories with heroic protagonists and a lack of emotional buildup and emotional falls. He, consequently, intentionally attempts to work against the reader’s expectations. The second hypothesis is, thus, that Martin uses elements from the Middle Ages to both elicit positive emotions (a focus will be laid on the emotion of nostalgia) and to, then, crush those positive emotions again with contrasting darker aspects of medieval times. 3.) Martin is not one to shy away from discussion and critical remarks. He has strong opinions about his contemporary society, politics and the concept of religion. Thirdly, it will be hypothesised that he incorporates those opinions and, through them, his criticism of the relevant issues into his writing by providing an abstract representation of them in a narrated, fictional past. Putting issues of his contemporary society in a setting full of medieval elements allows him to exercise subtle criticism and enables him to confront the reader with these problems. Not only is the scope of possible functions seemingly infinite but so is the array of analysable parallels between the Middle Ages and the world Martin creates in his book series. Therefore, here, too, there will be a focus on only three bigger aspects of the medieval and their relevance to the three proposed functions. The three forms of medievalism that will be relevant in this analysis are medieval romance, fictionalisation of British medieval history, and medieval religion. Within all three there will be subchapters covering even smaller components and their relevance. While all forms will play into all proposed functions in one way or another, each of them is more relevant to one or two functions compared to the others. Medieval romance is the form that most prominently supports the hypothesised realisation of the function of nostalgia and disenchantment. The chapter on religion will mainly argue for the function of criticism of 21st century society and fictionalisation of history will be most relevant to the subjective authenticity of Martin’s medievalism. Especially within the chapters of medieval romance and medieval religion, a lot more could be explored since they are both very open concepts with a wide variety of aspects that could be included. These two chapters will also be longer than that on medieval history since there, a focus is previously applied, and only British medieval history will be explored. So, while there is a vast multitude of characteristics, themes, and motifs that can be taken from medieval romance and a number of different religions that existed in medieval times can be looked at, there is only one exhaustive comprehensive chapter of medieval British history. That is not to say that the British Middle Ages were not full of memorable events, wars, and historic figures but Martin has a clear focus on especially the 14th and 15th century in Britain which will also be the focus of the

2 of 94 respective chapter in this thesis. Overall, these three aspects have been chosen because they are hoped to emphasise and prove the validity of the hypothesised functions. Up to this point, five of George R. R. Martin’s planned seven books of the A Song of Ice and Fire series have been released as well as a book explaining the narrated history of his world and its characters and a few other books exploring events taking place before the narrated present of the main book series. While the last book of the series ends on a number of cliffhangers and open questions, the TV Show has by now wrapped up the story and is completely finished. This thesis will, however, completely leave out any events that surpass those of Martin’s own books and, even though Martin revealed his ending to the show-runners, their narrative they created will be disregarded for the analysis. Instead, the focus will be mainly on the five books in the series of A Song of Ice and Fire with additional information being taken from his history-like book A World of Ice and Fire. A focus on only the first two volumes of the book series and the events surrounding the main time of the fictional War of the Five Kings has been considered, but for a number of the chapters in this thesis the entire storyline of individual characters is highly relevant. Furthermore, there are relevant elements in the books that pervade throughout the entire series and are not limited to any one volume that will be analysed. A World of Ice and Fire will mainly be referred to for clarification and additional details about aspects and events in the main book series. All information taken from the additional book is information that is also available to readers that only read only A Song of Ice and Fire but only on a very basic level. To enable a fuller understanding and analysis A World of Ice and Fire will be used to fill gaps and elaborate on relevant events or characteristics. Structurally, this thesis will first aim to clarify the term ‘medievalism’ used in the title and introduce the concepts of medievalism as well as neomedievalism and explain how Martin specifically creates his own. The function hypotheses will be explained and then it will dive into the analysis of the different forms in regards to the functions. For each bigger and smaller subchapter, the relevant terms, aspects, or historic elements will be defined and explained before bringing up specific examples taken directly from the books. Through these examples one or more of the proposed functions will be connected to each of the forms and it will be explained and argued why the forms contribute to the realisation and the validity of each function hypothesis. No verdicts will be reached in each of the chapters; the decision whether or not truth can be claimed about each of the functions will be left for the very end of the thesis, the conclusion itself.

3 of 94 2. Medievalism and Neomedievalism 2.1. Medievalism Before analysing George R. R. Martin’s work in relation to the medievalism he creates and the Middle Ages he draws inspiration from it is important to define the terms medievalism and neomedievalism, medieval, and Middle Ages as they will be used in the upcoming chapters. Medievalism, the adjective medieval, and the Middle Ages are three terms that may sound similar but refer to three distinctly different concepts. Despite them often being used interchangeably they do not denote the same things. The Middle Ages are a historical period that spans between the fall of the Roman Empire around 500AD to the beginning of the Renaissance around 1500AD. This time span is often also referred to as the “Dark Age” especially by Renaissance scholars or writers and denotes a time where little to no technological advancement took place and a time that was supposedly barbaric (cf. History.com Editors, online). The adjective ‘medieval’ describes anything related to this historical period, its literature, art, mindsets, ruling systems, and events (cf. Oxford Dictionary 2019, online). ‘Medievalism’, on the other hand, is not the Middle Ages or medieval in itself but it is the attempt to recreate the Middle Ages. Pugh and Weisl define medievalism as follows: In its simplest sense, medievalism refers to the art, literature, scholarship, avocational pastimes, and sundry forms of entertainment and culture that turn to the Middle Ages for their subject matter or inspiration, and in doing so, explicitly or implicitly, by comparison or contrast, comment on the artist’s contemporary sociocultural milieu. (Pugh 2013: 2) This means that any fantasy literature that is set in a version of the Middle Ages is never directly medieval but always medievalist with each author creating their own unique medievalism in their work. Medievalist literature can draw on different aspects of the Middle Ages. Creating a consensual image of the Middle Ages is difficult, as they cannot be narrowed down to one set of values, ideas, one certain aesthetic, or one set of characteristics. The Middle Ages spanned approximately 1000 years and countless countries or regions. Therefore, depending on the exact time span and region referred to, they can look very different. For example, the Middle Ages in 11th century England were very different from the Middle Ages in 15th century France, which were again very different from 8th century Spain. Even though it is said that the ‘Dark Ages’ as the Middle Ages are often called are a time of no technological advancement, technology did change quite significantly between the beginning and end of this era. By the end inventions like the wheelbarrow, gunpowder, functional buttons, and distilled liquors made their way into medieval life. Nevertheless, there are some characteristics that most times and locations throughout the Middle

4 of 94 Ages have in common though, that prevail throughout different medievalist literature. The barbarians from Russia had a significant influence on the way of life and technology in medieval times. Wearing pants and furs, building small houses, building and using barrels, cultivating different grains as well as the rise of horsemanship can all be attributed to the barbarian influence. Weapons did not change until the very end of the Middle Ages with the invention of gunpowder and its introduction in Europe; people fought with weapons on the technological level of swords and crossbows in direct combat (cf. White 1940: 143ff.). Not only does the specific time period and geographical setting play a role in medievalism but it is also relevant what elements of the Middle Ages are incorporated and what functions of literature are realised through medievalism in a work. Umberto Eco has written about the representation and re-imagination of this time period in literature and set up a rubric for the kinds of uses of the Middle Ages a reader or author is provided with. In his book Travels in Hyperreality he included an essay where he lists ‘Ten Little Middle Ages’, namely Pretext (the Middle Ages as a background or setting for a story), Ironical Revisitation (comparing modern constructs to medieval ones in a humorous way), Traditions (use of medieval stories or myths so inaccurate that they became plausible if not true to contemporary audiences), Romanticism (beautified representation of the Middle Ages with kings, queens, princesses, and castles), Barbaric Age (emphasis on the violent, dark, sick, and uncivilised aspects of the Middle Ages), Decadentism (glorification of the Middle Ages, mostly centred around nobility), Philological Reconstructions (representation of medieval social systems and medieval technology), National Identities (looking at the Middle Ages as a political utopia of individual nations), and Philosophia perennis (the idea that there is an ongoing philosophy from the Middle Ages to the present). In the same essay he explains that an author of medievalist literature is morally obliged to choose one - and only one - of those Ten Little Middle Ages when creating medievalist works (cf. Eco 1986: 68-72). However, authors of medievalist literature or creators of medievalist art have seldom adhered to just one of Eco’s Middle Ages, not necessarily always because they chose not to but also because it is difficult to not include multiple in a work as they often overlap.

2.2. Neomedievalism ‘Neomedievalism’ adds yet another layer of authorial distortion onto the Middle Ages. Similar to medievalism, neomedievalism does not directly or even necessarily accurately represent the Middle Ages. While medievalism is an interpretation of the literature, culture, and mindsets of the Middle Ages, neomedievalism is an interpretation of the Middle Ages filtered through existing medievalisms. As Amy Kaufman puts it: “The neomedieval idea of the Middle Ages is gained not

5 of 94 through contact with the Middle Ages, but through a medievalist intermediary […] Neomedievalism is thus not a dream of the Middle Ages but a dream of someone else’s medievalism. It is medievalism doubled up upon itself.” (2010: 4) As in medievalism, neomedievalism is created by either comparing or contrasting the content of a new piece of literature to existing medievalist works. The distinction between medievalism and neomedievalism is not always clear or easy and a work is rarely exclusively medievalist or neomedievalist. For contemporary writers it is almost impossible to create a completely pure medievalism as their writing will always be tainted by the various medievalisms they have been exposed to through different types of media before they start writing. Depending on how the neomedievalism is created it can amplify or reduce the nostalgia associated with representations of the Middle Ages, as neomedievalist works tend to fragment and oversimplify or exaggerate the facets of history and medievalism they draw upon (cf. Carroll 2018: 9). Medievalist and neomedievalist works not only draw on actual medieval history but also on ideas, concepts, myths and fantasies from the Middle Ages. While medievalism tends to strive for accuracy of historical representation, neomedievalist authors are more likely to take only elements of history purposely fragmenting and distorting it in the process of writing. According to Carol Robinson and Pamela Clements “Neomedievalism does not look to the Middle Ages to use, to study, to copy, or even to learn; the perception of the Middle Ages is more filtered, perceptions of perceptions (and distortions), done without a concern for facts or reality.” (2001: 62). Neomedievalisms can also be deliberately inaccurate representations of the Middle Ages or exaggerations of certain aspects for ridicule in satires. An example of such a distortion of medievalism is Monty Python and the Holy Grail by the Monty Python comedy group (cf. Monty Python and the Holy Grail 2001). Modern fantasy literature is mostly neomedieval in that the authors get their imagery and idea of the Middle Ages from the works of medieval scholars and widely successful authors like J. R. R. Tolkien instead of from historians and history books. Moreover, neomedievalist authors or screenwriters do not frown upon or deny anachronisms like many medievalists would. Anachronisms are elements that do not belong in the time period they are placed in (cf. Oxford Dictionary 2019, online). Since neomedievalism does not have a great concern for accuracy, anachronisms are not as problematic in neomedievalism as they would be in medievalism. Many neomedievalist works, especially in the genre of fantasy, use anachronisms openly and deliberately to create their own unique world. There are different types of anachronisms as described by Pugh and Weisl (2013) that are relevant to neomedievalist writing, some being more accepted or acceptable than others. Many neomedievalist works are simply inherently anachronistic, meaning that it is too difficult to completely accurately represent the time the story is set in. Other authors use creative or serendipitous anachronism which are both ways of using medievalism, 6 of 94 anachronisms, and the past together in a way to comment on a contemporary issue. Especially satirical works also intentionally use abusive anachronisms where they pick and choose elements from different times that do not necessarily match with no desire to be accurate. Such anachronisms in neomedievalist works add meaning and are used to realise functions in the texts they occur in.

2.3. Martin’s blend of Medievalism, Neomedievalism and Historical Fiction In his book series A Song of Ice and Fire, George R. R. Martin mixes medievalism and neomedievalism. As mentioned before, a work is rarely exclusively medievalist or neomedievalist, and Martin is no exception to that. He mixes and matches different aspects of the Middle Ages and compares and, maybe more importantly, contrasts his work to previous works published in the genre of fantasy and, thereby, is affiliated to not only a medievalism but a neomedievalism in his series. Like many other fantasy writers, Martin looked to Tolkien for inspiration, who, according to Martin, created the fantasy genre. While other writers based their neomedievalism on comparisons to and imitations of Tolkien, Martin created his neomedievalism more in contrast to various aspects of the medievalisms preceding his work, including Tolkien’s. Martin’s neomedievalism is significantly darker and he intentionally took a different approach to sexuality, war, and violence in his book series (cf. Martin 2018a, online). In doing so he claims to create a more realistic representation of how the Middle Ages really were and repeatedly criticises other contemporary fantasy authors for being ‘disneylandish’ in their representation of the Middle Ages. However, on the other hand, he openly admits to not being fully authentic for the sake of the story and to distorting events taken from medieval history by simply changing and adapting them to fit his story (cf. Martin 2015a, online). Distortion of chosen elements and intentional non-authenticity are further characteristics of both, Martin’s neomedievalism and neomedievalism in general. A prominent example for this type of blend between medievalism and unauthentic elements is the setting Martin chose for this series. While the continents that the books take place on can be compared to Great Britain and mainland Europe and parts of Asia, as will be discussed later on in this chapter, the technology, the aesthetic, the social systems especially in Essos, as well as the politics in his series are from a mixture of historical eras. He does not only mix various settings within the 1000 year timespan of the Middle Ages but also draws inspiration from the Early Modern period as well as the French and American Revolution. Aspects of his books such as large cities in both Westeros and Essos, slave trade in Essos and a post-slave trade mindset in Westeros, a powerful central bank in Braavos, or the Free Cities governed by groups of merchants are more representative of the 16th and 17th century with Columbus discovering the Americas, trade becoming increasingly globalised and monarchies being on the decline due to regularly fought wars.

7 of 94 The medievalism George R. R. Martin creates in his series is a mixture of several of Umberto Eco’s ‘Ten Little Middle Ages’. Firstly, he uses elements from the Middle Ages as the background setting for his story, thus incorporating Eco’s definition of the Pretext Middle Ages. It is important to keep in mind that the pretext for Martin’s book series is, however, not limited to elements from the Middle Ages. The backdrop for A Song of Ice and Fire are the continents of Westeros and Essos. The mere shape of Westeros resembles Great Britain while the bigger continent of Essos in the east can be argued to geographically represent the mainland continent of Europe as well as parts of Asia. Sothoryos in the south, which is mostly unknown and barely mentioned at all, can be compared to Africa, especially from a medieval point of view. Secondly, he keeps the social and technological advancements on a medieval level as Eco suggests to do in his ‘Little Middle Age’ of Philological Reconstruction. There is, for example, a strict descending ruling system in place in Westeros with a ruler who is backed by the Faith of the Seven and supposedly chosen by the worshipped God, under him is a class of nobles, some in administrative or magistrate positions, and below them is the commoners, ordinary people without titles or substantial lands or wealth (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). This is not unlike the feudal system in the European Middle Ages, which, too, was a system of descending power with the church or the pope giving power to emperors who in turn give power to their lords and together they rule over the rest of the people with the emperor or king being in the highest power position (cf. Ullmann 2010: 3ff). Lastly, two more of Eco’s ‘Little Middle Ages’ are used in direct opposition to each other: the Barbaric Age and Romanticism. Martin frequently pitches these two against each other directly to amplify the contrast. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, his neomedievalism is darker and full of violence, rape, murder, incest, slavery, and evil creatures playing into the Barbaric Age. In contrast to that, chivalry and honour are central themes in this series and the storyline revolves around kings, queens, castles, and knights as Eco explains in his ‘Little Middle Age’ Romanticism. In A Song of Ice and Fire Martin not only mixes together medievalism and neomedievalism but he also blends the genres of fantasy and historical fiction. Martin himself has always been an avid reader and has always gravitated towards fantasy, historical fiction as well as real history. He enjoys the gruesomeness of real history and the possibility to make it your own through historical fiction. In an interview he commented on his specific mixture of genres: “What I’d like to do is write an epic fantasy that had the imagination and the sense of wonder that you get int he best fantasy but the gritty realism of the best historical fiction” (Martin 2018b, online) While historical fiction openly distorts history, Martin argues that the history we know and learn about can be just as distorted since everything we know, we know through the documentations of either people from the time we are studying or historians, making all information about the past arguably biased. Personally, he prefers the more embellished renarrations of historical events, even though the details 8 of 94 to those stories were most likely added by a creative historian. Martin explains that what such historians are doing is not too far from what he does in his writing. He openly takes inspiration from real events throughout history, especially from the Middle Ages and moulds them to his story (cf. Martin 2018b, online). Being so heavily influenced by Tolkien and due to the vast success of Martin’s books as well as the TV-Show based on them, Martin has been called ‘The American Tolkien’ more than once by fans and journalists over the years. Calling him that not only implies that his work is as impressive and popular as Tolkien’s but the adjective ‘American’ not only refers to his nationality but also brings in distinctly different connotations about his style and the way his book series is written and perceived. These come from the stereotypes and expectations associated with the word ‘American’ and the United States, relevant connotations being those of “power, imperialism, individualism, and a level of cynicism” (Carroll 2018: 8) His particular blend between genres has become widely popular with readers and audiences across the world and approximately 90 million sold copies of his books (cf. Barnett, 2019, online).

2.4. Literary functions in A Song of Ice and Fire George R. R. Martin’s books, however, are not simply entertaining, genre-bending stories, but through them, he also realises a number of functions that he uses to get his message(s) across. Clearly defining and differentiating such functions can be difficult because they are often closely related and can easily overlap. The same form can be argued to play into different functions and functions can be realised in a number of different ways. Therefore, it is hard to impossible to say with complete certainty what the author’s intentions were. Instead of claiming truth, this thesis will be concerned with three function hypotheses. It will look at whether it is reasonable to argue that they are, in fact, functions of literature in this work and at how Martin’s (neo-)medievalism may play a role in realising them. By the end of the thesis, it will be possible to draw a conclusion about the truth value of the function hypotheses in question. Firstly, one of the most prominent possible functions is Martin’s attempt to create a more subjectively realistic or authentic version of the Middle Ages in his work. He talks about this directly in multiple interviews and often compares his work to that of other contemporary fantasy authors and was even mentioned previously in this chapter. Martin criticises other authors, including Tolkien, for being escapist and creating a disneylandish version of the Middle Ages. While Tolkien defends escapism because he believes that reading fantasy literature and immersing yourself is a necessary way to get away from the horrors of reality, Martin criticises it in saying that escaping into a disneyland fantasy will only make the return to reality harder (cf. Carroll 2018: 5). In an interview with Sound Young America he talks about how he often disliked fantasy works of

9 of 94 other authors because they were trying to imitate the Middle Ages but “they were getting it all wrong […] they had castles and princesses and all that. The trappings of a class system, but they didn’t seem to understand what a class system actually meant. It was like a Ren Fair Middle Ages.” (Martin 2011, online) His version of the Middle Ages, on the other hand, is darker and, while he has been criticised for the amount of sex and violence in his books, both he and his fanbase often defend his writing by claiming that it only reflects how the Middle Ages really were (cf. Carroll 2018: 10). He incorporates a variety of elements to support the creation of what he believes is a realistic representation of the Middle Ages. When referring to this function in the rest of this thesis, it must always be understood that a ‘realistic’ and ‘authentic’ representation, here, means ‘realistic’ according to the world view of the author. Furthermore, Martin wrote a work of fantasy fiction which directly contradicts the notion of ‘realistic’ in a number of ways. Nevertheless, this thesis will try to support the claim that Martin’s (neo-)medievalism is closer to what he believes to be the ‘real’ Middle Ages. Secondly, it will be argued that he uses elements of (neo-)medievalism to criticise contemporary society. He refuses to polish and glorify both the fictional past he creates and the present we live in, and, through narrating one, implicitly criticises the other. Despite it being set in a supposedly medieval world, its plot lines and motifs comment on the current political or social situation. In our present, the world powers that were relevant during the Cold War are on the decline while new imperial powers are only just gradually rising and causing an impact which is very similar to the overall social geography of Westeros and Essos (cf. Emig 2014: 94). Martin’s work also has feminist implications. He has several strong female characters and repeatedly refuses to put females in a secondary position only. Furthermore, he includes both male and female characters in his work that challenge their gender roles. The challenges that these characters face can be paralleled or directly compared to difficulties, prejudices, and obstacles still relevant today. There are numerous other elements that point towards Martin criticising contemporary society that will be discussed in more detail later on. Lastly, he also undoubtedly elicits emotions through his writing and the main argument about this function hypothesis will be that Martin elicits positive emotions, preferably nostalgia, only to break them shortly after and disenchant the readers. Nostalgia is an emotion felt for a lost past and, through glorifying the past, indirectly evokes a sense of dissatisfaction with the present (cf. Oxford Dictionary 2019 online). However, it can also be felt for a perceived past that is glorified either in the readers's minds or through the author’s writing. Nostalgia can even be felt for a narrated past that the readers immerse themselves in but that is not the past of their ‘real’ world. Almost all fantasy fiction plays with nostalgia, especially the kind of fantasy that enshrines the Middle Ages and incorporates Eco’s ‘Little Middle Age’ Romanticism. However, Martin’s A Song 10 of 94 of Ice and Fire is not only darker than such fantasy fiction but also full of unexpected turns. Furthermore, he seemingly intentionally plays with the readers’s expectations. He utilises nostalgia to give the readers a false feeling of security because it is a comforting emotion often related to a happy past or fairytales. He is fully aware that the readers have certain expectations but he wants them to be afraid and unprepared for the unexpected. (cf. Martin 2015, online) Through this toying with the readers’s expectations he not only breaks their nostalgia but also other positive emotions previously evoked through his writing. The elements eliciting positive emotions such as nostalgia only amplify the emotional fall the reader takes when the expectations Martin plays into are not fulfilled or, even worse, completely crushed and contrasted. No function works completely isolated and are often realised through the same elements or one function is used to help realise the other. For example, the combination of nostalgia and disenchantment can also be used to draw attention to a certain aspect of the story and highlight controversial topics. The creation of a darker version of the Middle Ages and the author’s choice of what elements of the medieval to include in his medievalism gives the readers some insight into how the author sees the era and what issues he sees with it. They frequently overlap, as will be shown in the upcoming chapters about the individual forms and their connection to the functions.

3. Medieval Romance and Anti-Romance Martin uses a number of forms to realise the functions discussed in this paper, one of them being medieval romance and its counterpart, anti-romance. In his writing, he pitches the two directly against each other regularly. Anti-romance is the exact opposite of romance and is used to disenchant the reader, to display the cruel reality of the neomedievalist world he creates, and to highlight issues that still hold relevance in contemporary society. Medieval romance itself adds to the emotional buildup throughout the books while anti-romance is utilised by Martin to pursue his desire of creating a more realistic representation of the Middle Ages. However, without this direct contrast between romance and anti-romance, a lot of meaning would be lost in the series. A Song of Ice and Fire is not a classic medievalist romance but it heavily borrows from medieval as well as medievalist romance literature and Martin looks to it for inspiration. In this chapter, medieval romance will be defined and its relevance to the analysis will be explained. Then, selected aspects of medieval and medievalist romance will be used to exemplify how they add to the implementation of the functions discussed. Not every element will be applicable to every proposed function but for each element examples from the books will be taken to further illustrate how the form plays into the relevant functions.

11 of 94 3.1. Medieval Romance The term ‘romance’ is defined in a few different ways. It can refer to idealised love, a romantic relationship, books or movies dealing with such love and relationships, or emotions of mystery and excitement related to adventures. One of the Oxford Dictionary definitions even refers to medieval tales revolving around heroes and chivalry. The word has its origin in an expression taken from Old French which originally described any text written in a vernacular language instead of Latin, which was the scholarly standard back then. Such stories had a number of characteristics in common and were typically about “knights, ladies, and noble families seeking honor, love, and adventure” (Krueger 2000: 2). However, over the decades and centuries its most common association and commonly accepted definition eventually shifted to stories with their focus on romantic love and chivalry (cf. Oxford Dictionary 2019, online). If then the adjectives ‘medieval’ or ‘medievalist’ are added to the word ‘romance’ they add new connotations. The Oxford Dictionary definition of ‘romance’ already encompasses a few by mentioning heroes and chivalry as well as including the development of its definition. The difference is similar to the difference between medieval and medievalism as explained in the opening chapter. ‘Medieval romance’ refers specifically to the works created during the Middle Ages, while ‘medievalist romance’ are works created in the image or with the backdrop of the medieval itself. Medieval literature is only what was written or orally passed on between around 500AD and 1500AD but medievalist literature has been created from the beginning of the Renaissance onward and can still be created today. This paper will deal with the general connotations that come with the term ‘romance’, especially those prominent in the minds of contemporary readers, their associations and expectations. It will also incorporate both medieval and medievalist romance and use it to help analyse the functions realised in Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire. Structurally, works of medieval romance all have several things in common, among others, happy endings. Traditionally, medieval romance has a linear structure that goes as explained by Peter Haidu in his essay in Poetics Today: A1 + N1 + X + A2 + N2 A is the protagonist approaching his beloved, N is a nexus or the protagonist obtaining the love interest and X is a crisis. So, in short, the lead in the story finds a love interest (A1) and obtains her (N1), then their harmony is disrupted by some kind of crisis (X) but eventually, this crisis is overcome, the protagonist returns home (A2) and the lovers are reunited (N2) for good in a happy ending (cf. Haidu 1983: 661). Generally, romance literature is nevertheless less predictable than, for example, realistic literature. While realist literature uses prior characters, puts them in a certain plot and then follows the most likely path of what will happen given the chosen personae, romance

12 of 94 literature tends to be more sensational, meaning that more outside influences play into perpetuating the plot and the story is told focussing on what happens to the individual characters in form of episodes (cf. Frye 1976: 47). Regardless, the romance genre has been very stylised from the beginning, which has led readers to have certain expectations about the characters and the movement of the plot. But while the reader may know that a happy ending is coming, it does not take away from the pleasure of reading. Northrop Frye makes a very fitting comparison about why readers still enjoy highly stylised genres: “In the general area of romance we find highly stylised patterns like the detective story, which are so conventionalised as to resemble games. We expect each game of chess to be different, but we do not want the conventions of the game itself to alter, or to see a chess game in which the bishops move in straight lines and the rooks diagonally.” (1976: 44) What makes romance so appealing is not necessarily just the, arguably sometimes predictable, storylines but the expressive mode, the literary techniques, as well as the entertaining motifs and elements used in such stories. When thinking of romance, a variety of ideas, motifs and imagery comes to mind. From the most recent sappy romantic comedy movie with a story line of love at first sight to the myths and legends of knights conquering monsters to save their beloved. Among many others, two authors comprised lists of a few examples of motifs and techniques employed especially by medieval and medievalist romance literature: […] we find stories of mysterious birth, oracular prophecies about the future contortions of the plot, foster parents, adventures which involve capture by pirates, narrow escapes from death, recognition of the true identity of the hero and his eventual marriage with the heroine. (Frye 1976: 4) [Stories in the romance mode’s] expressive means like many of their motifs, the cruel stepmothers, rival siblings, cloaks of invisibility, flying carpets, helpful talking animals […] acknowledge the real world and men’s dreams of surmounting or circumventing its difficulties. […] The literary technique which made the genre so seductive - […] the monologue of reflection and self- examination expressive of feeling, the supernatural interventions, unquestioned and unexplained, conveniently supplying the plot-machinery, the discreet narrator directing reactions by comment and irony. (Barron 1987: 7f) Such elements from medieval and medievalist romance, as mentioned above, might also seem very familiar not only to fans of medievalist romance literature but also to fans of the fantasy and science fiction genre. The genres of medieval romance and fantasy have a lot in common. They both have medieval or medievalist settings with castles, knights, monsters and damsels in distress and commonly feature a storyline in which the hero or heroine sets out to complete quests or set something right. They also share themes, character types, and the underlying feeling of hope that drives the plot and keeps the reader interested when the hero is faced with difficult challenges.

13 of 94 However, while medieval romance literature is set in a world that is supposed to closely resemble reality, fantasy, as a genre, is literature that is set in a world with its own rules that are different or modified from the real world. The setting of the Middle Ages is, therefore, not medieval but medievalist (cf. Keyes 2006: 5). Each author of fantasy literature creates his or her own medievalism or neomedievalism that gives their stories a world to take place in. Every world created by an author is unique and has its own rules and its own implied worldview that the characters in the story live with. In George R. R. Martin’s case, the fantasy world he creates may seem ordinary in a way at first but it is full of parallels to medieval and medievalist romance literature. Throughout the first chapters, even most of the first book, it seems like the laws of nature and society are not that different from our world, our past. The people of Westeros live in a class system similar to European feudalism, as mentioned before, with great importance placed on a strong religious belief and the status of nobility. Laws in this world can set by those in power but only in accordance with the predominant religion, the king has a significantly higher amount of freedom when it comes to the law but even he is not above it. The people living in this world mostly follow the rules that come with their respective classes. Dynastic stability and genealogical power play very crucial roles in Westeros. The nobility frequently marries for political reasons rather than love, and the marriages are commonly arranged between the patriarchs of the families. Titles are representations of power, and individuals are respected for their titles by those below them in social rank. Who you are and whom you know is important among nobles as are reputation and appearances. Chivalry, honour, and knighthood surround the nobility, as well as the court. Kings, knights, and warriors are expected to obey a strict moral code and be chivalrous, while ladies are expected to be sweet, modest, and obedient. This sense of honour also correlates with the laws in place in Westeros. There are laws for the seven kingdoms as well as law-like customs in each kingdom that are to be obeyed. Even supposed outlaws like the Men of the Nights Watch, a large percentage of which are convicted criminals, value integrity and live in a hierarchical system. Honour, hierarchy, and your identity and place inside the system play integral roles in the world Martin created. These are the main concerns of the people of Westeros and the players in Martin’s Game of Thrones (cf. ASoIaF S-S.) Through their writings, authors have a voice and they use it to realise different functions and get across their message to the readers. To do so, they can utilise different forms and elements. While there are numerous functions that can be analysed in Martin’s work, medieval romance in combination with its counterpart, anti-romance, is highly relevant to the three functions chosen for this thesis. Anti-romance and its implications for the hypothesised functions will be discussed separately. George R. R. Martin creates a world that is reminiscent of the Middle Ages by incorporating motifs and elements from the medieval romance tradition. Through that he can 14 of 94 effectively evoke nostalgia which is the emotion associated with reminiscing about a lost past. Furthermore, well-known fairy tales, popular fantasy literature, and traditional myths and folklore all contain components from medieval romance, which leads to readers associating these elements with the comfort felt reading such stories. In contrast to this nostalgia and comfort, it will be argued that Martin also uses facets of medieval romance in his book series to comment on current issues and criticise contemporary society. Elements from medieval times that are prominent in medieval romance literature, such as a rigid class system, chivalry and honour, or a very patriarchal society are used as exaggerated models for issues in today’s societies that Martin subtly criticises through his writing.

3.2. Martin’s Anti-Romance From the medieval setting including medievalist clichés such as chivalry, knighthood, and fair ladies to supernatural elements such as dragons and witches, George R. R. Martin uses a number of facets from medieval and medievalist romance in the creation of the world of his book series. Westeros has its own set of rules reminiscent of medieval feudalism but, unlike a lot of popular contemporary fantasy fiction, Martin’s world is more gruesome and supposedly realistic; that is because he not only includes (medievalist) romance but also because he often directly opposes it by utilising its counterpart: anti-romance. All throughout his writing he not only uses medieval romance but also seemingly intentionally uses the exact opposite of what would be typical for it, directly contrasts it to elements that clash with the ideas and motifs of medieval romance, and breaks all expectations readers would have about romance literature and anything ‘romantic.’ Interestingly, elements of romance and anti-romance are not often only structured in direct opposition to each other, but a pattern of narrated temporal distribution can also be found. The way Martin structured the occurrence of these elements is, repeatedly, by narrated time. There is little to no anti-romance in orally told folklore while such stories are always full of elements from the medieval romance tradition. The narrated past has teaching moments, stereotyped, one-dimensional or even allegorical characters, opposing good and evil, and happy endings which are all typical of medieval romance literature. Both, romance and anti-romance, can be found in the narrated past and present. However, romance is more dominant in the narrated past while anti-romance can be argued to be used more often by the author to shape the narrated present. One element that directly contrasts medieval romance is the incorporation of anti-heroes as opposed to traditional chivalrous classic heroes. While many of Martin’s characters act heroically at times, not many true heroes can be found in A Song of Ice and Fire. The reader is more likely to encounter anti-heroes or heroes and villains that turn into such. The differences between a hero and

15 of 94 an anti-hero can be found on various levels. Anti-heroes are ambiguous characters, and the reader is given the difficult task of forming an opinion on them. Some anti-heroes are criminals with redeeming qualities, others are arguably ‘good’ but make questionable decisions or do bad things, others have good intentions but cause negative consequences. In any case, they are complicated and conflicted or conflicting for the reader (cf. Shafer 2012: 1030f). The inclusion of such characters plays into Martin’s supposed attempt to create a more realistic setting and a version of the Middle Ages closer to how he imagines them. One-dimensional characters are prominent in romance and fantasy fiction but most of Martin’s characters are well-rounded and complicated, especially the point-of-view personae, which creates a direct opposition to the medieval romance tradition. Real people make complicated decisions for incomprehensible reasons, and so do many of the characters in this book series. Characters that the reader files away as heroes end up doing horrible things, rattling the reader’s opinion of them, while Martin also provides insight into the minds of the characters that come off as villains at first making it continuously harder for the reader to judge some characters or make predictions, which is exactly what Martin admittedly wants (cf. Martin 2015a, online). Associated with the lack of true heroes in Martin’s book series is the notion that the author plays with the reader’s expectations which Martin does in a variety of ways. Martin does not subscribe to the idea of absolute good or evil. This applies to the world he creates as well as the individual characters. He deliberately does not include characters that are easily be perceived as the heroes and villains of his story. In an interview with Melvyn Bragg for The South Bank Show in 2015 he said the following: I think the battle of good and evil is a terrific subject but I don’t think it is fought between really good looking guys in white cloaks on white horses and really ugly guys in black armour who smell bad. I think it is fought within the individual human heart. I’ve always been attracted to grey characters and that’s what I try to write because I think those are real characters (Martin 2015b, online) While Martin, as mentioned, is not a supporter of the idea of absolute good or evil, he does use dichotomies frequently in his series. The opposition between light and darkness, night and day, and summer and winter are central to the plot of his series. There are certain emotions and expectations associated with these dichotomies and Martin, again, seems to play off of the reader’s expectations in his use of them. Overall, the dark, the cold, the night have negative connotations to the readers while warmth, light, and day have positive associations. This is mostly also true in Martin’s series. Especially the various religions as well as Westerosi folklore instil fear of the dark and fear of winter in the people of Westeros as well as the reader. Even in the North, where it is consistently colder and wintery people seem to have a deeply rooted fear of winter as the words of the ruling 16 of 94 family in the North, the Starks, are “Winter is coming” (AGoT: 895). Furthermore, while total good or evil are not prominent in this series, there are a few characters that readers definitely file away under good or bad but while most ‘good’ characters still make questionable decisions from time to time, and most ‘bad’ characters have some redeeming qualities about them, there are a few ‘bad’ characters that are just that and lack any significant redeeming qualities—at least up to the point the books have been written. Examples of such characters are Joffrey Baratheon or . These two characters are violent and abusive, both physically and emotionally and their purpose is to crush the built up positive feelings such as nostalgia elicited by for example Joffrey’s status as a prince and to break the romance within the storylines that they play roles in. Another character that, in the book series, for a moment disregarding A World of Ice and Fire, is talked about only in negative ways is the Mad King Aerys II, last ruler of the Targaryen dynasty. He is only talked about in regards to his final year of ruling with cruelty, madness, and an obsession about fire. Lastly, a group that completely lacks positive connotations are the mysterious ‘Others’ that first only come up in myths and tales told by the elderly but, over the course of the books pose an increasingly real threat to the living from beyond the wall. These characters as well as the zombie-like ‘wights’ are, so far, the only true villains that act evil seemingly simply because they can and because they are described as intrinsically evil up to the end of A Dance with Dragons. Another way in which he plays on the readers expectations is through directly opposing motifs and plot elements that the readers associate with medieval romance and 21st century contemporary ideas associated with the word ‘romantic.’ For example, in other stories of fantasy fiction or heroic stories, the readers usually have a feeling of safety associated with the protagonist or the hero; no matter what danger the hero gets himself into, the readers are mostly sure that he will make it out alive. Opposing that, Martin does not want his stories to have that type of predictability about them. He wants the readers to be scared for their hero at all times because nobody is safe in his ‘World of Ice and Fire’ and any character might face any fate at any time. These breaks with and oppositions to the medieval romance tradition in Martin works often play on the reader’s expectations. As explained in the previous chapter on romance, there are various ideas and motifs associated with romance and, overall, readers as well as the author himself, are aware of certain expectations when reading romance or fantasy fiction. Chivalry and knighthood are elements of romance and medievalisms that incorporate them and their positive connotations but Martin distorts them little by little, supposedly portraying them more critically and realistically. He includes a lot of violent scenes and descriptions in his book series to the point where he is criticised for it. His defence when confronted with such criticism is his attempt to create a more realistic representation of the Middle Ages. (cf. Martin 2015b, online)

17 of 94 A last thing that is typical for medieval romance but completely lacking in A Song of Ice and Fire is both narrated justice for the characters as well as overall poetic justice. When reading about knights and castles the reader might not be surprised by violence in general, but usually the violence in heroic stories is justified in a way and such justified violence is directed at the villains who used unjustified violence and are getting punished for it. Both, lawful justice and poetic justice are key features in such stories. Specific examples will be discussed throughout the upcoming chapters but there is an overall lack of (poetic) justice in this series. Westeros has laws, but not everyone who disobeys them gets punished justly or equally. The law is used to justify actions, the players in the ‘Game of Thrones’ use it as a tool to further their interests and many know how to outsmart it or work around it. Furthermore, while the law is not turned off during wars of any kind, it becomes significantly less relevant in a lot of ways while other aspects of it are blown up disproportionately to justify said wars. For example, on the one hand, supposedly chivalrous knights and honourable warriors go around burning down lands, raping women, and destroying villages while, on the other hand, the reason the lords started the fighting is over the lawful hereditary progression of who sits on the throne. When it comes to poetic justice, there is very little to be found in Martin’s story either. While the stories set in the narrated past like myth and folklore incorporate often do have happy endings or poetic justice, the narrated present lacks it significantly. Instead, Martin works with dramatic irony and uses limited third person narration as a tool to keep information from the reader as well as keep up the suspense in his story. Martin argues that there is no poetic justice in real life and says that art needs to reflect life (cf. Martin 2015a, online). This list of mentioned ways anti-romance is employed in A Song of Ice and Fire is by no means comprehensive and anti-romance will be regularly talked about in the upcoming chapters on the selected elements. In each example it will be utilised to argue for the validity of the proposed functions. Anti-romance can be seen as a tool that Martin uses to break the readers’s nostalgia right after he used romance to elicit it. Breaking this positive emotion can also break illusions the readers might have about certain topics and issues or open their eyes to them. Anti-romance can be a tool to Martin to highlight negative aspects about his personal contemporary society and to criticise these aspects through his writing. Occasionally, there is hard evidence about why Martin used anti- romance in his story while other arguments rely on contextual support and more speculative arguments.

18 of 94 3.3. Selected Elements of Romance and Anti-Romance In his books, Martin employs a number of themes and motifs from medieval romance, either directly or by contrast. Through that the upcoming chapters will try to support the validity of the function theories of creating a more realistic representation of the Middle Ages, eliciting the emotion of nostalgia, and criticism of contemporary society. Some elements can be argued to play into all functions, some serve only one or two of the listed functions. This chapter will explore four examples of elements from medieval romance used by George R.R. Martin in his books and how they might support these functions of literature. Each chapter will give a short introduction and background on the topic it is focussing on and then work with examples from the books to analyse how the functions could be realised. In the examples, first, the significant themes and motifs will be discussed followed by a summary of the relevant events from the book series. A separate set of paragraphs will then discuss the applicable functions realised through the particular example.

3.3.1. Structural Similarities between Martin’s Books and Medieval Romance Before discussing similarities on the story level of A Song of Ice and Fire it is interesting to look at the structural similarities the series shares with medieval romance literature. As discussed in the beginning of this chapter, the romance genre is highly stylised in its plot lines but also in the way it is written. There are conventions not only about themes, motifs, and narrative arcs but also on narrative styles, organisation, and the structure of medieval and medievalist romance literature. Authors of fantasy fiction, among other genres, utilise such conventions in their writing for various reasons. In Martin’s work, one of the main things he accomplishes through incorporating medieval(ist) romantic elements is a more complete immersion of the reader into the world he creates for his story. Furthermore, the attempt to model his books after the Middle Ages pervades throughout all levels of his writing from the structural organisation of his books to the semantic level all the way to the implied worldview, the plot, and the characters. Wrapping his medievalist world in a medievalist writing style rounds off his (neo-)medievalism as a whole.

3.3.1.1. Episodic Organisation and Plot Interlacement The organisation of chapters into episodes was very common in medieval romance and carried over into medievalist romance. For the first few generations of romance texts the main way of writing a piece was episodic organisation. An episode, in this case, is defined as “a syntactical unit of narrative structure, modular in form and serial in content, that is subsidiary to a principle of textual coherence that is located not in the referential function of a category like ‘character’ but on the semantic level” (Haidu 1983: 680) Such episodes are serial and follow an overall story line but,

19 of 94 as such, can be disjunctive and segmented. Individual episodes can either contain complete narratives or just pieces of them to be put together and form the bigger narrative. These narratives often follow the typical pattern of romance literature as described by Peter Haidu and discussed in the chapter on medieval and contemporary romance (cf. Haidu 1983). Since they are being put together to form a full narrative, it is not unusual for episodes to overlap and interlace, in fact, it is another key characteristic of medieval literature. Recurring elements in serial episodes are used to create connections between them, gradually building up the plot and perpetuating it. The arrangement of interlacing motifs and topics can be paralleled to rhetorical tools such as chiasmus or antithesis. The plot elements or motifs are repeated or opposed in similar patterns connecting the disjunctive episodes together (cf. Kelly 1992: 283). Multiple plot lines often unfold parallel to each other and are switched between in interlacing episodes. This plot interlacement is something that comes from the rise of prose romance and is therefore associated with this particular genre (cf. Barron 1987: 19). The combination of interlacement and episodic organisation might sound contradictory but can be a very effective tool. As Matilda Bruckner puts it: “It expresses both the impetus to segment the narrative into separate units and the equally powerful compulsion to associate and continue romance across such divisions.” (2000: 25) According to her, splitting a narrative into episodes is a key technique in romance literature as is plot interlacement. Most obvious is the arrangement of the chapters in George R. R. Martin’s A Song of Ice and Fire into episodes. The chapters are always titled after the central person of the upcoming chapter, so each chapter is told from a different character’s point of view. This type of multi-perspectivity is not typical or medieval or medievalist romance literature. However, each chapter is a short story, closed in itself, contributing to the overall narrative of the book series. The definition of episode applies, so Martin’s chapters can be argued to be episodes. While each character only knows their own point of view, the reader gets multiple perspectives in reading these serial episodes and, through that, gets a more well-rounded picture of the events taking place in the series. The organisation of the episodes in the books is not strictly linear, there is a significant amount of overlap between them. The reader often gets the same event recounted through the eyes of several characters, jumping back on the narrated timeline a little bit after the end of each episode. Furthermore, each character has his or her own story line that is narrated through the unreliable third person narrator and the focus of the chapters switches around between the point-of-view characters. Because of that, the plot lines of all the point-of-view characters are very much interwoven. Themes prominent in his series such as violence, feminism, identity, and religion carry over between episodes and can be realised in different ways depending on the point-of-view character and their narrative arc. For example, while violence in Jaime Lannister’s or Jon Snow’s chapters is mostly about combat, war, and killing, violence in Sansa Stark’s chapters is more 20 of 94 personally directed at her. With Sansa it is primarily domestic, sexual, and emotional; but, however it is displayed, it is always violence. Common themes and plot interlacement connect together the episodes building them up to the overall narrative of A Song of Ice and Fire. A series of chapters that illustrates this episodic organisation and plot interlacement perfectly is the Battle of the Blackwater in A Clash of Kings, the second book in the series. This event is told through the eyes of , Sansa Stark, and . Each of these four characters is in a different place, experiencing the events of the Battle of the Blackwater differently from their own perspective. Tyrion Lannister is acting hand of the king at this point in the story and commands the defence of Kings Landing against the attack of . Davos Seaworth is one of Stannis’s most loyal supporters and was sent to recruit the sell-sail fleet of Salladhor Saan to fight in this battle. He also brings three ships of his own as well as four of his seven sons to fight for Stannis and him, his ships, and sons are all on the river during the Battle of the Blackwater. The third point-of-view character is Sansa Stark who is still promised to King Joffrey Baratheon at this point in the story and hides away in the Red Keep’s royal sept during the battle along with the other women of the castle including . Through these three characters the reader gets an overview of the battle as a whole; they get to experience it from the invading side as well as the defending side and they get an insight into how battles are experienced by those who are not actively fighting them (cf. ACoK S-S.). Martin not only creates a fictional world that he wants to model as closely to the Middle Ages as possible, through incorporating various elements from medieval literature, he also models his own literature itself after that of the Middle Ages. His attempt to realistically represent the Middle Ages applies to both the content and the style of his books. This means that the world, plot, and characters of his story as well as the structure of his writing and the motifs and themes he uses are often reminiscent of the medieval romance tradition. In most interviews, when Martin talks about the ‘realisticness’ of his medievalism it is about him wanting to get closer to what he perceives to be the ‘real’ Middle Ages in terms of their barbaric nature. However, intentionally or unintentionally, him modelling his books after his perception of the Middle Ages also extends to the more positive aspects of the era. His books, despite being a genre-blend between fantasy fiction and historical fiction, also employ structural elements from medieval romance, thereby, being closer to the ‘real’ medieval not only in content but also in form. Modelling his story after medieval literary traditions especially draws in readers that are, too, knowledgeable about the medieval. The episodic arrangement of his story also plays a significant role in pulling the readers into the story emotionally. The readers get to experience the point of view, thoughts, and emotions of multiple characters and they jump in between interlacing storylines, constantly getting invested in the character and storyline they are currently reading while still wondering about the other storylines. 21 of 94 Anticipation and curiosity are among the positive emotions Martin frequently elicits, seemingly only to break them and provide an emotional fall for the reader.

3.3.1.2. The Narrative Situation The typical narrative situation in medieval and medievalist romance is figural with a heterodiegetic narrator. A narrator is heterodiegetic if they themselves are not actively part of the story they are telling, although, they might be part of the world they are talking about (cf. Genette 1980: 245) and figural narration means the story is told by a non-omniscient third person narrator who tells it from the point of view of a character in the story (cf. Stanzel 1985: 16f.). In medieval romance literature, typically, the narrator is a clerkly scholar who records stories from a bit of a distance. This narrator is part of the world described but not necessarily directly involved in the action taking place. They are not to be confused with the actual author nor with the character whose point of view is being told. Such stories are told through a limited third person narrator who tells the story through the eyes of the point-of-view character including their thoughts and feelings but also with this person’s limitations about what they perceive or observe and what they know and can know. Bruckner also describes this type of narration as a fusion of first and third person narration. While the story is told from the point of view and with all the knowledge of one singular character, it is also told in third person, meaning the narrator remains uninvolved in the story itself. Furthermore, the figural narrator in medieval romance is not completely omniscient but they do have access to the thoughts and feelings of the characters whose perspective is being taken (cf. Bruckner 2000: 14ff). George R. R. Martin, too tell his story in A Song of Ice and Fire through a heterodiegetic figural narrator. The difference between his work and medieval romance literature is that in medieval romance there is usually only one character whose point of view is taken on throughout the whole story. In medieval romance the entire story is told from the perspective of one singular character. However, Martin switches between the points of view of multiple characters. Each episode is told from a different character’s point of view, as discussed in the previous subchapter. The narrator in the book series has insight into the thoughts of the character whose point of view is taken on for the chapter and only knows and perceives the same things this character does. If something happens behind a characters back, if they are not present, even if they forget something the information is not available to the readers either. Similarly, if the focal character misremembers something and recalls that memory during their point-of-view chapter, the readers are relayed this misinformation too and are potentially made to believe it as well if there is no other clarification or evidence against it. An example in Martin’s book about this kind of misremembering is Sansa’s memory about a visit she gets from . In Martin’s A Clash of Kings (1999) Sandor 22 of 94 drunkenly hides in Sansa’s room, lays down on her bed and makes her sing for him before leaving her behind. Later on in A Storm of Swords and again in A Feast for Crows she, however, remembers him kissing her when thinking about this particular night. Being so focalised, the implied author becomes unreliable as they always take on the complete perspective of the character, including not only their thoughts but also their flaws, biases, potentially flawed memories and prejudices. The heterodiegetic figural narration contributes heavily to the eliciting of the emotion of positive emotions such as nostalgia. By telling the story through this limited third person narrator that takes on the point of view of different characters the readers connect with the characters, both the point-of-view characters and the others, on a deeper level as they get an insight into the thoughts and personal relationships, the interactions and struggles these characters deal with. This style of storytelling is effective in eliciting all kinds of emotions, including nostalgia. The narrated world of the book series is one reminiscent of medieval times. The potential for any scene or narrative moment that to elicit nostalgia is amplified through this narrative situation. The readers are not only exposed to mere descriptions of the world they are reading about, they get to experience this world through the eyes of the point-of-view characters heightening the level of reader immersion in the story. This includes descriptions of smells, textures, sensations, and emotions and, while the perspective of each character might be limited, it is, in a way, a fuller experience of the world Martin creates for the readers in terms of immersion. His friend and fellow Author Neil Gaiman said in an interview for The South Bank Show: “He is not writing his stories as a historian would write them, you are right down there, on the ground, experiencing them; looking out through peoples eyes, walking with them and caring about them. The moment you do that you’re lost because you have to care.” (Gaiman 2015, online)

3.3.2. The Classic Romance Hero and The Romantic Hero Medieval romance literature often features a male protagonist who chooses or is challenged to go on quests and adventures called a ‘classic hero’. From such classic heroes developed the romantic heroes of 18th and 19th century Romanticism. Martin uses a mixture of both of these types of heroes in his writing. While both heroes have a lot in common, there are some characteristics—especially the overly romanticised ones—of romantic heroes that are not yet typical of medieval romance but rather of the later movement of ‘Romanticism.’ However, there are several reasons why the blend between a classic hero and a romantic hero are still relevant to this thesis on medievalism. Firstly, while the classic hero of medieval romance does not possess most of the more romanticised characteristics that a romantic hero does, romance, romantic love, and chivalry are core elements of medieval literature. Furthermore, stories including romantic heroes developed from classic medieval heroic tales. In the minds of 21st century contemporary readers 23 of 94 tales of heroes that take on quests tend to belong in the Middle Ages and, while the characteristics differentiating a romantic hero from a classic one were added after centuries, the basic storylines, the typical characters and character arcs remained almost identical all the way into heroic tales written during Romanticism (cf. Lloyd 1984 S-S.) Relevant to this chapter are mainly the personal characteristics of the romantic hero and the typical storyline and narrative arc of the classic hero. The romantic hero often finds himself on the edge of civilisation, rejecting the norms and conventions in place. He considers himself wise and has a very strong sense of honour and a set of personal morals that he lives by but which are often not in accordance with the predominant system (cf. Wilson 1972: 246f). Bettina Knapp describes the romantic hero as self-conscious and inherently unique: That the romantic hero considered himself different from others encouraged in him feelings of isolation, alienation and corrosive bitterness. Pain and anguish were his lot: the creative genius, tortured by the cruelties of an unresponsive world. […] he is rootless, a prey to the famous wanderlust; unable to belong to home or family, yet in search of the warmth and tenderness such security offered him. […] At other moments, he felt victimised by a society unable to understand the refinement, the tragedy, the misfortune, of his uniqueness. […] he retreated into his own world [of] weltschmerz, disquetude, irritability, perpetual disenchantment, while yearning all the while for different climes, other spaces - a benevolent cosmos. (Knapp 1986: 787f.) The storyline of the classic (as well as often the romantic) hero involves quests, battles, and journeys through strange and hostile lands. A love interest is frequently either the goal of his journey or awaits him at the end of it. The classic hero passes all tests thanks to his strength, wits, and honour and is rewarded when he is united with his beloved. Typical challenges of the classic hero involve facing monsters, proving himself in single combat, a long journey to a previously set goal, or challenges to prove the hero’s honour, nobility, and wisdom and prowess (cf. Barron 1987: 4). However—and this is true for the classic hero as well as the romantic hero—his honour tends to lead the hero astray; meaning well, he endangers the society he attempts to save or a trickster, frequently a treacherous woman, uses his sense of righteousness to lure him into a trap that he struggles to escape but eventually overcomes (cf. Frye 1976: 68). Especially for the romantic hero, disenchantment and return to his isolation (now a safe haven for him and his love interest) are commonly the consequence. Often, for both the classic and the romantic hero, their happiness gets disturbed when the hero is summoned on another set of quests, challenging his character all over again, but, as before, he masters them all and returns to his love for the traditional happy ending (cf. Bruckner 2000: 23). Especially in medievalist romance literature, but also in medieval romance as far back as Beowulf, there is the recurring character of the romance heroine, a strong female character that is

24 of 94 unlike the other women in the story. She frequently follows a similar narrative arc as the classic romance hero but her challenges are different. While the classic hero battles monsters and proves his honour, the heroine’s goal is to prove her independence and worth and her battles are repeatedly with dishonourable men who try to rape her and the patriarchy as a whole. She is rejected by and alienated from society for her radical views and actions that do not fit into the acceptable role of a woman in her position. The romance heroine is headstrong, self-determined, passionate, and independent. She refuses to follow social norms and conventions such as arranged marriage or remodels them to fit her view of right and wrong. Furthermore, while the romance hero possesses exceptional physical strength the heroine is often bestowed with other special powers such as the power over life and death, prophetic powers, or magic. It is also not uncommon for the heroine to break the forced heterosexuality and compulsory love interest storyline (cf. Tolmie 2006: 146 ff.). Heroes and anti-heroes play important roles in all of Martin’s books in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. There are characters that become heroes to individual other characters such as Arya’s sword master Syrio while others act like classic heroes with honour, bravery, and loyalty such as Davos Seaworth. A Song of Ice and Fire is also full of heroes or even villains that end up turning into anti-heroes such as . Each type of hero serving their own purpose in the convoluted world Martin created. George R.R. Martin includes several characters whose storylines show strong parallels or elements of the narrative arcs of classic romance and romantic heroes. From a romance medievalist standpoint, a few stick out as closely resembling not only the romantic hero but also the classic romance heroes. Three will be used as representative of this element in George R.R. Martin’s work: , Daenerys Targaryen, and Brienne of Tarth. The upcoming chapters of examples will show the similarities these characters share with classic romance heroes , romantic heroes, and heroines and they will also refer back to the discussion of anti-heroes earlier in this thesis and incorporate it in the analysis.

3.3.2.1. Example one: Eddard Stark One of the characters whose narrative arc strongly mirrors that of a classic romance hero is Eddard (Ned) Stark and his character is close to that of a romantic hero. Even before the events of the first book he always represents the voice of reason by ’s side, supporting his friend but not wanting to involve himself too much in the politics of Westeros. Ned has a very strong intrinsic sense of right and wrong and relies heavily on the idea of honour. He acts in accordance to a strict moral code that comes not only from society but also from himself. The problem Ned has with the ruling system does not lie within its norms or laws. Frankly, if everything in Westeros worked in accordance to the official law, Ned would be content. However, he does see something wrong with the system, because there are people that abuse it and corrupt it. While the 25 of 94 romance hero might rebel against the system itself, Ned rebels against the exceptions the nobility have made for themselves and against a system that is inherently flawed because of people in positions of power abusing it. He agreed to fight in Robert’s rebellion because he agreed that there was something wrong with the Targaryen rule; but while Robert was fighting for power and against the Targaryens for personal reasons, Ned was fighting for what he believed was right and to support creating a better rule and life for people in Westeros and in his home kingdom, the North. Living in the North puts him in an isolated position and literally at the edge of civilisation in Westeros as the northern border of this kingdom is The Wall. Like the romance hero, he lives up there more or less in isolation and wants little to do with the bigger problems of the Seven Kingdoms. His association with winter, the cold, and darkness, however, is an element of anti-romance as romance heroes are usually associated with warmth, sun, and summer (cf. AGoT S-S.). Ned Starks plot line closely resembles that of a classic hero except for the happy ending. Right at the beginning of the first book he has to leave his home in Winterfell and is summoned on quests, the first one being Robert’s rebellion where he proves himself in battle, helps Robert overthrow the Targaryens and is eventually united with his beloved Catelyn back in his home. As mentioned before, the narrated past hardly ever includes elements of anti-romance and follows the narrative arc of the classic hero all the way to his happy ending. However, Ned gets summoned by Robert again, just like the life of the classic or romantic hero often gets disrupted by a new crisis again when he tries to settle down after his first adventure. His king requests him to become the new hand of the king and even though Ned is not interested in the politics of the south, he agrees. Firstly, because of his sense of honour and loyalty but also because he feels like the monarchy is flawed and sees it as an opportunity to cause change from within. He then has to travel south, to Kings Landing, which is strange to him not only in architecture and climate, but also in the way people live, their customs and politics. There, he is faced with quests; some that were bestowed upon him before leaving, such as finding Jon Arryn’s murderer, others taken on by himself, such as exposing the Lannister’s incestuous relationship and illegitimacy of Cersei Lannister’s children. However, unlike the classic and romantic hero, he fails at his quests. Acting in accordance with his own moral code and following his strong sense of honour eventually dooms Ned Stark instead of freeing him and letting him return home to his beloved. He acts like a romantic hero but the outcome is nothing like that in tales of romantic heroes. Instead of rewarding Ned’s honour and moral compass like medieval romance and Romanticism authors would, Martin punishes him and all of Ned’s good intentions backfire. Ned expects the nobility to act honourably like he does but those in power, especially the Lannisters, are only interested in preserving this power and their legacy, no matter the cost. The real world, or Kings Landing, is about appearances more than about actual morals (cf. AGoT S-S.). As said to Ned when visiting him in his cell shortly before Ned’s execution 26 of 94 “‘You are an honest and honorable man, Lord Eddard. […] I have met so few of them in my life.’ He glanced around the cell. ‘When I see what honesty and honor have won you, I understand why’” (AGoT: 643). This is one of the first plot lines where George R.R. Martin plays on the reader’s expectations early on in the book. Knowing other fantasy fiction and romance literature, the reader expects the hero to survive and his good deeds and honour to be rewarded. Martin builds up Ned as the hero of the story in the first book and gets the reader to become emotionally invested in him. The portrayal of Ned as the honour-bound family man gets the readers to feel positively about him, getting comfortable in the seemingly escapist story of the hero that will fix Westeros. Martin again, first elicits positive emotions, including nostalgia and hope. To the readers, the character of Ned Stark is reminiscent of a classic hero who can set a corrupt world right again. This takes the readers back emotionally to such stories and to the positivity associated with them. Typically, readers associate such fantastic tales with their childhood which, together with Ned’s glorified view of his world and time, plays into the readers’s nostalgia. However, these positive emotions are elicited only to be crushed by anti-romantic plot twists later on. These plot twists can be seen to support Martin’s intention of creating a more realistic representation of the Middle Ages. The reality (both his perceived ‘real’ medieval reality and the medievalism he creates as the character’s reality) he conveys is one where doing good does not automatically entail good things happening, and acting honourably does not always solicit positive responses and praise. Ned Stark’s perspective and storyline can also be viewed as a commentary on contemporary society and politics. He is one of Martin’s examples or illustrations of what happens when your supposedly dreamy or naive belief system meets the real world. In modern society, like in Kings Landing, those holding the power are supposed and expected to act in accordance with the rules. However, the reality is that they often, too, only care about keeping their power instead of using it to improve and benefit society. Headlines about leaders and people in powerful positions getting accused of crimes or creating scandals because of their behaviour are a part of life in the modern world. Ambitious, honest, honourable people entering politics may be faced with similar struggles as Ned Stark and find that it is harder to cause change from within than expected and that acting honourably does not mean automatic success.

3.3.2.2. Example two: Daenerys Targaryen Daenerys Targaryen’s storyline also contains many elements of classic hero as well as romance heroine tales. Her character also shows similarities in characteristics to the romantic hero and she is also a relevant anti-hero in the book series. From the moment she is born, she is forced to the edges of society if not completely out of society. Daenerys is born on Dragonstone after her 27 of 94 mother had to flee and is taken to Essos as an infant. Even there, already in exile, she and her brother live an isolated and secluded life at the beginning of the first book. Her character is quiet and passive at first; when she is wed to the Dothraki leader, Khal Drogo, she starts out as obedient, passive, and docile. However, the longer she stays with the Dothraki, the more she develops into a romance heroine. She discovers her power, both sexually and personally by taking control over her sexual interactions with Khal Drogo’s and through Viserys’s death. After her brother is killed by the Dothraki and his control over her is removed she becomes the centre of her own life. Daenerys is a feminist and breaks the rules confining women into their place in every society she becomes part of. Firstly, with the Dothraki, she assumes a position of power as Drogo’s Khaleesi. While other Khaleesis tend to be more passive, she demands and earns the Dothraki’s respect. Wherever she goes and whatever society she encounters, she always strives to challenge the rules confining women into their place. She is a strong, female leader and is driven by her intrinsic moral beliefs and her determined goals. In typical romantic hero fashion, she rejects social norms and rebels against them in various ways. With the Dothraki, she demands respect even when the Khal dies, in Quarth she uses the fact that people underestimate her to her advantage to take control of the Unsullied, and in Mereen she rejects slavery and frees the slaves in the city and rules as the first queen there. However, also not unlike the romantic hero or anti-heroes, her good intentions tend to backfire and Daenerys ends up doing unintentional damage to the society she is trying to improve or the people she is trying to help. Like the romance heroine, Daenerys is also associated with magic and the power of life and death. She metaphorically wields the power of life and death when she first saves but eventually sacrifices her husband, Khal Drogo. Furthermore, she walks through the fire of his funeral pyre unscorched and comes out with three dragons that hatched from the eggs she was gifted at their wedding. Her Targaryen blood makes her special, she possesses the power to be unharmed by fire as well as the power to bring an extremely powerful, previously extinct species back to life (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). There are also various similarities between Daenerys Targaryen’s narrative arc and that of the classic hero. From the day she is married to Khal Drogo, her life becomes a series of quests and challenges that she has to rise up to. Over and over, she is pushed to the edges of society but refuses to be marginalised. After Khal Drogo’s death she is forced to join the ranks of widowed Khaleesis in an isolated village but, instead, burns their main building when they try to confine her and takes back her husband’s Khalasaar. Her journey to Quarth leads them through vast grass lands and hostile Dothraki territory which is a very prominent parallel to the travels of romance heroes. She then has to face and defeat something that can be described as monsters in the House of the Undying and she eventually defeats the human monsters, the slavers of Mereen. While she faces most of her challenges with success, her victories are often accompanied by tragedies or vice versa 28 of 94 which shows how Martin frequently directly pairs romance and anti-romance, especially in Daenerys’ chapters. An example for this is the series of events surrounding the death of Khal Drogo. She succeeds in saving his life through magic but is then driven to kill her own husband. Then, his funeral and her attempt to walk into the fire with him is turned into an empowering moment when she walks through the flames unharmed and comes out with her dragons and newly found power. In regards to a possible commentary on modern contemporary society, the way Daenerys is portrayed is a direct contrast to Ned Stark. While Ned acts honourably and expects the same from others, Daenerys’s worldview is more realistic and she knows that she has to play the game to win. She represents the cost that comes with causing change and the issues that come up when an established system is rattled. The reader gets insight into Daenerys’s thought process through her chapters and witnesses her struggle through her own eyes as well as through the eyes of those around her. Daenerys struggles politically not only because of her gender but also because of her status as a foreigner in Essos. She is an outsider to each society she comes into and, while her intentions in implementing change are good, she does not always use the most peaceful methods to reach her goal. Trying to demand respect as a female leader from those who do not take her seriously enough, she resorts to methods harsher than necessary to reach her goals. Relentlessly she fights the patriarchal system she is stuck in, refusing to let go of her claim to the Iron Throne through her Targaryen blood line and determined to take what is rightfully hers. Being a woman, she faces more backlash and challenges than men in her position would. Even in contemporary societies, feminism is still a movement striving for equality that has yet to be reached. There are significantly fewer women in politics and leadership positions despite more women obtaining a higher education and qualifications (cf. Leopold 2016: 5ff). Furthermore, not unlike modern politicians, she faces backlash for the changes she is trying to implement in the places she reaches. While there can be little argument over whether or not it was objectively good of her to fight slavery, the people of Mereen, especially those benefitting from the system in place, did not take her attempt to change their system very well. Whenever a significant change needs to be made there will always be people opposing it and fighting it no matter how objectively good or bad it is (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). The other function that can be argued is realised through Daenerys’s storyline is the combination of positive emotions, nostalgia and a following disenchantment. At first, the reader has sympathy for her and Martin plays into the reader’s emotions through her abusive and suppressive relationship with her brother, her love story with Khal Drogo, the dragon eggs, as well as her journeys with the Dothraki. There is something magical not only implied but realised about her, making the reader enchanted with her persona and her storyline. She is the woman that brings dragons, the first not only implied but actual magical element in A Song of Ice and Fire, into the 29 of 94 story and the first to interact with magic through the maegi. Magic and witches elicit nostalgia in the reader as it takes them back to fairy tales and folklore. Similarly to Ned Stark, Daenerys’s character is often caught between her expectations and the real world. While her challenges contribute significantly to her character development and the reader sees the necessity, it does not take away from the emotional fall the reader takes in moments such as Khal Drogo’s death. The previously evoked positive emotions heighten that fall and amplifies the disenchantment the reader feels through Daenerys.

3.3.2.3. Example three: Brienne of Tarth Brienne of Tarth, too, has many parallels in her storyline and character to those of a classic and a romantic hero. The most prominent being her series of quests and travelling through wide open landscapes to fulfil them as well as her social standing. As a female warrior she placed herself outside the classic confines that women in medieval society live in. From a young age on, she has always felt misunderstood and has always rejected and loathed the social rules and restrictions imposed on women of noble birth like herself. She has the isolated bitterness of a romance hero and acts in accordance with a strict moral code. Despite the fact that her gender rules out any possibility for her to become a knight, she follows the rules and conventions that come with knighthood and she has a strong desire to prove herself and earn the respect of those around her through her integrity, strength and prowess. Her story line employs the most elements from tales of classic heroes but instead of her obstacles being beasts, they are human monsters, rapists, dishonourable sell swords, and sexists. Brienne is breaking rules and conventions of medieval femininity. She is not described as beautiful, she is not ladylike and does not live the courtly life of a woman born to a lord. Society rejects her or pushes her to the edges for not meeting the conventions and expectations. Brienne is objectified by other warriors, even supposedly honourable knights, who only show interest because they want to take her virginity such as the men in ’s camp. She is disrespected by noblemen and commoners alike for not fitting into the expectations they have of women and into the roles set for women. Her gender puts her at a significant disadvantage compared to warriors of the same abilities and completely excludes her from knighthood altogether simply because she is not a man and only few manage to see past her gender and value her for her (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). Brienne of Tarth’s storyline is that of a classic hero but after the first happy ending. Her storyline might possibly most closely resemble that of a classic hero. The ending is still open so it cannot be said definitely, but so far she is the character that has followed the narrative arc of a classic hero the most through her journeys and her quests. She also very closely resembles the romantic hero in her social standing and her character, morals and actions. The reader meets her as a 30 of 94 part of Renly Baratheon’s army which she joins when Renly rallies his bannermen behind him to claim the iron throne. Brienne is mentioned to be in love with Renly whom she met when he came to visit her father long before the main story of A Song of Ice and Fire begins. She trained and worked and proved herself worthy of joining his army and not only became part of the warriors of Renly’s army but of his personal equivalent to the Kings Guard, the Rainbow Guard. Although they are not together, this can be considered the uniting with the beloved after a series of quests for the first time. Then, their unity is disturbed and the romance hero is called away again. In Brienne’s story line, Renly is killed by ’s shadow creature and Brienne has to leave with Catelyn because, among others, Ser Loras Tyrell accuses her of Renly’s murder. This is when her first series of quests begins and her story line starts to mirror that of a romance hero significantly more. First, she is sent off by with the task of returning Jaime Lannister to Kings Landing. On this journey they both encounter numerous obstacles. They have to shake pursuers that follow them out of Riverrun, they outsmart an innkeeper avoiding his ambush, eventually they are captured by a company of sell swords, called the Brave Companions and brought to Harrenhall. There, Brienne is thrown into the Bear Pit and has to fend off Vargo Hoat who tries to rape her. At the end of this journey they reach Kings Landing and even there, Brienne is confronted by Ser Loras Tyrell but avoids having to fight him thanks to Jaime. From Kings Landing, Brienne is dispatched on another journey, this time by Jaime Lannister, to find the Stark daughters and keep them safe. This time, the most prominent parallel to the romance hero stories is her wandering through open landscapes in hostile territory trying to fulfil her quest. In the books, this adventure of hers is not yet finished, as A Feast for Crows leave’s Brienne’s fate open after she reaches the lair of Lady Stoneheart (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). The most relevant function that can be found in Brienne of Tarth’s character and storyline is criticism of contemporary society. Her character arc is full of feministic implications and criticism of the patriarchy. She battles demons that women over the centuries had to deal with and are still faced with and fights the gender norms imposed on her by society. Despite all the progress our society has made and despite how far feminism has come and how much we are working towards gender equality, we as a society are not there yet. Even the most progressive countries such as Iceland or Norway still do have a gap between the genders when it comes to income, education, political and economic opportunity as well as safety (cf. Leopold 2016: 10). Through Brienne’s character Martin puts his criticism of the patriarchy into a medieval setting. However, he refuses to let Brienne fail and portrays her as determined and resilient. She is aware that she can never become a knight but it does not keep her from acting in accordance with the knightly chivalrous code. Her motivation to be and do good is intrinsic which makes her a model for how people should think and act. Brienne is one of the few characters that are rarely shown in any negative light and that are 31 of 94 hardly ambivalent when it comes to whether they are supposed to be good or bad guys in Martin’s story. Martin is a feminist and channels this through characters like Brienne. Giving her the narrative arc of a romance hero is empowerment, Brienne is deprived of the opportunity to be acknowledged as a knight or heroic figure in her world but her story line mirrors that of selfless heroes. Through his narration, Martin gives her the power and recognition in the real world that she is denied in Westeros.

3.3.3. The Fair Unknown The Fair Unknown is a motif that frequently recurs in medieval romance, especially in Arthurian tales. It is closely connected to the ideas of chivalry and knighthood. The Fair Unknown is usually a male character with an unknown identity; either it is just the character himself that is unaware of who he is or his identity remains a mystery to everybody, including the reader. This character then appears in court with the request or desire to be knighted. To get this wish granted, he must prove himself, similarly to a romance hero, through a series of quests and, in the end, gets accepted into society and knighthood. These tasks often revolve around the Fair Unknown’s battle between the reputation he has due to his unknown character or his past and his internalised honour and his acts of bravery and nobility. The Fair Unknown often knows little to nothing about his parentage, especially his paternity. Arthur himself repeatedly refers to him as ‘the Stranger’ (cf. Bliss 2008: 105). However, in many Arthurian stories it eventually turns out that the Fair Unknown is related to Gawain and through that to Arthur himself making him noble from birth even after he has proved his gallantry through his adventures. Stories of the Fair Unknown show similarities in their plot lines, in structural and content elements used, as well as in recurring symbols and themes. A damsel in distress or a deciding tournament at court are common plot elements in such stories, as are fights with giants and an eventual happy ending for the Fair Unknown. There are several stories in which Arthur himself participates in the tournament, winning it, disguised in differently coloured armour. Recurring characters also include the fair maiden or a loathly lady, who attempts to seduce the Fair Unknown, fighting brothers, hypocritical noblemen who do not act honourably much to the frustration of the Fair Unknown, and, repeatedly, dwarves (cf. Haught 1995). The Fair Unknown is about identity and (not) knowing who you are or want to be. In A Song of Ice and Fire identity and loss or disguise thereof is a frequent motif. Some examples include Jaime Lannister struggling to keep a grasp on who he is after losing his sword hand, losing control of his legs and, thereby, having to let go of his dream to be a knight, being pushed into surrendering her sense of self at the House of Black and White or maester Aemon of the Nights Watch choosing to leave his Targaryen heritage behind completely. Two stories or storylines in the books, however, match the motif of the Fair Unknown most closely: Jon Snow and the Knight 32 of 94 of the Laughing Tree. These two examples will be analysed in regard to the relevant elements from stories of the Fair Unknown and how they help realising the applicable functions.

3.3.3.1. Example one: The Knight of the Laughing Tree The Knight of the Laughing Tree comes up in a story told by Meera Reed to Bran Stark. It mirrors medieval romance not only in the plot, motifs, and symbolism but also in the mode it is told and its setting in the narrated past. As many of Martin’s more traditional medieval romance elements, this story is placed in the narrated past and told by a character in the book in the form of folklore or myth. The story of the Knight of the Laughing Tree takes place at the Great Tourney of Harrenhall. Howland Reed, a young man from the family living in the swamps of the Neck, bannermen of the Starks, visits this tournament and when he arrives is harassed by squires accompanying knights. Witnessing this, Lyanna Stark recognises the Reed boy and rescues him. Later, at the tournament, a mysterious knight appears and wins it. He wears the sigil of a weirwood tree with a laughing face and, upon winning the tournament, waives his winners bounty and instead demands that the knights teach their squires the importance of honour (cf. ASoS S-S.). The identity of the Knight of the Laughing tree is not revealed in this story. However, it can be speculated who this mysterious knight might have been. The two most likely options are Howland Reed himself or Lyanna Stark, both of which would play into the motif of the Fair Unknown in different ways. On the one hand, if it was Howland Reed, he would be a classic Fair Unknown, a person whom the other characters in the story do not know and whose nobility goes unnoticed until he proves himself in a quest or a tournament. The Fair Unknown often has little to no training in combat or experience in tournaments but performs well simply because of the nobility of his bloodline. Furthermore, the Knight of the Laughing Tree demands honour from those who are supposed to defend and represent it and protects the innocent and the weak. The integrity of the Fair Unknown and dishonourable people who only talk about morality but do nothing to uphold it are a common theme in stories of the Fair Unknown. On the other hand, if the Knight of the Laughing Tree had turned out to be Lyanna Stark it would mirror the tales of when Arthur himself participated in tournaments disguised in armour that was not his own. This story told by Meera Reed is an example for Martin’s use of myth and folklore to teach lessons. Using stories set in a distant past to teach lessons is a technique frequently used in medieval romance literature as well. In this particular story, it can be said that Martin subtly criticises the society of the narrated past and present as well as contemporary society for being hypocritical. However, the function that is most probably realised through this story is eliciting nostalgia in both the listening characters within the book and the readers. A grand tournament at court with gallant knights, squires, lords and ladies is described. This not only evokes a yearning for 33 of 94 simpler, shinier times in the reader but, to the contemporary reader, it also resembles other extraordinary, medievalist literature, especially that of fairy tales. The tone of the story seems lighter and happier and, unlike most plot lines in Martin’s book series, the teaching moment happens through a happy ending instead of a slap of anti-romance in the reader’s face, snapping them out of their nostalgia. The whole story is a mise en abyme, a story within a story mirroring itself. The tale of the Knight of the Laughing Tree features themes from the main plot in an amplified way. Throughout the whole book series, and especially in this story, honour plays a significant role. Meera also refers to the knights, lords and ladies not by their names but by the animals on sigils of their houses, making it almost allegorical as each house has certain values, if not stereotypes attached to it that get amplified in this tale. So, while in the rest of the books nostalgia is often pushed into the background or used only to heighten the reader’s emotional fall when something negative happens again, in this story nostalgia moves into the foreground and becomes the primary function of the story along with the moral teaching moment for the listening characters in the books as well as the reader.

3.3.3.2. Example two: Jon Snow Jon Snow’s storyline features a number of parallels to the Fair Unknown scattered throughout it. Some are very obvious and prominent, such as his unknown parentage, while others are more subtle and only come into play very briefly. To start with the most apparent one, the Fair Unknown commonly does not know his own parentage. The same is true for Jon Snow. The reader is introduced to Jon as the bastard son of Ned Stark and knows little to nothing of Jon’s mother. Ned briefly mentions the name Wylla whom Ned supposedly had Jon with when he was fighting in Robert’s rebellion in the south. However, even Robert does not seem to know anything about her and Ned refuses to provide any details. Additionally, Ned is displayed as the personification of honour, in all the best and worst ways. He is driven by it and lives by it, so, to imagine Ned Stark having an affair is not the most believable explanation for Jon’s parentage as Robert Baratheon even comments in a conversation with Ned “The king grinned. ‘She must have been a rare wench if she could make Lord Eddard Stark forget his honor, even for an hour” (AGoT: 110). Therefore, Jon’s parentage is a element of the story that is questioned and discussed by readers from the beginning on. A theory, that has been proven true in the TV Series, but not yet in the books is that Jon Snow is the son of Rheagar Targaryen and Lyanna Stark who got married during Robert’s rebellion. This would make Jon Snow not only a legitimate member of the Stark family, but an heir to the Targaryen dynasty and a potential heir to the iron throne. Unfortunately, this has not yet been confirmed in the books as is yet to be released, therefore, it will not be further discussed and analysed here. 34 of 94 Many of Jon Snow’s character traits play into the motif of the Fair Unknown. Whoever his true parents may be, Jon grows up as the bastard of Winterfell. He follows the rules that come with him being a bastard as much as he wants to break out of them. Despite being a bastard, Jon is an excellent swordsman and Ned instilled in him the same strong sense of honour and right and wrong. Robb, the oldest legitimate Stark son, and Jon have a mostly harmonious relationship but being around the same age, they also have a rivalry that sometimes becomes more apparent in situations where Robb is only victorious or superior because of his legitimacy as a Stark, subtly employing the motif of rivalling brothers from the Fair Unknown stories. Being a bastard, Jon wants to prove himself in other ways and this motif of rivalling brothers becomes stronger once Jon joins the Nights Watch, as they all refer to each other as brothers. Even there, Jon is frequently met with distrust, jealousy, or rejection. The fighting brothers motif culminates in a group of men from the Nights Watch devising a plan to kill Jon Snow. His assassination is where A Dance with Dragons ends. Interestingly, in stories of the Fair Unknown, Arthur repeatedly refers to the Fair Unknown as ‘The Stranger’. The Stranger is also one of the seven gods in the dominant faith of Westeros; he is the representative of death and the unknown, both aspects tying him closely to Jon Snow and his representation of the Fair Unknown (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). Jon’s plot line contains several elements from the narrative arc of the Fair Unknown. Living with Ned and Catelyn Starks true born children Robb, Sansa, Arya, and Bran as well as Theon Greyjoy, who became a ward to the Starks after the war to ensure the Greyjoy’s loyalty to the new king, Jon grows up the same way as his brothers, learning to ride, sword fight, and learning the rules of living in a castle. Nevertheless, he is constantly, sometimes painfully, aware of his social standing as a bastard. He knows that he can never become Lord of Winterfell so he wants a chance to prove himself otherwise, which he sees in joining the Nights Watch as his uncle Benjen did. He quickly earns the respect of some brothers of the Nights Watch when they realise his abilities in combat but this also earns him some ill-wishers that feel threatened or jealous. When Jon gets selected to be a steward, specifically, the Lord Commander’s personal steward, he is very frustrated at first and feels unaccomplished and underrated. Nevertheless, he finds a way to utilise his strengths even in this position and eventually conquers this quest when he rises to become Lord Commander himself. His election into the position of Lord Commander is the equivalent to the Fair Unknown’s acceptance into knighthood. Unfortunately, similarly to a romance hero and typical for the world George R. R. Martin has created here, his journey does not end there with a happy ending (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). Unfortunately, since George R. R. Martin has not yet finished his book series, it is impossible to analyse any character or element completely. Only assumptions and speculations can be made about whether or not Martin follows through with the motif of the Fair Unknown in Jon’s 35 of 94 case. Nevertheless, even with the information available there are definitely parallels between Jon Snow’s character and storyline and stories featuring the Fair Unknown and they do contribute to the functions discussed in this analysis. Jon, being one of the main point-of-view-characters, but also a reject of society, arguably even an underdog, holds a lot of sympathies from readers. The reader is made to feel with him and wants to see him succeed. His storyline resembles that of a hero from familiar stories and through these parallels to heroic stories, among other positive emotions, nostalgia is elicited. Jon is one of the characters that encounters the supernatural in Westeros and, while the supernatural in A Song of Ice and Fire is scary and threatening, it still takes the reader into a magical world, similar to that of fairytales from the reader’s childhood. Jon Snow’s world itself might not be a place the reader would long to visit but it is reminiscent of those worlds they escaped to before. However, as throughout the whole series, such a positive feeling seldom lasts. Both Jon and the reader are regularly faced with the reality of the life of a bastard in a world with a rigid class system and an undeniable focus on dynastic stability and genealogical power. No matter how well he fights or how honourably he acts, Jon will always stay a Snow, a bastard of the North. Utilising the emotions evoked through Jon’s story a social commentary can also be found in his character arc. Because of his status, Jon often gets underestimated and is excluded from certain events or opportunities. Unlike other bastards, however, he does receive an education and combat training, both of which are highly beneficial to him when he joins the Nights Watch. There, away from the rules of the rest of the world, he is valued only for who he is as a person and what he can do. Titles and houses do not matter at the Wall and so Jon quickly rises to the position of Lord Commander. This can be paralleled to contemporary society. We might not have a formal class system anymore but there are income classes that are sometimes not too different from those class systems we supposedly left behind. If a person is in the lower income bracket, they often enjoy less privileges and opportunities than those in higher income brackets. Education costs money, as do trainings and most sports; you can only acquire experience in unpaid internships if you have money to feed and house yourself during that time. In fact, the education gap between rich and poor has only been growing (cf. Tavernise 2012, online). However, this does not mean that people without those funds are less talented or qualified. If given the same resources and opportunities, they, too, can rise to leadership positions or positions of importance and power. Jon Snow is a bastard fortunate enough to have been given the education and training of a nobleman and, if the social boundaries are removed, he can rise to be a leader; similarly, if given the same privileges, most people would be able to reach positions reserved for highly educated and experienced or qualified individuals.

36 of 94 3.3.4. Chivalry and Knighthood Chivalry, honour, and knighthood are themes central to both medieval romance and fantasy fiction. The definition of romance itself contains chivalry and courtly love, as mentioned in the beginning of the chapter on medieval romance. The two previous chapters on romance heroes and the fair unknown already discuss the importance of honour in medieval romance extensively as it is a key feature of the motifs discussed. Knighthood and chivalry go hand in hand in medieval and medievalist romance literature. They are features of a society that is frequently at war and has a military mindset. This society is centred around a feudal monarch and his court. Knights are the protector class and knighthood comes with a very strict set of rules and expectations (cf. Barron 1987: 4). They are supposed to protect the innocent, prevent injustice, and support justice. Knights are also expected to observe the dominant religion, in medieval times, Catholicism, and practice Christian humility as well as willingly help those in need. As protectors, they should have a good relationship with both the nobility and the commoners (cf. Scaglione 1991: 69). Important traits that knights are expected to possess are not only physical strength and superiority in combat but, at least just as importantly, a sense of justice, respect for and obedience towards superiors as well as the church, politeness, and intrinsic morals. The more time that passes between wars, the more important chivalry becomes for the people at court and the knights. Partially due to that, chivalry further includes good social skills, elegance, and being skilled in social arts such as music, dance, or conversation. The importance of devotion to and courtesy towards women also increases in times of peace as knights spend more time at court and at tournaments instead of in battles (cf. Barron 1987: 28f). Another thing that plays into the concept of knighthood is gender roles in general. Only men can be knights in medieval romance and most of the time the same is true for medievalist romance. Both men and women are expected to act a certain way. While women, especially highborn women, are given domestic responsibility and are supposedly in need of male protection, men are expected to be fertile and strong and are trusted with their protection (cf. Bentley : 160f). The values associated with knighthood play an important role in George R. R. Martin’s book series A Song of Ice and Fire as well. The conventions and rules surrounding knighthood are in place in the world he creates as are the strict gender roles. The society in Westeros has the ruling monarch at its core who is backed by the church and has a personal group of protector knights around him at court, the Kings Guard. All knights are made to swear oaths upon being knighted that they are obliged to obey. There is also knights outside the court who are held to the same standards and are expected to act honourably and be chivalrous. However, Martin has mentioned in interviews that he does not subscribe to ideas of pure good or evil, thus, even though knighthood comes with all these rules it does not necessarily mean that all knights are inherently good or only act in a chivalrous and honourable way. In fact, Martin’s book series extensively explores the conflict 37 of 94 between the idea of knighthood and the reality of being a knight in Westeros. It takes into consideration the reality of conflicting oaths, flawed characters, and unrealistic expectations. The two examples chosen to highlight this conflict between the shiny image of chivalry and knighthood and the harsh reality of life in Westeros are Jaime Lannister and Sansa Stark who experience this clash in different ways. The upcoming chapters will explore their relationship with and expectations about honour, chivalry, and knighthood and how their experiences shape their view of those values. It will also be discussed how their particular story line and character plays into the functions analysed in this thesis.

3.3.4.1. Example one: Jaime Lannister Being a knight himself as well as a member of the Kings Guard and part of one of the most powerful families in Westeros, being Jaime Lannister comes with high expectations. In an interview Martin describes Jaime as the “Golden Boy of Westeros […] he is the guy who has it all. He comes from the most powerful family, he is the greatest swordsman, he is incredibly handsome.” (Martin 2015b, online at 27:25) When the reader meets him he is portrayed to be everything knights stand for and are supposed to be and, on a surface level, he is, as Martin describes in the interview. However, Jaime becomes one of the point of view characters and the reader gets insight into his mind, learns about his flaws and doubts but also his motivations and intentions. Over the course of the books Jaime becomes more and more complex and the reader realises that he, like all other characters in the series, is not all good or evil. He has justifications for the good and bad things he does and is regularly faced with the incompatibility of all the oaths a knight is supposed to uphold. In A Clash of Kings upon Catelyn implying that he broke his vow to the Mad King when he killed him, Jaime says to her: So many vows…they make you swear and swear. Defend the king. Obey the king. Keep his secrets. Do his bidding. Your life for his. But obey your father. Love your sister. Protect the innocent. Defend the weak. Respect the gods. Obey the laws. It’s too much. No matter what you do, you’re forsaking one vow or the other. (ACoK: 796) Jaime was faced with the reality that it is impossible to uphold all vows that come with being a knight. When he chose to kill the Mad King, he chose to obey the vow of protecting the innocent and defending the weak over obeying and defending the king he has sworn to protect as well. However, people in Westeros do not see the vow he upheld, only the one he broke and condemn him for it. Not only are the vows knights are supposed to obey conflicting, but there is also knights that simply choose not to act in accordance with them. Jaime comes into the Kings Guard as a young man fully enchanted by the idea of knighthood. However, his bubble is quickly popped when he has to serve under the Mad King Aerys Targaryen and his own, cruel father , 38 of 94 both of which frequently act hypocritically, expecting others to act in accordance to rules and laws that they themselves do not follow. Hypocrisy is a big problem in Martin’s book series and appearances are significantly more important than real actions. Knights and nobles have a high social standing and like to enjoy all the benefits that come with that but often do not act accordingly and simply hide their wrongdoings if they are not bluntly overlooked by other nobles, who are just as hypocritical, anyways (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). The most prominent function that Jaime Lannister’s character might represent is criticism of contemporary society. Knighthood is more of an idea than a reality in A Song of Ice and Fire, as it was in the Middle Ages too. Roberta Kaeuper talks about chivalry and the reality of it in the Middle Ages in her book on medieval romance. She states that if somebody today were to travel back in time they would be baffled by the level of violence in the Middle Ages given the image that we have of the era through medievalist and neomedievalist fiction. According to her, people back then did also see this violence as problematic and the attempted solution was chivalry. In theory that would have worked: “the knights internalized a code of restraint and matters got better. The actual situation was considerably less straightforward. Some changes in warfare. […] Yet war as conducted by the chivalrous still meant raiding and ravaging more than set-piece battle. The general population would not have especially noticed much improvement.” (Kaeuper 2000: 99) So knights, while gallant, chivalrous protectors in theory, were just as violent and instead of protecting the weak they became part of the people the weak needed protection from. There are many parallels that can be drawn between that and today’s society and its problems, one of them being police brutality. The police are the equivalent of knights in modern western society, they are the protector class. However, those sworn to protect the weak often end up oppressing, threatening, or even hurting those they promised to protect. There are regular reports of police brutality with most victims killed by the police being suspects for non-violent crimes or having no reported crime record (cf. 2017 Police violence report, online).

3.3.4.2. Example two: Sansa Stark While Sansa Stark herself is not necessarily bound by a strict code of honour like knights, she is a character that strongly believes in the ideas of chivalry and knighthood. She is in love with the idea of marrying a prince and becoming queen, she puts great importance on her appearance as a highborn lady, and she holds people to the values and rules surrounding chivalry, honour, and knighthood. However, she is repeatedly disappointed and disenchanted because many knights she encounters do not uphold their vows. The prince she meets, Joffrey, is cold and cruel. Before being in Kings Landing for a while him she “did not really know Joffrey yet but she was already in love with him. He was all she ever dreamt her prince should be” (AGoT: 140) However, just a few of her 39 of 94 point-of-view chapters later she is already completely disenchanted: “Sansa stared at [Joffrey], seeing him for the first time. […] She wondered how she could ever have thought him handsome. […] “I hate you,” she whispered” (AGoT: 743). She is not always treated like a lady no matter how diligently she follows the rules and expectations that come with being one. Sansa is a hopeless romantic and embodies medieval romance through her character and her expectations. She loves stories about gallant knights, damsels in distress, chivalrous suitors and, at the beginning of the first book, strongly believes that chivalry and honour are real values that all noble men and knights live by. If it was up to her, she would live a noble life in the capitol as the king’s wife, surrounded by servants, dressed in beautiful gowns, sitting at her beloved husband’s side at grand tournaments and extravagant feasts. However, in the books, she is soon faced with the harsh reality of life in Kings Landing and the rotten character of the prince she is promised to. Her girlish dreams get crushed and she is forced to let go of her idea of gallantry and honourability little by little. Because she still expects people to act the way they are supposed to she is continuously disenchanted. The hopeless romantic is driven out of her forcefully by supposedly honourable people mistreating, abusing, or disappointing her repeatedly. Her prince hits her, the queen she glorified is cruel to her, the man saving her from Kings Landing, Littlefinger, ends up having multiple ulterior motives for helping her and even her own aunt Lysa distrusts and mistreats her (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). In Sansa’s case, the way chivalry and knighthood are displayed plays into the criticism of contemporary society similarly to how it did in Jaime’s storyline. The main criticism here is potentially about the hypocrisy of modern society and its importance of appearance over true values and good actions. As long as a person or an action appears to be positive to the outside world, it is irrelevant what goes on behind closed doors. As mentioned above, the idea of knighthood is more important than the reality of it. The same is true for many things in society today especially considering the influence of social media. It is possible to create a completely different version of oneself online meaning that the portrayal of a person’s life online is nothing like their real life. The facade and what people think and believe is what matters. Life online is filtered in every sense of the word and it is often difficult to distinguish between lies and truths on social media. Some influencers (people that make their living creating online content on platforms such as Instagram or Youtube) have recently pretended to be on vacation on social media when, in reality, they never left their home (cf. Kussin 2019). These people posted about a fake vacation to get attention on social media which, in turn, results in income for them through the platforms they use. Similar to that, hypocritical knights and nobles in A Song of Ice and Fire expect to enjoy all the benefits that come with their social status but do not follow the rules that come with it in private.

40 of 94 4. Fictionalisation of History Martin frequently takes inspiration from events taken from real medieval history to adjust and incorporate in his book series. In an interview for the ‘behind the scenes’ special on HBO’s fifth season of Game of Thrones he said “I take history, and I file off the serial numbers, and I turn it up to eleven, and I change the colour from red to purple, and I have a great incident for the books” (Martin 2016, DVD). With this statement and his passion for historic fiction it is not surprising that there are a number of parallels between A Song of Ice and Fire and the history and people of medieval Britain. Sometimes, he takes isolated incidents and moulds them to fit into his story, other times, he takes a bigger sequence of events and adapts them. He also admittedly occasionally models his characters after real historic figures in their personalities or their narrative arc. In this book series the main era he looked to for inspiration is the time of and around the Wars of Roses in Britain. He talks about the historic inspirations for elements in his stories frequently in interviews and, while some can be quite obvious to someone familiar with medieval British history, others are more obscure or fragmented. When taking inspiration from and incorporating events and figures from real medieval history, they are, of course, filtered through his personal perception and opinions. He takes elements that he deems ‘realistically medieval’ and tends to focus on the more gruesome, malicious, and negative aspects of whatever historic person or incident he used as a basis. Furthermore, Martin prefers story-telling history books with flowery descriptions that spark the reader’s imagination over concise, factual history books. About such creative accounts of history he said that “modern historians say it didn’t happen that way, all this stuff was added in by a storyteller later on. But it’s a better story that way” (Martin 2018, online). Taking inspiration from real history and adding his personal twist to it not only helps model the medievalism he creates more closely to his perception of the ‘real’ Middle Ages, but also helps immersing the reader into the story. The more immersed the readers are the more efficiently the story can evoke positive and negative emotions in them. Martin’s fictionalisation of history can elicit nostalgia by relating back to the real past but it can also counteract any positive emotions depending on the nature of the historic event or figure chosen. Lastly, fictionalising real British history can be used as a tool to comment on the society and time that the event or person is taken from. It can also be used to exercise criticism about 21st century contemporary issues by amplifying age old problems that may still hold relevance today. There are a variety of ways that incorporating and adapting medieval British history might play into the relevant functions, some of which will be explored in the upcoming chapters.

41 of 94 4.1. Parallels to Medieval British History Someone very familiar with British history does not have to look very hard to find the parallels Martin snuck into his book series A Song of Ice and Fire. Most obvious are the similarities between his writing and the Wars of Roses in medieval England. However, there is also a number of other elements that are reminiscent of medieval British history. One of the most gruesome events in the book series is surely the Red Wedding which was inspired by several historical events, two of them being the Glencoe Massacre and the Black Dinner. The Glencoe Massacre took place in 1692 (cf. Lang 2016: 13) and is technically outside the era of the Middle Ages while the Black Dinner, taking place in 1440 is an event from medieval history (cf. Way and Squire 1994: 384f.). So, since there is a medieval counterpart to interpret, despite it being a great example for how Martin perceived the ‘reality’ of the Middle Ages, the Glencoe Massacre will not be discussed further in this chapter but the focus will be on the Black Dinner. Drawing inspiration from real events taken from medieval history is mainly a means to assimilate the world Martin creates to what he perceives to be the ‘real’ Middle Ages. As just mentioned, the historical events Martin chooses to draw inspiration from provide an insight into how the author sees the era and the opinions he has about what is ‘realistic.’ He frequently complains about other medievalist authors only including the positive, fairy-tale-like aspects of the Middle Ages and claims to be different. His choice of historic parallels supports this claim of his. The events he looks to for inspiration are grand end epic but they are anything but peaceful or positive. He seemingly uses them not only to further this subjective authenticity but also to confront the readers with the reality of history and, through his distortion of it and his amplification of certain elements or aspects, also with the readers’s contemporary reality. It is a tool to disillusion the readers, especially after building up a naive sense of security and positivity. Again, he toys with the readers’s expectations. He lets them fall into the comfort of his fantasy story for a bit only to give them a harsh awakening and a teaching moment to never trust a false sense of safety in his books.

4.1.1. The War of the Five Kings and The Wars of the Roses As mentioned in the introduction, Martin takes most of his historic inspiration from the late medieval era in Britain around the time of the Wars of Roses. The Wars of Roses were a sequence of (civil) wars fought over the throne of England between 1455 and 1487 AC, although there was fighting before and after those dates as well. The main fighting parties were the wealthy Lancasters, with a red rose as their sigil, and the northern Yorks whose sigil was a white rose. The king at the time was Henry VI who was known to struggle with his mental health. He married the headstrong French Margaret of Anjou who quickly persuaded her new husband to surrender English lands to

42 of 94 the French. Henry VI promised her so in secret but when this information became public it caused a patriotic uproar in the population. Henry’s closest advisor, the Duke of Gloucester, was arrested for treason and died while imprisoned sparking rumours about his murder. Gloucester was replaced by the Duke of Somerset who was in a personal feud with the second biggest landowner in the kingdom after the king, Richard of York. On top of the political disruptions, Henry’s mental health deteriorated to the point where he was no longer functioning: he stayed in his room succumbing to melancholy and unable to speak. With the king unable to rule the Great Council named Richard of York Lord Protector of the realm. During this time Margaret gave birth to a son, Edward of Westminster and the Duke of Somerset was arrested in the Queen’s chambers and impeached. Rumours surfaced that Edward was not Henry’s but Somerset’s son. When Henry VI recovered in 1455 he dismissed York and pardoned Somerset causing the political tension to bubble over and resulting in the first battle of the Wars of Roses. The Yorks were victorious in this battle, imprisoned Henry VI and named Richard of York Lord Protector a second time. Peace lasted until Margaret urged her followers to rise up against the Yorks again in 1459. After an initial loss the Lancasters managed to kill Richard and his second son in battle but were unable to claim London (cf. Cheetham 1997a S-S.). Richard of York’s oldest son, Edward, crowned himself King Edward IV. However, shortly afterwards, Edward IV fell out with a number of his advisors after secretly marrying Elizabeth Woodville. At last, Margaret of Anjou returned from France and marched on the Yorks one final time. Edward of Westminster was killed in battle, Henry VI was executed in the Tower of London and Margaret herself was taken prisoner. Even with Margaret out of the picture, peace did not last long once again. After Edward IV died Edward’s brother, Richard of Gloucester fought the Lancastarian Henry Tudor for the throne, lost and was killed (cf. Cheetham 1997b S-S.). Henry Tudor then married Elizabeth of York, uniting the two houses, ending the Wars of Roses, and starting the era of the Tudors (cf. Williams 1997: 168). The War of the Five Kings shows significant parallels to the Wars of Roses. Firstly, it was also fought over the rightful inheritance of the throne, in this case, the Iron Throne and, while other parties joined the fight, the main duelling clans are the Lannisters, who are one of the wealthiest families is Westeros, and the Starks, rulers in the kingdom of the North. By now, Martin’s story has become so popular that Martin “[has] read things that more people know who the Starks and the Lannisters are than who the Yorks and the Lancasters are, whom, of course, [he] stole it from” (Martin 2018b, online). The similarities start at their house sigils. The Lannisters’s banner is a lion on red ground and the Starks front a wolf on white ground, mirroring the red and white roses of the Lancasters and the Yorks. The events of this conflict take off after the current king, Robert Baratheon, dies. His son Joffrey is then crowned king. However, similar to those about Edward of Westminster, rumours spread that Joffrey was not Robert’s son but a child born of the incestrous 43 of 94 relationship of the queen Cersei and her twin brother Jaime Lannister. This rumour was picked up by Eddard Stark who ended up finding proof and confronting Cersei about it which led to his imprisonment. Ned was charged with high treason and publicly beheaded on the walls of the capitol, Kings Landing. This execution was one of the events sparking the War of the Five Kings, similar to how the rumours of Gloucester’s murder contributed to the start of the Wars of Roses. was the first to take up arms and he started an uprising against the Lannisters, crowning himself King in the North and declaring the North independent which is not unlike how Edward IV crowned himself king. At the same time the deceased king’s brothers Stannis and Renly also gathered their bannermen and laid claims to the Iron Throne based on their blood relationship to Robert. The fifth person also claiming the title of king in this war was Balon Greyjoy on the Iron Islands. However, his storyline does not interfere significantly with the rest of the ‘kings’ and he is eventually killed by his brother Euron. Renly and Robb fought several battles against the Lannisters while Stannis only launched one big attack directly on Kings Landing. Ultimately the Baratheon brothers were both unsuccessful, Renly was killed by Stannis and Melisandre and Stannis was defeated in the Battle of the Blackwater. Robb’s downfall, like that of Edward IV, was not due to military inferiority but a political blunder. He broke his betrothal to one of Walder Frey’s daughters when he secretly married Jeyne Westerling. This lost him the support of the Frey’s and all their bannermen as well as that of some of his own supporters. Ultimately, this bad decision led to his death at the Red Wedding where the Freys massacred all northern guests. With three ‘kings’ dead and one defeated the Lannisters were the last ones remaining to keep up their claim to the Iron Throne. A succession of battles and disputes followed the uprisings of the four self-proclaimed kings leaving the lands of Westeros devastated by the end of A Dance with Dragons (cf. ASoIaF S- S.). Paralleling his fictional war to real wars of medieval British history can mainly be interpreted to play into the function of creating a representation of the Middle Ages that is close to George R. R. Martin’s personal perception of the era. He admits to taking inspiration from the Wars of Roses in every interview that touches on the subject and is not shy to talk about the historic events that he incorporated. The choice to look to the Wars of Roses as an inspiration can seem arbitrary at first but it might not be. The issues that led to these wars and battles are not as straightforward as a ruler wanting to conquer more territory or an attempted usurpation of a poor leader. A number of intrigues, personal feuds, questionable decisions, and acts of manipulation caused the tension to bubble over and resulted in the Wars of Roses. The sometimes seemingly petty behaviour of figures like Margaret of Anjou, then, propels the conflict even when it could have been resolved or died down already. Furthermore, one of the central problems in the Wars of Roses is the rightful inheritance of the throne and the issue of multiple people claiming to be entitled to it and 44 of 94 grounding their claim in different ways such as challenging the legitimacy of Edward of Westminster. The Wars of Roses were complicated, violent, and fought over seemingly petty and personal differences between nobles while the lower classes suffered the hardships that come with war. Picking a war with such characteristics to model his own fictional conflicts after gives the readers a glimpse of how Martin chooses to see the Middle Ages. He did not go for conflicts that can be or have been romanticised in the minds of his contemporary readers, such as civil wars for independence, but instead picked a war that he could draw inspiration from and that would allow his books to be authentic from his point of view. To him, benign issues, and the in fantasy and other medievalist literature often represented battle between absolute good and evil, are not representative of the complex political geography of medieval Britain so he chose to model the wars in his books after the complicated, real conflicts of the Wars of Roses.

4.1.2. The Red Wedding and The Black Dinner A more isolated incident that Martin also admittedly took from British history is the Red Wedding. “Now, of course, my inspiration for that was an actual event in Scottish history: the Black Dinner” said Martin in an interview with John Hodgman in 2018. This is one of the stories where Martin looked to the embellished version of a story-telling history book. The historically accurate outline of what happened is that William Douglas and his younger brother were invited to have dinner with the only ten year old King James II of Scotland in 1440. The reason for this invitation was likely that the Lord Chancellor, Sir William Crichton felt that the Douglases were becoming too powerful and posing a threat to the stability of the nation. However, the dinner invite turned out to be a trap and the brothers were given a mock-trial and executed instead (cf. Way and Squire 1994: 384f.). According to Scottish legend, however, the Douglas brothers arrived at the dinner with the king and finished their meals. After the dinner it is said that a black bull’s head was brought in and presented to them. The black bull’s head symbolised an imminent death sentence and the brothers were dragged out of the castle and beheaded (cf. Jamieson 1825: 155). The fictional counterpart created by George R. R. Martin is the Red Wedding which takes place towards the end of the War of the Five Kings. It is the wedding between Edmure Tully and Roslin Frey, one of Walder Frey’s daughters, held in the western castle of the Twins where the Freys reside. Robb and Catelyn Stark are guests at this wedding and are offered salt and bread by Walder Frey, a practice securing the guest right, a ancient sacred law of hospitality in Westeros. After the wedding feast is over Edmure and Roslin retire to their chambers, as is tradition. However, as soon as the newly weds are gone Walder Frey has the musicians play ‘The Rains of Castamere,’ a song that commemorates the destruction of House Reyne by Tywin Lannister, to signal the beginning of the massacre. Robb Stark is decapitated and Catelyn’s throat is slit, the other northerners also do not 45 of 94 stand a chance and are slaughtered. Even Robb’s direwolf, Grey Wind, is killed outside the castle walls, he is decapitated and his head is brought back to be attached to Robb’s equally decapitated body. (cf. ASoS S-S.) While the two events seem fairly different on first glance, they do have elements in common. Both times the guests were given a false sense of safety when dining with their hosts; they were under the impression that the customs of hospitality would keep them safe. However, an ominous signal was introduced by the hosts that immediately raised alarms in the guests. This signal initiated the execution of the deceived guests by decapitation. They even both feature a severed animal’s head, although in different ways. In this case, as mentioned, Martin did not necessarily take inspiration from the real events of the Black Dinner but from Scottish legend. Therefore, the function of a subjectively authentic medievalism is not relevant to this part. Criticism of modern contemporary society is also not obviously realised through this aside from maybe a subtle criticism of deceiving and tricking someone who has done you wrong to get back at them but that seems far fetched. However, the Red Wedding is a prime example of how Martin toys with the readers’s expectations. Just like the oblivious guests, the readers are made to believe that the guest right would keep their beloved characters safe. Reading the chapters leading up to the massacre they have no reason to suspect too much; the characters are eating, celebrating, and generally described to be having a good time. Robb is even dancing with several of the Frey daughters. Layers and layers of positive emotions are packed onto the reader in the preceding chapters of the relevant point-of-view characters. However, the readers too immediately know that something is wrong when the song ‘Rains of Castamere’ starts to play. Only one chapter, from the point of view of Catelyn Stark, then recounts what happened after the signalling song starts playing but it does not take more than this one chapter to completely crush the readers emotionally by killing off several main characters in one fell, yet extremely gruesome, swoop. The readers were put in the headspace of a wedding with all the positive connotations and expectations associated with such a festivity. Martin set up this emotional fall exceptionally high and made the readers fall exceptionally far.

4.1.3. The Wall and Hadrian's Wall A physical element in A Song of Ice and Fire that shares a history with a historic structure is the Wall in the very north of Westeros. Martin himself explained where his inspiration for the Wall came from. “Certainly the Wall comes from Hadrian’s Wall, which I saw while visiting Scotland” (Martin 2000, online). Hadrian’s wall was built around 120 AD by the Romans as a frontier in the north. For centuries it served as precisely that and it defined and defended the northern boundaries of the Roman Empire against the supposedly barbaric northerners. After its completion it spanned from ocean to ocean in the narrower northern part of the main British island. 46 of 94 Along the wall were several milecastles and gates that were manned. Hadrian’s Wall remained manned and relevant throughout the prime of the Roman Empire (cf. Hingley 2012: 1, 2, 24). After the fall of the Roman Empire its importance lessened and its history became less widely known. Nevertheless, during the early Middle Ages it, again, served as a line of protection against the threat of the Picts and the Scots. By medieval times the existence of Hadrian’s Wall had become a mystery. People were not sure who built it and why but, generally, it was accepted that it must have been built as a defence against the Scots. During this time Hadrian’s Wall was poorly manned, if at all, since the reason for its erection had been forgotten and the reality of a threat from the north had diminished. In later centuries pieces of the wall were taken apart or destroyed and only parts remain to the present day (cf. Goldsworthy 2018: 156-159). The similarities between Hadrian’s Wall and the Wall in the north of Westeros are not hard to find. They are both located in a narrow, northern part of their respective continents, they were both built as a line of protection against a threat coming from the north and they both became less important and relevant to the common people as time passed. About his Wall in the north and its comparison to Hadrian’s Wall Martin said “Of course fantasy is the stuff of bright colours and being larger than real life, so my Wall is bigger and considerably longer and more magical. And, of course, what lies beyond it has to be more than just Scots” (Martin 2000, online). So, while the original inspiration came from Hadrian’s Wall, Martin did what he does with history, as mentioned before. He “turn[s] it up to eleven, and [he] change[s] the colour” (Martin 2016, online) to make it fit into his narrative. Although people in Westeros still talk about the construction of the Wall, those stories have become more legend than accepted reality. To the people in the narrated present it is also a mystery why the Wall was erected in the first place and, by now, the perceived threat it protects the rest of Westeros from in the minds of commoners is simply the wildlings, which can be compared to the Scots in Britain. Although it was heavily manned and protected in a distant past, in the narrated present, only two of the castles along the wall are still manned by men of the Night’s Watch while the rest is empty. Even those two castles have much bigger capacities and could house many more men than they currently are. Most men do not join the Night’s Watch willingly. ‘Taking the Black’ (a phrase meaning ‘to join the Night’s Watch’) is a merciful option for criminals who want to avoid execution. Instead of accepting their sentence they can choose to join the Night’s Watch for life. As the story in A Song of Ice and Fire progresses, the readers come to find out the real reason for the construction of the Wall: beyond the Wall, in the Lands of Always Winter, lurk the Others, a magical race of ice zombies with magical properties who were banished behind the Wall ages ago after the first war between the Children of the Forest and the First Men. Because it has been centuries since anyone has ever seen or even heard anything other than myths about the Others, they are believed to only be the demons of scary stories told to children who do not behave. 47 of 94 However, this real threat from the north is growing and even the wildlings, who fearlessly lived beyond the Wall for centuries themselves, are fleeing and seeing asylum beyond the Wall in the south. Unlike Hadrian’s Wall which continuously lessened in importance until it became no more than a historic sight for tourists, the Wall is gaining in relevance and its magical properties are slowly being revealed (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). Both, Hadrian’s Wall and the Wall in Westeros, instil a sense of awe in the people of their time and place. They were impressively large fortifications against invasions and provided their contemporaries with a sense of safety. However, both experienced a downfall in relevance over time. But with this lessened relevance people also forgot their original history and their mere existence became a mystery. This mysterious aura along with the grandeur of the structures, can become a source of nostalgia to people. The fact that these walls exist implies that there was a time when erecting a wall was enough of a security measure to keep the population safe from threats. In times when the question of safety is much more complicated than keeping out invaders who travel on foot and can be kept out by a wall, people can get nostalgic about times that seem simpler. It is not necessarily the real past that they develop a longing for but a romanticised idea of a time when fearless rulers and their soldiers ensured the safety of commoners. The Wall in Westeros can have that effect on the characters in the novels. It can also elicit the same sense of awe in the readers and potentially also a bit of strange nostalgia for a fictional past, never truly experienced by the readers. What also supports the evoking of positive, almost wistful emotions are the mysterious aura and the magical properties of the Wall. The existence of working magic not only amazes the readers, it also has the power to take them back to their own childhood when magic was still perceived as real and frequently featured in fairy tales and children’s stories. These emotions are mainly elicited when other characters talk about the Wall, when elderly septas tell legends about a long gone past, or when famous members of the Night’s Watch are mentioned. The narrated present, then, takes on the task of counteracting these positive emotions again. Life at the Wall is cold, gloomy, and draining and the majority of men in the Night’s Watch are convicted criminals. While, at first, the threat beyond the Wall seems to be only the comparatively uncivilised wildlings, it soon becomes much more real and serious than them when an un-dead corpse attacks the Lord Commander and it becomes known that the Others are not only real but marching for the lands of the living.

4.2. Parallels between Characters and Real Historical Figures Aside from parallels to memorable historic events, there are also several similarities between the characters George R. R. Martin creates and famous historical figures from British medieval history. Again, the majority of those figures is taken from the times of the Wars of Roses.

48 of 94 Many characters show minor parallels to historical figures such as the mere appearance of Robert Baratheon and that of Henry VIII or how both Emperor Claudius of the Roman Empire and Tyrion Lannister never let their physical disabilities come in their way and refuse to let them rule their life and the way they see themselves. Even the characters that will be discussed in more detail can be paralleled to more than one person from history. Cersei Lannister shows common characteristics with Catherin De’ Medici, who also advised her sons after their respective coronations (cf. Knecht 1998: 59.87) as well as to the English Margaret of Anjou who, as already mentioned, played a significant role in the Wars of Roses. Joffrey Baratheon is not only similar to Margaret of Anjou’s son, Edward of Westminster, but also to the Roman Emperor Caligula who, too, rose to power at a young age and was widely hated (cf. Sandison 1958: 203-208). The third character that will be discussed in this chapter is Daenerys Targaryen who resembles both Henry VII who started the House of Tudor and Queen Elizabeth I who was also a powerful female and feministic ruler that refused to put a man at her side simply to please the patriarchy (cf. Levin 2002: 15-21). For each of these three characters, only the parallels to figures from medieval British history, specifically from the times of the Wars of Roses will be explored. Drawing inspiration from real characters not only helps the author to create more well- rounded, intentionally complicated characters, the choice of historical counterparts also transmits a message about each of the characters. Unlike with the choice of historical events, which gave readers a glimpse into how Martin saw the Middle Ages, his pick of historical figures more so represents the issues he had with the time. The characters he decided to draw inspiration from are either deviations from how he sees and portrays the medieval ‘norm’ of their respective status or negative examples of what he perceives as prominent characters in the medieval times. Martin then takes certain significant characteristics from those historical figures and amplifies or even exaggerates them to draw attention to the issues he seemingly comments on through them.

4.2.1. Cercei Lannister and Margret of Anjou One of the strongest parallels exists between Cercei Lannister and Margaret of Anjou. Margaret of Anjou was married to Henry VI to tie together the rivalling parties of the English and the French. Margaret was a woman with a quick temper and strong powers of persuasion. From the beginning she whispered to Henry and influenced him to do what she wanted. Her marriage was not a happy one and Henry hardly touched her because of his personal and religious beliefs. She was queen to a king that was unfit to rule and she had trouble presenting him with an heir to the crown. When Margaret finally gave birth to a son, Edward of Westminster, Henry VI embraced him but rumours quickly spread that the child was not the biological son of Henry VI (cf. Cheetham 1997a S-S.). During the Wars of Roses Margaret was one of the main military leaders and forces that kept 49 of 94 the fighting going. After her marriage to Henry VI she “quickly perceived her duty: she must zealously guard the rights of the Crown; she must crush those who were pointed out to her as its enemies” (Kendall 1955: 19). However, Margaret did not act in the interest of England as a nation but rather in her personal and feudal interest. Multiple times, when it looked like peace could be made, Margaret stirred conflict again or rallied her forces up again to march on the Yorks (cf. Kendall 1955: 42f.). She was viciously protective of her son, Edward, and of the Lancastarian claim to the throne of England; so much so that she was described as a tigress (cf. Cheetham 1997a: 138). Cercei Lannister, too, was betrothed and married to Robert Baratheon for political reasons to secure the support of the wealthy Lannisters to the new king after Robert and his supporters usurped the Targaryen dynasty. “[She is] a lioness” (AFfC: 589) and is described to be wilful and ambitious but also has a quick temper and is greedy for power. Robert Baratheon, while being a fearless warrior, was not a good king or husband. He frequently went to brothels and laid with other women whenever he had the opportunity to. Cersei gave birth to three children, all of which Robert thought to be his own. However, it is not only rumoured like in Edward of Westminster’s case, but confirmed, that all three are illegitimate as they are the offspring of Cersei’s incestrous relationship with her twin brother, Jaime. After Robert’s death, Cersei adamantly denied any claims about her children’s illegitimacy. During the War of the Five Kings she did not lead any armies into battle, like Margaret did, but she pulled the strings behind the scenes, using her powers of manipulation to gain supporters and to dissuade doubts in people that might have deserted her cause. She also uses the Stark daughters, Sansa and Arya, as leverage against Robb which satisfies her personal hatred against the Starks. At any given point throughout not only the War of the Five Kings, but all five books in A Song of Ice and Fire, Cersei’s primary aim is to keep the Lannister line in power and her children on the throne (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). Cersei Lannister is a very complex character and arguably one of the anti-heroes in Martin’s book series. Her character closely resembles that of Margaret of Anjou. Intentionally or not, Margaret was a feminist for her time and so is Cersei. She clearly does horrible things and makes very questionable decisions. However, the readers get to know her and her intentions as she is a point-of-view character. All throughout the series her main goal is to keep the Lannisters in power and she does so by whatever means necessary. The main redeeming quality about her is her undeniable love for her children. Furthermore, she is a woman trying to gain power and influence in an extremely patriarchal world and society which is something that female readers can sympathise with despite the way she acts. Cersei’s central issue is that she believes that she is powerless exclusively because of her gender and that her sexuality is the only tool and weapon she has. In many ways, Cersei Lannister can be seen as one of Martin’s feminist characters as well as a character through which he portrays his view of the ‘real’ Middle Ages. As a highborn woman, 50 of 94 Cersei might not face some of the issues low born women in a medieval world would but that does not mean her life as a woman is easy. In an interview for The South Bank Show Martin commented on the role of women in the Middle Ages as well as his books: Women’s options in Westeros were fairly limited, as they were for much of Western history. […] Medicine was not far advanced, there were women who died in childbirth. Highborn women had more advantages, but in some ways also more disadvantages. They were more likely to be sold off for political marriage. Middle Ages were not a kindly time for women (Martin 2015b, online). Despite her sinister character and spiteful actions, Cersei also frequently comments on her frustration about the lack of agency for females in Westeros. Furthermore, Martin undoubtedly puts her in a position of power, breaking the typical gender roles of Westeros. Cersei finds ways to manipulate the patriarchic structures of Westeros to her own personal gain. She also takes control of her own life which is unusual especially for highborn women in the world Martin creates. When her father arranges a marriage between her and Loras Tyrell, she refuses. She is also sexually empowered and, while the people she chooses to have sex with are sometimes questionable, she is unusually open about and plays with her sexuality. Through all these deviations from the expected and accepted behaviour of a noblewoman, Cersei rebels against the constraints of the patriarchy. Martin made her fierce and determined and gave her more power than women in medieval times would usually have both politically and personally. Although the struggles she faces are not the same as what 21st century contemporary feminists are fighting, she can be seen as a feminist character. Female oppression, a lack of female leaders in the world, and the oftentimes still problematic taboo of female sexual empowerment are all issues that transcend time and are applicable to the medievalist world Cersei lives in and the 21st century. Cersei can be seen as a character through which Martin channels his feminism and through which he comments on contemporary issues by putting them into a distant, imagined past.

4.2.2. Joffrey Baratheon/Lannister and Edward of Westminster Another character whose creation was clearly influenced by a historical figure is Joffrey Baratheon/Lannister. His historical counterpart is Edward of Westminster, only son of Margaret of Anjou and Henry VI. He was born eight years into their marriage and rumours about his illegitimacy surfaced right after his birth. From childhood on, his character is described as cruel and cold. Since he grew up during the Wars of Roses he also developed an obsession with war and violence. At one point, when given the choice about how to execute a traitor, he ordered them to be beheaded. A Milanese Ambassador of the time wrote “this boy, though only thirteen years of age, already talks about nothing but cutting of heads or making war, as if he had everything in his hands or was the god of battle or the peaceful occupant of the throne” (Goodchild 2005: 110). During the 51 of 94 Wars of Roses he was mostly at his mother’s side and even accompanied her to France for a while. There, his mother arranged for him to be married to Anne Neville but it is unsure if Edward ever consummated the marriage. After Margaret and Edward returned to England, he fought in the Battle of Tewkesbury and did not survive. The exact manner of his death remains a mystery to the present day (cf. Goodchild 2005: 109f. and Cheetham 1997b: 144). Joffrey Baratheon resembles Edward of Westminster especially in predisposition and character. He grows up as the son of king Robert Baratheon and as heir to the Iron Throne. However, around the time of Robert’s death rumours start spreading that Joffrey and his siblings are actually the incestrous children of the twins Cersei and Jaime Lannister. This challenges his claim to the Iron Throne which his mother, like Margaret did for Edward, relentlessly defends. Edward and Joffrey are particularly similar in their personalities. Joffrey, too, has violent tendencies and is obsessed with the idea of causing harm to others, killing, bloodshed, and war. Just like Edward, when given the choice to punish a traitor, in this case Eddard Stark, Joffrey commands him to be beheaded. Joffrey himself does not deal with most of the politics of the Seven Kingdoms, his mother Cersei and his grandfather Tywin take care of that instead. Overall, he is neither a wise nor merciful king and abuses his social standing and power to emotionally torture others or even physically harm them. To put a queen to his side and to bind the powerful House Tyrell to the Crown, his mother and grandfather arrange his marriage to Margery Tyrell. However, he is mysteriously killed at his wedding feast and, therefore, unable to consummate the marriage. Although the characters responsible for his death are revealed to the readers, it becomes a piece of dramatic irony in the series as the vast majority of characters in the books never find out the truth about his murder (cf. ASoIaF: S-S.). Joffrey’s character and his resemblance to Edward of Westminster can be seen to play into the hypothesised functions in different ways. Frequently, he is a source of disenchantment, a tool that dampens the readers’s positive emotions and breaks their illusions of happiness and safety. He quickly breaks not only Sansa’s but also the readers’s expectations about the nobility of princes. He repeatedly surprises the reader with another level of cruelty the more power he obtains. This abuse of power also displays another key characteristic of both Edward and Joffrey: they are both typical brats. Having been raised amongst the nobility either in England or Kings Landing as the prince and heir to their respective throne they developed into entitled, narcissistic boys who are used to always getting their way. Joffrey often throws tantrums if he is not obeyed and abuses his status and power to cruelly punish anyone who dares to speak up against him. He has little to no respect for anyone other than his mother and grandfather and frequently acts pretentious, expecting to excel at anything he does simply because of his noble birth. There are very few characters in A Song of Ice and Fire that lack redeeming qualities but Joffrey is, with no doubt, one of them. He is the personification of 52 of 94 the stereotype of the ‘rich brat’ that still exists to this day even if the context and living conditions of such ‘rich brats’ differ greatly between Joffrey’s world and the society of the 21st century. Nevertheless, he can be seen as a criticism to how our society enables the development of children into entitled and pretentious individuals. Common characteristics of the upbringing of such problematic children are a lack of constraints and rules or, if rules are in place, a lack of enforcing them or punishing transgressions. Furthermore, most ‘brats’ are spoiled, meaning that they materialistically always get what they ask for and they have little concept of budgeting and the value of money and items (cf. Kohn: 9-35). A lenient parenting style along with a lack of challenges leads many children to become ‘spoiled brats’ as seen in the amplified example of Joffrey Lannister. The portrayal of his character can be interpreted as a criticism of such a parenting style and displays, in an exaggerated way, the possible consequences of neglecting to provide children with a set of rules and with challenges to encourage them to develop reasonable tools to deal respectfully deal with other people and the real world.

4.2.3. Daenerys Targaryen and Henry VII of England Another historical and fictional pairing are Daenerys Targaryen and Henry VII. Henry VII was the last remaining heir to the Lancastarian claim to the throne of England. His father was taken prisoner during the War of the Roses and died, leaving behind his mother who fled to seek safety in Pembroke Castle. There, Henry was born and him and his mother moved into exile to stay safe when the Yorks seized the throne and put Edward IV on it. When Henry VI was executed, young Henry became the Lancastarian heir to the throne. However, the Yorks had usurped it and so Henry remained in exile. Little is know about his time in exile and the Yorks—while they would have definitely preferred to get rid of him, and with him the Lancastarian line—did not see him as a major threat since he did not have access to his mother’s wealth nor to any potential supporters in England. However, he managed to raise an army mainly consisting of mercenaries and assembled them under his dragon banner. With the support of the French king and English deserters who chose to support him instead of the Yorks, Henry returned to England to reclaim the throne. He defeated Richard III and restored the Lancastarian line to rulership. Soon after his coronation, he married Elizabeth of York, uniting the two rivalling houses and starting the dynasty of the Tudors (cf. Williams 1997: 168-171). Daenerys Targaryen’s story resembles that of Henry VII significantly beginning at their shared sigils. Like Henry VII, the Targaryens have a dragon on their banner. Dany’s birth, too, is already similar to that of Henry VII. Robert’s Rebellion started while her mother was pregnant with her and her mother fled to Dragonstone with Viserys, Dany’s older brother. Her father, the Mad King Aerys, as well as her oldest brother, Rheagar, were killed towards the end of Robert’s 53 of 94 Rebellion. Dany’s mother gave birth to her on Dragonstone and dies during this childbirth. The newborn and Viserys are sent off to the safety of an exile in Essos where Viserys plots the reclaiming of the Iron Throne. His plan includes marrying his sister to the Dothraki leader, Khal Drogo. Viserys is killed soon after and she continues her journey in Essos without him. Similar to how several English deserters found Henry, two former knights from Westeros join Daenerys in her endeavour to reclaim the Iron Throne in the name of the Targaryens: Ser Barristan Selmy and Ser . Ser Jorah was exiled after being caught dabbling in slave trade and joins the Targaryen cause right after Daenerys’s wedding giving her counsel and protecting her from then on. Ser Barristan served as Lord Commander of the Kings Guard under Robert Baratheon and, after Robert’s death, Joffrey. During the War of the Five Kings Joffrey eventually dismissed the elderly knight on grounds of old age which is unprecedented. Ser Barristan does not end up supporting one of the Westerosi ‘kings’ in this war, as Tyrion and Tywin Lannister suspected, but instead decides to find his true king, a Targaryen, and crosses the narrow sea. Finding out about Viserys’s death, he tracks down Daenerys. He finds her just in time to thwart an assassination attempt on Dany and joins her as another advisor. Such attempts were made a few times throughout the books and they show that, although the Westerosi Small Council does not mention her as a significant threat to the Crown, they do try to get rid of her all the same to eliminate the Targaryen claim to the Iron Throne altogether. By the end of A Dance with Dragons Daenerys has rallied not only the Dothraki but also other supporting warriors and groups of sell-swords to her cause and is ready to return to Westeros and reclaim her crown. Whether or not the rest of her storyline stays close to the history of Henry VII and if she will succeed is something the readers will not find out until the remaining two books will have been published (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). Daenerys’s resemblance to Henry VII plays into the possible functions in a different way than her portrayal as a romantic heroine. In a way, she is a source of nostalgia; not just for the readers but also for the characters inside the story. After the successful usurpation of the Aerys II, the new ruler, Robert Baratheon, is not a very able king and many people are discontent with his rulership. Knowing that there is still a Targaryen alive in Essos, her existence reminds them of the once powerful and often very successful Targaryen dynasty. Even if the most recent Targaryen ruler was mad, they remember all the glorious kings of the dynasty and the shining times of a peaceful and flourishing past in Westeros. Especially when war breaks out in Westeros again so soon after Robert’s Rebellion was won, many people think back to the lost times of the peaceful Targaryen rule and would rather reinstall the old, successful dynasty. She has a similar effect on the readers of the books. The nostalgia can be felt even for the imagined past, especially by readers who are also aware of more of the history of Westeros. They, too, feel unsatisfied with how the Baratheon and Lannister rule deals with politics and regard her as the better option. She represents the better times 54 of 94 before a political change and, depending on the location of the readers, that can evoke nostalgia as well. If the political situation changed drastically, some people might look to the times before the change with nostalgia as the people in Westeros look to the times of the Targaryen rule. In the books, there is a physical person representing this past and some people go beyond just dreaming about the lost past but choose to do their part to reinstall this lost rulership. The discontent knights, Ser Joran and Ser Barristan join her in her exile to help revive the power of the Targaryen dynasty. Even in Westeros she has supporters in people like Varys, who smuggled out her nephew, Aegon, during the sack of Kings Landing and, since he claims to be a servant of the realm, not any particular ruler, he comes to consider her as the better alternative to the Lannisters.

5. Religion The Oxford Dictionary defines the term ‘religion’ as “the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a personal God or gods.” (Oxford Dictionary 2019, online) Clifford Geertz gives a more specific, anthropological definition of ‘religion’ and its functions. In his essay Religion as a Cultural System Geertz defines ‘religion’ the following way: “(1) a system of symbols which act to (2) establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods and motivations in men by (3) formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and (4) clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that (5) the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic” (1973: 90) He explains that religion is a kind of cultural pattern that consists of a system of symbols. Symbols, by his definition being “any object, act, event, quality, or relation that serves as a vehicle for a conception—the conceptions is the symbol’s ‘meaning’” (Geertz 1973: 91) These symbols must produce moods and motivations and are made meaningful through the effects they have on those following or practicing the religion and the moods and motivations they evoke in them. According to Geertz, the need for a cultural pattern or system such as religion comes from human’s internal need for order in their existence that can be fulfilled through religion, specifically, religious symbols. Religion can help humans deal with perceived threats that come with the limitations of their physical strength, moral capacity, and intellect or ability to make sense of things. On the one hand, religious symbolism does confirm the existence of pain and injustice but, on the other hand it reassures that those negativities are not present everywhere or at all times. Religion ties the worshipper’s reality to a wider reality that imperatively includes those other, purely positive, times and places (cf. Geertz 1973: 97ff.). Defining ‘religion’ is, however, not as simple as that. There is no singular all-encompassing ‘correct’ definition of religion. Such a definition has to take into consideration religious history, the questions of holiness or transcendence, and social and personal implications, to just name a few. (cf. Pollack 1995: 169f.)

55 of 94 Religion plays a significant role in George R. R. Martin’s book series A Song of Ice and Fire. There are several religions that come up and hold some importance to the characters or the plot of the books. The predominant religion in Westeros is the Faith of the Seven which was brought to the continent by the Andals, pushing away the faith of the Old Gods of the Forest which was practiced, first by the Children of the Forest, and also by the First Men who came to conquer Westeros but ended up living in peace with the Children. The Faith of the Seven is practiced by most people in the seven kingdoms. Nevertheless, other, smaller religions are generally tolerated albeit frowned upon or looked down on. The Old Gods are still worshipped in some parts of the seven kingdoms, especially in the North where it is still the main religion. Also, all regional capitols of the seven kingdoms still have godswoods that have a sacred weirwood tree, the main place of worship for followers of the Old Gods, at their centre. Men who join the Night’s Watch even get to choose whether they want to swear their oath to the Old Gods or the new. Another religion still practiced in Westeros is the faith worshipping the Drowned God which is practiced exclusively on the Iron Islands. Another religion that gains some relevance in Westeros is the worship of the Lord of Light, R’hllor brought to the continent by priests from Essos. Essos, on the other hand, has a multitude of religions, none of which are explored extensively in the book series. R’hllor is a fairly dominant religion in Essos, the Dothraki follow a Horse God, the Unsullied are devoted to the Lady of Spears, the Black Goat is praised in Qohor, and in Braavos there is the house of the Many-Faced God whose worshippers believe that their god combines all known and unknown gods into one (cf. Martin et. al. 2014). Many parallels between real religions and the religions of Westeros and Essos can be found. George R. R. Martin has openly admitted to taking inspiration from certain real life religions in creating the religions in his books. In an interview with John Hodgman Martin said “The religions are made up religions, in that sense, imaginative religions. I based them on real world religions just tweaking it or expanding it a little.” (Martin 2018b, online) The first, and in the upcoming chapter most important, similarity is between the Faith of the Seven and Medieval Christianity. There are plenty of parallels between the two from similar imagery, customs, a similar internal hierarchical structure all the way to historic parallels. A few of them that are especially relevant to the functions discussed in this thesis and how they play into one or more of the functions will be explored in more detail in the next part of this chapter after briefly summarising the role and history of Catholicism in the Middle Ages. The other westerosi religion frequently mentioned in the books is the faith of the Old Gods which shows parallels to animism, mainly because it is so devoted and connected to nature. It also shares features with medieval paganism. To name a few, both are polytheistic religions, they practice divination, and they are often associated with magic by outsiders (cf. Bartlett 1999: 57f). Another religion that shows significant connections to a real world 56 of 94 religion is the religion surrounding R’hllor. This religion has a lot of elements that are reminiscent of Zoroastrianism including but not limited to a dualistic world view in which good and evil oppose each other and the worship of fire as a purifying agent and a means to gain spiritual insight (cf. Rose 2010: 7f.). This religion, too, will be discussed in regards to how it adds to the functions realised by Martin in his book series. Overall, the incorporation of religions, and especially creating parallels to real religions, adds layers of meaning to the story the author tells and helps him accomplish the intended functions. In taking elements from real religions Martin adds depth to the fictional ones he creates. Drawing on actual religions works similar to how including parallels to real events supports Martin in his attempt to create a more realistic medievalism. He does not attempt to re-create any religion but simply looks to them for inspiration and to help him make his own religions more authentic and interesting. The importance of and apparent need for religion also promotes the authenticity of the medieval society he creates as well as the depth of various characters. Furthermore, including elements from religions that the reader is familiar with or even foreign religions helps push emotional investment in the reader. There is something inherently unknown about religion that makes it a useful tool in creating mystery; mystery, wonder, and subliminal magic being a few of the effective tools utilised by Martin to elicit nostalgia and a false sense of security. This sense of security is then, as expected, regularly destroyed when religion is portrayed in a more critical light or is turned into a tool to cause another emotional fall for the reader. Especially the dominant religion of the Faith of the Seven does not always play out in the favour of the characters the reader is made to feel for. Many of its followers are portrayed as intrinsically hypocritical when it comes to religion and the faith itself, being one of the main tools holding the seven kingdoms together, is heavily institutionalised and linked to the Crown. So, in different ways, the religions of A Song of Ice and Fire and their connection to a counterpart in the real world play into all three of the functions chosen for this thesis as will be discussed in this chapter in some detail.

5.1. The Faith of the Seven and Medieval Christianity As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, the Faith of the Seven has a number of things in common with medieval Christianity, particularly medieval Catholicism. George R. R. Martin himself mentioned in an interview “The Faith of the Seven is of course based on the medieval Catholic church.” (Martin 2018b, online) The religion shares the worship of a single God with multiple aspects, the hierarchical internal structure and role in monarchies, some imagery and rituals as well as aspects of its history with the medieval Catholic church. With the Middle Ages beginning around 500AD, Christianity had emerged only within the previous few hundred years and

57 of 94 was still very much in the process of defining itself and rising in importance at the beginning of this era. The majority of people in the early centuries of our timeline were jews, some form of pagans or people who followed nature-based polytheistic religions that included rituals that were attached to myths. Such myths were not believed to be grounded in historical facts. Therefore, a faith based on supposedly true history had difficulties gaining traction at first. The incompatibility of these belief systems led to the rise of a phenomenon called Gnosticism (cf. Chadwick 1990: 26). Gnostics believed that the world humans are forced to live in is a dark and evil realm that has fallen from the world of heaven. During this primal fall, some humans were believed to have inherited a fragment of the divine soul that will eventually reveal to them the knowledge needed to find their way back into this heavenly world they were forcefully ripped from (cf. Madigan 2015: 5ff.). They also still heavily incorporated rituals, sacrifices, and myths in their religion and accepted or respected neither the sacraments nor christian bishops or priests. Over time, however, especially with the Catholic church defining and specifying their canon as well as the continuing rise of the Roman Empire and its adoption of Christianity, Gnostics assimilated to Catholicism and the religion gained importance, power, and influence (cf. Chadwick 1990: 31-36). At the beginning of the fifth century, after the fall of the Roman Empire, Christianity experienced a decline at first but then continued to spread, this time thanks to the Franks and the Carolingian Empire (cf. Mayr-Harting 1990: 100ff.). The similarities between the Faith of the Seven and medieval Catholicism go from common imagery such as stained glass windows depicting scenes from holy scriptures to common rituals like marriage and penance, to the internal hierarchy of the religions. As mentioned before, and will be mentioned again for the sake of completeness, taking inspiration from a real religion helps Martin create a well-rounded fictional religion of his own. Using elements from Christianity that especially his Christian readers are familiar with also supports the realisation of the function of eliciting nostalgia in his readers. However, it is not only the parallels that are relevant to his functions but also the intentional differences and the elements he chose to exclude from his list of similarities. In consciously leaving out certain aspects of medieval Catholicism and including aspects that are clearly not taken from it a criticism about the the religion can be inferred. The upcoming subchapters will go into detail on some specific commonalities between the two religions and explore the roles they play in realising the functions relevant in this thesis.

5.1.1. Common elements between the Faith of the Seven and Medieval Christianity Since the author himself admitted to taking inspiration from medieval Catholicism for the Faith of the Seven, it is not hard to find elements that occur in both of them. From the frequent use of the number seven in both religions to common imagery when it comes to saints or deities, to common rituals such as weddings, funerals, or prayers all the way to the hierarchical structure of the 58 of 94 churches, a lot of similarities can be found. The parallels are not strictly about medieval Catholicism but extend all the way into the present. By incorporating elements from the medieval as well as the modern Catholic church Martin not only makes his religion more authentic through such similarities but also through intentional differences. He instrumentalises elements from both medieval and contemporary Catholicism to subtly include his own opinion and criticism about the institution of the Christian church, its violent past and ongoing issues. Martin himself was raised Catholic but is no longer practicing and has voiced his criticism about the Catholic church in interviews before (cf. Martin 2014, online). The upcoming subchapters will touch on how the two religions, their history and role in their respective societies are alike and how those similarities play into the three functions of criticism of contemporary theory, the creation of a realistic medievalism, and the eliciting of the emotion of nostalgia.

5.1.1.1. Common Imagery and Symbolism The imagery, or visual symbolism, in the Faith of the Seven is undoubtedly inspired by Catholicism. One of the most obvious ones is the multi-foldedness of the Gods in each religion. In Christianity there is the Holy Trinity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. The Faith of the Seven has one God with seven faces: the Father, the Mother, the Warrior, the Smith, the Maiden, the Crone, and the Stranger. Each of these seven are aspects of one singular deity but can be prayed to individually for different things (cf. ACoK: 495). The numbers three and seven, too, play important roles in both religions. Christianity has the Holy Trinity, there are three temptations of Christ, three days between Jesus’s death and his resurrection, three times that Jesus appeared to his disciples, and many more examples underlining the importance of the number three (cf. Hopper 1906: 70). The number three plays less of a role in the Faith of the Seven but it is still present as there are three male and three female faces to their God plus the Stranger who has no gender (cf. ACoK: 496.) The number seven, however, holds great importance in both religions. According to Christianity, God created earth and everything on it in seven days, there are seven days in a week, seven days of passover, seven sins, seven heavens, seven hells, the list can go on and on. This number reappears throughout the Old Testament and is relevant in Christianity up to the modern day (cf. Hopper 1906: 23f.). In the Faith of the Seven this number is central as well. Not only is it part of the name of this specific faith, there are also, as mentioned, seven faces to their God, their septs have seven walls, the gods are said to have made seven wonders, they use seven oils in ceremonies such as baptisms, knighting ceremonies, and coronations, and their holy scripture is called the Seven-Pointed Star (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). Not only do these religions share important numbers, the depiction of their deities and saints are also often similar. Although there is only one God in the Faith of the Seven he has seven faces. 59 of 94 Inside the septs each aspect has their own corner where a statue representing each face is placed. Each of them can be prayed to for different reasons. People pray to the Father for justice, to the Mother for mercy, to the Warrior for courage in battle, to the Smith for strength, to the Maiden for safety, and to the Crone for wisdom. The Stranger is seldom prayed to (cf. ACoK: 495f.). In modern Catholicism, too, statues are placed around churches and even in the Middle Ages people would pray to different Saints for their blessings (cf. Wilson 1983:6f.). Furthermore, stained glass windows depicting Saints or scenes from the Bible have been part of the decoration in Catholic churches from the early Middle Ages onward. The bigger the church and the more money available, the more elaborate those stained glass windows were (cf. Marks 1993: 3f). The septs in Westeros, too, have big stained glass or crystal windows that depict scenes from their holy scripture, the Seven-Pointed Star, on their walls (cf. ACoK: 283). They also have crystals around the septs catching the light and bending it into rainbows around the walls. The seven colour of the rainbow are important to the Faith of the Seven in general with their equivalent of the Church Militant, the Faith Militant, wearing rainbow cloaks, their peace banner being a rainbow flag and the use of rainbows in decorating septs (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). Including imagery from medieval and modern Christianity arguably mostly contributes to the authenticity of the religion Martin creates in his books. Religions and their visual symbolism develop over hundreds, if not thousands of years. Taking inspiration from an existing religion makes a made up one more well rounded and believable. However, it also plays into the eliciting of the emotion of nostalgia. Many of Martin’s readers are either from countries where Christianity is the predominant religion or have been exposed to the ideas and imagery of Christianity through modern media and education. Especially for those readers who are themselves Christians of whatever denomination reading about a religion that has so many parallels to their own can evoke nostalgia as well as simply a positive sense of relating to the books. When characters in the books pray to one of the faces of their God or when septs are described such readers can create direct parallels to their own lives and experiences. As expected, especially since Martin openly called himself a sceptic and has stopped actively practicing religion, those positive feelings that are elicited during those parts of the book are quickly smothered again when Martin incorporates a stab of criticism of the Church in his books and depicts it in a less positive light. Interestingly, something that was not taken from medieval Catholicism but is featured in the Faith of the Seven is the colours of the rainbow. In our contemporary society, a rainbow flag is frequently associated with the LGBTQ+ community and their movement for acceptance and equal rights. To place symbolism like that into a religion that is heavily inspired by Catholicism is an interesting choice made by Martin. Homosexual relationships are not openly accepted in the world he creates in his books, yet gay characters do exist and through them as well as the inclusion of rainbows in his symbolism it can be 60 of 94 argued that he shows his support to the community and subtly criticises the way society still frequently treats people inside it.

5.1.1.2. Common Rituals and Practices Rituals are an integral part of religions. As Northrop Frye defines the term “[Rituals] are symbolic acts of social cohesion […] a ritual is a conscious waking act, but there is something sleepwalking about it: something consciously being done, and something else unconsciously meant by what is being done.” (Frye 1976: 55) Both the Faith of the Seven and medieval Christianity relied heavily on rituals and those rituals are often very similar. In both religions there are significant rites of passage that people following the faith typically go through in their lives. The rites both have in common are baptism, marriage, and funerals. Baptisms are not described very well in A Song of Ice and Fire but they do have naming ceremonies during which they use seven oils (cf. AGoT: 23). Marriages in the Middle Ages were typically arranged by the parents, more specifically the father, often for political or interpersonal reasons and not necessarily always in accordance with the will of the bride. The women were dependent on the men and were mainly expected to bear children to carry on the family they married into. During marriage ceremonies vows were exchanged as were rings and coins followed by a great marriage feast. At the end of the wedding day the marriage was consummated, meaning the woman was deflowered in their new, shared bed (cf. Duby 1988: 8f.). In A Song of Ice and Fire, too, the marriage ceremonies include the exchange of marriage vows and a great marriage feast and for the newly wed couple the day ends in the consummation of the marriage (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). At the end of one’s life, then, the funeral awaits. Medieval funerals included a viewing of the corpse, rounds of prayers, a funeral procession and a burial (cf. Daniell 1998: 2). Similarly, the body of the deceased is put into a sept for a public viewing before funerals in Martin’s book series. During the funeral ceremony a septon leads prayers, the dead is then carried to their final resting place and buried there (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). More similarities can be found in the rituals and practices surrounding confession, judgement, and penance. If a person commits a sin they have to confess and redeem themselves in the eyes of their God. In medieval Catholicism a sinner could choose to confess minor crimes to their priest and do prayers as redemption. For bigger crimes serious penance was necessary. Penance in the Middle Ages meant exclusion from the community of the church during which the sinner had to shave their head, wear an ashy sack instead of clothing, abstain from wine and meat and was forbidden to shower. How long this penance lasted depended on the sin committed. To be re-admitted into the Church the sinner was then first allowed to listen to a sermon from the porch, then they had to kneel on the stairs while others prayed for them after which they were allowed to visit a service without participating actively. After these steps the sinner was considered 61 of 94 reconsolidated. What was problematic especially towards the end of the Middle Ages was if someone was accused of a sin but did not voluntarily confess. Even before the times of the inquisition, ritualised torture was used to draw confessions from those accused of sinning (cf. Asad 1983: 293-303). Rites of confession, torture, and penance can be found in A Song of Ice and Fire as well. Those are well illustrated in Cersei Lannister’s storyline at the end of A Feast for Crows and well into A Dance with Dragons. At the end of the fourth book Cersei gets imprisoned by the new High Septon with accusations of murder and adultery. She had convinced Osney Kettleblack to frame Margery Tyrell for adultery and treason but the tortured Osney until he revealed the truth about Cersei. Similarly to what happens during a period of penance in medieval Catholicism, when she gets imprisoned by the Faith her hair is cut off and she is kept in an isolated chamber no bed, a bucket for excrements, no way to clean herself and very little food. There, a septa comes to her every day demanding that she confess her sins to be let out. Eventually, Cersei confesses to sins great enough to get her out of this chamber but not bad enough to get her executed. After her confession, Cersei is forced to do a walk of atonement where she has to walk from the Great Sept to the Red Keep completely naked while septas walk with her chanting “Shame!” over and over for all of Kings Landing to see and hear (cf. ADwD S-S.). Similarly to the common elements, including parallels to real rituals from medieval Catholicism supports both the function of creating an authentic medievalism and that of evoking nostalgia in the reader. Especially the marriage ceremonies in Martin’s books are very close to modern contemporary weddings with the bride dressing in white, vows being exchanged, the priest giving the guests the option to challenge the union and an exchange of symbolic items, rings in modern weddings, cloaks in Westerosi weddings. All of these elements give the reader a warm feeling of familiarity and nostalgia which Martin then either taints from the beginning like in the forced wedding between the cruel Ramsay Snow and Jayne Poole or destroys as in the Red Wedding and the Purple Wedding, both of which featured murder. Especially through the inclusion of rituals about confession and penance Martin’s critical opinion of the church shines through. Those rituals are not only humiliating but often violent and both medieval Catholicism and the Faith of the Seven instrumentalise torture to extract confessions. There are plenty of rituals that Martin could have included in his portrayal of the Faith of the Seven but he chose to assimilate it to medieval Catholicism through their violent and arguably more questionable practices. This decision can be seen as a form of criticism on the ways the Catholic church worked and a subtle stab at how confession and penance are still relevant today, albeit not enforced violently or through public humiliation.

62 of 94 5.1.1.3. Organisation of the Church The organisation of the Catholic church in medieval times was not unlike how we know it now. From the early developing times of the church on there was a threefold in the administration of the church with the bishops, the priests and the deacons. Furthermore, there was a single head of the church who was considered to be the first among equals. Initially, this was James, the Lord’s brother. Later it became the bishop of Rome with Rome becoming the capitol of the Catholic church. (Chadwick 1990: 33-36) By today, the seat of the Catholic church is the Vatican, an independent city-state inside of Rome where the pope, the bishop of Rome, resides. In the hierarchy, bishops are below the pope and priests are below bishops. This is similar to the hierarchical structure of the Faith of the Seven. The head of this church is the High Septon and the central city is Oldtown, where the Starry Sept, from which the High Septon rules, is located. Next in the hierarchy of the Faith of the Seven are the Most Devout, a group of septons and septas. If the High Septon dies, they are in charge of choosing a new one, like the cardinals who choose a new Pope when the old one dies or resigns as explained by Cersei in A Feast For Crows (587). Last in this hierarchy are the regular septons and septas who, similar to priests and the pope, are only referred to by their first names. These septons and septas wear white robes and often live in the households of noble families (cf. ADwD: 267). Similarly, even in medieval times priests traditionally wore black or white and, especially during missionary times, frequently lived in the households of important people to sing masses and issue the sacraments to the members of the household (cf. Skre 1998: 14). Another commonality between the Faith of the Seven and medieval Catholicism is the existence of monasteries. The first Christian monasteries were founded in 400CE and monasticism was already well established by the beginning of the Middle Ages and only continued to gain in importance throughout it. The term monastery can refer to communities of monks or nuns alike, however, nunneries are strictly for females (cf. Wood 1994: 181). Westeros, too, has monasteries where so-called ‘holy brothers’ and ‘holy sisters’ can practice their devotion to the Faith of the Seven fully. For men these are called septries and for women motherhouses. Traditionally, holy brothers dress in long, brown robes and cut their hair short while holy sisters dress in white and grey. All are expected to practice modesty, humility as well as celibacy. Often, they also swear vows of silence. Some holy brothers may wander the Seven Kingdoms as beggars as a form of penance. (cf. AFfC: 525f.) Life in medieval monasteries was similar to that. Monks and nuns were required to be humble, modest and celibate as well. They often had to swear vows of poverty and obedience and could choose to swear vows of silence (cf. Kerr 2009: 11f.). However, it is not only the similarities that can be of interest but also the differences, especially if they are intentional. One thing that Martin’s Faith of the Seven completely lacks are 63 of 94 the scholarly aspects of the Catholic church. Modern universities developed directly from the cathedral schools of the medieval church. Cathedral schools offered a general education, at first simply for locals but as universities, such as the one in Oxford, started to emerge, they drew students from further and further, even from other countries. Upon finishing such a general education students were endorsed by the emperor or the pope himself, tying education very closely to medieval Catholicism (cf. Cobban 1988: 3f.). No such connection between the Church and scholarship can be found in A Song of Ice and Fire. In the book series, the scholars are a secular group, called ‘maesters’ who share their scholarly capitol with the Faith of the Seven. Their centre of education as well as the biggest library in Westeros is in the Citadel of Oldtown where the measters are trained. Measters, similar to septons or Catholic priests, often live in the households of nobles and serve there as teachers, counsellors, they send messages via ravens for their masters and they help with medical issues. Like septons, they leave behind their family name and only go by their first name after earning their title. Unlike septons or any other person in the household of a Lord or even the King, maesters are supposed to serve the realm as a whole first, although they are expected to serve their Lords, of course, but their counsel is meant to represent the interest of the realm (cf. Martin AGoT: 450). The organisational similarities between these two religions mainly serve the purpose of making the Faith of the Seven more well rounded and authentic. Coming up with rich societies with centuries of history including religious history is challenging and incorporating elements from real religions can help the author in his writing. The hierarchy and internal organisation of the Faith of the Seven is almost identical to that of the Catholic church, both in medieval times and, still, today. In basing not only the imagery and some rituals on medieval Catholicism but also looking to the early organisation of this religion creates a more authentic representation of a medievalist religious society. Martin’s depiction of the Catholic church through the Faith of the Seven is neutral, at best, often negative or critical. The High Septons, who are supposed to represent the Faith of the Seven and seemingly equivalent to the Pope of the Catholic church, are corrupt and lazy and it is hinted at by Martin that they, similar to allegations in contemporary scandals surrounding the Catholic church, took an inappropriate liking to little boys (cf. Martin 2014, online). Furthermore, Martin frequently criticises religion in general but especially the religion he was raised with, Catholicism, in interviews and makes it clear that he, himself, is not a religious man but views Catholicism very sceptically (cf. Martin 2014, online). In detaching scholarship from religion he takes away one of the few possibly objectively positive, redeeming elements from medieval Catholicism and its influence on society. In paralleling the Faith of the Seven so obviously and closely to medieval Catholicism and then repeatedly depicting it as flawed, corrupt, or violent, Martin seemingly not only criticises the medieval version of Christianity but also modern contemporary Catholicism. 64 of 94 5.1.2. Parallels between the history of the Faith of the Seven and Medieval Christianity Many parallels can be found between the history of the rise of the Faith of the Seven and the spread of the Catholic church in the Middle Ages. The history of Catholicism in medieval Europe was summarised at the beginning of this sub-chapter. Of particular interest in this part of the analysis are the similarities between the role of the Franks and their Merovingian and Carolingian Empire in the history of the Catholic church and the events in Martin’s books. In 496CE king Clovis of the Franks converted from paganism to Christianity and within the next ten years thousands of his men did, too. Over the following centuries, Clovis defeated the other Frankish kings and conquered their kingdoms, uniting the Franks under the Merovingian Empire. After dividing this united kingdom between his four sons it was united, once again, under Clothar II. A number of kings that came to be known as the ‘do-nothing kings’ followed. During their reign it was essentially the mayors of the palace that ruled the kingdom in their stead, continuously weakening the royal power in the Merovingian Empire. Eventually, the mayors of the palace became the effective rulers of the Frankish kingdom; an important name to mention in this context is Charles Martel. His son, Pepin, was eventually officially crowned king by Pope Zachary, marking the beginning of the Carolingian Empire (cf. The Merovingian Kingdoms S-S.). More relevant details on their history will be mentioned in the upcoming subchapters. Martin was raised catholic but has given up the faith since and calls himself a sceptic. Despite him being sceptical and critical about religion, he believes that religion plays an integral role in fantasy fiction. In fantasy magic not only exist but demonstrably works and—since magical elements, such as walking on water or raising the dead, are part of religions such as Christianity— makes it more tangible for the people in this fantasy universe (cf. Martin 2014, online). However, religion is not this wonderful, magical thing in the world Martin creates. Often it is quite the opposite: a calculated tool used and abused by those in power both inside the organisation of the Faith of the Seven and outside of it. Much like in real life, religion is a contentious issue to the point of war. Those fighting those wars use religion either as justification and reason or as a tool to subdue the people they want to rule. The many parallels to such events in real European history make the issues all the more realistic and add to the overall authenticity as well as complexity of the world Martin creates.

5.1.2.1. The Arrival of the First Men and the Andals and Medieval Christianity The way the Andals spread the Faith of the Seven across Westeros is very similar to how Christianity spread throughout central Europe in the early Middle Ages. The Franks were pagans whose kingdoms spread across central Europe, each being ruled independently but consistently quarrelling among each other. One of the Frankish rulers, Clovis, who had converted to Christianity, 65 of 94 conquered the independent Frankish realms one by one, uniting them under him and spreading his newly adopted religion in the process. This newly united kingdom became known as the Merovingian empire (cf. Wood 1994: 41f.). Since the Franks were originally pagan, wherever Christianity spread to the shift from Paganism to Christianity always happened similarly to how people first adopted Christianity when it emerged. Followers of the almost animistic Paganism were sceptic about this history based religion and only adopted elements of it at first or kept elements from Paganism if they chose to convert. The conversions under Clovis were not forced and the rules and teachings of Christianity were not enforced strictly at first, leaving room for blends of religious practices (cf. Chadwick 1990: 26ff.). As time went on, the influence of the Catholic church grew. Despite their own pagan history, the now Christian Frankish kings supported missions and forced out any remaining pagan groups. The Church and the Crown started working together more and more closely and the rules and practices of Christianity became more defined and strict in the Merovingian empire eventually driving out Paganism almost completely (cf. Madigan 2015: 42). In A Song of Ice and Fire Westeros is originally inhabited by the Children of the Forest who have an animalistic religion with traits of Paganism. The specifics of this religion and its parallels to Paganism will be discussed in more detail later. Early in the history of Westeros as described by Martin, the First Men made their way to Westeros over a land bridge in the South that was destroyed later on. From the tip of what would late become Dorne, the First Men started settling in Westeros. A war between them and the Children of the Forest soon broke out because the First Men cut down the weirwood trees, which were a place of worship and divinity to the Children. After generations of war and conflict, the two made a pact for peace in front of one of the weirwood trees in which they agreed that the Children could have the deep forests to themselves. The First Men adopted the Children’s faith which would later be referred to as the faith of the Old Gods. This peace between the First Men and the Children of the Forest lasted hundreds of years until the arrival of the Andals. The Andals were a people that originally lived in Essos and that had their own, strong religion: The Faith of the Seven. They were driven from their home by the Valyrian dragon lords and the war loving Dothraki horse lords and fled to Westeros where they first arrived in the Vale. From there, they started conquering Westeros and fighting the First Men, carving their seven- pointed star into rocks and trees wherever they went. They cut down many weirwood trees, sought out the Children of the Forest and killed them all. To the Andals, they and their Old Gods were strange and unnatural. The First Men fought to protect the children and the weirwood trees but eventually had to surrender and over time many started to take up the Faith of the Seven. Nevertheless, the worship of the Old Gods continued all the way into the narrated present in many places throughout Westeros, especially in the North. While people in the North know about, respect,

66 of 94 and sometimes even follow the Faith of the Seven, the influence of the Old Gods is still very much present and they practice rituals from both faiths (cf. AWoIaF S-S.). The parallels that can be drawn between the early history of Westeros and the early history of Christianity in Europe are not always direct or chronological, but they are numerous. With the Andals, a new religion arrived in Westeros that was spread through conquest and eventually rose to be the predominant religion on the continent. Similarly, when Clovis converted and became the first Christian Frankish ruler this religion, new to the Franks, was spread by him through his conquests and, thanks to him, became the main religion in the Merovingian empire. Throughout these conquests in Westeros the Andals converted many First Men to the Faith of the Seven. Those who joined them then, in turn, fought against and converted more First Men even though they themselves had been followers of the Old Gods previously. The same pattern can be found with the Franks. Having originally been Pagans their kings became supporters of missionaries and forcefully drove out remaining Pagan groups in their kingdom. While the Andals were less merciful or tolerant about the faith of the Old Gods, conversion to Christianity under Clovis was initially more or less voluntary. What is similar nonetheless is the way the old and new religions were blent together by people converting from one to the other. In European history this happened as the new religion was adopted, in Westeros is was a phenomenon that occurred later on, as the old religion prevailed in the North while the Faith of the Seven became the official religion of the kings of Westeros. Many parallels in this part of Westerosi history also have to do with the similarities between the Old Gods and Paganism which there will be more analysis on later on in this chapter on religion. While using historic parallels builds authenticity, through his religious parallels, Martin arguably also criticises not only Christianity but religions as a whole, especially religious wars. Both, the First Men and the Andals did not come to Westeros in peace. While peace could be made between the Children of the Forest and the First Men, even spreading the faith of the Old Gods to these new inhabitants, the Andals came to Westeros with the goal to find a land to spread their Faith of the Seven. While the events in A Song of Ice and Fire can be paralleled to specific wars in Europe that included the spread of a religion, the criticism implied through these stories is much broader. Martin, being a sceptic and religious critic, condemns religious wars. In an interview with Laura Miller in 2014 he said “[…] Now I just look at religions like ‘are you really gonna kill all these people because a giant invisible guy in the sky told you to?’” (Martin 2014, online) Through the stories of the First Men and the Andals he exercises that criticism. The First Men are representative for how it should and could go. Even if two peoples have their differences in beliefs, they can come to a peaceful solution; the First Men, being the intruders in Westeros, even adopted the local faith and, after initially cutting down weirwood trees, started worshipping them themselves. The violent counterpart are the Andals who, not unlike Christians and their missionaries 67 of 94 throughout history, force their Faith upon anyone they encounter, if necessary by violence. While there are fewer elements that can be interpreted as direct criticism, as was possible especially in the chapter on romance, his depiction of religion and the way he built its history is very critical of religions in general and especially denounces religious wars.

5.1.2.2. The Targaryen Conquest and Medieval Christianity While the Targaryen Conquest does not resemble the history of the Franks as closely as the history of the First Men and the Andals does, there are numerous isolated events and shorter chains of events that are very similar to the history of the Merovingian and the beginning of the Carolingian empire. As mentioned before, Clovis conquered the Frankish kingdoms and united them under him, starting the Merovingian empire (cf. Wood 1994: 41f). Similarly, when Aegon the Conquerer came to Westeros, he took over the quarrelling seven kingdoms one by one and united them under his reign. Aegon was eventually anointed into the Faith of the Seven and crowed King by the High Septon himself in Oldtown (cf. Martin et. al. 2014: 45). The baptism part is similar to the baptism of Clovis of the Franks who was baptised by the bishop of Reims after winning an important battle. However, another event from the beginning of the Carolingian empire can also be paralleled to Aegon’s coronation. After the last Merovingian king died the power of ruling was essentially bestowed upon the king’s principal aid, the major domus. One of these, Pepin III, sought recognition as a ruler from the Catholic church. His wish was granted and he was anointed by Pope Zachary in 751CE, who thereby created a new line of kings, which had never happened before (cf. Madigan 2015: 71f.). In crowning Aegon the High Septon of Oldtown, too, created a new line of kings, the first to rule all seven kingdoms. He then had a Great Sept built in his newly founded capitol city of Kings Landing and openly followed the Faith of the Seven. Aegon also regularly visited the High Septon in his Starry Sept whenever he was close to Oldtown (cf. Martin et. al. 2014: 49ff.). Clovis, too, was in touch with his bishops and the pope regularly, either by visiting himself or by inviting or summoning bishops to him (cf. Wood 1994: 47f). After Aegon’s death his successors did not always respect the Faith of the Seven as much. The downfall of the Targaryen dynasty and that of the Merovingian empire are a lot alike. The demise of the Merovingian empire were the so called ‘do-nothing’ kings who were weak in mind and body, some died young making their successor even younger and weakening the royal power. This led to the major domus being in power and, eventually, to the coronation of Pepin III (cf. Wood 1994: 266-291). While there is no consecutiveness of weak kings in the line of Targaryen kings, there are more weaker kings after the conquest of Dorne and as their history approaches the narrated present, culminating in the Mad King Aerys who was then dethroned by Robert Baratheon during Robert’s Rebellion (cf. AWoIaF S- S.). 68 of 94 While the historical similarities in the chapter before were used to criticise the institution of religion, through the history of the Targaryens in Westeros, Martin more so criticises the still remaining link between the Church and the State. While western countries are secular and mostly democratic, there is still an undeniable link between the predominant religion in a country and its leadership. Back in the Middle Ages the Catholic church and Pepin III made a mutually beneficial arrangement. Pepin needed the bishop of Rome to legitimise him as King of the Franks and the Catholic church needed a strong ally to defend them against the Lombards who were taking their lands. Pepin’s people would only accept him as a rightful king if he was anointed by the pope and the King of the Franks, at the time, had to be Catholic (cf. Madigan 2015: 71f.). Although the government is technically no longer affiliated with any one church in particular, politicians still use religion in their rhetorics to gain votes. A prominent example is the USA and its presidents. For generations, they have shown their affiliation to the Christian church. One pastor, Billy Graham, even served as counsellor to several presidents over the years (cf. Gibbs, Duffy 2007: 2). Often, voters will praise them if they are religious and criticise them if they are not. For example, former president Barack Obama is openly Christian but when rumours surfaced that he might be Muslim people, especially republicans and conservatives that were not Obama voters to begin with, condemned him for his perceived religion (cf. Hollander 2010: 55f). This connection between the state and the church will be discussed in more detail later on. Through his critical depiction of the predominant religion of the Faith of the Seven, however, a strong connection between the Church and the Crown and its parallel to the connection between religion and politics must be viewed just as critically.

5.1.3. The Role of the Church in the Seven Kingdoms compared to the Role of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages As can be gathered from the previous sub-chapters in this bigger chapter on the Faith of the Seven and medieval Catholicism, the church plays a significant role in both worlds. The ruler needs the head of the religion to legitimise their leadership and the church needs this most powerful person as an ally to ensure their survival and their grip on the people within the royal control. Religion holds power because the people follow it and are unlikely to accept the rule of someone who does not have their faith’s blessing. This means that legitimacy and power can be established through religion. However, the relationship between the kings and their religion are not always harmonious or easy. Furthermore, the power obtained through religion can easily be abused. All of this happens both in medieval Europe and in Westeros. The depiction of religion as a source of secular power opens up interesting perspectives on how contemporary and historical leaders and rulers have utilised it. In paralleling the power struggles between the church and crown or between 69 of 94 religions Martin not only creates an epic story but also incorporates criticism about such games at power and the people who play them.

5.1.3.1. The Relationship between the Church and the Crown The close relationship between the church and the crown or the state in medieval times as well as in Westeros was born of necessity and the prospect of mutual benefit. After the ‘do-nothing kings’ and several generations of major domus ruling, Pepin III, a major domus himself, sought to become king, too. To simply name himself king would not have been accepted by the people of the Frankish kingdom so he needed legitimacy. Such legitimacy could only be granted by the medieval Catholic church through an official coronation by the bishops or the pope, the bishop of Rome as the king was considered to be a divine leader chosen by God. The Catholic church, too, needed something from the Franks. Their lands were being taken by the Lombards and they needed military support and protection. From this mutual need for each other came the marriage between the kingdom of the Franks and the medieval Catholic church (cf. Madigan 2015: 71). Not just Pepin III but every Frankish king needed to keep a close relationship with his bishops. The king needed their support as much as he needed that of his magnates (cf. Wood 1994: 79). Similarly, the king in A Song of Ice and Fire, too, was considered a leader chosen and blessed by the gods and needed to be crowned by the High Septon to be accepted by the people of Westeros. During Aegon I’s conquest he first crowned himself king but his reign is not considered to begin until he is anointed and crowned by the High Septon in Oldtown (cf. Martin et. al. 2014: 34, 45). From then on, the coronation ceremonies of all kings of the Seven Kingdoms include the new king receiving the blessing of the Faith of the Seven through its representative, the High Septon. The issue of who has the ultimate power in the kingdoms, the Faith who can anoint a king, or the supposedly divinely chosen king, becomes an issue when the new High Septon in A Feast for Crows refuses to bless Tommen after Joffrey’s death. Cersei, outwardly a follower of the Faith of the Seven, is frustrated by the problem that the people are unlikely to accept Tommen as their king if he is not blessed and curses about the new High Septon “This wretched priest will obey, or learn how weak and human he still is” (AFfC: 590). Many rituals and practices tied the church and crown closely together as well. As mentioned already, the coronations of kings are rituals that include religion in both medieval Europe and Westeros. It was also common for kings to endow churches on their lands (cf. Wood 1994: 65) or for the church to give money that they collected through taxation and charging their members for provided services to the crown. (cf. Ekelund et. al. 1989: 310) While it is noted that Aegon the Conquerer did have a sept built in his newly founded capitol, Kings Landing (cf. Martin et. al. 2014: 49), especially the second part, the crown taking or borrowing money from the Faith is a 70 of 94 common practice in Westeros. By the time the events of A Song of Ice and Fire start the crown is in significant debt with many creditors, among them the Faith of the Seven. Not only the construction of churches is financed by the Faith but so are, for example, royal tournaments and the prizes given to the victorious knights (cf. AGoT: 194). Medieval knights also had close relationships with the church as they needed priests to deliver sacraments and as carriers of divine grace before important events in their lives such as battles or tournaments. They were also expected to be religious and obey religious laws and protocol; however, many knights only observed such aspects of religion that were compatible with their ideas of prowess, strength and their personal mission and ignored or devalued rules that were not compatible with their sense of entitlement (cf. Kaeuper 2000: 104f.). Knights in Martin book series are not described as particularly close to the Faith, however, all knight are made to swear a number of vows by the Seven during a knighting ceremony. Furthermore, the Warrior is the preferred god to pray to for knights especially to ask for strength in battle and success in tournaments, similar to how medieval knights relied on priests for blessings. However, as discussed in the chapter on chivalry, honour, and knighthood, Westerosi knights are often hypocritical in their religious values as well (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). The relationship between the Faith of the Seven and the king of the Seven Kingdoms, while of course also realising the function of creating an authentic medievalism, mainly plays into that of criticism of contemporary society. While the Faith and the High Septon plays an important role in crowning new kings, he has no place at the Small Council and it is not common for nobles or knights to regularly attend masses other than for official ceremonies. Religion is displayed as a mere formality at the time of the events in Martin’s book series. While it may have held power and significance in the past, by the time of the narrated present the main power the Faith of the Seven holds is that of outwardly legitimising a king to the people of Westeros. As mentioned in previous chapters, the upper class of Westeros is only superficially religious because it is expected of them. Since Martin so heavily paralleled the Faith of the Seven and its followers to Catholicism, this can be interpreted as a criticism about the often seemingly hypocritical nature of the contemporary Catholic church and Christianity as a whole. Not only do leaders outwardly show their commitment to Christianity to stay in good graces with the religious members of their public but many Christians also practice ‘cherry-picking’ in their belief. Meaning that, like medieval and Westerosi knights, they follow such aspects of their faith that are easily accommodable in their everyday life but downplay the parts that they themselves do not follow as strictly. Furthermore, even the nobles in Martin’s books—a previously mentioned example being Cersei Lannister and her accusations against Margery—are quick to point fingers about people who do not follow the rules of religion when it is in their own interest, ignoring how hypocritical they are in doing so. This, too, is and has recordedly been an issue in the Christian church (cf. Costambeys et. al. 2014: 81). 71 of 94 5.1.3.2. The Importance of Religious Power Structures of power play an enormous role in the wold Martin creates. The story he tells is one about the power struggle between a number of people who try to exercise their claim to the iron throne. Each of the people fighting over this symbolic seat of power has a different approach as to how they legitimise their claim and base it on different kinds of power. For some, the relevant type of power even changes as the story goes on. Firstly, it is important to define power for this chapter. “Power means the ability to do things and control other, to get other to do what they otherwise would not.” (Nye 1990: 154) Additionally to this definition, Nye differentiates between two types of power: hard and soft. On the one hand, hard power is the ability to coerce others, to force your will upon them and command them through fear or established authority. Soft power, on the other hand, lets you influence others more subtly and through rhetorics, persuasion, or affection. Someone who holds soft power possesses the skill of getting others to want what they want (cf. Nye 1990: 166). Both soft and hard power can help establish legitimacy. To differentiate even further, Rubén Martínez lists three types of power that rulers can utilise to establish legitimacy: genealogical power, human power, and religious power. Genealogical power refers to the hereditary nature of medieval ruler successions and to the legitimacy the firstborn son of a ruler has by birth. For his argument he defines human power as a mixture between hard and soft power; a ruler who is loved and feared at the same time. Lastly, religious power is concerned with the divine appointment of the ruler and his legitimacy as perceived by members of the church (cf. Martínez 2014: 60-63). In Martin’s book series there seems to be a sequence of what type of power is relevant. First, genealogical power is the most important, followed by human power and eventually the importance shifts to religious power. The events of A Song of Ice and Fire really take off after the death of King Robert Baratheon. After it is uncovered that his sons are actually born of an incestuous relationship between his wife Cersei and her twin brother Jaime, the War of the Five Kings begins. During this war several people proclaim themselves king on the basis of different types of power. Renly Baratheon and Robb Stark first of all mainly rely on soft power while Stannis Baratheon and the Lannisters try to enforce their claim through hard power. The Greyjoys on the iron islands employ a mixture of both but do not get actively involved in the War of the Five Kings. However, hard power alone is not enough to enforce a rule. Therefore, Stannis as well as the Lannisters further claim legitimacy through genealogical power; Stannis as Robert’s oldest brother and the Lannisters by denying the rumours of Cersei’s children not being Robert’s. The two kings with no genealogical power to back them up, Renly and Robb, are subsequently killed over the course of this war. Amidst the chaos that follows the messy War of the Five Kings genealogical and human power seem to continuously loose their significance while religious power gains in importance. The remaining 72 of 94 (self-proclaimed) kings all rely heavily on a religion to legitimise their power. Cersei and the Lannisters are closely affiliated with the Faith of the Seven, the Greyjoys turn to their long standing worship of the Drowned God, and Stannis finds an ally in the Red Priestess Melisandre and adopts her worship of the Lord of Light, hoping that this faith and the power of R’hllor will help him claim the Iron Throne. The problem Stannis faces in converting to a faith strange to the people he intends to rule is that, even though Melisandre and her powers can help him pursue his claim, even if he were to sit on the Iron Throne, many of the people of Westeros would strongly mistrust him for following an exotic religion from Essos that is rumoured, if not known to practice blood magic. By the end of A Dance with Dragons it is not clear yet, which claim and which type of power will end up prevailing but the shift towards religious power has noticeably happened (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). Such a power struggle does not contribute much to nostalgia and this particular parallel to religion also does not do much for the subjective authenticity of Martin’s medievalism. It is, however, full of subtle and more direct criticism of religion, its role in politics, and how people in power abuse it. The leaders in A Song of Ice and Fire end up using religion as a tool to gain power instead of just as a personal belief. They use it to try and exercise influence over the people of Westeros. Furthermore, they use religion as a justification for their actions, whether they be objectively good or bad, even cruel. Both of these ways of using religion can be found in modern contemporary history and the present day. Western leaders utilise Christianity to influence the people they are governing, the people that are supposed to vote for them. This is often done with complete disregard of whether they, themselves, could objectively claim to be considered ‘good Christians’. An obvious example is the current president of the United States, Donald Trump, who frequently talks and posts online about God and religion despite the many scandals surrounding his person and his behaviour regularly directly contradicting Christian rules. A general correlation can be found between religious extremism, racism, and far right-wing politics. While a person can be all three just by themselves, groups labelled as of one of the described are likely to also include one or both of the other two. What they often have in common is conservative values, a sense of righteousness and a claim to truth, as well as a form of xenophobia (cf. Liensch 1982: 406). This is, of course, not to say that religious people are conservative and racist but it is this correlation that Martin can play on in his criticism. Religious extremists have employed their ability to claim conservativeness to gain political influence and spread their beliefs and far right parties have appropriated religion to gain followers and voters. The kings in Martin’s book, too, use and abuse religion to their own benefit, often with little care of moral values or consequences.

73 of 94 5.2. Other Religions in Westeros and Essos and their Parallels to World Religions in the Middle Ages The Faith of the Seven may be the predominant religion in the narrated present of Westeros, however, there are numerous other religions also practiced by the people of Westeros and Essos and described in some detail by George R. R. Martin. There is the Drowned God who is worshipped by the people of the Iron Islands, the Old Gods who are still worshipped in Westeros, especially in the North, the religion following R’hllor, the Lord of Light, the horse god of the dothraki, the Many- Faced God in Braavos, or the Weeping Lady of Lys. While almost all religions have a fragment of one real world religion or the other, there is two more significant parallels that can be drawn. The first is between the Old Gods and medieval Paganism and the second is between the worship or R’hllor and the ancient religion Zoroastrianism. Both are not as seemingly exclusively influenced by just one religion, as it appears to be the case with the Faith of the Seven and medieval Christianity, but they do share a significant amount of imagery, symbolism, rituals and/or history with these real religions. The upcoming subchapters will look at some of those shared elements and analyse how they, too, play into the realisation of Martin’s function. An overview of the discussed religions will be given as an introduction before diving into specific parallels and their relevance to the analysis in this thesis. Unlike with the Faith of the Seven and medieval Christianity, the main function realised will no longer be criticism of contemporary society, although it will still hold some relevance. Martin has given these two religions a much longer and more romanticised history. Furthermore, from the beginning they are closely associated with magic and, as the story unfolds, it is revealed that this connection is not just mythical and present only in stories and folklore but it is very much a real part of those two religions, thus, making them especially relevant in eliciting nostalgia. Lastly, as in all elements that connect Martin’s work to the actual Middle Ages, assimilating the fictional religions to real ones supports not only their believability and authenticity but also the authenticity of the created (neo-)medievalism as a whole.

5.2.1. The Old Gods and Medieval Paganism Another religion that has been touched on in the previous chapter that has significant parallels to a real historic religion is the faith of the Old Gods. As with The Faith of the Seven, Martin himself admitted to taking inspiration from ancient, especially Celtic Paganism, as well as the contemporary pagan faith of Wicca (cf. Martin 2011b, online). This religion is by far not as strongly rooted in the real world as the Faith of the Seven but it does show several similarities to medieval Paganism. Defining Paganism is not straightforward as is is neither a term used by those 74 of 94 who practiced the religions that fell within Paganism at the time nor does it necessarily refer to only one specific religion with distinct outlines, practices, and a history. Davies Owen wrote an introductory book on Paganism, its history and contemporary distribution and practice. This book will be the main frame of reference on medieval and modern Paganism. Right in the beginning he stresses that “until the 20th century people did not call themselves pagans to describe the religion they practiced. The notion of paganism, as it is generally understood today, was created by the early Christian Church. It was a label that Christians applied to others, one of the antitheses that were central to the process of Christian self-definition.” (Owen 2011: 21) However, Paganism eventually developed from this multitude of religions into something tangible and more defined today. Religions such as the modern nature and witchcraft based religion ‘Wicca’ or followings of a new pagan ‘Native Faith’ in the countries of the former Soviet Union are representatives of Paganism in modern day. However, even back then, common elements can be identified across all religions labeled as ‘pagan’ by the early Christians. Pagan religions, past and present, are generally nature based and animistic, meaning that in their belief all parts of our world, be it animals, plants, rocks, rivers, mountains, or astronomical bodies have spirits in them or attached to them. All those spirits could and can be communicated with, prayed to, and offerings can and should be made to them during various celebrations or rituals. Having a multitude of spirits and deities also makes them, by definition, polytheistic. It can overall be said that both, back in the Middle Ages, and now Paganism refers to polytheistic, nature based religions (cf. Owen 2011: 35f.). The upcoming chapter will explore some of the parallels in visual symbolism, religious practices and similarities between the history of Paganism and the narrated history of the faith surrounding the Old Gods. The history of the faith of the Old Gods precedes the events in A Song of Ice and Fire by thousands of years but stretches all the way into the narrated present. Because of that, parallels to medieval history can mostly be found towards the more recent narrated past of the book series and there are similarities between the history of ancient religions as well. The point of view of the characters in the books is similar to a perspective someone living in the Middle Ages might have had on such ancient animalistic and polytheistic religions. As the faith of the Old Gods is portrayed in a much more positive light by Martin in his series the function of criticism of contemporary theory shifts slightly into the background while that of eliciting the emotion of nostalgia becomes more prominent in this chapter. The previously discussed Faith of the Seven takes on the task of breaking that nostalgia again and disillusioning the reader. Furthermore, as mentioned in multiple previous chapters, loosely basing his fiction in the real medieval world supports the author’s attempt to create a representation of the Middle Ages that is as authentic as possible while still staying true to the genre of fantasy.

75 of 94 5.2.1.1. Common Imagery and Symbolism Both Paganism and the faith surrounding the Old Gods are polytheistic and animistic. Pre- Christian Pagans worshipped multiple gods, some religions had deities with names and faces, others prayed to nameless ones but they were largely polytheistic. The places of worship also differed between different pre-Christian pagan groups. Some, such as the Greeks, had large buildings like pantheons for their gods that devotees would travel to. Others, especially north-eastern and central European Pagans worshipped at local places in nature such as large streams or distinguishable trees. Such places of worship were centred around a type of idol. Idols, in their most basic sense, are simply physical representations of a god and give the members of the religion an object to direct their worship at. This idolatry was one of the things that Christians denunciated about the various Pagan cults around them since, at the time, visual representations of the Christian God were frowned upon. Depending on the specific faith, Pagans worshipped either the natural objects such as the spring or the tree itself, they sometimes also adorned and decorated them, or created and shaped separate idols for worship. To the pagan people in ancient Crete and Greece, for example, fig trees or trees that grew close to venerated springs were sacred and could be described as idols to them. The Celts, too, worshipped at trees and even had sacred groves for them. They, furthermore, put up wooden posts as abstract representations of their sacred trees. Into these posts they carved symbols and sometimes even shaped them human-like (cf. Owen 2011: 45f). The faith of the Old Gods shares both the basic nature of Paganism and their worship of nature and sacred trees. The Old Gods are a undefined number of nameless and faceless deities of streams, forests, and stones. The original worshippers of these gods were the mythical Children of the Forest who were also the first inhabitants of the continent of Westeros. Although all of nature was sacred to them, their main place of worship were the so-called heart trees, which is similar to how the Greeks held fig trees sacred. Heart trees were created from weirwood, which is a specific species of deciduous trees that grow mainly in the north of Westeros and that have a white bark, red leaves, and red sap. This species of tree will live forever if left undisturbed. Therefore, Children of the Forest believed that weirwood tries were directly connected to their gods and that the power and knowledge of the world and the gods is stored in them. They carved faces into them, similarly to how the Celts decorated and carved their representations of sacred trees, so that the gods could watch the devotees worship (cf. Martin et. al. 2014: 6). Red sap dripped from these carvings as they were made and it is said that sap would ooze from the eyes of the heart tree if the gods are weeping (cf. AGoT: 521f.). Although many carved heart trees were cut down throughout the wars over the dominion of Westeros and the Children of the Forest supposedly went extinct, both the faith of the Old Gods and a number of weirwood trees survived all the way into the narrated present. For those who still believed in the Old Gods rather than the Faith of the Seven, remained the heart trees. The 76 of 94 larger castles all kept a gods-forest, reminiscent of the idea of special groves for sacred trees in Celtic Paganism, at the centre of which were weirwood trees with faces still carved into them. However, especially in the South, where the Old Gods have not been worshipped since the arrival of the Andals, those gods-woods serve more as simple, secular gardens. What connects the two religions together in terms of imagery is their focus on nature. They do not worship concrete gods that can be made into pictures or statues like the faces of the god in the Faith of the Seven. Instead, they worship in nature, connecting to it through their religion. This nature-based, animistic essence of the faith Martin creates is very effective in evoking emotions of longing and nostalgia in the reader. In a contemporary world filled with technology, pavement, and city buildings, where even worship is practiced inside stone walls, the depiction of a religion that still connects to nature paints a compelling image. It lets the reader experience a time that is long past when religion was more individualised than institutionalised and it was all about a respectful and peaceful co-existence with all beings in nature. The choice of making essentially immortal, big trees the centre of worship for the Old Gods just adds to this feeling of awe and nostalgia about the religion. Old trees can help people take a step back to see the bigger picture of the past interlacing with the present. Ancient trees have occupied the same space for decades, spanning their lives from a distant past all the way into the present. Heart Trees also have faces, making them reminiscent of elderly people, such as grandparents, who, like the tree, are rich in experience and history. A final layer of reminiscence and nostalgia is added through the stories of the mythical Children of the Forest being the ones who introduced men to this faith and who carved the faces into the weirwood trees. The Children are presumed to be long gone, to many they are no more than a story, a myth, making them mysterious to the reader and encouraging them to think of the Children the way they think of fairies and elves from fairy tales.

5.2.1.2. Common Rituals and Practices Only very few rituals can be found in both medieval Paganism and the faith of the Old Gods. Both offered sacrifices to their deities. Animal sacrifices were not uncommon in pre-Christian Pagan religions; either as a offering to the gods by burying the animal near a sacred tree or as a ritual feast in honour of the gods. Medieval Pagans also often offered up personal items such as jewellery, clothing, coins, or even hair to the gods in sacred spots or temples. The Celts also traditionally offered their captives to the gods after a victorious battle (cf. Owen 2011: 44-63). Especially similar to the Celts, the main sacrifices offered to their nameless gods by the Children of the Forest were blood-sacrifices, a practice that continued into the recent narrated past when people the North still hung traitors from the branches of weirwood trees after their execution (cf. Martin et. al. 2014: 135f.). Additionally, both faiths are associated with the use of magic and superstition. 77 of 94 Christians often used the words superstition and paganism interchangeably and Pagans were accused of or looked down on for supposedly practicing magic (cf. Owen 2011: 71). While, to the reader of the books, the existence of magic has been proven, the general population of Westeros either does not believe in magic or they condemn it and those who attempt to practice it. The Children of the Forest are said to have had magic abilities. Among them were ‘greenseers’ who could access the past and the future through weirwood trees and ‘wargs’ who could take the shape of animals and communicate with them (cf. Martin et. al. 2014: 6). While there are no other notable rites to be found in both religions it does not mean that their similarities end here. In fact, their main commonality when it comes to religious practices is that neither have very strictly outlined and recorded ways of doing worship and executing rituals. What is prescribed in both religions is that most practices and rituals of worship take place in front of their sacred icons or trees. In medieval Paganism that could have meant performing rituals in temples, by icons such as carved wooden posts, or directly at sacred trees (cf. Owen 2011: 70-75). For followers of the Old Gods it exclusively means that all religious practices, payers, rites, or ceremonies are to be performed in front of a carved weirwood tree so that the gods may bear witness (cf. AGoT: 510). Looking towards medieval Paganism for inspiration on practices and rituals does several things in Martin’s book series. Firstly, it supports the creation of a realistic medievalism. During the Middle Ages there were many small religions that fell under the umbrella term ‘pagan’ coined by the Christians. They referred to anything that was not Christian as ‘pagan’ and, as the established dominant religion, looked down at their nature-based way of worship. The same is the case in Westeros. The Old Gods and those who worship them may be tolerated but they are not accepted or seen as spiritual equals. Those following the Faith of the Seven only smile when someone prays to a Heart Tree. Being belittled, smiled down on, and not taken seriously puts the faith of the Old Gods and its followers in the position of an outcast which draws in the reader’s sympathy. From the beginning, the faith of the Old Gods is almost exclusively portrayed in a positive light, setting a positive base. As the story goes on more and more implications about magic make their way into the descriptions of this faith. Initially, the reader is likely to shrug them off as the characters do but, over time, the magical aura of the Old Gods becomes more and more definite. Once the reader learns that the Children of the Forest did not vanish and that wargs and greenseers are real, the picture is complete. With these magical elements, the faith of the Old Gods plays into the reader’s emotions and powerfully evokes feelings of longing and reminiscence. The thought or the possibility of such things having existed in the real past can fascinate the reader and get them to long for such ancient times when there was a chance that fairy-like creatures lived in the woods and magic was not only real but accessible.

78 of 94 5.2.1.3. Historic Parallels between Medieval Paganism and the Faith of the Old Gods The historic parallels between medieval Paganism and the faith of the Old Gods overlap significantly with those between medieval Christianity and the Faith of the Seven. There are, however, some details that were not discussed in the previous chapters that are of significance to this analysis. As has been outlined before, medieval Paganism was pushed back by Christianity mainly through the Franks. During this time of trying to convert everyone within the reach of the Frankish kingdom(s) to Christianity the Pagan places of worship and their idols were largely destroyed to demonstrate the authority of the Christian church over the gods which they referred to as old gods. The cutting down of sacred Pagan trees is even noted in Christian legends. The people in the north of Europe avoided Christianisation the longest and kept practicing their animistic, polytheistic religions. However, even there the Franks eventually eradicated Paganism (cf. Owen 2011: 46, 61-73). The sequence of events in A Song of Ice and Fire is very similar. The conquest of Westeros by the First Men and the Andals has been covered previously. During their conquest, both peoples cut down many heart trees. The Andals then hunted down the Children of the Forest, the original representatives of the faith of the Old Gods and eradicated them and, subsequently, forced their own faith upon the First Men who had also been following the Old Gods since they made peace with the Children. Also, similar to European history, the faith of the Old Gods held out the longest in the north of Westeros. There, the worship of the Old Gods even continued after the North was conquered and integrated into Aegon’s Seven Kingdoms. Furthermore, the Old Gods are still worshipped by the free folk behind the Wall (cf. Martin et. al. 2014: 135, 147). The history of the faith of the Old Gods has already been mentioned previously. The functions this realises is not extremely different from the functions discussed in the chapter on the history of the Faith of the Seven. Nevertheless, this is the other side of the story and with that come some other implications. Through the Faith of the Seven’s war against and resulting predomination over the faith of the Old Gods it is shown again that Martin has a critical opinion about religious conquests and conflicts. However, while the Faith of the Seven is largely villainised and mostly portrayed in a negative light throughout this part of history, the Old Gods are displayed much more positively as they take on the role of the mostly peaceful victim. The reader is made to sympathise with this nature-based faith and its followers who resisted and still resist the conversion to the very structured Faith of the Seven. The Old Gods serve as a contrast and in contrasting the religion to the Christianity-based Faith of the Seven, only intensifies the readers longing for simpler times when there was no violent, power-hungry religion converting peaceful followers of this animistic faith. Not only was there peace, during the prime of the Old Gods the Children of the Forest still roamed Westeros and magic was much more tangible and real, while in the narrated present both the 79 of 94 Children and magic are reduced to myths and children’s tales told by septas. But, despite the conquests, the vanishing of the Children and the apparent disappearance of magic, the faith of the Old Gods prevailed; and, as it turns out later, so did the Children and other supernatural beings as well as magic. This is a more hopeful social commentary on Martin’s side. Weaker groups, faiths, communities may be easy to target and a faith or group that has significantly more power may seemingly succeed in eliminating the minority but, in this case, good and pure things find a way to prevail. This is true for animistic religions and their ability to resist Christianisation. Christians have colonised and tried to convert people all across the globe. While they did often get a large number of people to convert, they rarely succeeded in completely eliminating another, smaller faith (cf. Kaplan 1995: 2).

5.2.2. Worship of R’hllor and Zoroastrianism A last religion that will be discussed in this thesis in regards to its parallels to a real life religion is that of R’hllor. Essos has a multitude of religions, most of which are only briefly mentioned in the book series. However, the religion following the Lord of Light also made its way to Essos and into the lives of the main characters in A Song of Ice and Fire. The worship of R’hllor, too, is not strictly based on just one religion but for this religion, too, Martin has mentioned where he got some of his inspiration in an interview with Laura Miller where he said “Lord of Light—I don’t do direct things but I draw inspiration on—is based on a couple of dualist religions that actually existed in our world, one of them is Zoroastrianism.” (Martin 2014, online) To briefly outline Zoroastrianism, Jenny Rose’s Zoroastrianism: An Introduction will be referenced frequently both in this introduction and in the following sup-chapters on specific similarities. As she explains in her introduction, Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion that had its prime between 600 BCE and 600 CE spreading mostly in the south of Asia and the very north-east of Africa. It is considered to be one of the world’s oldest religions and has its origins in Iran and ancient Persia. From there it mostly spread east towards India but also into the north of Africa. However, there it was soon met by Islam and pushed back. In central and south Asia Zoroastrianism faced the influence, and sometimes oppression, of various colonial powers and their religious beliefs. Despite serving as the state religion of the Iranian empire it never grew to the size of religions such as Christianity, Hinduism, or Islam and was subdued when powers with those beliefs came to their lands. Nevertheless, it persevered and there is still a small number of people practicing Zoroastrianism. When it comes to what Zoroastrianism stands for, the definition is not an easy one as it has shifted over the years and according to geographical space. However, some things stayed the same all throughout the history of the religion. As Martin mentioned in his interview, Zoroastrianism is a dualistic religion meaning that it affirms the existence of absolute good and absolute evil. There are 80 of 94 gods associated with the good and evil aspects. Ahura Mazda is the Wise Lord that has created the life-giving light and that keeps the world an human lives in order. His antagonist is Angra Mainyu, a destructive spirit and the Lord of Chaos that strives to plunge the world into darkness and pure chaos through temptation and destruction. The existence of Angra Mainyu does not undermine its monotheisticness since he is the direct opposite and antagonist to Ahura Mazda, similar to God and the Devil in Christianity. The light—or fire—of creation is central in their belief and they have an outlined prophetic scripture of what the history of the world will look like from its creation to the final battle between good and evil and the time of judgement (cf. Rose 2011, xvii-18, 48, 75). The religion following R’hllor shares these general elements with Zoroastrianism and the following subchapters will look at them in more detail and draw the relevant parallels between the two religions. A background on the religious history and scriptures will be given first, followed by their common imagery and their common practices. It will also examine how this religion and its connections to a real religion, too, support the realisation of the functions discussed in this thesis. Similarly to the faith of the Old Gods, since the faith of R’hllor is the religion with the most definite magical elements incorporated into it, it is especially relevant to eliciting the emotion of nostalgia. However, the magic it employs is not strictly positive or fairy tale like, thus, also directly contributing to the breaking of the reader’s nostalgia as well. Furthermore, this religion has a much stronger hold in the narrated present, not just in the past, and is utilised both for reasons of personal gain and for political reasons. Its entanglement with politics also adds room for criticism of contemporary issues, religions, and politics, although this function is not as substantially realised through these specific parallels.

5.2.2.1. History and Prophecies in Zoroastrianism and the Faith of R’hllor The history of how the religion of R’hllor developed is not outlined in the books and outlining the history of Zoroastrianism would go beyond the scope of this thesis; however, they do show similarities in the narrations on creation, their central stories, as well as their prophecies about the course the world will take from its creation to the day of judgement. The main god of everything good, Ahura Mazda, is said to have created the life-giving light. In the dualistic Zoroastrianism two forces fight each other for dominion over the world we live in. According to their cosmology and predictions or prophecies about the world, Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu alternate in who has the upper hand for 3000 years, then they go to war when evil enters the world through a hole in the sky. This war culminates in the advent of Zarathushtra, the saviour that is supposed to mark the turning point towards the victory of good and order. During the time of this final battle several things are said to occur. A terrible winter is said to arrive and the dead will be resurrected. However, judgement will come for all and the ‘dev’ the rejected ones will be overtaken by their good 81 of 94 counterparts. Eventually, good and order will prevail, pushing darkness and chaos back out into a hole in the sky (cf. Rose 2011: 75, 110-113). While the religion following R’hllor does not have an explicit origin story, fire and light, too, are associated with the Lord of Light who provides them. He also has the power to give life, sometimes even after someone has already died and lost the life they were given. The prophecies about the culminating battle of ultimate good and evil are also not as detailed as the extensive prophecies but what exists is strongly reminiscent of the Zoroastrian cosmology. In R’hllor’s religion, too, a battle is foretold as described by Melisandre in A Storm of Swords: The war has been waged since time began, and before it is done, all men must choose where they will stand. On one side is R’hllor, the Lord of Light, the Heart of Fire, the God of Flame and Shadow. Against him stands the Great Other whose name may not be spoken, the Lord of Darkness, the Soul of Ice, the God of Night and Terror. Ours is not a choice between Baratheon and Lannister, between Greyjoy and Stark. It is death we choose, or life. Darkness or light. (ASoS: 348) She also explains that after a lasting summer evil, darkness, and cold are said to come upon the world. They can only be fought off by the prince that was promised, Azor Ahai, wielding his blade Lightbringer to stand up against the Great Other and fight back the darkness (cf. ACoK: 149f.). Additionally, the biggest threat to all life in A Song of Ice and Fire is an imminent winter and the coming of the Others and their army of the dead from beyond the wall, forming a parallel to how winter and the resurrection of the dead are central occurrences in the Zoroastrian prophecy about the final battle. Even the threat coming from the far north can be compared to evil entering through the sky, both of which are perceived as ‘up.’ Lastly, prophecies and predictions about the future do not only come from the scriptures and teachings of these religions. In medieval Zoroastrianism there were priests called ‘magi’ that could supposedly foretell the future (cf. Rose 2011: 51). Similarly, the priests following the Lord of Light can learn to read the flames for visions and prophecies. Melisandre, a Red Priestess and devout follower of R’hllor frequently does this to try and perpetuate the initial prophecy of Azor Ahai (cf. ACoK: 18f.). Martin incorporates religious narratives and prophecies all throughout his series. Prophecies do not only perpetuate the plot for some characters, they also provide hints and foreshadowing to the invested reader. The reader is introduced to the prophecy of Azor Ahai through Melisandre in the second book and is then invited to speculate who the description of this promised saviour might match most closely. There is something mystical and magical about how those prophecies are woven into the story and how they do or do not affect it. This kind of mysticism contributes to evoking positive emotions in the reader and it evokes nostalgia in several ways. It connects to the supernatural, it is a prophecy about a heroic and brave youth that is almost romanticised, and it employs the idea of absolute good overcoming absolute evil, again exaggerating and romanticising 82 of 94 the idea of good always prevailing. However, while the premise of this prophecy is something objectively good—namely the defeat of darkness by a hero—its existence is also arguably problematic at times. It encourages those who know about it and believe in it in their actions, however, those actions are not always good. Nevertheless, characters like Stannis and Melisandre, justify their actions by claiming that they are only fulfilling this ancient prophecy to save mankind. With that excuse, Stannis burns down a sept, Melisandre summons two shadows to assassinate people who she perceives as threats or obstacles to Stannis, and Stannis’s daughter and Melisandre burn several people as a sacrifice to the Lord of Light to gain power for Stannis’s attack on Kings Landing (cf. ASoIaF S-S.). Religion and religious narratives are used as justifications for many problematic, violent, cruel, or manipulative actions throughout the whole series. This prophecy slightly differs from the rest in that Stannis and Melisandre are convinced that they are doing what they must not just to rule the Seven Kingdoms but to save all of mankind from the imminent doom. This type of mentality is also what often perpetuated religious extremist movements in the past and still does in the present. The belief that one’s faith is the only way to salvation is what drives people to feel like they are obliged to convert everyone in order to save them. With organised religious terroristic groups, this mentality goes even further, to where it is in the mind of people like Melisandre: the world needs to be saved and sacrifices need to be made for the greater good. A number of Christians developed a mentality similar to this during the time of the crusades and the inquisition and, currently, there are organised groups of extremist followers of selected teachings of Islam terrorising not only Syria and generally the north of Africa but the whole world because of their extreme view that theirs is the only solution and way to salvation. Religious wars are a topic that Martin brings up regularly when asked about his views on religion in interviews. He is appalled by the knowledge of how many people have killed and been killed in the name of one religion or the other. Despite having been raised Catholic he puts on a face somewhere between amusement and disgust when talking about how religious extremists are willing to kill each other on the orders of an “invisible guy in the sky” (Martin 2014, online). Through characters like Melisandre and her actions he seems to confront the readers with the irrational justification of violence through religion and, thereby, subtly yet effectively integrates his criticism.

5.2.2.2. Common Imagery and Practices The similarities in imagery and symbolism between Zoroastrianism and the worship of R’hllor are not numerous but they are very direct parallels. Firstly, and most obviously, both religions feature fire and light as central motifs to their worship. In Zoroastrianism, fire is what creates and gives life. Fire is the connecting medium between worshippers and the god of 83 of 94 everything good Ahura Mazda; it is what transcends between the realm of humans and the divine. Therefore, fire is also central in active worship, prayer, and rituals as has been discussed in the previous chapter. Such practices of worship and rituals are done in fire temples that contain a designated fire place and, depending on the time an location, a number of fire emblems and decorations depicting or representing fire. Over time, kings also came to wear emblems of fire on their shoulders. (cf. Rose 2011: 7-16, 75) The importance of fire in the worship of R’hllor cannot be overlooked either. Fire is the centre of worship and rituals and it is the source of divine power to Red Priests. Their deity is called the Lord of Light, alluding to his connection to fire, and their priests all dress in flowy, red gowns that resemble flames. In the flames, Red Priests can also see visions and make predictions about the future (cf. ASoS: 591). Assuming that the Lord of Light is all potent and all knowing, the possibility to extract some of his knowledge through the flames indicates that in this religion, too, fire connects humans to the divine. The divine, in both religions, represents order and light and they are both strongly dualistic religions. In Zoroastrianism human life is inherently good but it is threatened to be spoiled and ruined by chaos and destruction. Generally, this religion embraces various dualisms: good and evil, truth and falsehood, water and fire, light and darkness, day and night, or sleep and wakefulness (cf. Rose 2011: 14ff.). Martin incorporated dualisms into his fictional religion too. Especially that of day and night or light and darkness is very prominent. Furthermore, the eternal struggle is said to be between light and darkness, or the Lord of Light and the Great Other who represent the two, respectively. Humans live in the realm of the Lord of Light but the Other and the darkness threaten to intrude on this life of light and warmth and corrupt and destroy it (cf. ASoS: 347). There are not a lot of explicit rituals or practices described about the worship or R’hllor. Similarly, finding consistent practices in Zoroastrianism is difficult. Nevertheless, there are some obvious parallels between the way worship works in the two religions. From the early recorded history of Zoroastrianism onward, fire is a central element in their worship. At first fires were simply lit for Ahura Mazda. Around the second century BCE it is recorded that worshippers also gathered around fires to do their prayers. Rituals, too were then held by spiritual fires and accompanied by ritualistic chants or poems. They even had temples where they lit enclosed temple fires for worship or for their kings. Those temple fires were sacred to the worshippers of Zoroastrianism (cf. Rose 2011: 45-49). Prayer and rituals in the religion surrounding the Lord of Light, too, centres around fire. Worshippers light fires in the evening and pray around them through the night. They also pray for protection, success, and to be shown truth from falseness. In Essos, there are also temples dedicated to the Lord of Light where fires are lit and temple priests and slaves worship their god. In such temples the Red Priests, the priests of R’hllor are trained. This training does not simply consist of learning about R’hllor’s teachings but also includes an education in 84 of 94 magic. Depending on their power, or the power the Lord of Light grants them, Red Priests are capable of performing magic through ritual. Those rituals can include fires, sacrifices—sacrificing something or someone innocent grants especially much power—as well as ritualised chants or plea calls to R’hllor to grant the worshipper performing a ritual sufficient power. There are several examples for such rituals in the books. The Red Priest Thoros of Myr repeatedly performs a resurrection ritual called ‘the last kiss’ on the leader of the Brotherhood without banners, Beric Dondarrion (cf. ASoS: 536). Melisandre, the Red Priestess who has chosen to support Stannis Baratheon, performs a ritual that lets her give birth to a shadow figure that assassinates Stannis’s brother and rival, Renly Baratheon (cf. ACoK: 619f.). Furthermore, on multiple occasions throughout the books, Melisandre talks about her ability to see visions of the past, present, and future in the flames; a skill that needed much practice and perfection and yet remains difficult as the visions are never clear and also need to be interpreted correctly (cf. ASoS: 591). This type of priest that can perform magic also exists in Zoroastrianism. There, they are called ‘magi’ or ‘magus.’ Rose explains their role as follows: “these magi were said to pour libations, to make offerings to the gods, to interpret dreams and foretell the future.” (Rose 2011: 51) They were closely associated with magic and, like Red Priests, performed rituals using the power given to them by their god as well as possessing the ability to see into the future. Some shunned them for performing the ‘dark arts’ but they were mostly looked toward as a source of wisdom and power (cf. Rose 2011: 57). The rituals and practices of those worshipping R’hllor are the most outstanding display of functioning magic in Martin’s book series. For those following the Lord of Light magic is not a thing of myths nor the past, it is a prominent part of the religion as it exists today and those who follow it have no doubt about the reality of magic. Something similar was true for Zoroastrians in the early centuries of our common era during which magi were also considered to be able to perform magic. Martin incorporates working magic very slowly and subtly into his work. The readers only get small glimpses of it at a time, at first still doubting its existence just like the characters in the books do. This creates an even more mysterious aura around the concept of magic in the world of his books. The readers find themselves in a position where they may still hold the unsteady belief that the supernatural elements are just a thing of myths and the past but at the same time wanting to see more and to be convinced of its existence and reality in the narrated present. Elements of the supernatural and magic spark nostalgia in the reader, taking them back to their childhood where they either believed in such things themselves or encountered them in fairy tales and other children’s books and movies. Magic also is reminiscent of an ancient past where such things were still believed to be possible that the reader is made to long for. Furthermore, like in Zoroastrianism, the magic in the worship of R’hllor is directly connected to fire. While fire can easily be associated with positive things such as warmth and energy, it also holds negative 85 of 94 connotations because of its power of destruction. In this religion created by Martin, this connotation is reversed in that fire represents the power of creation and preservation adding another layer of positive emotions elicited through the portrayal of this religion. However, the magic executed by Red Priests is not always positive and worthy of nostalgia. In fact, it can contribute to building up positive emotions and nostalgia at the same time as tearing them all back down. R’hllor’s magic can be violent and merciless. Melisandre is a devoted priest that does not question the ways of her Lord of Light and tries to further Stannis, whom she believes to be Azor Ahai, by whatever means necessary. Through that, her character and actions can both enchant and shock the reader at the same time.

6. Conclusion Despite its length and focus on very few functions, this thesis barely even scratches the surface of a full analysis of George R. R. Martin’s (neo-)medievalism. So much more could be explored even just in regards to the three forms and three functions selected. However, what has been looked at and analysed has shown light on some interesting aspects of Martin’s writing style, his way of mixing the genres of fantasy and historic fiction, and opened up an insight into the opinions and perceptions of the author. Relevant passages, characters, and storylines correlating with medievalist elements have been found and related to the proposed functions in meaningful ways. Not only the visible similarities to the medieval but also intentional deviations are important to the way Martin conveys meaning in his book series and both the parallels and the differences play important roles in realising functions of literature. In this thesis both have been taken into consideration and overall, it can be concluded, that the analysis of the three forms of medievalism in Martin’s writing contributed to the realisation of the three proposed functions, thereby, confirming the hypotheses made in the introduction. The first hypothesis made in the introduction was about Martin’s claim to have created a more realistic representation of the Middle Ages and the related hypothesis that Martin uses elements from the era to create a (neo-)medievalism that is closer to how he subjectively perceives the reality of life in the Middle Ages. First of all, looking at his choice of aspects to take from the medieval provides an insight into what this subjective perception of the Middle Ages looks like. Especially when it comes to historic events and figures he tends to go for elements that can be associated with negative adjectives such as dark, violent, gruesome, and cruel. He looks to wars, controversial political and religious leaders for inspiration, and incorporates selected typically medieval literary themes and motifs that additionally darken the mood of parts of his story. He intentionally leaves out aspects regularly to emphasise the negative aspects he clearly regards as

86 of 94 more ‘authentic’ as exemplified especially through the parallels between the organisation of the medieval Catholic church and that of the Faith of the Seven. As mentioned in the introduction, the chapter on his use of aspects of various medieval religions also plays a major role in exercising criticism about the author’s contemporary society and the issues he has with it. The proportionally large chapter on the Faith of the Seven underlines how relevant Christianity is in Martin’s writing. As a former Catholic himself it is hard to miss that he now has a very critical view of religion and his portrayal of it, particularly of the Faith of the Seven, is mostly negative and different parallels can be viewed as criticism of the real-world counterpart, Christianity. Religious criticism is, however, not the only commentary on the author’s contemporary society. A variety of smaller, bigger, subtler, and more obvious pieces of potential criticism have been analysed in this thesis. An element of criticism that pervades all three forms is active feminism. As a declared feminist, he also incorporated criticism about female oppression and the patriarchy in his writing. Especially in the chapter on medieval romance, which otherwise has its main relevance in the function of nostalgia and disenchantment, there are various feministic implications. This chapter, nevertheless, mainly helps proving the validity of the last missing function hypothesis; that is consciously eliciting positive emotions such as nostalgia only to intentionally antagonise them immediately after by providing an emotional fall for the readers or by breaking their expectations. Several of the relevant elements discussed work to install a false sense of safety in the reader by imitating the familiar structure and content of medieval romance tales. The readers are assumed to be familiar with such tales from their childhood, from fairy tales, or from other fantasy fiction. In general, such tales follow a certain narrative structure and feature characters that behave certain ways. This falsely leads readers to expect the same progression of events and to expect the characters to act predictably. The chapter has proven the correlation between such romance elements and the emotional buildup and fall of the readers. The other two chapters, too, played into this function. Sometimes on the side of eliciting nostalgia and contributing to the emotional buildup, sometimes to antagonise this and to break the reader’s expectations and crush their positive emotions. Even though this thesis has been successful in relating Martin’s (neo-)medievalism to the proposed functions in the introduction, absolute truth cannot be claimed without a clear confirmation through the author himself. Even then, sometimes authors subconsciously add functions to their writing, especially when they heavily incorporate their personal views and write off of their personal experiences and opinions. Furthermore, having included all five books and an additional book on the history of Westeros has made the fictional ground to be covered fairly wide. Although the relevance of the contents of all five books has been confirmed, a more isolated selection of volumes or events, and a closer reading and analysis of those might end up producing a different result even if the same questions are asked and hypotheses are made. However, this look at 87 of 94 the ‘bigger picture’ led to a confirmation of the three function hypotheses as stated in the introduction and explained in the chapter dedicated only to them through an analysis of selected forms of Martin’s medievalism.

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