INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE LAND-GIANT

COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

A Study to Establish a Basis for Projecting

Industrial Education in the Years Ahead

A DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

by

ALVIN IGNACE THOMAS, B. S., M. S.

The Ohio State University

1957

Approved by:

Adviser Department of Education ii DEDICATION

to

Kenneth Michael Janet Julie Iris

iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To make proper acknowledgment to all who have assisted in my educational and professional development is impossible. Many visible and invisible hands have influenced my progress to this point. To all who have assisted me, I wish to acknowledge my heartfelt appreciation. Special acknowledgment is given to the professional leaders with idiom I have had the privilege to study during the past several years. I am indeed grateful for the guid­ ance and counsel given me by my adviser, Dr. William E. Warner; and Dr. Earl W. Anderson, Dr. Dan H. Eikenberry, and Dr. Andrew

Hendrickson, who served on my graduate committee.

Special acknowledgment is given to Mrs. Brendonly Darden and Miss Veida Williamson who assisted with the typing of the preliminary manuscript of this study.

December 1957 ALVIN IGNACE THOMAS TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter

Part I

INTRODUCTION

I. DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM...... Origin of the Problem Purposes of the Study Need of the Study Basic Assumptions Definition of Terms Limitations of the Study Methods of Procedure Organization of the Study

II. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES...... The Thompson Dissertation The Klein Study The True Study The Fisher Dissertation

Part II

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAND-GERANT COLLEGE MOVEMENT

III. DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAND-GRANT I D E A ...... Early Background Industrial Revolution Early Agricultural Societies Agricultural Societies in America The Mechanics' Institute Movement The Lyceum Movement Other Early Influences College Education for Industry and Agriculture The Land-Grant College Act

IV. DEVELOPMENT OF LAND-GRANT COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES . . . . Growth Under the Act of 1362 Growth Under the Act of 1390 Growth Under Subsequent Acts Direction of Growth vi TABLE OP CONTENTS (continued)

Chapter Page V. CONTEMPORARY PATTERNS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION...... 77 Purposes Administrative Allocation Administration Staff Student Personnel Curricula Financial Support Instruction Library- Physical Facilities Professional and Public Relations VI. POLICIES FOR PROJECTING INDUSTRIAL E D U C A T I O N ...... 118 Human Resources The Material Culture The Economy Needs Created by Technology The Role of Higher Education Criteria for Projecting Industrial Education

Part III

PROJECTING INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN A LAND-GRANT COLLEGE

VII. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OF T E X A S ...... 168 The Setting Population Physical Resources of Texas Industrialization in Texas Transportation and Communications Power Construction Goals for Higher Education VIII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE AGRICULTURALAND MECHANICAL COLLEGE AT PRAIRIE V I E W ...... 222 A Background Contemporary Patterns Projecting the Program Functions of Industrial Education IX. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 254 APPENDIXES ...... 260 BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 295 AUTOBIOGRAPHY ...... 302 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

I, ENFORCEMENT OF THE KORRHL ACTS OF 1862 AND 1890 .... 53

II. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION OFFERINGS...... 102

III. ALLOCATION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION...... 104

IV. EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION STAFF 107

V. TEACHING AND TRADE EXPERIENCE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION STAFF...... 108

VI. STAFF DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT...... 108

VII. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES .... 109

VIII. FINANCIAL S U P P O R T ...... Ill

IX. INSTRUCTION IN INDUSTRIAL E D U C A T I O N ...... 112

X. TOE LIBRARY ...... H 3

XI. PHYSICAL FACILITIES ...... 114

XII. PROFESSIONAL AND PUBLIC R E L A T I O N S ...... 116

XIII. U. S. POPULATION TRENDS AND PROJECTIONS, 1900-2000 . . . 120

XIV. BIRTH AND DEATH RATE, 1900-1955 122

XV. ACrE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1850-1953 123

XVI. URBAN, RURAL NON-FARM, RURAL FARM POPULATION...... 124

XVII. ENROLLMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION PROJECTED TO 1970-71 . . 126

XVIII. ASPECTS OF THE MATERIAL CULTURE, 1946-1956 ...... 129

XIX. INCREASED CAPACITY OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES...... 136

XX. RESEARCH EXPENDITURES IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES . . . 137

. XXI. SERVICE INDUSTRIES: INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT, 1956 .... 139

vii viii

LIST OF TABLES (continued)

Table Page

XXII. SERVICE INDUSTRIES: CONSUMER EXPENDITURES, 1956 . . . . 140

XXIII. ESTIMATED ENERGY INPUT USED FOR WORK PERFORMANCE . . . . 141

XXIV. YEARS OF SCHOOLING COMPLETED...... 143

XXV. RATIO OF TECHNICIANS TO E N G I N E E R S ...... 147

XXVI. TEXAS' RURAL-URBAN POPULATION TRENDS, 1900-1955 .... 173

XXVII. DISTRIBUTION OF TEXAS' POPULATION BY RACE, 1900-1950 . . 176

XXVIII. EMPLOYMENT STATUS IN TEXAS, 1950 ...... 177

XXIX. INDUSTRY GROUPING OF EMPLOYED PERSONS FOR TEXAS .... 178

XXX. INCOME OF TEXAS FAMILIES AND UNRELATED INDIVIDUALS . . . 179

XXXI. TEXAS' MINERAL PRODUCTION VALUES, 1900-1955...... 189

XXXII. TEXAS' MINERAL PRODUCTION AND VALUES, 1 9 5 4 ...... 190

XXXIII. MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS IN T E X A S ...... 203

XXXIV. EMPLOYMENT IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES...... 205

XXXV. ANNUAL PAY-ROLL VALUE IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES . . . 206

XXXVI. NEW CAPITAL EXPENDITURES IN THE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 207

XXXVII. VALUE ADDED TO MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS...... 209

XXXVIII. VALUE OF NEW CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES, IN TTEST SOUTH CENTRAL REGION, AND TEXAS, 1930-1955 . . 213

XXXIX. COLLEGE AGE YOUTH IN TEXAS, 1950-1970 ...... 216

XL. STATUS OF PHYSICAL FACILITIES IN THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE AT PRAIRIE V I E W ...... 238 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. POPULATION OF TEXAS, URBAN AND RURAL, 1870-1955 ...... 174

2. PROJECTED PERSONAL INCOME...... 181

3. TEXAS COILEGE ENROLLMENT, 1930-1952, ESTIMATED TO 1970 . 218 Part I

INTRODUCTION

1 Chapter I

DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM

This study is concerned with the past, present, and future role of industrial education in the land-grant colleges and universities.

ORIGIN OF THE PROBLEM

The origin of the problem grew out of a concern for certain conditions believed to exist in the land-grant colleges which did not seem to be compatible with the intent and spirit of the Morrill

Acts. It grew out of a belief that the land-grant colleges and universities, which by history and law are committed to practical education, are not making a realistic adjustment to new educational needs which have resulted from the impact of a complex technology on society today.

From the beginning of the twentieth century, the United States has assumed a position of world leadership. This has been accom­ plished by a nation with only six percent of the world's land and less than seven percent of the world's population. It is believed that this could only happen in a democracy. In a democratic so­ ciety, men strive unceasingly for the ultimate development of individual talents and capabilities.

The United States is now faced with the challenging task of living in the last half of the twentieth century. The impact of technology has already confronted this nation with such mammoth problems as to cause its most optimistic leaders to wonder if this position of international leadership can be maintained. Much of the answer to this question lies within the educational system. Can higher education divorce itself from archaic notions of what it ought to do and meet the contemporary needs of society? Can industrial education come out of its rich but confusing heritage and offer programs demanded by an industrial technology?

PURPOSES OF THE STUDY

The purposes of this dissertation are to trace the development of the land-grant college movement, and to provide a basis for pro­ jecting industrial education as an integral and functional part of the land-grant colleges and universities in the years ahead.

In order to develop this problem, it will be necessary to accom­ plish the following ends: (1) trace the origin and development of the land-grant college movement, (2) indicate the place of industrial education in this movement, (3) identify the spirit and intent of the Land-Grant College Acts of 1862 and 1890, (4) identify the con­ temporary patterns of industrial education in the land-grant colleges and universities, (5) establish a basis for projecting industrial education in the land-grant colleges and universities in the years ahead, and (6) illustrate a projection of an industrial education program in a land-grant college using the criteria suggested. NEED OF THE STUDY

The study assumes special significance to the field of indus­ trial education and the land-grant colleges and universities for the follovring reasons:

1. It points out that industrial education has not and is not being developed to its fullest potential despite the fact that the land-grant colleges and universities have an explicit function to foster educational services in the mechanic arts. Moreover, indus­ trial education has not been developed in co&mensurate proportion to other areas of the college and university, i.e., home economics, agriculture, and engineering.

2. It points out that the land-grant colleges and universities are not fully exploiting the true spirit of the land-grant college act.

3. It shows how the land-grant colleges may more adequately meet the needs of the industrial classes, the challenges of the twentieth century industrial technology, and the shortage of skilled manpower.

4* It points out the need for periodical appraisals to ascer­ tain the extent to which land-grant colleges are operating within, or have deviated from, the original ideas fostered by the writers of the land-grant college acts.

5. It presents a plan for placing industrial education in proper perspective in the land-grant colleges and universities. 6. It gives an illustration and explanation of what should be the nature of an industrial education program if projected under the proposed plan of study.

7. It suggests that, due to the increasing complexity of technology, higher education should give serious study to the per­ tinence and/or gaps in its efforts*

8. It points out the apparent difference of opinion as to the proper role of industrial education at the college level*

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

Certain basic assumptions concerning the problem, and which gave direction to its development, are as follows:

1, The land-grant college movement and the mechanic arts aspect of the movement were stimulated because higher education was not able to meet the needs of the period. This assumption continues to be true.

2. The intent of the Morrill Acts was that mechanic arts should not only include engineering, but also those areas of the applied sciences which are now classified as industrial education.

3* The contemporary role, like the historic, of the land-grant colleges and universities must be conceived as functional higher education, applied to the needs of the people, the society, and the times. This role must not be thought of in the sense of the clas­ sical tradition. 4. Industrial education has not realized its fullest potential as an integral and functional part of the land-grant college and universities.

5. The same basic needs for higher education for the industry exist today as they did at the inception of the movement.

6. In order more adequately to meet the challenge of America's industrial technology, the land-grant colleges and universities must begin immediately to provide outstanding industrial education pro­ grams. These programs must offer work beginning with post-secondary vocational training, and extend up to, but not include professional engineering.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

In a study of this type, it is important that an understanding exist between the writer and the reader. Because of the nature of languages and the varying experiences or backgrounds of individuals, words or terms may have different meanings to different persons.

In an attempt to reduce such semantic confusion to a minimum and to insure optimum communication with those who read this study, several terms are defined. These terms will be used in the sense of the definition presented.

Industrial Education. This is a generic term which describes those educational offerings which afford under standing, appreciation, and/or vocational preparation for living in an industrial society.

It includes industrial arts education, industrial-vocational educa­ tion, and industrial-technical education. Mechanic Arts. A Historic term used to describe the scientific knowledges and manipulative skills essential to manufacturing and allied industries. It includes the work performed by professional engineers, technicians, artisans, craftsmen, and tradesmen.

Terminal Education. Education requiring high school graduation or its equivalent, and which is completed before the four years normally required for a college degree.

Technical Education. A special form of post-high school edu­ cation with special emphasis on the scientific principles pertaining to the material, mechanical, and aesthetic aspects of an industrial occupation.

Industrial-Vocational Education. Post-high school education required for preparation of skilled workers, craftsmen, tradesmen, and technicians for entrance upon and progress in various industrial occupations.

Technical Institute Education. Education which is normally found in a post-secondary institution whose curriculums are terminal in duration, technological in character, and emphasize understanding and application of scientific principles in equal proportion to manual skills.

Land-Grant College Acts. Those congressional acts which give authority for the establishment and support of state colleges and universities.

Vocational Education of Less-than-college Grade. That area of training which does not require the maturity and breadth of understanding and knowledge customarily identified with higher education.

Vocational Education of College Grade. That type of training, exclusive of professional education characterized by the intellectual requirements, breadth of understanding, and knowledge customarily found in college curricula and carried on in an institution which requires high school graduation or its equivalent for admission of its regular students.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Notwithstanding the many efforts to make this study as complete as possible, certain limitations are present. These are acknowledged as follows:

1. The study was limited to the undergraduate programs in the land-grant colleges and universities.

2. Only the sixty-six land-grant colleges and universities in the continental limits of the United States were included in this study.

3. After ascertaining that industrial education had not been fully developed in the land-grant colleges and universities, no attempt was made to discover the reasons why this was true. It was felt that such an inquiry might well constitute another study.

4. In using the survey technique in determining contemporary patterns of industrial education, the limitations of the question­ naire and college catalogs as main sources of data are admitted. 5. No attempts were made to validate the recommended criteria beyond those expressed in the study.

METHODS OF PROCEDURE

The historical method was used in tracing the development of the land-grant college movement. Documents, papers, books, pamph­ lets, the Congressional Record, and other available historical records were consulted.

The survey technique was used in determining contemporary pat­ terns of industrial education in the land-grant colleges and univer­ sities. A questionnaire was sent to the chairman of the Industrial

Education department in each institution. Supplementary data were secured through institutional bulletins or by correspondence.

The philosophical method was used in constructing the criteria for projecting industrial education in the land-grant colleges and universities. The criteria were constructed out of a basic belief as to what should be the nature of industrial education in institu­ tions of higher education. They were then submitted to a jury of thirty leaders. Fifteen were from land-grant colleges or univer­ sities and fifteen were not connected with land-grant institutions.

The criteria were reconstructed in the light of jury appraisals.

The survey technique was used to establish the present status of industrial education at Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical

College, Prairie View, Texas. The criteria were then used as a basis for recommending a reconstructed program at this institution. 10

ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

This study was divided into three major parts. Part I coifc- prised the introduction of the study. The problem was defined in

Chapter I, giving the origin of the problem, purposes of the study, definition of terms, basic assumptions, limitations of the problem, methods and techniques, and organization of the study. Chapter II presented a survey of related studies. Included in this chapter were reviews of studies by Alfred True: A History of Agricultural

Education in the United States. 1735-1925. Arthur J. Klein: Survey of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities. Willard Chandler Thompson:

The Philosophy and History of the Land-Grant Colleges and Univer­ sities in the United States of America , and Richard E. Fisher:

Status of and Need for Terminal Vocational-Technical Curricula in

Senior Colleges and Universities.

Part II wa3 devoted to the development of the land-grant college movement. Chapter III considered the basic influences which brought about the land-grant college idea and led to the Morrill Acts of

1862 and 1890. Chapter 17 traced the development of the land-grant colleges and universities under the two federal acts. Chapter V reported the findings of a survey to determine the contemporary patterns of industrial education in the land-grant colleges and uni­ versities. Consideration was given to the following aspects of the program: purposes, administrative allocation, administration, staff, student personnel, curricula, instruction, financial support, physical facilities, library# and professional and public relations. 11

Chapter VI established a basis for projecting industrial education as an integral part of the curricula of the land-grant colleges and universities.

Part III illustrated how the industrial education program in a land-grant college might be projected. In Chapter VII, a survey was made of recent social and economic trends in Texas and the functions of industrial education in higher education were established. In

Chapter VIII, an analysis was made of contemporary industrial educa­ tion patterns at Prarie View Agricultural and Mechanical College and a reconstructed program was projected for the years ahead. Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES

In developing this study, several other studies were reviewed for their related significance. Included in the group were:

1. Thompson, Willard Chandler. The Philosophy and History of the Land-Grant Colleges and Universities in the United States, a dissertation completed at New York University in 1934.

2. Klein, Arthur J. Survey of Land-Grant Colleges and Uni­ versities , a study published in 1930 by the U. S. Office of Edu­ cation.

3. True, Alfred C. A History of Agricultural Education in the

United States. 1785-1925. a publication issued in July, 1929, by the

U. S. Department of Agriculture.

4. Fisher, Richard E. Status of and Need for Terminal

Vocational-Technical Curricula in Senior Colleges and Universities. a dissertation, University of Missouri, 1956.

THE THOMPSON DISSERTATION

The central problem in this dissertation had to do primarily with the underlying philosophy which apparently formed a background for the land-grant colleges, with the changes in educational philos­ ophy at the higher levels which have appeared coincident with the growth and maturity of these institutions, and with the permanent effects which the establishment of the institutions created.

12 Thompson found the philosophy underlying the land-grant colleges to be five-fold in character:

1. The philosophy of this movement has been primarily a phi­ losophy of adjustment. It has advocated an education which would help Americans to meet the rapid changes of the years. It has con­ ceived of society as changing constantly, and of the conditions unier which humans live and work as being different with each suc­ ceeding decade.

2. It has developed as a philosophy of economic and social stability. The fundamental significance of agriculture and industry to the welfare of the American commonwealth has created a new point of view in education. There has appeared a need to ensure the safety of such a nation.

3. The philosophy of the land-grant college movement has been pronounced again and again to be one of service to mankind. It has carried an extreme desire to serve the interests of people, to assist them in their daily tasks.

A. It has become a philosophy of human happiness, for it has recognized the importance of progress and contentment in the life of a people.

5. It has been a functional philosophy.

The system of land-grant colleges is permanently established.

They are a part of America's scheme of higher education. 14

THE KLEIN STUDY

In 1928-29, the U. S. Office of Education, tinder the direction of Arthur J. Klein, made a survey of the land-grant colleges and universities. This study was published in two volumes and issued

in 1930. The stimulation for the survey came from the Association

of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities. The Association felt that:

The time has come when the colleges themselves feel that there should be a national study of their efforts, with a view to determine how well they are fulfilling the purposes for which they were established and what changes or modifications, if any, are necessary in order to enable them to meet more adequately the new situations that are arising.

The study was defined into problem areas which were classified under

noneteen general heads:

1. Control and Administrative 10. Home Economics Organization 11. Arts and Sciences 2. Business Management and Finance 12. Commerce and Business

3. Work of the Registrar 13. Teacher Training

4* Alumni and Former Students 14. Military Education

5. Student Relations and 15. Professional Veterinary Welfare Medicine

6. Staff 16. Summer Session

7. Library 17. Extension Services

8. Agriculture 18. Research Services

9. Engineering 19. Graduate Work

The study also gave special consideration to the Negro land-grant

colleges, and a historical introduction. The problem of industrial 15 education was treated under the areas of engineering and teacher training in the Klein study. Conclusions and recommendations were made for each of the nineteen areas.

THE TRUE STUDY

The True study, A History of Agricultural Education in the

United States. 1785-1925. was one of the major efforts of

Dr. Alfred Charles True. Dr. True served over forty years with the

U. S. Department of Agriculture. He began his professional career about the time the second Morrill Act was passed. He was on the scene and participated in making some of the history of the land- grant institutions. While his study is chiefly concerned with the history of agricultural education, it is drawn from the history of the development of our nation. The beginning section of the study is particularly pertinent, for it gives a rather comprehensive picture of conditions and developments in Europe and America. It tells of the struggle of the industrial classes for an adequate educational program. The entwining of the mechanic arts, manual labor movements, and early agricultural developmsnts makes their histories have much in common. Many details regarding personalities, movements, societies, and legislative efforts in the development of the land-grant colleges and universities are given in this study.

THE FISHER DISSERTATION

A study entitled, Status of and Need for Terminal Vocational-

Technical Curricula in Senior Colleges and Universities, was completed by Richard E. Fisher at the University of Missouri

in 1956♦

This study was made for the purpose of ascertaining the status of and need for terminal curricula in senior colleges and univer­

sities. More specifically, the objective was to gather information which would help to answer the following questions:

1. What is the nature of terminal curricula, and to what

extent are they offered in senior colleges and universities?

2. What factors contribute most to the development and popu­ larity of terminal vocational-technical curricula in senior colleges?

3* What are some of the most pressing educational needs of

students, and how satisfactorily are programs of this type meeting these needs?

k* What is the relationship of terminal vocational-technical

curricula to degree curricula in terms of (a) entrance requirements,

(b) general education, (c) accreditation, (d) transfer of credit,

(e) counseling and guidance, and (f) drawing and holding power?

The first three objectives of the Fisher study were significant to this study. Fisher was unable to ascertain the total number of

institutions of higher education that are providing terminal vocational-technical curricula. He did indicate that the number was on the increase and that a considerable number of the programs had been added since 1950. About nine percent of the total enrollment of the seventy-eight institutions included in the study were reported 17 to be in terminal-vocational education curricula. Of this group, the largest number was enrolled in Secretarial Science and the next largest in areas of Industrial Education. The needs for terminal vocational-technical curricula were revealed as follows:

1. The need of providing for degree curricula drop-outs was first to be presented. In order to provide most wisely for drop-outs, it is necessary to know some of the causes and reasons given as to why students drop out. The two reasons most frequently given were

'•academic failure" and "lack of finances.'1

2. The need for providing educational services for the local area. This is being done effectively in a few states by a system of publicly supported junior colleges. In planning to meet this need effectively, the institution should have an appraisal of student needs in the local area and a survey of its own resources in terms of plant and personnel.

3. The need of providing for intermediate vocations. This need comes as the natural result of increased technology and the general upgrading of educational attainment. Intermediate vocations usually combine technical knowledge with practical manual skills.

4* Need of providing skilled manpower for industry. This need is emphasized by the speed with which change and expansion are over­ taking the industrial system, and also by the critical shortages which exist in the work force of the United States.

5* This need was viewed from increased college enrollments.

It is already a matter of record that there will be unprecedented 18

increases in college and university enrollments at the elementary- level within a few years.

Fisher reached the following conclusions in his study:

1. Most educators agree that two of the most pressing educa­ tional needs of college age youth are (a) education for satisfactory employment, and (b) education for effective citizenship. Based on the findings of this study it would appear that terminal vocational- technical curricula of college grade have provided for these needs in a commendable way.

2. The factors which contribute most to the development and popularity of terminal vocational-technical curricula in senior

colleges and universities appear to be (a) the prestige of a senior college, (b) the time and information provided by senior colleges for beginning students to make educational choices, (c) social at­ tractions afforded by a senior college, and (d) quality of instruc­ tion provided at a senior college.

3. Colleges and universities seem to have done fairly well by perhaps one third to one half of college age youth, those who fit the traditional patterns of study. It would appear, however, that institutions of higher education have, for the most part, failed to provide for the large number of young people, who for legitimate reasons desire a type of educational program that colleges and universities do not generally offer.

4* In terms of the number of individuals who could profit by terminal curricula of college grade, in terms of the number who 19 start a four-year program and find it necessary to withdraw without any adequate sense of accomplishment, and in terms of local and community needs, it would appear that senior colleges and univer­ sities are failing to make adequate provisions for this type of education, and that this situation will become even more acute when the bulge of war-time babies reaches the colleges. Part II

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAND-GKANT COLLEGE MOVEMENT

20 Chapter III

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGE IDEA

EARLY BACKGROUND

To establish a proper background for the origin of the land-

grant colleges, one could go back to the first records of man.

There, evidence would be found of man's struggle with the soil and

his physical environment for self-improvement. Evidences of tools,

implements, irrigation systems, farm techniques and methods show

that education in the practical arts of agriculture and industries

is as old as civilization itself.

The purpose of this section of the study is not to make a

detailed historical study of practical arts education, but to estab­

lish a point of orientation, or to set a scene out of which one might gain an appreciation for or an insight into the many develop­ ments which preceded and influenced the birth of a great American

idea, the land-grant colleges.

In reviewing the history of practical education, significant evidence of industrial education is revealed in the earliest records of man. In the ancient world of the Greeks and Romans, school edu­

cation for cooks, hairdressers, mechanics, and architects is said to have existed. Definite indication of industrial education as a part of the medieval monastic life is revealed in the literature.

In the fourth century, monastic education included woodwork,

21 22 brasswork, weaving, tailoring, and architecture. Throughout the medieval ages, the monasteries were considered the center of the industrial arts and crafts.

Anderson (2, p. 5) stated that a definite beginning for the industrial education tradition is to be found neither in antiquity nor the Middle Ages, but rather in the Renaissance. He further stated that the movement for manual and industrial education seems to fall into three fairly distinguishable stages:

The first period . . . is presented as a feature of life in ideal states, such as the Utopias of More and Rabelais and Campanella's City of the Sun.

In More's Utopia every citizen is trained in agri­ culture and in some other form of skilled labor.

The educational curriculum in Rabelais' Utopia consists in part of the study of the more important and interesting industrial and manufacturing processes through direct observation.

In Campanella's City of the Sun, one wall is set aside for the instruction of the inhabitants in the various arts and industries.

The second period is characterized by attempts on the part of progressive and original thinkers to plan courses or institutions which would afford industrial as well as general education. It is the period in which Petty plans the "Library Workshop," so similar to the modern industrial high school. It is the period of Cowley's trade school, of Mbrhof's Scholae Naturae, Artis et Actionum Humanarum, of Becher's mechanical or trade school, of Descartes' technical school for work­ ingmen and of Comenius* vernacular and Latin schools, in both of which instruction in the industries was to be given.

In the third period, the theorizing of Comenius and other reformers bears fruit in the actual intro­ duction into t he school by Francke, Semler, and Hecker 23

of the study of industrial subjects and the practice of the industrial arts.

While much of the impetus for industrial education came from

Europe, there were also many exponents of industrial education in colonial America. In 1672, President Hoar of Harvard placed indus­ trial training in this noble institution.

Thomas Budd, in 1685, drew up an educational plan for Pennsyl­ vania and New Jersey, which included not only the languages and the useful arts and sciences, but also the handicrafts. Benjamin

Franklin, in his "Proposal Relating to Education of Youth of Penn­ sylvania," asked that attention be paid to the useful as well as ornamental arts. Wichersham, Rush, and Jefferson were also early

American exponents of industrial education.

Rousseau was also one of the early advocates of industrial training. To the many other arguments for manual and industrial education, he added certain naturalistic and democratic ideas which are still influencing education.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The change in industrial life from hand-tool to machine work is commonly referred to as the Industrial Revolution. Although it is almost impossible to spell out the exact dates which cover the period of the Industrial Revolution, it is reasonably safe to state this change began in the mid-eighteenth century in England.

It spread to America around the beginning of the nineteenth century 24

and lasted for some sixty to seventy years. Two distinct influences

for industrial education came out of the Industrial Revolution:

(1) an added impetus for including industrial education as a part

of youth education, and (2) a varied assortment of educational ef­

forts in adult education aimed at aiding the workingman to adjust

himself to his new condition. It is toward this latter influence

that most of the subsequent data of this chapter will be directed.

EARLY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES

The growth of agricultural schools and colleges in the United

States was influenced by the development of the applied sciences in

Europe. Much of the advancement in the applied sciences was made by

the agricultural societies which were established to promote the

cause of improved agricultural practices.

Germany organized its first agricultural society in 1764. In

Russia, the F r e e Economical Society was established in 1765 with

large experimental farms near St. Petersburg. Agriculture and the mechanical arts were included in the program of the Society for the

Encouragement of Arts, Manufacture, and Commerce organized in London

in 1754. The Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture

in Scotland was founded in 1723 and continued for some twenty years.

About this time, the Society of Agriculturists was organized in

France. This organization was later succeeded by the Academy of

Agriculture of France. 25

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN AMERICA

One of the earliest societies for promoting "greater increase of the products of land within the American states" was the Phila­ delphia Society for Promoting Agriculture. This organization was founded in 17&5* Other early American societies were: the South

Carolina Society for Promoting and Improving Agriculture and Other

Rural Concerns, organized in 1785; the New Jersey Society for Promot­ ing Agriculture, Commerce and Arts, organized in 1851; and the New

Tork Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts and Manufacture, organized in 1791* After 1800, local and state-wide agricultural societies began to spring up all over the country. It is estimated that by 1860 there were 941 organizations listed in the records

(72, p. 23) of the U. S. Agricultural Society. These societies

(72, p. 7) had a3 their primary objectives:

1. Collecting, printing, and circulating information on agri­ culture and other important subjects connected with the internal development of the country.

2. Making useful experiments in agriculture, under the in­ spection of the board itself or a committee of its members.

3. Submitting to the consideration of Parliament, and later to Congress, such regulations as may tend to promote the general improvement of the country, and recommending to its attention such useful discoveries of an agricultural nature as may be entitled to reward. 26

In their later years, the agricultural societies sought to make the public feel that the interests of the farming population were entitled to more consideration by Congress and the state legisla­ tures. They are increasingly active and influential in their ef­ forts to establish state boards of agriculture, a Federal Depart­ ment of Agriculture, teaching of agriculture in schools and colleges, experimentation and scientific investigations for the improvement of agriculture, and the establishment of a body of literature in the field of agriculture.

THE MECHANICS' INSTITUTE MOVEMENT

The great efforts of the industrial classes of people to better their social and economic conditions through education also had its origin and was greatly influenced by the developments in Europe.

The Mechanics' Institute Movement is usually counted as begin­ ning in 1600 in Great Britain. Dr. George Birkbeck (4, p. 302) is credited with originating the movement. Ware (87, p. 15) states that the Mechanics' Institute Movement began when Dr. Birkbeck em­ ployed some workmen to make some of his scientific apparatus.

On one occasion he employed a tinman to construct a model of a centrifugal pump. It was in the cellar, which was the tinman's workshop that surrounded by the workmen who were making the pump, he was struck with their ignorance as to its uses, and at the same time with their desire to obtain enlightenment. It was here that he first conceived the idea of giving a course of gratu­ itous lectures for the scientific instruction of the working classes. In the programme for the course which he drew up shortly after, he announced his intention of 27

establishing classes solely for persons engaged in the practical exercise of the mechanical arts, men whose education early in life had precluded even the possibility of acquiring the smallest portion of scientific knowledge.

With this humble beginning, the mechanics' institutes grew in popularity and effectiveness. In 1823, a weekly magazine known as

Mechanics' Magazine was started in London to represent the interest of the working classes. In 1841 (4, P» 306), there were 216 mechan­ ics' institutes, with 25,651 members, in Great Britain.

While the Mechanics’ Institute Movement was growing in Great

Britain, a corresponding development was also taking place in the

United States. Bennett (4, p. 317) stated that fundamentally the movements in the two countries were the same. They were both a part of the great effort of the industrial and agricultural populations to better their social and economic conditions through education, and of the ruling classes to build up an intelligent and efficient body of workers and citizens.

The first important mechanics' institute in America came into being in the year of 1820, when the General Society of Mechanics and

Tradesmen of the City of New York (4, p. 317) opened a library for apprentices and established a "mechanics' school."

The second of the most famous of the mechanics' institutes in

America was the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, named in honor of Benjamin Franklin, and incorporated in 1824. The following resolutions (4, p. 319) passed at its first public meeting indicate the original intent of its founders: 28

Resolved, That it is expedient to form a Society for the promotion of the useful arts in Philadelphia, by extending a knowledge of Mechanical Science to its mem­ bers and others at a cheap rate.

Resolved, That the best mode of attaining this object will be by the establishment of Popular Lectures, by the formation of a cabinet of Models and Minerals, and of a Library, and by offering premiums on all use­ ful improvements in the Mechanic Arts.

Resolved, That the Society shall consist of Mechan­ ics, Manufacturers, and others friendly to the useful arts.

One of the limitations of the mechanics1 institutes (4, p. 324) was that most of the lectures were given in a language and style which required a degree of intelligence and educational preparation which many of the common artisans in the audiences did not possess.

In 1827, a mechanics1 institute was organized in Boston. Its ob­

jective was "mutual instruction in the sciences as connected with the mechanic arts." The Boston Society sought to avoid the diffi­

culties that had arisen due to lack of elementary education on the part of the members, by requiring the instructors to deliver their lectures in a plain, intelligent manner, divested as far as practical, of technical phraseology and such terms as tend to discourage rather than promote the love of science.

THE LYCEUM MOVEMENT

While the mechanics1 institutes grew in the large cities of

America, the lyceums flourished in the small towns. In 1826,

Josiah Holbrook published a comprehensive plan of popular education

(4, p. 326) to which he gave the title, "American Lyceum of Sciences 29

and the Arts." In this plan, Holbrook declared the objectives of

the lyceum to be:

1, The improvement of its members in the useful knowledges,

and to aid in diffusing it generally through the community,

2, To hold meetings for the purposes of investigating and dis­

cussing subjects of knowledge, and choosing for discussion any branch

of natural philosophy, such as mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics,

optics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, the mathematics, history,

geography, astronomy, agriculture, morals, domestic or political

economy or any other subject of useful information,

3* To produce books and apparatus for illustrating the sciences,

collections of minerals, or other articles of natural or artificial

production.

Holbrook held that the lyceum had the following advantages over

other forms of instruction:

1. They can diffuse information more generally,

2. The information they communicate is practical.

3. They have a good moral tendency.

4. They have a good political tendency.

5. The type of organization is economical,

6. They may be a means of improving common schools and estab­

lishing in them greater unity, both in books and instruction.

In 1831 (87, p* 16), about 900 towns had lyceums, and for the next twenty years many public lectures were delivered before such

organizations. These lectures covered a wide range of subjects, and 30 the lecturers were often very distinguished men in literature, science, and political affairs.

Like the mechanics' institute movements, the lyceum movement

(87, p. 17) was a means of building up an American ideal of popular education. Although the lyceum movement subsided after a few years, its spirit continued in other organizations and was a powerful force in keeping alive and directing interest in the education of the common man,

OTHER EARLY INFLUENCES

Bennett (4, p. 348) stated that the same educational urge that gave birth to the early mechanics1 institutes and the lyceum move­ ment in America, and hailed with joy the teachings of Pestalozzi and the various accounts of Fellenberg* s institution in Switzerland, also planted the germ of America's scientific school and engineering colleges.

While the teaching of science as applied to mechanics and agriculture was developing, a new type of collegiate institution was in the process of forming, an institution requiring the full time of students and providing a curriculum preparatory to the higher posi­ tions in agriculture, the mechanic arts, and engineering.

Among the first schools of this type was the Gardiner Lyceum founded at Gardiner, Maine, in 1823. Although called a lyceum, this school was somewhat of a manual labor school in that it provided shops through which students could earn their room and board. This 31

school (61, p. 20) is considered the pioneer American institution of a definite technical institute type. The purpose of the Gardiner

Lyceum was to give instruction in those branches of learning which are most intimately connected with the arts, and to teach them as

the foundations of the arts. Principal Hale, of the Gardiner lyceum,

said it was not sufficient for the students to be taught the general laws of chemistry; they must be instructed particularly in the

chemistry of agriculture and the arts. It was not sufficient for

students to be able to repeat and to demonstrate a few of the general

laws of mechanics; they must be taught the application of the laws.

Another school of this type (2, p. 141) was the Rensselaer

School which was founded at Troy, New York, in 1624, and is now the

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. The aim of this institution was not only to train students in the application of the principles of science to agriculture and the mechanic arts, but to fit them to im­ part this knowledge and skill to others. Students were required to observe the operations of a select number of agriculturists and artisans in the vicinity of Troy and to demonstrate the principles upon which the results of such operations depended. They, or at least some of them, were to be sent out as teachers for instructing youth in villages and common school districts, belonging to the class of farmers and mechanics, by lectures or otherwise, in the applica­ tion of the most important principles of experimental chemistry, natural philosophy, and practical mathematics to agriculture, domes­ tic economy, the arts, and manufactures. 32

Other schools of this type were the Scientific Courses offered at Union College in 1845, the Sheffield Scientific School at Tale in 1847, the Lawrence School at Harvard in 1847, and Chandler

Scientific School at Dartmouth College in 1852. Many of these pro­ grams later developed into engineering colleges.

The American college curriculum Was chiefly classical in nature during the early nineteenth century. Many forces, however, acted to change this condition, if only slightly. Certainly, the entire scientific movement left its impression. The spirit of revolt was also felt from the common school with the academy movement and the high school movement for common people. The cry was for education for utility. The people wanted education which was national in nature and applicable to social and economic conditions in this country. Gradually, the strangle-hold which the great classical tradition had on education in America began to loosen and natural history was admitted to the Harvard curriculum in 1804. Chemistry was added at Princeton in 1795, at Columbia in 1802, and Yale in

1803* By 1820, branches of the natural sciences were taught at

William and Mary, Dickinson, Hobart College, and the Universities of

Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. In 1870, Harvard es­ tablished the Bussey Institute to give instruction in practical agriculture. Amherst College, in 1843, added to its staff a lecturer on agricultural chemistry and mineralogy, and by 1852 had included a scientific department to its program. 33

In addition to institutions and programs, the attitude of in­ fluential men of the day also gave rise to the spirit of the people who claimed the right to practical education.

In 1831, Governor Throop of Maine expressed (2, p. 146) the following statements concerning agriculture and industrial education in the schools:

I feel confident that under proper regulations a vast amount of knowledge in arts and sciences, con­ nected with agriculture and handicrafts, which are simple in their principle, and easily comprehended, might be taught to children during those years which are usually spent at common schools.

William A. Alcott, in The School (2, p. 147), a work widely read by teachers, trustees, and inspectors had this to say:

It would be well if some knowledge of first principles of science to the industrial arts were generally cultivated among the young, that they might not only be better prepared for the life of a mechanic or artisan, but might be accustomed to regard all these pursuits of industry in their connection with science and liberal studies.

Surely, it was the combined efforts of the men, movements, societies, programs, and ideas, which formed the spirit that pre­ vailed in the United States at the middle of the nineteenth cen­ tury. It was this spirit which would bring to fruition a concept that eventually led to the origin and development of the land-grant colleges.

COLLEGE EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRY AND AGRICULTURE

Most of the movements in American education had their begin­ nings with private undertakings. However, as the movements grew and 34

it was felt that they affected the general welfare of the country,

the idea also developed that the state had a responsibility for their

support. The developments in agricultural and industrial education

have followed the same pattern.

The idea that the country wanted and needed college education

for the agricultural and industrial classes of people, was expressed by movements in many states. It was these movements which lead to the Morrill Act of 1862.

Simon DeWitt, in New York, as early as 1799* had urged a "school of practical instruction in the business of husbandry,” with which there should be experiments in instruction in the science of agricul­ ture. DeWitt*s plan for an agricultural college was given consider­ able publicity in New York and other states and laid the basis for legislature in that state. Other plans in New York were proposed by

Elkanah Watson in 1819, and Jesse Buel in 1823. In 1836, an Act to

incorporate the New York State Agricultural School was passed for the purpose of instruction in literature and science, and improvement in scientific and practical agriculture and mechanic arts. This school was never established due to a lack of funds. However, ef­ forts for a college, on the part of the people and the State Agricul­ tural Society, did not cease until the New York State Agricultural

College was established in 1853. This college operated until the be­ ginning of the Civil War.

The People*s College of New York was organized by Harrison

Howard, who was a leader in the Mechanics' Institute Movement. His 35 interest was in raising the mechanics of America to their true position in society. Howard's plan (72, p. 54) was

. . . to combine labor with study and improvement in manual skill with intellectual culture. • • to have in time a mechanics' institute or seminary in every county or senate district, but in the first effort to establish one central State college of practical science, wherein our youth, aspiring to efficiency and eminence in life as architects, engineers, or artisans of any sort, might receive a thorough physical and mental training, laboring a part of the day and thus paying at first a part and afterward for a whole of subsistence and teaching.

An organization called the People's College Association was formed in August, 1851, to give support to Howard's idea. On

April 12, 1853, a bill was passed (72, p. 54), which incorporated

"the People's College for the purpose of promoting literature, science, arts, and agriculture."

Thomas Jefferson, as early as 1800, had included agriculture in the list of sciences to be taught in the university which he envisioned for Virginia. When the university was established, it had as its function "to harmonize and promote the interest of agri­ culture, manufacture, and commerce."

The desire for knowledge by the populace may be illustrated by the Virginia gentleman who stated that "barring brandy and foxhounds, the ignorance of farming has ruined more Virginians than anything else."

At a meeting of the Virginia Albemarle Agricultural Society, in 1822, a resolution (72, p. 57) was passed to support a professor­ ship of agriculture in idle University of Virginia. In Michigan, Article 10 of its creating constitution, provided

(72, p. 57) for encouraging by all suitable means, the promotion of

intellectual, scientific, and agricultural improvements, including a

system of 00union schools and township libraries, and created a per­ petual fund for the support of schools and a university from the proceeds of land-grants from the United States.

A bill was passed by the Michigan legislature on February 12,

1855, which established the Agricultural College of Michigan on a large farm at Lansing and established its purpose as the improvement and teaching of the science and practice of agriculture.

Similar interest was manifested in other states. Connecticut established the Yale Scientific School in connection with Yale Col­ lege. Maryland established the Maryland Agricultural College by Act of the General Assembly on March 6, 1856. Pennsylvania, in 1855, established the Farmer's High School on a 200-acre site in Centre

County, where the Pennsylvania State University is now located,

Georgia established a professorship in agriculture at the University of Georgia in 1850. In Ohio, Norton S. Townshend led a movement which culminated in the establishment of Ohio Agricultural College, which operated one year at Oberlin and two years at Cleveland. The purpose of this college was to place within the reach of farmers, both young and old, the means of acquiring a thorough and practical acquaintance with all those branches of science which have direct relations to agriculture. 37

Illinois had one of the most virile movements embodying the idea of higher education for the industrial classes. The leader of this movement (8 7 , P* l) was Jonathan B. Turner. So influential was this man that many persons credit him with the original idea for the

Land-Grant College Act of 1862.

Turner became interested in education of the masses as early as

1833. In 1850, when ho was president of Illinois State Teacher's

Institute, he made an address at Griggsville, Illinois, proposing a state industrial university which would provide education for all agricultural and industrial occupations in the state. This address

(6, p. 75) "gave the first (organized) impetus to the movement that established th8 great state land-grant universities of this country.

In 1851, farmers, mechanics, professional men, and representa­ tives of the Illinois legislature attended a meeting at Granville in the interest of an industrial university. The following resolution

(25, P. 63) was adopted at this meeting:

Resolved, That we greatly rejoice in the degree of perfection to which our various institutions, for the edu­ cation of our brethren engaged in professional, scientific, and literary pursuits, have already attained, and in the mental and moral elevation which those institutions have given than, and their consequent preparation and capacity for the great duties in the spheres of life in which they are engaged; and that we will aid in all ways consistent for the still greater perfection of such institutions.

Resolved, That as the representatives of the industrial classes, including all cultivators of the soil, artisans, mechanics, and merchants, we desire the same privileges and advantages for ourselves, our fellow, and our posterity, in each of our several pursuits and callings, as our pro­ fessional brethren enjoy in theirs; and we admit that it is our fault that we do not also enjoy them* 38

Resolved, That, in our opinion, the institutions originally and primarily designed to meet the wants of the professional classes, as such, cannot, in the nature of things, meet ours, any more than the institutions we desire to establish for ourselves could meet theirs. Therefore,

Resolved, That we take immediate measures for the establishment of a university in the State of Illinois expressly to meet those felt wants of each and all of the industrial classes of our State; that we reconmend the foundation of high schools, lyceums, institutes, etc., in each of our counties, on similar principles, so soon as they may find it practicable to do so.

Resolved, That, in our opinion, such institutions can never impede, but must greatly promote, the best interests of all those existing institutions.

After the above resolution was passed, Professor Turner pre­ sented his plan for an industrial university. With minor exceptions, this plan was essentially the same as was presented at Griggsville in 1850. The philosophy reflected in the plan was very much in the same tone with the resolution passed at this meeting. Essentially,

Turner's idea was that society is made up of two classes, profes­ sional and industrial. There were adequate schools for the profes­ sional classes, meeting their needs. To be sure, these schools were to be encouraged. While the professional class had ample institu­ tions, the industrial class had none. Turner further contended

(12, p. 8 5 ) that the industrial class ought to have like facilities for undertaking the "philosophy, science, and art of their calling."

It was felt (25, p. 69) that this want could not be supplied by any of the existing institutions for the professional classes, nor any incidental appendage attached to them as a mere secondary department. 39

The industrial class . . . need a similar system of "liberal education" for their own class and adopted to their own pursuits; to create for them an industrial lit­ erature , adapted to their professional wants, to raise up for them teachers and lecturers for subordinate institutes, and to elevate them, their pursuits, and their posterity to that relative position in human society for which God designed them. . . The first thing wanted in this process, is a National Institute of Science, to operate as the great central luminary of the national mind, from which all minor institutions should derive light and heat, and toward which they should, also, reflect back their own. This primary want is already, I trust, supplied by the Smithsonian In­ stitute. . . To cooperate with this noble institution, and enable the industrial classes to realize its benefits in practical life, we need a University for the Industrial Classes in each of the States, with their consequent subordinate institutes, lyceums, and high schools, in each of the counties and towns.

During 1852 and 1853, three conventions were held to promote the adoption of Turner's plan for a university. On February 8, 1853* the

Illinois legislature unanimously approved the following resolution

(25, p. 95) to be sent to the Congress of the United States asking for support of the land-grant college idea.

Whereas, The spirit and progress of this age and country demand the culture of the highest order in in­ tellectual attainment in theoretic and industrial science: And Whereas, it is impossible that our commerce and pros­ perity will continue to increase without calling into requisition all the elements of internal thrift arising from the labors of the farmer, the mechanic, and the manu­ facturer, by every fostering effort within the reach of the government: And whereas, a system of Industrial Universities, liberally endowed in each State of the Union, cooperative with each other and the Smithsonian Institute at Washington would develop a more liberal and practical education among the people, tend the more to intellectualize the rising generation, and eminently, conduce to the virtue, intelligence and true gloxy of our common country, therefore, be it 40

Resolved, by the House of Representatives, the Senate concurring herein, That our Senators in Congress be instructed, and our Representatives be requested, to use their best exertions to procure the passage of a law of Congress donating to each State in the Union an amount of public lands not less in value than five hun­ dred thousand dollars, for the liberal endowment of a system of Industrial Universities, one in each State in the Union, to cooperate with each other, and with the Smithsonian Institute at Washington, for the more liberal and practical education of our industrial classes and their teachers: a liberal and varied education adapted to the manifold want of a practical and enterprising people, and a provision for such education facilities, being in manifest concurrence with the intimations of the popular will, it urgently demands the united efforts of our national strength.

Resolved, That the Governor is hereby authorized to forward a copy of the foregoing resolutions to our Senators and Representatives in Congress, and to the Executive and Legislature of each of our sister States, inviting them to cooperate with us in this meritorious enterprise.

The resolution was also circulated to newspapers throughout the nation. In a New York Tribune editorial (72, p. 92), Horace Greeley, who had keen interest in the People’s College of New York, stated:

"We feel that this step has materially hastened the coming of scientific and practical education for all who desire and are willing to work for it. It cannot come too soon."

The Illinois resolution was presented in the Senate and House of Representatives in March, 1854, where it was referred to the Con*- mittee on Public Lands.

Richard Yates, Congressman from Illinois, in April, 1854, asked

Turner to prepare a bill embodying his plan. Nothing came from this action since opposition to land grants was present in the Congress and Yates was not re-elected. 41

Senator Lyman Trumbull of Illinois wrote to Turner in 1857, asking for his plan for industrial universities and indication that a land grant might be secured for establishing such colleges at the next session of Congress. Turner sent him all of the material on the subject and Trumbull wrote him (6, p. 93) as follows:

Since the receipt of your letter I have reread the pamphlet in regard to industrial universities. The idea is a grand one, if it could be carried out and made practical. I thought I saw in the last Congress an op­ position springing up against any further grants of lands in the States, but perhaps it was confined to those made in new States, and your project contemplating a grant to all the States might meet with more favor. Several large grants were made last year, but it was done grudgingly. For my own part I have been favorable to an early disposi­ tion of the public lands by the General Government and if they could only be secured to actual settlers, I would be glad to see it divested at once of this great source of patronage and corruption. If some of the old States would take hold of the matter, I think it not unlikely that a grant of land might be obtained from Congress; but coming from the new States, which have already obtained such large grants for schools and other purposes it would be likely to meet with less favor.

Justin S. Morrill, Congressman from Vermont, was elected to the

House of Representatives in 1855* He participated in a meeting of the United States Agricultural Society in 1856 when a discussion took place on the Illinois resolution for land-grant colleges and univer­ sities. This same year he introduced a resolution (51, p. 530) as follows:

. . . That the committee on agriculture be requested to enquire into the expediency of establishing one or more national Agricultural Schools upon the basis of the naval and military schools, in order that one scholar from each congressional district and two from each state at large may receive scientific and practical education at the public expense. 42

The resolution was objected to and not received. Realizing

Morrill's interest in the industrial college idea, and also his skill as a politician, Senator Trumbull (44, p. 82) persuaded Jonathan

Turner "to send all documents, papers and pamphlets to Mr. Morrill with the request that he introduce a bill."

THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGE ACT

Justin S. Morrill introduced the first land-grant college bill in the House of Representatives on December 14# 1357* Realizing that the bill would face opposition, Mr. Morrill tried to have it referred to the Committee of Agriculture, of which he was a member.

Immediately recognizing the tactics of Mr. Morrill, the opponents of the bill applied the rules of the House and the bill was sent to the Committee on Public Lands.

The bill remained in the hands of the Committee on Public Lands for four months. On April 15# 1858, Mr. Cobb of Alabama, Chairman of the Committee, made a negative report on the bill. During the next several days, Mr. Morrill and supporters of the bill argued its merits (30, p. 282) before the House. They claimed:

1. The bill was not unconstitutional because ways had been established under the constitution to protect and promote commerce, education for the military, in­ ternal trade by development of the railroads, to protect literary labor by copyright and to encourage inventors by patents; but direct encouragement to agriculture had not been provided by the government.

2. The need for improvement of agriculture was apparent in the exhausted soils, diseased livestock, poor practices in agriculture, etc. 43

3. The land-grant colleges would not threaten private colleges since their work would be in fields different from those promoted by private colleges.

4. That four fifths of the population are in agricultural and mechanical employment.

5. The states had given up their claims to owner­ ship of public land with the understanding that the government would use them as a common fund for the use and benefit of all. Land grants, involving many mil­ lions of acres of land, have already been made to soldiers, railroads, to new States and Territories for schools and universities.

The chief opponents of the bill were: Clay, Alabama; Green,

Missouri; Mason, Virginia; and Jefferson Davis, Mississippi. Their main arguments were that the bill was unconstitutional and violated states rights.

On April 22, 1858, Mr. Morrill brought his bill to a vote in the House. The bill passed by a vote of 105 to 100. Under the leadership of Senator Wade of Ohio in the Senate, and after much heated discussion, the bill passed, on February 7* 1859, by a vote of 25 to 22. The bill was then sent to President Buchanan who, on

February 26, 1859, returned the bill to the House of Representatives with a veto message. President Buchanan stated his objections

(30, p. 289) as follows:

1. This bill has been passed at a period when we can with great difficulty raise sufficient revenue to sustain the expenses of the government. Should it become a law the Treasury will be deprived of the whole, or nearly whole, of our income from the sale of public lands, which for the next fiscal year has been estimated at $5,000,000.

2. This bill threatens to make the states de­ pendent upon the federal government. 44

3. This bill will operate to greatly injure the new states. It will slow down the development of the frontiers and commonwealths.

4. It is doubtful whether this bill would con­ tribute to the advancement of agriculture and the mechanic arts.

5. This bill interferes with the existing colleges in the different states.

6. This bill is unconstitutional. Congress does not possess the power, under the Constitution, to make a donation of public lands to the different states of the Union to provide colleges for the purpose of edu­ cating their own people.

Mr. Morrill tried to get enough support to override the Presi­ dent's veto, but he was unsuccessful. When the final vote was taken on the matter of the veto, 105 Representatives voted for, and

94 voted against the measure. Thus, the first efforts of Justin S.

Morrill, to establish the land-grant college,went down in defeat.

It has been stated that Mr. Morrill felt that it was useless to try to secure passage of the bill while President Buchanan was in office. The movement for the land-grant colleges, however, con­ tinued to gain momentum within the states. In the next election campaign both Mr. Lincoln and Mr. Douglass agreed that if they were elected, they would sign the bill for land-grant colleges.

Mr. Lincoln was elected President, and when Congress met in the fall of 1861, Mr. Morrill introduced the land-grant bill into the

House on December 16. The bill was again referred to the Committee on Public Lands. Although the composition of this committee had 45 completely changed since it handled the House Bill No. 2 in 1857> it reported negatively on the matter. This report was rendered on

May 29, 1862.

On May 2, 1862, Senator Wade, of Ohio, introduced a similar bill into the Senate, For this reason, Mr. Morrill did not attempt to have further consideration given to his bill in the House. The course of Senate Bill No. 298, presented by Mr. Wade, is recorded below. This account was taken from the Congressional Records of the

Second Session of the 37th Congress. 1862.

May 2, 1862 (52, p. 1935).

Mr. Wade asked and by unanimous consent obtained leave to introduce a bill (S. No. 298) donating public land to the several States and Territories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts, which was read twice by its titlej re­ ferred to the Committee on Public Lands, and ordered printed.

May 19, 1862 (52, p. 2187).

Mr. Wade moved to take up S. Bill No. 298 . . . Two amendments in wording, made by the Public Lands Committee were agreed to • • . The bill was then placed on the table at the request of Senator Grimes from Kansas.

May 21, 1862 (52, p. 2248).

Mr. Wade: I move to postpone all prior orders and take up the bill granting land to agricultural colleges. I do not think it will lead to debate.

Discussion by Senator Lane, Kansas, on the fact that the proposed bill would take all of the government land in Kansas carried over to the next day. May 22, 1862 (52, p. 2275).

Mr. Wade: I move to postpone all prior orders and take up the bill making a grant of land to agricultural colleges. I believe it will pass now without objections and will not take a moment.

Mr. Lane (Kansas): I trust that the motion of the Senator from Ohio will not prevail . . . and I notify him now that if he succeeds in taking it up, I shall move to postpone its further consideration until Decem­ ber next. It is to brand us with inconsistency in passing a homestead bill, and then passing this bill and saying to the poor white man, "You shall have land pro­ vided you build an agricultural college in every con­ gressional district in the United States.'1 There has never been a bill introduced . . . more inconsistent and more iniquitous so far as the western states are concerned.

Morning session recessed.

May 24, 1862 (52, p. 2328).

Mr. Wade: I move to take up the Agricultural College Bill.

Mr. Harlan of Iowa spoke in support of the bill. Mr. Lane, of Kansas, opposed, claiming that most states did not have sufficient land within their borders to satisfy terms of the act and that the idea of land scrip was objectionable.

May 27, 1862 (52, p. 2366).

The motion of Mr. Wade on S. No. 298 brought to the floor. Since most of the time had been used in other matters, Senator Wilkinson of Minnesota, who was to speak on the matter, submitted a motion to cany the bill over to the next day. Motion carried.

May 28, 1862 (52, p. 2394).

Mr. Lane: It would injure the new states in that large quantities of land scrip issued to the old state may be procured by land speculators and located on large bodies of land in the new states and held for large prices thus retarding settlement and improvement. Senator Wilkinson (Minnesota) joins Mr. Lane in op­ position to the bill. Both want the following amendment:

"That not more than one million acres shall be located by such assignees in any one of the States and that no locations shall be made before one year from the passage of this Act."

Senator Wade objected to the amendment.

May 30, 1862 (52, p. 2440).

Mr. Wade: I move to postpone all prior orders and take up the bill granting lands to the agricultural colleges.

Mr. Wade removed his objection to Senator Lane's amendment. He decided to leave decision with Senate. Lane continued opposition to bill and was joined by Wright of Indiana. An attempt to postpone consideration of the bill was defeated 35 to 4.

June 10, 1862 (52, p. 2625).

Mr. Wade: I now renew my motion to take up the bill granting lands to the agricultural colleges and I will not give it up for anything.

An attempt was made to attach an amendment which would restrict purchase of land scrip to 640 acres. This amend­ ment was passed, then reconsidered and lost. Prolonged discussion ensued and the land-grant college bill was passed at this session, by a vote of 32 to 7«

June 18, 1862 (52, p. 2774).

A message from the House of Representatives, by Mr. Etheridge, its Clerk, announced that the House has passed the Bill S. No. 293, donating public lands to the several states and territories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and mechanic arts.

July 1, 1862 (52, p. 3049).

A message from the House of Representatives announced that Senate Bill 298 had been signed by the Speaker and thereupon received the signature of the president pro- tempore• July 2, 1862 (52, p. 3062)

A message from the President of the United States, by Mr. Nicolay, his secretary, announced that the Presi­ dent had approved and signed on the first instance an Act, Senate Bill No. 298, donating public lands to the several states and territories vjhich may provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts.

Mr. Morrill, in reflecting on the developments of the idea of land-grant colleges for the industrial and agricultural classes, made the following statement in 1874 (44* P* 96):

Where the first ideas came from, I am wholly unable to say. Such institutions had already been established in other countries and were supported by their governments, but they were confined exclusively to agriculture, and this for our people with all their industrial aptitudes and ingenious was not suggested by the well-known facts of the existence of Agricultural Schools in Europe, it was supported by the fact and especially by constant reflection upon the following points, viz.

1. That the public lands of most value were being rapidly dissipated by donations to merely local and pri­ vate objects, where one state alone might be benefited at the expense of the property of the Union.

2. That the very cheapness of our public lands, and the facility of purchase and transfer, tended to a system of bad farming, strip and waste of soil, by encouraging short occupancy and a speedy search for new homes, entail­ ing upon the first and older settlements a rapid deteriora­ tion of the soil, which would not be likely to be arrested except by more thorough and scientific knowledge of agri­ culture, and by higher education of those who were devoted to its pursuits.

3. Being myself a son of a blacksmith, the most truly honest man I ever knew, who felt his own deprivations of schools, I could not overlook mechanics in any measure in­ tended to aid industrial classes in the procurement of an education that might exalt their usefulness.

4* That most of the existing collegiate institutions and their feeders, were based upon the classic plan of teaching those only destined to pursue the so-called learned 49

professions, leaving farmers and mechanics and all those ■who must win their bread by labor to the haphazard of being self-taught or not scientifically taught at all, and restricting the number of those who might be supposed to be qualified to fill places of high consideration in private or public employment to the limited number of the graduates of literary institutions. The thoroughly edu­ cated, being most sure to educate their sons, appeared to be perpetuating a monopoly of education inconsistent with the welfare and complete prosperity of American institu­ tions.

5* That it was apparent, while some localities were possessed of abundant instrumentalities for education, both common and higher, many of the states were deficient and likely to remain so unless aided by the common fund of the proceeds of the public lands, which were held for this purpose more than any other.

Upon these points and some others, I had meditated long and had delved in more or less statistical information, convincing to myself but not the most attractive for a pub­ lic speech • . . Certainly I was not clear that I could succeed in carrying through Congress the college land bill, but I had nearly determined to attempt it, and, like a young lover after the engagement, I sought the advice of some of the old members of the House and Senate, who almost uniformly said: "You can try but of course it is of no use." This would have killed the project if they had not in many instances immediately added, "It would be a grand measure, however, and so far as my vote is concerned you shall have it."

Thus the efforts of men like Morrill, Turner, Buel, Howard, and others terminated in some of the most profound legislation in the history of American higher education. Truly the land-grant colleges and universities may be called "democracy's colleges." They were the result of the desire and effort of the industrial classes to more adequately meet the needs of the industrial classes. Chapter IV

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

The establishment of the land-grant colleges and universities is said to have provided the most elaborate and comprehensive system of technical, practical, and scientific higher education the world has ever known.

The Act creating these colleges and universities contained three major provisions.

1. It provided for a grant of public lands and creation of a permanent endowment fund in each State (52, p. 8).

. . . that there be granted to the several States . . . an amount of public land, to be apportioned to each State a quantity equal to 30>000 acres for each Senator and Representative in Congress to which the States are re­ spectively entitled by the appointment under the census of 1860.

That the land aforesaid . . . shall be apportioned to the several States in sections or subdivisions of sections, not less than one quarter of a section and whenever there are public lands in a State subject to sale at private entry at $1.25 per acre. The quantity to which said State shall be entitled shall be selected from such lands within the limits of such State; and the Secretary of the Interior is hereby directed to issue to each of the States in which there is not a quantity of public lands subject to sale at private en­ try at $1.25 per acre to which said State may be entitled under the provisions, land scrip to the amount in acres for the deficiency of its distributive share, said scrip to be sold by said States and the proceeds thereof ap­ plied to the uses and purposes prescribed in the Act and for no other use or purpose whatsoever.

2. It provided a description of the type of college to be es­ tablished (5 2 , p. 8).

50 51

. . • the proceeds of the land-grant sales were to be donated to the endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college, where the leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and mechanic arts in such a manner as to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life.

3. It obligated the several States to maintain the land-grant endowment intact and to replace it if diminished. It also placed on the States the responsibility for future development of the col­ leges (5 2 , p. 9).

. . . all monies derived from the sale of the lands by the States to which lands are apportioned, and from the sale of land scrip hereinbefore provided for, shall be in stocks of the United States or of the States, or some other safe stocks, yielding not less than 5 per- centum upon the par value of said stocks; and that the monies so invested shall constitute a perpetual fund, the capital of which shall remain forever undiminished . . . and the interest to which shall be inviolably appropriated by each State which may take and claim benefit of this Act. . . That if any portion of the fund invested as provided by the foregoing section, or any other portion of the interest thereon, shall by any action or contingency be diminished or lost, so that the capital of the fund shall remain forever undiminished; and the annual interest shall be regularly applied with­ out diminuation to the purpose heretofore mentioned, except that a sum, not exceeding 10 percentum upon the amount received by any state under the provisions of this Act, may be expended for the purchase of lands for sites or experimental farms whenever authorized by the respective legislatures of said States. . . No portion of said fund, nor the interest thereon, shall be ap­ plied directly or indirectly, under any pretense what­ ever to the purchase, erection, preservation, or repair of any building or buildings.

The states were required to accept the provisions of the Mor­ rill Act of 1862 within two years. By subsequent amendments, the 52 time was extended to July, 1&71. Iowa was the first state to ac­ cept the provisions of the Morrill Land-Grant Act on September 11, 1862.

Table I lists the complete information on (1) date of accept­ ance by the States, (2) date of establishment of the land-grant college, (3) number of acres of land received, (4) number of acres of land scrip received, and (5) receipts from sale of land and land scrip.

A number of plans were used by the states in organizing the new land-grant colleges. New agricultural and mechanical colleges were organized in twenty-eight states. Fifteen states conferred the land-grant endowment to agricultural and mechanic arts depart­ ments in existing state colleges. Private institutions were designated to receive the land-grant endowment in seven states.

These institutions were also to introduce agriculture and mechanic arts courses. Three of the southern states divided the endowment and established separate agricultural and mechanical colleges for white and Negro students. The fourteen other Negro land-grant col­ leges were established under the Morrill Act of 1890.

The powerful movement for the land-grant colleges and univer­ sities would lead one to believe that these colleges would have had little difficulty in organizing and offering education for the industry. 53

Table I

ENFORCEMENT OF TOE MORRILL ACTS OF 1862 AND 1890

State and Date of Acceptance of Acceptance of Date Acts Morrill of Terms in Scrip in of of College Acres of Number Date Organization Date of Number of Acres Number Sale Receipts from Institution Scrip Land of or i

ALABAMA 1867 2 4 0 , 0 0 0 $216,000 Polytechnic Institute 1872 A. 4 M. College 1875

ARIZONA 1 9 1 0 150,000 University of 1885

ARKANSAS 1864 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 $1 3 5 , 0 0 0 University of 1871 A. ItM, College 1872

CALIFORNIA 1866 150,000 $732,333 University of 1868

COLORADO 1879 91,600 $185,956 State University 1877

CONNECTICUT 1862 180,000 $135,000 University of 1881

DELAWARE 1867 9 0 , 0 0 0 $83,000 University of 1867 State College 1891

FLORIDA 1870 9 0 , 0 0 0 $80,000 University of 1870 A. L M. University 1887 54

Table I (continued)

State and in Scrip in of of College Date of Acceptance of Acceptance Date of Acts Morrill of Terms Acres of Number Date Organization of Date Sale from Receipts or Land Scrip of Institution Acres of Number

GEORGIA 1866 2 7 0 , 0 0 0 $242,000 University of 1866 Fort Valley State College 1890

IDAHO 1890 90,000 $129,615 University of 1889

ILLINOIS 1867 480,000 $648,442 University of 1967

INDIANA 1865 390,000 $212,238 Purdue University 1869

IOMA 1862 240,000 $686,817 State College 1858

KANSAS 1863 97,682 $491,746 State College 1863

KENTUCKY 1863 3 3 0 , 0 0 0 $164,960 University of 1879 State College 1886

LOUISIANA 1869 210,000 $182,630 State University 1874 Southern University 1880

MAINE 1863 210,000 $116,359 University of 1865

MARYLAND 1864 210,000 $112,504 University of 1856 State College 1886 55

Table I (continued)

os © ou < o h a> State and in Scrip in of Land Land or Scrip of Date of Acceptance of Acceptance of Date Acts Morrill of Terms of Organization Date of of College from Sale Receipts Institution H Acres Number of

MASSACHUSETTS 1863 360,000 $236,287 Institute of Technology 1861 University of 1863

MICHIGAN 1863 2AO,000 $991,673 State College 1855

MINNESOTA 1863 120,000 $579,430 University of 1851

MISSISSIPPI 1866 210,000 $188,028 State College 1878 Alcorn College 1871

MISSOURI 1863 3 3 0 , 0 0 0 $363,441 University of 1839 Lincoln University 1866

MONTANA 1889 140,000 $533,148 State College 1893

NEBRASKA 1867 90,800 $560,072 University of 1869

NEVADA 1866 90,000 $107,363 University of 1873

NEW HAMPSHIRE 1863 150,000 $80,000 University of 1866 56

Table I (continued)

State and Terms of Morrill Acts Morrill of Terms Date of Acceptance of Acceptance of Date Number of Acres of Number Scrip in Date of Organization of Date of of College Acres of Number of Land Land Scrip of or Institution Sale Receipts from

NEW JERSEY 1863 210,000 #115>945 Rutgers University 1766

NEW MEXICO 1898 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 A. St M. College 1889

NEW YORK 1863 9 9 0 , 0 0 0 $688,576 Cornell University 1865

NORTH CAROLINA 1866 270,000 $135,000 State College 1887 A. & T. State College 1891

NORTH DAKOTA 1889 130,000 $455,924 Agricultural College 1890

OHIO 1864 630,000 $340,906 State University 1870

OKLAHOMA 1890 350,000 $835,637 A. fc M. College 1890 Langston University 1897

OREGON 1868 90,000 $202,113 State College 1865

PENNSYLVANIA 1863 780,000 $439,186 State University 1855 57

Table I (continued)

CO a> ou < o u a> State and Terms of Morrill Acts Morrill of Terms Date of Acceptance of Acceptance Date of Date of Organization Date of of of College in in Scrip Institution Acres Number of Sale from Receipts Land or Scrip of

RHODE ISLAND 1863 120,000 $1 5 0 , 0 0 0 State College 1888

SOUTH CAROLINA 1868 180,000 $130,000 Clemson College 1889 State College 1896

SOUTH DAKOTA 1889 160,000 $128,804 State College 1881

TENNESSEE 1868 300,000 $271,875 University of 1794 A. & I. University 1912

TEXAS 1866 180,000 $174,000 A. & M. College 1871 Prairie View A. & M. College 1891

UTAH 18 88 200,000 $194,136 State Agricultural College 1888

VERMONT 1862 150,000 $122,626 University of 1791

VIRGINIA 1870 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 $285,000 Polytechnic Institute 1812 State College 1920 58

Table I (continued)

State and Institution in Scrip in Receipts from Sale from Receipts Scrip Land or of Terms of Morrill Acts Morrill of Terms Date of Acceptance of Acceptance Date of Organization of Date of College Acres of Number Acres of Number

WASHINGTON 1889 9 0 , 0 0 0 $247,608 State College of 1890

WEST VIRGINIA 1863 150,000 $90,000 University 1867 State College 1890

WISCONSIN 1863 240,000 $303,594 University of 1848

WYOMING 1889 90,000 73,355 University of 1886 3,766,082 7,830,000 $13,478,946

Source: Adapted from Klein, A. J. Survey of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities, Vol. 1. Almost as soon as the Morrill Act of 1862 -was passed, questions

arose (72, p. 106) as to the real intent of the Act.

. . . Suggestions, theories, and schemes were proposed by educators, enthusiasts, cranks, associations, legis­ lators, etc., as to how the grant might be used, how it could be used, how it ought to be used, what was the intent of the law, what was the spirit of the law in which it should be interpreted, and what was the letter of the law which must be obeyed. . . Some advisors would have a purely agricultural school and separate purely technical schools. Others advocated that the two should be combined. Some advocates would have manual labor schools and trade schools united, or separate . . •

During the two decades after the passage of the Act of 1862,

Justin Morrill attempted to clarify its interest. In 1867, he

stated (72, p. 107) that he wished the bill to be broad enough so

that the several States might use it to best advantage. "There must

be much variety allowed in the details although all the colleges

should be the same in spirit and essentially of the same grade; that

is, colleges, in which applied science and not classics should be

the leading idea."

Mr. Morrill attempted further clarification of the Act in 1887,

at the Massachusetts Agricultural College. Again in 1888, he ad­

dressed the Vermont Legislature on the same subject. Morrill could do little more than speak of the general framework from which each of the land-grant colleges would carve its own niche.

William H. Jordon, former director of the Maine Agricultural

Experiment, made a statement (27, p. 19) which gives a rather clear picture of the sentiment which confronted the new colleges as they began their work: 60

The public looked upon the arrival of education as something new under the sun, an open sesame to greater prosperity, a panacea of industrial ills, and when it was announced that the courses of study in the Maine State College contained subjects previously taught in the classical institutions it liras asked in public print: "Why this new college, these things are already taught?" It was charged that agriculture had been betrayed in the house of its friends and that the faculty was not in sym­ pathy with the purposes for which the new institution was established. In addition, the arguments favoring vocational education exalted the skilled hand as an es­ sential element in its development, a doctrine sound enough in theory but badly misplaced in practice.

The work of the new college was made difficult for several im­ portant reasons.

1. The public secondary school system was inadequate to furnish qualified enrollees to the colleges.

2. There was a shortage of qualified teachers in the practical arts.

3. There was little literature available in the agricultural and mechanic arts.

4* A practical education pedagogy was yet to be developed.

5. These institutions represented a new concept in higher edu­ cation j there was no tradition to fall back upon.

6. There was opposition from the industrial classes who lacked faith in and respect for "book farming" in the "cow colleges."

7. There was opposition from the classical colleges.

8. There was no tradition of college attendance among the people of the industrial classes. 61

Particularly significant for this study is the confusion which existed concerning the meaning of the term mechanic arts. Many per­ sons insisted that the Act meant the term to be interpreted as mechanic arts applied to agriculture. Others took it to mean profes­ sional engineering and others took it to mean trade education.

The theory that the mechanic arts in the Land-Grant Act was in­ tended to mean only mechanic arts as related to agriculture, is refuted by Justin Morrill's statement presented earlier in thie chapter. The mechanic arts interests as expressed in the People's

College in New York, and Turner's plan for an industrial university in Illinois, also tend to indicate that the term was not intended to be incidental to agriculture.

While the confusion and opposition prevailed, individual col­ leges were established and programs organized. Mechanical shops were established and instruction in the technicalities of vocational and mechanic arts was given at Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

Cornell, Kansas State College, and other land-grant institutions.

Soon after being organized, the land-grant colleges found that the interest from the land-grant endowments was not enough to bear their financial cost. As President Buchanan predicted in his veto message with regard to the 1857 Bill, the States asked Congress for annual money grants to help support the land-grant institutions.

A bill for this purpose was introduced into Congress in 1872,

1873, 1875* 1879, and finally passed in 1890. The second Morrill.

Act provided an annual appropriation to each land-grant college of 62

$15,000 for the first year, the amount to rise by $1,000 each year to a maximum of $25,000. Every year thereafter, $25,000 would be­ come a regular and permanent contribution to the operating expense of the colleges.

The Morrill Act of 1890 had another significant provision. It prohibited payment of federal funds to any state, where distinction of race, creed, or color is made in the admission of students, but it allowed through its provisions the establishment of separate colleges for white and Negro students. Thus the Negro would receive the same benefit of practical education as the white population.

The provisions of this Act included the following (22, p. 29):

That no money shall be paid out under this act to any state or territory for the support and maintenance of a college where a distinction of race or color is made in the admission of students, but the establishment and main­ tenance of such colleges separately for white and colored students will be held to be in compliance with the pro­ visions of this act if the funds received in such state or territory be equitably divided as hereinafter set forth.

That in any state in which there has been one college established in pursuance of the Act of July 2, 1862 (first Morrill Act), and also in which an educational institution of like character has been established, or may be hereafter established, and is now aided by such states from its own revenues, for the education of colored students in agri­ culture and the mechanic arts, however named or styled, or whether or not it has received money heretofore under the Act to which this Act is an amendment, the legislature of such state may propose and report to the Secretary of In­ terior a just and equitable division of the fund to be received under this Act, between one college for white stu­ dents and one institution for colored students, established as aforesaid, which shall be divided into two parts and paid accordingly and thereupon such institutions for colored students shall be entitled to the benefits of this act and subject to its provisions as much as it would have been if it had been included under the Act of 1862, and the ful­ fillment of the foregoing provisions shall be taken as a compliance with the provisions in reference to separate colleges for white and colored students.

It was necessary in order to receive funds under the second

Morrill Act, for the states to give official acceptance of its terms through their legislatures. Within a period of nine years, all

states, having segregated educational systems, had complied with the

terms of the Act, The order of compliance was as follows:

State Year

Georgia 1890 Louisiana 1890 Mississippi 1890 West Virginia 1890 Alabama 1891 Arkansas 1891 Delaware 1891 Missouri 1891 North Carolina 1891 Tennessee 1891 Texas 1891 Virginia 1891 Maryland 1892 Florida 1893 Kentucky 1893 South Carolina 1896 Oklahoma 1899

It can be stated with some degree of accuracy, that in view of this evidence, the Negro land-grant college came into being as a result of the Morrill Act of 1890, rather than of the Act of 1862,

Like the white land-grant colleges, the Negro land-grant in­

stitutions were established by creating new colleges, by using existing state schools and by giving the revenue to private colleges 64 with the understanding that they offer instructional programs in agriculture and mechanic arts.

Four Negro colleges were established under the Act of 1862.

Two were in state-supported schools: Alcorn University, Mississippi; and Kentucky State Normal and Industrial School. Two were estab­ lished in private schools: Hampton Institute, Virginia; and Claflin

College, South Carolina.

There emerged three distinct patterns (22, p. 150) in the sub­ sequent development of additional colleges. The states of Alabama,

Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, and Missouri converted their Negro

Normal Schools into land-grant colleges. The Alabama State Legis­ lature converted the Huntsville Normal and Industrial School for

Negroes into the Negro land-grant college in 1891. This school was organized in 1875 at Huntsville, Alabama. Since the organization of this land-grant college, its name has been changed to Alabama

State Agricultural and Mechanical College and it was moved to

Normal, about 26 miles from Huntsville.

The Negro land-grant college in Louisiana was founded in 1880 at New Orleans. It operated as a state normal school until 1893, when the State Legislature reorganized it into the Negro land-grant college. At this time its location was moved to Scotlandville, just outside of Baton Rouge, the state capitol. The name, Southern

University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, was adopted in 1914. The Branch Normal School for Negroes, at Pine Bluff, Arkansas, started operations in 1872 under the control of the University of

Arkansas. This institution was named the Negro land-grant college for Arkansas in 1891. Its present title is Arkansas Agricultural,

Mechanical, and Normal College. It is still located at Pine Bluff.

The State Normal School for Negroes in Florida which was es­ tablished in 1887, was reorganized in 1891 and designated the Negro land-grant college. In 1909, this institution was named Florida

Agricultural and Mechanical College, It is located at Tallahassee.

Lincoln Institute, in Missouri, was established as a private college in 1866. It was later operated as a state normal school and in 1891, it was designated as the Negro land-grant college and took the name Lincoln University. It is located at Jefferson City.

The second pattern for the emerging colleges was to assign the funds from the Morrill Act to a private college. These colleges would agree to develop programs in agricultural, mechanic, and other types called for under the terms of the Act.

The states of Maryland and Tennessee followed this plan. Mary­ land established its land-grant program at Princess Anne Academy, at Princess Anne, in 1892. This college was a branch of Morgan

College, located in Baltimore. In 1934, the state purchased Prin­ cess Anne Academy from Morgan College and established it as an in­ dependent state-supported land-grant college. The name of the college was changed to Princess Anne College in 1937. 66

Similarly, the institution now known as Tennessee Agricultural

and Industrial State University started as a private college. In

1S91, Knox College at Knoxville, accepted the responsibility to

serve as the Negro land-grant college for Tennessee. In 1913* the

legislature established the Agricultural and Industrial Normal

School in Nashville, and it became the land-grant college for

Negroes. Its name was later changed to Tennessee Agricultural and .

Industrial State University.

The third pattern for the emerging Negro land-grant colleges

was the establishment of new colleges or purchasing of private

schools and converting them. Delaware, Georgia, North Carolina,

Oklahoma, Texas, and West Virginia followed this pattern.

Delavra.re State College, Dover, was established as a Negro land-

grant college by the Delaware State General Assembly in 1S91. By

a similar act of the Georgia State Legislature, Georgia State Indus­

trial College was established in 1S90.

Legislation was passed in 1891, in North Carolina, and Agri­

cultural and Technical College of North Carolina was established at

Greensboro.

When the second Morrill Act was passed in 1890, the state of

Oklahoma had not yet been admitted to the Union. Therefore, Okla­

homa was the last state to organize a Negro land-grant college.

In 1897* the Colored Agricultural and Normal University at Langston was established by the General Assembly. The State Normal and Industrial College at Prairie View, which

■was originally a private school, was established as the Negro land- grant college of Texas in 1891. This institution is now a part of the land-grant college system in that state.

The institution now known as West Virginia State College was established by the legislature in 1891. It is located at Institute,

West Virginia.

Legally, the Negro land-grant colleges were supposed to be comparable with the white land-grant colleges. To qualify under the terms of the Morrill Act, under which they were established and under which they received financial support, the education offered was to be on the college level. It was also to be concentrated in agricul­ ture, mechanic arts, and home economics, including English, educa­ tion, mathematics, physical and natural sciences, and economics.

The fact is, however, that most of these institutions were offering little more than secondary work and that their college work was largely of the classical tradition.

Davis (7, p. 326) has reported some of the difficulties under which these institutions labored at the turn of the century:

1. Driving Negroes to work during the slavery period added indignity, not dignity, to labor. It was therefore not easy to sell to children and grandchildren of slaves in 1890 a type of education which emphasizes the practical arts.

2. Hie Negro youth during the early days of the land-grant institutions was imbued with the idea that a collegiate education consisted of cultural instruction as embodied in the liberal arts and sciences and thus developed a prejudice against the practical type of agri­ cultural and mechanical arts education. 68

3. The private and denominational colleges, in the field long before the land-grant colleges for Negroes were established, had won Negroes over to their offerings in a classical curriculum.

4* There were not enough high schools in the various states to support the agricultural, mechanical arts and home economics curricula of the land-grant institutions, and elementary education for Negroes at that time was very poor.

5. Many of the states established land-grant col­ leges for Negroes, in order to participate in the benefits of the Morrill Act, but were not enthusiastically com­ mitted to the complete educational development of the college•

6. Education of all sorts suffered because of racial hatred in the Southern States. Many whites be­ lieved that the Negro was not educable.

7. The land-grant institutions for Negroes were forced to work at the educational level of Negroes in the respective states, which of necessity prevented them at the beginning from undertaking work of a collegiate type.

8. The limitations of educational opportunity for Negroes by statute, the restriction of suffrage, and attempts to minimize the personalities of Negroes had a deadening effect upon the early efforts of the land-grant college for Negroes.

There is very little in the literature to indicate exactly what was happening in the mechanic arts during the early days of the land-grant colleges. The catalogs of institutions indicate a mis­ cellaneous assortment of courses but no definite pattern or organ­ ized programs except in engineering. It is evident that predominant attention was given to agriculture in the early days of the land- grant institutions. When the land-grant colleges formed a profes­ sional organization in 1885, it was named the American Association of Agricultural and Experiment Stations. In 1919* the organization changed its name to the Association of Land-Grant CoUeges and

Universities. Prom the time of the organization of this association in 1885 to 1893, no mention of mechanic arts was made in the pro­ ceedings of its meetings. In 1893, a section on mechanic arts was organized, but after unsuccessful efforts to receive recognition, the section was abandoned in 1902 ( 27, p. 799)* It is clear from these statements that very little was happening in an organized man­ ner, in the development of the mechanic arts in the land-grant colleges, from the origin of the Act in 1862 to the turn of the century.

There were some interesting developments in America which would later influence educational developments in the mechanic arts and the land-grant college.

1. The manufacturing industries were developing at a rapid rate. The industrial technology was beginning to be felt.

2. Dr. John H. Runkle,of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, had made considerable progress in developing a pedagogical scheme for teaching manipulative work in the mechanic arts.

3. Outstanding courses in mechanic arts shopwork had been de­ veloped by Purdue University, The Illinois Industrial University,

Kansas State College, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

4. The public secondary schools in America were rapidly de­ veloping.

5. The manual training movement had exerted much interest and influence in industrial education. 70

6. A change in educational philosophy and psychology was taking place.

7. The normal schools were developing extensive teacher educa­ tion programs in manual training.

8. The Massachusetts Commission was investigating the needs of education in the different grades of skill and responsibility in the various industries of the commonwealth.

9. The Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education was organized.

10. Engineering education had rallied enough tradition and

strength to begin its emergence as an organized group.

As the first decade of the twentieth century passed, several definite patterns began to form with regard to mechanic arts in the land-grant colleges. In 1907, the Nelson Amendment to the Morrill

Act of 1890 was approved by Congress. The amendment (27, p. 31) authorized "the use of a portion of this money for providing courses for special preparation of instructors for teaching the elements of agriculture and the mechanic arts." This authorization was interpreted to allow expenditure for instruction in:

1. History of agriculture and industrial education.

2. Methods of teaching agriculture, mechanic arts, and home economics.

3. Special aid and supervision given to teachers actively en­ gaged in teaching agriculture, mechanic arts, and home economics in public schools. 71

4. Providing summer schools, teacher institutes, correspond­ ence "work, and supervision; and directing work in agriculture, mechanic arts, and domestic science.

While provisions were available under the Nelson Amendment for teacher education in industrial education, very little activity took place in the land-grant colleges. Not until the National Vocational

Education Act of 1917 (Smith-Hugjhes) was passed, did teacher educa­ tion in industrial education take proportions in the land-grant

colleges. The Act provided (27, p. 63):

. . . for the purpose of cooperating with the States in preparing teachers, supervisors, and directors in agri­ cultural subjects and teachers of trade and industrial and home economics subjects, there is hereby appropriated for the use of the States for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, the sum of $500,000; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1919, the sum of $700,000; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1920, the sum of $900,000; for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1921, the sum of $1,000,000. Said sums shall be allotted to the States in the propor­ tion which their population bears to the total population of the United States, not including outlying possessions, according to the last preceding United States census . . .

Land-grant colleges in thirty-six states were chosen to conduct the teacher education work in industrial education under the Smith-

Kughes Act. As a corollary to trade and industrial teacher educa­ tion, industrial arts teacher education was soon included as a part of the activities of the land-grant college. This occurred as the normal schools began to decline rather than by legal authorization.

The mechanic arts aspect of the white land-grant colleges and universities, with the exception of industrial teacher education, was almost entirely devoted to professional engineering by 1916. 72

It was in this year that the deans of the engineering colleges or­ ganized the Land-Grant College Engineering Association and were admitted back to the main association now known as the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities.

When Klein (28, p. 812) directed the Survey of Land-Gran t

Colleges and Universities in 1928-29, he found industrial education of the technical institute type program ''very meager." Only four institutions offered curricula for training artisans, foremen, and others, to occupy the junior technical and supervisory positions in industry. He found only one land-grant college that had "consider­ able success with terminal curricula in trades and industry."

During World War I and World War II, the land-grant colleges and universities offered intensive short courses in industrial- vocational and technical institute type education for army personnel.

In 1928-29, Klein found that twenty-four land-grant colleges were offering short-unit courses or special conferences in such fields as highway construction, foundry work, refrigeration, laundry work, foremanship, steel treatment, welding, tractor operation, building contracts, plumbing, heating-plant operation, power-plant operation, mining, and electric line power work. In addition, the land-grant colleges cooperated with industry and private educational agencies in offering various forms of technical education.

While the white land-grant colleges have developed strong pro­ fessional engineering programs and have shown practically no interest in other levels of mechanic arts, the Negro land-grant colleges have not followed this pattern. Until World War II, the Negro land- grant colleges have sponsored mechanic arts programs consisting chiefly of teacher education and industrial-vocational education.

The latter program has been of the degree-granting and terminal type. Since World War II, the Negro land-grant colleges have at­ tempted to get engineering education programs established and have shown a little interest in the technical institute type program.

Because of the struggling position in which the Negro institutions found themselves during the first quarter of the century, much of the mechanic arts vrork offered was on the secondary level. Since

1930, much progress has been made in raising these mechanic arts offerings to a true collegiate level.

An effort was made in this chapter to indicate the growth of the land-grant colleges, (l) under the Morrill Act of 1862, (2) under the Morrill Act of 1890, and (3) under subsequent acts includ­ ing the Nelson Amendment and the Smith-Hughes Act. In addition, the direction of growth of the mechanic arts was indicated.

In reviewing the development of the land-grant idea (Chap­ ter III) and the development of the land-grant college (Chapter IV), two questions seem very appropriate at this points (1) What are some of the important ideas embodied in the heritage and spirit of the land-grant movement? (2) What were some of the significant factors affecting the industrial education phase of the mechanic arts idea embodied in the land-grant college movement? 74

In answer to the first question, the following statements seem significant:

1. The philosophy of the land-grant college idea was to pro­ vide higher education for the industrial classes according to the needs of their everyday life.

2. The land-grant colleges were developed to meet a need in higher education which could not be met by existing colleges.

3. The work of the land-grant institutions was to be on the college level. This was not in the sense of the classical tradition, but in the sense that it would require a high school foundation.

4. The quality of education in the land-grant college was to be equal in quality to that offered in the classical institutions.

5. The mechanic arts and agricultural areas of the program were considered two distinct and separate branches of knowledge, each to be given equal status in the institutions.

6. Mechanic arts was considered a broad term which included engineering education as its higher or professional phase, indus­ trial-vocational and short course instruction as its collateral and extension phase, and experimental and other technical investiga­ tion as its research phase.

7. The spirit of the land-grant idea was essentially demo­ cratic in that it provided equality of opportunity in higher education.

8. The character of the land-grant college was pioneering in nature. It broke traditional barriers in promoting a new concept 75 of higher education for the American People.

9. Research and service to the individual, to the industrial

classes, the state and the nation was essential in the spirit of the land-grant college.

10. Without excluding work in the classics and pure sciences, the efforts of the land-grant college were to be expressly in the applied sciences.

11. From its inception, it was understood that while there was a common spirit to the land-grant college, individual programs might be closely similar or radically divergent.

12. The pioneering spirit which brought the land-grant colleges

into existence was retained as an important phase of the character of the institution.

In answer to the second question, the following statements are important:

1. From the inception of the land-grant college, the indus­ trial education phase of the mechanic arts was considered a vital part of practical arts education for the common people.

2. The predominance of agriculture in the early days of the college overshadowed the mechanic arts efforts.

3. There was no organized pedagogy for teaching the mechanic arts.

4* There was no leadership in higher education to promote the mechanic arts. 5. Engineering is fundamentally different from the other phases of the mechanic arts and it had a sufficient struggle to de­ velop its own program.

6. The classical influence tended to encourage engineering and discourage other phases of mechanic arts.

7. In trying to be respectable, the land-grant colleges them­ selves tried to shun programs which were clearly and without question professional in character.

&, The impetus for the industrial education phase of the mechanic arts developed from the lower school up to higher education, rather than from the colleges down.

9. The lack of industrialization in the nation at the begin­ ning of the land-grant colleges did not warrant great impetus for the mechanic arts.

10. The complexity of technology requiring education in the mechanic arts at the higher education level is of recent origin.

The history of industrial education in the land-grant colleges and universities represents a paradox when compared to the intent and spirit of the land-grant college acts. Notwithstanding this fact, it is upon this background that contemporary programs were de­ veloped and future programs will be projected. Chapter V

CONTEMPORARY PATTERNS OP INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

One of the basic assumptions of this study was that the land- grant colleges and universities were not exploiting the full potential of industrial education. In order to test this assumption, a study was made of contemporary patterns of industrial education in the land-grant colleges and universities. No attempt was made to evaluate contemporary patterns or to determine their evolution. The major emphasis of the study was to determine the purposes or func­ tions of industrial education at the several institutions and to obtain some limited information on how the programs which were or­ ganized effect the purposes. It is felt that the data presented in this chapter validated the assumption indicated above.

In determining the contemporary patterns of industrial educa­ tion, a survey was made of the sixty-six land-grant colleges and universities.

A survey instrument was developed, tested, and then mailed to the chairman of the Industrial Education Department in each land- grant institution. The colleges or universities were asked ques­ tions on industrial education in terms of their (1) purposes, (2) administrative allocation, (3) administration, (4) staff, (5) stu­ dent personnel, (6) curricula, (7) instructional program, (6) fi­ nancial support, (9) library, (10) professional and public rela­ tions, and (11) physical facilities.

77 Fifty-eight of the sixty-six land-grant colleges returned the instrument with complete or partially complete information. The returns represented 90 percent of the instruments sent out. Infor­ mation on the eight institutions not responding to the inquiry was secured through the bulletin of the individual college or univer­ sity, publications on industrial education from these colleges or universities, personal experience with these programs, and other sources.

Seventeen, or 2 5 percent, of the sixty-six institutions con­ tacted indicated that they did not offer any programs at the undergraduate level -which came within the scope of the study.

Forty-nine, or 75 percent, of the sixty-six institutions con­ tacted indicated that they offered one or more of some twelve dif­ ferent programs which could be classified as an industrial education phase of the mechanic arts.

PURPOSES

It was felt that these twelve programs represented what the institutions believed to be the functions or purposes of industrial education in contemporary land-grant colleges and universities.

These were as follows: (l) industrial-technical education, (2) industrial-vocational education, (3) industrial arts teacher educa­ tion, (4) industrial-vocational teacher education, (5 ) engineering shopwork, and (6) adult or continuing education. Programs re­ flecting these functions were as follows: 79

1. Industrial-Vocational Education (Degree). A four-year program leading to the baccalaureate degree* The purpose of the program is to prepare persons for occupations in industry. It in­ cludes several major areas of competence: (a) high level competence in manipulative skills, (b) organizational and managerial competence,

(c) labor and industrial relations competence, (d) human relations and leadership competence, (e) conmunications competence, and (f) social and civic competence.

2. Industrial-Technical Education (Degree). A four-year program leading to the baccalaureate degree. The purpose of the program is to prepare persons for occupations in industry. The com­ petencies required are similar to those in the industrial-vocational program except that a greater amount and higher level of competence is required in the scientific and mathematical foundations of the technical area. In the industrial-vocational occupations about

90 percent manipulative skills and 10 percent scientific foundations are required. In the industrial-technical area about 50 percent of the competencies are required in the manipulative skills and about

50 percent are required in scientific and mathematical foundations.

3. Industrial-Vocational (Terminal). A program to prepare skilled workers for industrial occupations. The chief emphasis is on the development of manipulative skills. The programs are less than four years and may terminate after one, two, or three years.

4. Industrial-Technical (Terminal). A program to prepare skilled technicians for industrial occupations. The chief emphasis so is equally divided between manipulative skills and scientific and mathematical foundations. The programs are less than four years and may terminate after one, two, or three years.

5. Industrial Arts Teacher Education. A program to prepare industrial arts teachers for elementary and secondary school levels.

6. Industrial-Vocational Teacher Education. This includes:

(a) a degree program to prepare teachers of industrial-vocational work at the secondary school level, and (b) Individual courses to give limited teacher education to persons selected from industry to become industrial-vocational teachers* A prescribed number of courses are usually established for certification by the State

Department of Education.

7* Industrial Arts Offerings (Required). Industrial arts offerings which are required as general education experiences, especially for students in the liberal arts area of the college or university.

8. Industrial Arts Offerings (Electives). Industrial arts offerings which may be elected by all students of the college. If elected by the Industrial arts students they do not constitute a part of his professional preparation.

9. Industrial Arts Offerings (Service). Those courses which are considered an essential part of the technical or professional preparation of students in areas such as elementary education, home and family life education, physical education, physical therapy, etc. 81

10* Engineering Shoprerk. Those industrial laboratory courses which are provided for engineering students to give them practical experience with tools, machines, materials, methods, processes, and problems*

11* Adult Education. Those short courses, conferences, in­ stitutes, etc*, which are not formal course offerings and which are aimed at the continuing education of persons who are not in school.

12* Special Courses. Those courses which do not fit into any of the above categories.

Examples of each of these programs are presented at this point.

These examples were taken from the catalogues of the various colleges.

INDUSTRIAL-VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND COLLEGE PARK

Education for Industry

The Education for Industry curriculum is a four-year program leading to a Bachelor of Science degree. The pur­ pose of the program is to prepare persons for jobs within industry and, as such it embraces four major areas of competence, (a) technical competence, (b) human relations and leadership competence, (c) communications competence, and (d) social and civic competence. The student who is enrolled in this curriculum is required to obtain work in industry in accordance with the plan described in the course, Industrial Education, 124, b. 62

INDUSTRIAL-VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND (continued)

Curriculum

Freshman Year Semester

I II

Eng. 1, 2. Composition and American Literature . 3 3 Soc. 1. Sociology of American Life 3 - G. & P. 1. American Government - 3 Ind. Ed. 1. Mechanical Drawing 2 - Ind. Ed. 12. Shop Calculations 3 - Ind. Ed. 21. Mechanical D r a w i n g - 2 Ind. Ed. 22. Machine WoodvrorkingI . 2 - Ind. Ed. 23. Arc and Gas W e l d i n g - 1 Ind. Ed. 69. Machine Shop Practice I - 2 Ind. Ed. 110. Foundry - 1 Sp. 7* Public Speaking 2 - A. S. 1, 2. Basic Air Force R.O.T.C. (Men) . . . 3 3 P. E. 1, 3. Physical Activities ...... 1 1 Math. 10. A l g e b r a ...... - 3

T o t a l ...... 19 19

Sophomore Year

Eng. 3, 4. Composition and World Literature or Eng. 5) 6. Composition and Ekiglish Literature . 3 3 Ind. Ed. 24. Sheet Metal W o r k ...... 2 B. A. 10, 11. Organization and C o n t r o l ...... 2 2 Phys. 1, 2. Elements of Physics or Phys. 10, U . Fundamentals of Physics . . . 3 or 4 3 or 4 Math. 11. Trigonometry and Analytic Geometry . . 2 - A. S. 3, 4* Basic Air Force R.O.T.C. (Men) . . . 3 3 P. E. 5> 7* Physical Activities ...... 1 1 H. 5* History of American Civilization...... - 3 Econ. 37* Fundamentals of Economics ...... - 3 Total . . 16 16 (or 17) (or 19) S3

INDUSTRIAL-VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND (continued)

Curriculum

Junior Year Semester

I II

H. 6. History of American Civilization...... 3 Psych. 1. Introduction to Psychology...... 3 Psych. 2. Applied Psychology...... - 3 Chem. 1, 3. General C h e m i s t r y ...... 4 4 Econ. 160. Lab Economics...... 3 Ind. Ed. 124a. Organized and Supervised Work Experience ...... 3 Ind. Ed. 143> 144• Industrial Safety Education . 2 2 B. A. 160. Personnel Management ...... - 3 Soc. 115. Industrial Sociology...... - 3 Electives _3 3

T o t a l ...... 21 IS

Senior Year

B. A. 163. Industrial R e l a t i o n s ...... 3 B. A. 167. Job Evaluation and Merit Rating .. . 2 Ind. Ed. 124b. Organized and Supervised Work Experience ...... 3 Ind. Ed. I6 4 . Shop Organization and Management . - 2 Ind. Ed. I65 . Modern I n d u s t r y ...... - 2 Ind. Ed. 168, Trade or Occupational Analysis . . 2 - Psych. 121. Social P s y c h o l o g y ...... - 3 E l e c t i v e s ...... 5 8

T o t a l ...... 15 15 INDUSTRIAL-TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE OF TEXAS COLLEGE STATION

Industrial Technology and Industrial Distribution

Freshman Tear

First Semester Credit

Engineering Drawing 1 0 5 ...... (0-6) 2 Engineering Drawing English 1Q3 ...... (3-0) 3 Composition and Rhetoric History 105 ...... (3-0) 3 History of the United States Industrial Education 1 0 5 ...... (1-5) 3 Wood Craft Industrial Education 1 0 7 ...... (2-3) 3 Industrial Materials and Manufacturing Processes Mathematics 101 ...... (0-3) 3 Algebra Mechanical Engineering 201 ...... (0-3) 1 Welding and Foundry Military or Air Science ...... (0-3) 1 Physical Education 101 ...... (0-2) R 19

Second Semester Chemistry 106 ...... (3-3) 4 General Chemistry Engineering Drawing 1 0 6 ...... (0-6) 2 Descriptive Geometry Ehglish 104 ...... • (3-0) 3 Composition and Rhetoric History 106 ...... (3-0) 3 History of the United States Mathematics 116 ...... (4-0) 4 Plane Trigonometry and Analytics Mechanical Engineering 202...... (0-3) 1 Welding and Foundry Military or Air Science ...... (0-3) 1 Physical Education 1 0 2 ...... (0-2) _R IS 85

INDUSTRIAL-TECHNICAL EDUCATION, AC3UCULTURAL AND MECHANICAL OOLLEGE OP TEXAS (continued)

Sophomore Year

First Semester Credit

Engineering Drawing 1 2 7 ...... (1-3) 2 Industrial Freehand Sketching English 203 ...... (2-0) 2 Composition and Literature Mathematics 223 ...... (4-0) 4 Differential and Integral Calculus Mechanical Engineering 1 0 1 ...... (0-3) 1 Engineering Problems Mechanical Engineering 309 ...... (0-3) 1 Engineering Problems Mechanical Engineering 309 ...... (0-3) 1 Machine Shop Military or Air Science ...... (0-3) 1 Physics 2 0 1 ...... (3-3) 4 College Physics Electives ...... 3 Physical Education 2 0 1 ...... (0-2) R 18

Second Semester

Economics 205 ...... (3-0) 3 Principles of Economics Industrial Education 106 (1-5) 3 Sheet Metal Industrial Education 204 (3-0) 3 Development and Practice in Industrial Education Mechanical Engineering 106 (1-6) 3 Cabinet Making Mechanical Engineering 3 1 0 ...... (0-3) 1 Machine Shop Military or Air Science ...... (0-3) 1 Physics 202 (3-3) 4 College Physic8 Physical Education 202 (0-2) _R 18 INDUSTRIAL-TECHNICAL EDUCATION, AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL OOLLEGE OF TEXAS (continued)

Junior Year

First Semester Credit

Architecture 331 ...... (2-3) 3 Mechanics and Materials English 210 ...... (2-0) 2 Writing and Discussion Industrial Education 308 (3-0) 3 A Study of Modern Industries Industrial Education 328 ...... (3-0) 3 Industrial Accident Prevention Physical Education 2 1 6 ...... (0-3) 1 First Aid Elective ...... 7 19 Second Semester Business Administration 3 0 5 ...... (3-0) 3 Business Law English 3 0 1 ...... (3-0) 3 Writing for Professional Men Industrial Education 304 ...... (2-3) 3 Applied Industrial Electricity Industrial Education 326 ...... (1-5) 3 General Metalwork Industrial Engineering 302 ...... (1-2) 2 Production Engineering Elective...... 4 18

Senior Year

First Semester Credit

English 403 (1-2) 2 Speaking for Professional Men Industrial Education 429 ...... (3-0) 3 Foremanship and Supervision Journalism 3 2 1 ...... (2-2) 3 Industrial Journalism Psychology 4 0 1 ...... (3-0) 3 Industrial Psychology Elective...... _7 18 87

INDUSTRIAL-TECHNICAL EDUCATION, AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE OF TEXAS (continued)

Senior Tear

Second Semester Credit

Government 3 0 6 ...... (3-0) 3 American National Government Industrial Education 449 ...... (1-0) 1 Seminar in Industrial Education Industrial Engineering 2 1 4 (3-0) 3 Labor and Industry Elective ...... U 18

Note: Industrial Technology. Students pursuing this option must include the following courses as part of the elective requirement.

Business Administration 409 (3-0) 3 Survey of Accounting Principles Industrial Education 4 2 3 (1-2) 2 Analysis Procedure Industrial Education 438 (2-3) 3 Industrial Safety Industrial Engineering 4 0 1 (3-0) 3 Survey of Industrial Engineering Industrial Engineering 404 (2-3) 3 Motion and Time Study

Industrial Distribution. Students interested in Industrial Distribution must include the following courses as part of the elective requirement.

Business Administration 205 (3-0) 3 Marketing Business Administration 3 1 8 (3-0) 3 Wholesale Merchandising Business Administration 435 (3-0) 3 Salesmanship Business Administration 446 (2-0) 2 Marketing Industrial Products Industrial Education 444 • (3-0) 3 Industrial Distribution 88

INDUSTRIAL-VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AT THE AGRICULTURAL AND TECHNICAL COLLEGE OP NORUi CAROLINA GREENSBORO

Two or Three Tear Terminal Course in Machine Shop Practice

Training Objectives: To develop skilled workers in the use of various machine tools, and as specialized machine operators and journeymen machinists. Freshman Year

Course and Number Pall Winter Spring Machine Shop All, 412, 413 • . 10(2-18) 10(2-18) 10(2-18) Drawing 311, 312 ...... 3(0- 6) 3(0- 6) English 211 ...... 5(5- 0) —— Mil. Sc...... 2(2- 2) 2(2- 2) Welding ...... 3(0- 6) m m - Math...... 5(5- 0 ) 5(5- 0) Phy. Ed...... 1(0- 2) 1(0- 2) 1(0- 2) 21 21 21 Sophomore Year

Course and Number Fall Winter Spring Machine Shop 241, 422, 423 • . 10(2-18) 10(2-18) 10(2-18) English 212, 2 1 3 ...... 5(5- 0) 5(5- 0) — Mil. Sc. • ••*«•«•. . 2(2- 2) 2(2- 2) 2(2- 2) B. Adm. 330 ...... 3(3- 0) —— Sheet Metal 311 ...... - 3(0- 6) - Acct. 304 ••»•«»••• • - — 3(3- 0) I. A. 328 . __ - - _3(0- 6) 20 20 18 ADVANCED COURSES Junior Year Course and Number Pall Winter Spring Machine Shop 431, 432, 433 . . 10(2-18) 10(2-18) 10(2-18) M. E. 323 ...... - m m B. Adm. 330 - 5(5- 0) Sociology 2 3 1 ...... 5(5- 0) - Economics 234 ...... 5(5- 0) - - Electives ...... 3 3 — M. E. 327 ...... __3(3- 0) 21 1 3 18 S9

INDUSTRIAL-TECHNICAL EDUCATION AT OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY STILLWATER

Two Year Curriculum in Electrical Technology

Between the work of the electrician and that of the electrical engineer lies the work of the electrical technician. It consists of the installation, maintenance, inspection, and testing of elec­ trical equipment and instruments, and inspection and trouble shoot­ ing of all types of electrical instruments, and inspection of all types of electrical mechanisms.

The curriculum in electrical technician training provides ac­ tual practice in construction, maintenance, and testing of elec­ trical apparatus, supplemented by such theory and related technical subjects as the student needs to take over the work of the techni­ cian in industry. Courses in mathematics, science, and management have been selected for this curriculum with that purpose in mind.

CURRICULUM

First Year

First Semester TLC

Tech. 131, Personal and Occupational Guidance • • 1 0 1 Tech. 101, Hand Tools and Basic Bench Work . . . 0 3 1 Engl. 1T3» Basic Writing Skills ...... 3 0 3 Tech. E. 105, Fundamentals of Electricity .... 3 6 5 Tech. E. 115, Electrical Mathematics...... 5 0 5 Shop 261, Machine Shop Practice...... 0 3 JL 16

Second Semester T LC

Tech. 123, Elementary Practical Mechanics .... 3 0 3 Tech. E 124, Light and Power Wi r i n g ...... 2 6 4 Tech. E. 135, Fundamentals of Alternating Current 3 6 5 Tech. E 252, Electrical Communication...... 1 3 2 Tech, 113, Technical D r a w i n g ...... 1 6 3 17 90

INDUSTRIAL-TECHNICAL EDUCATION, OKLAHOMA STATE UNIVERSITY (continued)

Summer Session

Technical Option T L C

Tech. E 154, Electrical Maintenance and Construction...... 2 18 4 Tech. E 224, Electrical Instruments...... 2 IS 4 Business Option ...... Electives ......

Second Year

First Semester T L C

Tech. E 2S2, Electronics .....1 3 2 Tech. E 235, Alternating Current Machinery.... 3 6 5 Tech. E 262, Eleotrical Illumination 2 0 2 Tech. E 272, Motion and Time Study 1 3 2 Shop 362, Oxy-acetylene and Electric Welding . . . 1 3 2 Electives ...... 3 16

Second Semester T L C

Tech. 122, ESnployment R e l a t i o n s ...... 2 0 2 Tech. E 244, Electrical Equipment Control and Use of Instruments...... 2 6 4 Tech. E 214, Electrical Equipment Maintenance . . 2 6 4 Tech. E 255, Electrical Layout D e s i g n 3 6 5 Chem. 163, Practical Chemistry...... 2 3 3 15 91

INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHER EDUCATION AT THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY PARK

Industrial Arts Curriculum

The Industrial Arts curriculum leads to the degree of Bachelor of Science. Successful completion of the curriculum leads also to the State certificate to teach industrial arts in the public schools of Pennsylvania.

Freshman Year

Fall Semester Credits

Chem. 3, Essentials of Chemistry...... 3 Dr. 1, Engineering Drawing...... 2 Ed. 1, Introduction to Education...... 2 E. Cap. 1, Composition and R h e t o r i c ...... 3 I. Arts 101, Industrial Arts in Modern Education . . 1 I. Arts 350, Machine Shop W o r k ...... 2 I. Arts 380, Woodwork ...... 2 Ph. Ed. 1 ...... 1 Army 1 or Air 1 ...... 1* u i

Spring Semester Credits

E. Cmp. 5, E x p o s i t i o n ...... 3 History 21, History of the United States Since1865 3 I. Arts 310, Welding and Tempering...... 2 I. Arts 340, Printing ...... 2 I. Arts 351, Machine Tool Work ...... 2 Math. 2, Algebra, or Math. 6, Plane Trigonometry . . 3 Ph. Ed. 2 ...... 1 Army 2 or Air 2 ...... 1* 17* INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHER EDUCATION, PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY (continued)

Sophomore Year

Fall Semester Credits

I. Arts 21, Design in Industrial Arts Woodwork . . . 2 I. Arts 375, Coppercraft...... 2 I, Arts 332, Junior High School Woodviork...... 2 Phys. 215, Introductory P h y s i c s ...... 3 Psy. 2, Psychology...... 3 Elective (not shop or drawing) ...... 2 Ph. Ed. 3 ...... 1 Army 3 or Air 3 ...... 1* 16* Spring Semester Credits

Botany, Nature Education, or Zoology Elective . . . 3 Econ. 14, Principles of E c o n o m i c s ...... 3 I. Arts 22, Design in Industrial Arts Metalwork . . 2 I. Arts 361, Ornamental Iron W o r k ...... 2 I. Arts 334, Senior High School Woodwork...... 2 Elective (not shop or drawing) ...... 2 Ph. Ed. 4 ...... 1 Army 4 or Air 4 ...... 1* 3 1

Junior Year

Fall Semester Credits

A. E. 22, Working D r a w i n g ...... 3 Dr. 5, Illustrative D r a w i n g ...... 2 I. Arts 360, Foundry P r a c t i c e ...... 2 I. Arts 370, Sheet Metal W o r k ...... 2 Psy. 14, Educational Ps y c h o l o g y ...... 3 Soc. 1, Introductory Sociology...... 3 Elective (not shop or drawing) ...... 2 17 93

INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHER EDUCATION, PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY (continued)

Junior Year

Spring Semester Credits

English elective...... 3 I. Arts 14* Design for Teachers of Industrial Arts E d u c a t i o n ...... 2 I. Arts 390, Electrical Wiring and Construction . . 2 Spch. 200, Effective S p e e c h ...... 3 Electives (not shop or drawing...... 7 17

Senior Year

Fall Semester Credits

I. Arts 20, Observation and Practice Teaching in Industrial A r t s ...... 9 I. Arts 400, Shop Management and Layout (first 9 vreeks) ...... 3 I. Arts 407, Industrial Arts Education (first 9 weeks) ...... 3 15

Spring Semester Credits

Ed. 424, Visual and Other Sensory Aids for Teachers ...... 2 I. Arts 330, Handicrafts in the General Shop .... 2 I. Arts 387, Furniture Construction...... 2 I. Arts 391, Advanced Electric Wiring and Construction...... 2 I. Arts 421, Curriculum Materials in Industrial Arts 3 Electives (not shop or drawing) ...... 4 15 INDUSTRIAL-VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS URBANA

The Industrial-Vocational Education curriculum leads to the degree of Bachelor of Science in Industrial Education. The curric ulum is designed to prepare industrial-vocational shop instructors It is a five-year program involving a total of twenty-five months of full-time supervised trade experience in a selected industrial plant with which a cooperative agreement has been arranged by the University.

CURRICULUM

First Year

First Semester 16 Hours D.G.S. Ill, Verbal Communication ...... 4 G.E. 101, Sigineering D r a w i n g ...... 3 Ind. Ed. 181, Introductory W o o d w o r k ...... 4 Electives ...... 3 Physical Education...... 1 Military (men) ...... 1 Second Semester 17 Hours D.G.S. 112, Verbal Communication...... 4 Ed. 101, The Nature of the Teaching Profession . • 2 Ind. Ed. 183, General Me t a l w o r k ...... 4 Math. 117, Combined Freshman Mathematics...... 5 Physical Education...... 1 Military (men) ...... 1 First Summer Ind. Ed. 189, Industrial Practices (supervised work experience, three months) . . . 2

Second Year

First Semester 18 Hours

Arch. 141 > Materials and Methods of Construction • 2 D.G.S. 141* Physical Science...... 4 Ed. 201, Foundations of American Education .... 2 Ind. Ed. 182, Advanced Course in Woodwork, or Ind. Ed. 284, Advanced Metalwork...... 4 Psych. 100, Introduction to Psychology ...... 4 Physical Education...... 1 Military (men) ...... 1 95

INDUSTRIAL-VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS (continued)

Second Year

Second Semester 19 Hours

Art 137* Design Analysis...... 2 D.G.S. 112, Physical Science ...... 4 Hist. 152, History of the United States from 1865 to the P r e s e n t ...... 3 Ind. Ed. 285, General Electricity...... 3 Joum. 204, typography...... 2 Pol. Sci. 150, American Government...... 3 Physical Education...... 1 Military (men) ...... 1

Second Summer

Ind. Ed. 189* Industrial Practices (supervised work experience, three months)...... 2

Third Year

First Semester 17 Hours

D.G.S. 131, Biological Science...... 4 D.G.S. 161, Literature and Fine Arts, or D.G.S. 121, History of Civilization...... 4 Econ. 108, Elements of Economics...... 3 Ind. Ed. 186, AutomotiveMaintenance ...... • 3 Ind. Ed. 280, General Drawing forTeachers .... 3

Second Semester 16 Hours

D.G.S. 162, Literature and Fine Arts, or D.G.S. 122, History of Civilization...... 4 Econ. 240, Labor P r o b l e m s ...... 3 Ind. Ed. 381, Principles of Vocational Eduoation • 3 Electives ...... 6

Third Summer

Ind. Ed. 189, Industrial Practices (supervised work experience, three months) ...... 2 INDUSTRIAL-VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OP ILLINOIS (continued)

Fourth Year

Ind. Ed. 189, Industrial Practices (supervised work experience, nine months)...... 6

Fourth Summer

Ind. Ed. 189, Industrial Practices (supervised work experience, three months) ...... 2

Fifth Year

First Semester 3 Hours

Ind. Ed. 189, Industrial Practices (supervised work experience, four and one-half months) . . . 3

Second Semester 16 Hours

Ed. 211, Educational Psychology...... 3 Ed. 242, Educational Practice in Secondary Education...... 5 Ind. Ed. 338, Special Techniques of Teaching Vocational-Industrial S u b j e c t s ...... 4 Electives ...... 4

Suggested Electives Hours

Accy. 201, Fundamentals of Accounting...... 3 Econ. 248, Personal Administration...... 3 Ind. Ed. 337* Training Programs in Industry .... 4 I. E. 230, Labor R e l a t i o n s ...... 3 I. E. 232, Methods-Time Analysis ...... 3 I. E. 233, Industrial QualityControl ...... 3 I. E. 235* Industrial S a f e t y ...... 3 I. E. 239, Industrial Development and Supervision . 3 I. E. 283, Plant Layout and Materials Handling . . 3 I. E. 353, Problems in Industrial S a f e t y ... 3 law 347, Labor L a w ...... 3 Mgnrt. 101, Industrial Organisation and Management . 3 Mgmt. 205, Production Planning and Control .... 3 Mgmt. 221, Work Simplification and Time Study . . . 3 Mgmt. 312, Human Relations in B u s i n e s s ...... 3 Psych. 145* Industrial Psychology ...... 3 97

INDUSTRIAL-VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY LEXINGTON

Special Teacher Education Courses for Certification as an Industrial-Vocational Teacher

The Federal Vocational Education Act of 1917 provides for the education of teachers for unit-trade and part-time programs in industrial education and for general continuation school classes. The University of Kentucky has been designated as the state institution responsible for the education of teach­ ers for this work. The following courses are required in order to receive a certificate to teach vocational-industrial education:

71 Trade Analysis (2)

A course planned to meet the needs of vocational teachers in the fields of coordination, shop instruction, and related subjects in connection with day, part-time and evening schools.

77 Shop Management Problems (2)

Industrial education in the school shop. The course evaluates all types of activities in connection with this part of the educational program and gives due weight to each factor.

78 Conference Leader Training (2)

Methods of presenting subject matter so as to allow free and constructive thinking. The conference method does this by developing situations and case studies which are handled by the Box-Head Analysis system of control.

82 Instructional Material in Industrial Education (2)

Selecting and arranging course material in trade and industrial subjects. Preparation of instruction and check sheets with emphasis on their uses. Prereg: Edu­ cation 71*

83 Principles of Trade Teaching (2)

This course deals with the fundamentals of learning and teaching that have special significance in trade and technical subjects. 98

INDUSTRIAL-VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY (continued)

123 Vocational Guidance (2)

Course content includes units on aims and pur­ poses, individual inventory, and counseling techniques. Emphasis is placed on occupational information and guidance, placement, follow-up, and organization and administration of a guidance program.

13A Organization and Operation of Part-time and Evening Classes

A course for administrators, coordinators, and teachers in part-time and evening industrial educa­ tion. Covers the duties of a coordinator in coopera­ tive training programs.

136 Surveys in Industrial Education (2)

This course deals with the basic methods and techniques used in making a survey to determine the needs for trade and industrial education. Emphasis is placed on gathering, evaluating, and interpreting the data.

INDUSTRIAL ARTS AT THE PRAIRIE VIEW AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE PRAIRIE VIEW, TEXAS

Required Courses in Industrial Arts Education

Every student in the School of Arts and Sciences is re­ quired to spend six supervised clock hours per week, throughout one year residence in long session, or the equivalent thereof in some form of vocational training. This requirement is re­ ferred to as "Industry11 and its fulfillment grants two semester hours credit per semester. INDUSTRIAL ARTS AT THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY COLUMBUS

Industrial Arts Service Course

Education 522. Industrial Arts Laboratory for Teachers in Elementary Schools*

Five credit hours* One Quarter. Autumn, Winter, Spring. Five two-hour periods each week for lecture and laboratory. Enrollment limited to majors in Ele­ mentary and Special Education.

Laboratory experience involving the use of tools and materials which enter into an activity curriculum in elementary schools. These activities deal with materials, processes, and products through which society supplies its needs for food, clothing, shel­ ter, utensils, records, and transportation.

ENGINEERING SHOFWORK AT SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA

The following courses are offered in the Division of In­ dustrial Technology for students in the School of Engineering:

341 Machine Tools Uses, capabilities and characteristics of the basic machine tools of industly. Laboratory exer­ cises in key machining operations, of turning, mis­ sing, shaping, drilling, tapping, reaming, and boring; cylindrical and surface grinding* Use of inspection and precision measuring apparatus.

472 Welding Engineering

Study of the fundamentals of welding processes and design of weldments, types, characteristics, and perfonnance of various welding machines and processes; resistance welding and machine welding; inspection and testing of welds; application to the production of machines and structures; supplemented by laboratory experiments. 100

ADULT EDUCATION AT THE MISSISSIPPI STATE COLLEGE STATE COLLEGE

Adult Education. Through this department the Mississippi State College makes its resources available to people through­ out the state. Noncredit instructions, forums, and institutes have been inaugurated in the field of business, industry, and other technical pursuits.

SPECIAL COURSE IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION AT PRAIRIE VIEW AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE PRAIRIE VIEW, TEXAS

Special Students. Special courses shall be arranged in order to meet the needs of rehabilitation students or students who desire to undertake special study without working toward a degree or a certificate. These courses shall be arranged and supervised by the Director of the Division.

The following course numbers will be used by those persons enrolling in classes for rehabilitation students.

School Period Course Number

First regular session ...... 010 Second regular session ...... 020 First summer s e s s i o n ...... 030 Second summer session...... 040

The above numbers will also carry the name of the depart- ment in which the student is enrolled, e.g., Auto Mechanics 010 indicates a class in auto mechanics for rehabilitation students offered the first session of the regular school year. Table II gives the data on the industrial education offerings of land-grant colleges and universities. This table includes data from all of the sixty-six institutions. Thirteen institutions, or

19 percent, offered degree programs in industrial-vocational educa­ tion. Eight, or 12 percent, of the institutions offered degree programs in industrial-technical education. Twelve, or 18 percent, offered terminal programs in industrial-vocational education. Ter­ minal industrial-technical programs were offered by six institutions, or 9 percent of the total. Industrial arts teacher education was offered by forty-three of the land-grant institutions, or 65 percent of the total. Forty-one, or 72 percent, of the institutions offered work in industrial-vocational teacher education. Eight, or 12 per­ cent, of the colleges or universities indicated required offerings in industrial arts. Sixteen, or 24 percent, indicated elective offerings in industrial arts, and eleven, or 16 percent, indicated service courses in industrial arts. Ehgineering shopwork was offered by eight, or 12 percent, of the industrial education programs. Pro­ grams classified as adult education were offered by five, or 7 per­ cent, of the institutions. Those offerings classified as special were identified in three institutions, or 4 percent of the total number studied.

ADMINISTRATIVE ALLOCATION

How are the industrial education programs allocated in the land- grant colleges and universities? Three patterns of administrative 102

Table II

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION OFFERINGS

Number of Offering Institutions Percentage

Industrial-Vocational (Degree) 13 19

Industrial-Technical (Degree) 8 12

Industrial-Vocational (Terminal) 12 18

Industrial-Technical (Terminal) 6 9

Industrial Arts Teacher Education A3 65

Industrial-Vocational Teacher Education 41 62

Industrial Arts (Required) 8 12

Industrial Arts (Electives) 16 24

Industrial Arts (Service Courses) 11 16

Engineering Shopwork 8 12

Adult Education 5 7

Special Courses 3 4

No Offerings 17 25 103 allocation were revealed by this study:

1. Industrial Education activities are allocated as a sub­ ordinate part of one larger area of the institution. The line of authority, runs from the President to the Dean of the college to the

Dean of the school to the Head of the Industrial Education De­ partment.

2. Industrial education activities are divided and allocated as subordinate areas in two or more major areas of the institution.

3. Industrial education activities are recognized as a major area of the college. The line of authority runs from the President to the Dean of the college to the Head of the Industrial Education

Program.

Table III presents the allocation schemes for the thirty-nine institutions which furnished complete data for the study. Twenty- six institutions allocated the industrial education activities as a subordinate phase of education, engineering or some other area.

Four of the land-grant institutions allocated industrial education as a subordinate area in education and engineering or some other combination which represented two or more major areas governing the administration of the industrial education activities. Nine of the institutions surveyed allocated the industrial education activities as a major area of the institution, with the line of authority from the Head of the Industrial Program to the Dean of the college to the President. 104

Table III

ALLOCATION OP INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

Number of Allocation Scheme Institutions

1. Industrial Education is allocated as a subordinate area within a major area of the college. 26

2. Industrial Education is allocated to two or more major areas of the college. 4

3. Industrial Education is allocated as a major area of the college. 9 105 ADMINISTRATION

Three major questions were raised with regard to the adminis­

tration of industrial education in the land-grant colleges and uni­ versities. They were concerned with (1) administrative authority and control, (2) relationship of staff to administration, and (3) relationship of administration to staff. The questions and data collected are as follows:

1. Does the chief administrator for industrial education have final control, subject to the approval of the President, in all matters pertaining to the administration of Industrial Education?

Number of Institutions Reply

25 Yes

U No

2. Does the industrial education staff participate in programs planning organization, director, coordination, and evaluation?

Number of Institutions Reply

17 Extensively

20 Occasionally

2 Seldom

3* Do individual staff members have a clear picture of their status in the program, and are they given an opportunity to par­ ticipate in courses of action which affect the staff?

Number of Institutions Reply

37 Almost Always 2 Occasionally 0 Seldom 106

STAFF

Information was collected on the industrial education staff with regard to (l) educational qualifications, (2) trade or industrial ex­ perience, (3) teaching experience, (4 ) participation in selection, promotion, and dismissal of staff members, and (5) participation in experiences for professional growth. An analysis of the above fac­ tors are indicated in Table IV, page 107, and Tables V and VI, page 108.

STUDENT PERSONNEL

Data on student personnel services were collected with regard for recruitment, admission, guidance and counseling, placement and follow-up. A presentation of this data is made in Table VII, page 109 .

CURRICULA

No detailed analysis was made of curricula programs in the land- grant colleges and universities. It was felt that contemporary curricula should be studied only to the extent that it revealed or reflected what the institution claimed as a purpose or function.

It was assumed that appropriate curricula existed to realize each function or purpose claimed by the institution.

FINANCIAL SUPPORT

Almost one half of the institutions answering the questions on financial support indicated that their funds were sufficiently adequate to support the industrial education program. Seventeen of EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION STAFF

stitutions listed having not more thanmore not having of percent staff it3 25 having no staff member no having staff percent to 25 having50 with members ofstaff degrees listed degrees having 51 to 75 percent to 75 having 51 withmembers of staff percent over75 having degrees listed degrees of staff memberswith of staff listed degrees with degrees as listed as withdegrees members withdegrees members Degree membersallin­ in Number of institutions of Number Number ofinstitutions Number Number ofNumber institutions Numberof institutions of Totalnumberstaff Number ofNumber institutions

e Doctoral 13 -F* 7 O »

Masters 0 16 n

Bachelors 13 Oi 7 JO H f O O O H* ov O 0» H No Degree 1 22 0 va P G 108

Table V

TEACHING AND TRADE EXPERIENCE OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION STAFF

Number of institutions in which 50 percent or more of staff has the experience indicated: Less than Three Tears Experience No Experience 3 Years or More

Trade 0 8 31 Teaching 0 0 39

Table VI

STAFF DEVELOPMENT AND IMPROVEMENT

Almost Always Occasionally Seldom

1. Indicate the extent to which the staff participates in selection, promotion, and dismissal of staff members 4 1 7 8

2. Indicate the extent to which the staff engages in self- improvement through in- service education, profes­ sional meetings, publications, self-evaluations, etc, 2 4 15 0 109

Table VII

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES

Answer Question Yes No

1. Does the industrial education program have a recruitment program which makes a direct and purposeful effort 3 6 1 to recruit students?

2. Is high school graduation the only method of admission to the industrial education program? 1 1 26

3. Is high school graduation or an equiv­ alent thereof acceptable for admis­ sion? 26 U

4* Does the industrial education program have guidance and counseling services in addition to those provided on a college-wide basis? 35 4

5. Does the industrial education depart­ ment follow-up its graduates and ex-students in an organized manner? 20 19 110

the industrial education programs were dependent upon student fees

for support. In answer to questions on the budget for industrial

education, twenty-five institutions indicated that the staff assisted

in formulating the budget. Twenty-four colleges and universities

indicated that the industrial education administrator had full con­

trol and authority over expenditure of funds allocated to the in­

dustrial education program. Table VIII, page 111, gives a detailed

picture concerning the data collected on financial support.

INSTRUCTION

Specific questions concerning supervision of instruction, nature

of course experiences, and the average number of students taught in

the class were included in the survey of instructional practices in

industrial education. Table IX, page 112, gives statistical data on

the questions raised in the inquiry.

LIBRARY

Data was collected on the main library system, the industrial

education departmental library, the adequacy of library holdings,

and the role the industrial staff has in developing the library

holdings. Data are summarized in Table X, page 113*

PHYSICAL FACILITIES

Three questions were asked about physical facilities for in­ dustrial education in the land-grant institutions. These questions

and the answers are shown in Table XI, page 114• Ill

Table VIII

FINANCIAL SUPPORT

Answer Question Yes No

1. Is there adequate financial support for the industrial education program? IS 21

2, Does the industrial education program depend upon student laboratory fees for support? 17 22

3* Does the industrial education staff assist in budget-making for the program? 25 14

4* Does the chief administrator for indus­ trial education have full authority and control over the expenditure of funds for the operation and develop­ ment of the program? 24 15 112

Table IX

INSTRUCTION IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

Answer Question Tea No

1. Is there a supervisor who devotes most of his time to improvement of in­ struction in industrial education? 11 2d

2. Are the industrial education courses organized so that instruction is terminal within each course and the student does not have to take ad­ ditional courses to secure useable units of knowledge or skill? 29 10

3. Are out-of-class, out-of-school ex­ periences included as a vital part of the instructional program? 9 30

What is the size of the average laboratory class?

a* 15 students or less 6 33 b. 15 to 20 students 16 23 c. 20 to 24 students 15 24 d. Over 24 students 2 37 113

Table X

THE LIBRARY

Answer Question Yes No

1. Does your institution have a centralized library system? 32

2. Does your institution have a decentralized library system? 7 32

3. Is there a departmental library for industrial education? 17 22

4. Are the industrial education facilities at your institution adequate? 5 34

5. Is the industrial education de­ partment responsible for developing its library holdings? 35 Table XX

PHYSICAL FACILITIES

Answer Question Yes No

1. Is planning of physical facil­ ities for industrial education considered an integral part of over-all plant development at the institution? 26 13

2. Are the present physical facil­ ities adequate 10 29

3. Are the present facilities con­ sidered adequate in terns of what research and expense have shown to be most desirable for industrial education? 4 35 115

PROFESSIONAL AND PUBLIC RELATIONS

A detailed analysis of contemporary patterns of professional and public relations in industrial education is given in Table XII.

Only seven of the thirty-nine schools in the survey used lay ad­ visory committees in connection with their programs. Almost all of the schools had representatives at local and state industrial educa­ tional meetings. At regional and national meetings fewer schools were represented. Financial assistance was provided for twenty-four schools to participate in professional meetings. Thirty-five of the schools had industrial education clubs while only twelve schools had an honorary industrial education fraternity on their campuses.

Twenty-eight institutions stated that the public relations program was available to the industrial education department for publicity purposes.

It is apparent from the findings in this chapter that the con­ temporary land-grant colleges and universities are not fully ex­ ploiting the full potential of industrial education. There were twelve different industrial education programs offered in the several land-grant colleges and universities. Of this number only two, industrial arts teacher education and industrial-vocational teacher education, were offered in more than 25 percent of the colleges. The ten other industrial education programs were offered in only three to sixteen of the sixty-six land-grant colleges. This was less than

25 percent of the total. Industrial arts teacher education was 116

Table XII

PROFESSIONAL AND PUBLIC RELATIONS

Answer Question Xes No

1* Are lay advisory boards or councils used in planning and developing the industrial education program? 7 32

2* Is the institution represented at in­ dustrial education professional meetings?

a. Local Meetings 37 2 b. State Meetings 37 2 c. Regional Meetings 24 15 d. National Meetings 22 17

3* Is financial assistance available to assist in attending professional meetings? 24 15

4. Is professional club work included as a part of the students' educa­ tional experiences? 35 4

5. Do you have one or more of the honorary fraternities in indus­ trial education located at your institution? 12 27

6. Is there an organized public relations program available to the industrial education department? 26 11 offered in forty-one of the colleges, or 62 percent of the total.

As a professional offering industrial arts teacher education seems to be fairly well represented in the land-grant colleges and universities. The nonprofessional or vocational and technical of­ ferings seem to be represented in only a few of the colleges studied.

Seventeen land-grant colleges, or 25 percent of the total, indicated that they had no industrial education program at the undergraduate level. It would be interesting to know why this was true. Howsver, such determinations were not Included in the scope of this study. Chapter VI

POLICIES FOR PROJECTING INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

Today there are over forty million persons in the United States enrolled in formal education programs. In addition to this number, several million more are engaged in informal educational activities for personal improvement, recreation, etc. Less than two hundred years ago, there were hardly any organized public education programs for the general population of the United States. In this short period of time, an elaborate educational system has developed. It ranges from nursery school to higher education and continuing adult education. This educational system has been developed and in­ fluenced by two significant factors: (1) the nature and character of the American social and economic order, and (2) the basic values of democracy which we continually strive to accomplish. It is upon these t m points that the purposes or functions of elementary, secondary, higher, or adult education may be developed.

The foundations of industrial education may then be derived by taking a close look at the nature of our social order, the nature of our political values, and the role of education in relation to these two.

In a recent report on higher education in a mid-western state, the following statement was made (34, p. 3):

Education is concerned with people, with their growth and their problems* If education is to do its job well,

118 119

it mast be built on the known needs of the people it serves. Knowledge of the general characteristics of the people— how many there are, where they live, their age levels, the kind of work they do, their earning power, and so on— is necessary for an understanding of the problem and progress in higher education.

HUMAN RESOURCES

As late as 1940, many population experts were predicting that the United States had reached a plateau in population increase and that the population would slowly begin to decline. World War II brought an end to the decade of depression; it brought prosperity, increased marriages, and increased birth rates. When the statistics of the period were collected, they revealed one of the most striking and unexpected developments of the century. During 1940 to 1950, more people were married and more babies were born than in any pre­ vious ten years of our history. The population in 1950 numbered

152 million. It had grown by almost twenty million in the preceding year. To make conditions even more astonishing, population has con­ tinued to grow. By 1953, it had risen to 160 million and in 1956 the U. S. Bureau of Census estimated the United States population to be slightly over 166 million people. Presently there is every in­ dication that population will continue to increase in the future as shown in Table HII. It is estimated that the population will reach

204,620,000 by 1970 and 363 million by the year 2,000.

While over-all population figures are very important for higher education, they tend to cover up many significant factors. Along with the general population increase, there are proportionately more 120

Table XIII

u. s. POPULATION TRENDS AND PROJECTION, 1900-2000*

Percent of Year Population Increase

1900 75,944,515 -

1910 91,972,266 21

1920 105,710,620 15

1930 122,775,046 16

1940 131,699,275 7

1950 150,697,361 14

I960 177,840,000 18

1970 204,620,000 15

1980 239, 700,000 17

1990 261,900,000 18

2000 336,000,000 19

* Source: Educational Policies Commission, Manpower and Education. 121 children and youth in the United States than in former years. Like­ wise, there are more older persons than ever before.

Technology has brought advances in medical knowledge, increases in health services, and a higher standard of living, all to the end that birth and infant mortality have decreased tremendously and the life span of individuals is gradually increasing. This is illus­ trated in Table XIV, page 122. The population group from birth to fifteen years has been increasing over the past twenty years, as shown in Table XV, page 123. This is also true for the population group, sixty-five and over. The middle group, which includes persons of ages fifteen to sixty-four, has shown a gradual decline in number.

This is significant because the persons of the middle group, par­ ticularly those of ages twenty to sixty-four, are our "producers."

Since this group is gradually declining each year, we may certainly expect to see a labor force manpower shortage at least until 1970.

Another interesting population trend has been the shift of the nation from farm dwellings to urban and suburban living. In 1850, over 85 percent of the population was living on farms. Only 15 per­ cent of the population resided on farms in 1950, and this number is still declining (see Table XVI, page 124).

The new population trends in the United States have produced important developments and changes in the entire social and economic order. Our educational and manpower needs are particularly affected.

Ronald B. Thompson has made several important studies on the effect of population developments on school enrollment. While our school Table XIV

BIRTH AND DEATH RATE, 1900-1955*

Rate per 1000 Rate per 1000 Year Birth Population Death Population

1900 -

1910 -

1920 1,508,874 23.7 1,118,070 33.0

1930 2,203,958 18.9 1,327,240 11.3

1940 2,360,399 17.9 1,417,269 10.9

1950 3,554,149 23.6 1,452,454 9.6

1951 3,750,850 24.5 1,482,099 9.7

1953 3 ,902,120 24.6 1,517,541 9.6

1955 4,041,000 24.6 1 ,527,000 9.3

* Source: U. S, Statistical Abstract, 1956. Table XV

AGE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION, 1850-1953*

Age Group Birth to 15 15 to 64 Over 65 No. in No. in No. in Tear Millions Percent Millions Percent Millions Percent

1850 9.6 41.4 13.0 56.0 .6 2.6

1860 12.7 40.4 17.9 57.1 .8 2.5

1870 15.1 39.1 22.3 57.8 1.2 3.1

1880 19.1 38.1 29.3 58.5 1.7 3.4

1890 22.2 35.6 37.8 60.6 2.4 3.8

1900 26.2 36.5 46.6 61.4 3.1 4.1

1910 29.5 32.1 58.4 63.7 3.9 4.2

1920 33.6 31.8 67.0 63.6 4.9 4.6

1930 36.0 39.4 80.0 65.2 6.6 5.4

1940 32.4 25.0 89.7 68.2 9.0 6.8

1950 35.0 26.9 97.9 63.0 12.3 8.1

1953 39.0 28.7 98.6 62.3 14.3 9.0

* Source; U. S. Statistical Abstract, 1956 124

Table XVI

URBAN, RURAL NON-FARM, RURAL FARM POPULATION 1920-1950* (Number in Thousands)

Year 1920 1930 1940 1950

Total Population 105,711 122,775 131,669 150,697 Percentage 100 100 100 100

Urban Population 54,158 68,955 74,424 96,468 Percentage 51 56 57 64

Rural Non-Farm Population 20,159 23,663 27,029 31,181 Percentage 19 19 21 21

Rural Farm Population 21,393 30,158 30,216 23,048 Percentage 30 25 23 15

* Source: U. S. Statistical Abstract, 1956. 125

enrollment estimates for the elementary and secondary schools are tremendous, the estimates for higher education are even more im­ pressive. In 1954> Thompson projected future enrollment in higher education as shown in Table XVII. He also stated (67, p. 26):

If our proportional attendance of college-age youth were to increase by one percent a year up to 50 percent by 1970, we should have enrolled in our colleges and uni­ versities approximately six and two-thirds million stu­ dents by that time. This is more than two and one-half times our present enrollment and more than twice our past peak enrollment. In the light of the American tra­ dition of providing educational opportunities commensurate with ability and motivation, in light of present educa­ tional trends, and in light of the information we have regarding the actual number of children already bom, this is entirely within the realm of possibility.

The enrollment figures released by the U. S. Office of Education for the fall 1956-57 revealed that a total of 2,947,000 students were enrolled in institutions of higher education. Freshmen or first-time enrollment in higher education institutions was 723,000 students.

The increase over the fall of 1955 in total enrollment was 260,000, or 10 percent, and in first-time enrollment it was 40,000, or 7 per­ cent. The statistics of 1956 marked the fifth consecutive year that both total and first-time enrollment in institutions of higher edu­ cation were higher than that of the previous year. Wien compared to the statistics of 1951, total enrollment has risen 39 percent and first-time enrollment, 53 percent.

The actual enrollment figures for 1956-57 were slightly in ad­ vance of Thompson's projections (2,947,000 actual vs. 2,867,474 projected). Added importance is given to the actual enrollment 126

Table XVII

ENROLIMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION PROJECTED TO 1970-1971 ASSUMING UP TO 50 PERCENT ATTENDANCE OF COLLEGE-AGE GROUP*

Year Enrollment Year Enrollment

1954-55 2,629,293 1963-64 4,426,976

1955-56 2,747,645 1964-65 4,710,739

1956-57 2,867,474 1965-66 5,134,778

1957-58 2,869,473 1966-67 5,561,787

1958-59 3,143,769 1967-68 6,237,926

1959-60 3,338,656 1968-69 6,265,172

1960-61 3,616,531 1969-70 6,396,321

1961-62 3,959,ia 1970-71 6,668,817

1962-63 4,223,515

* Source: Thompson, R. B., The Impending Tidal Wave of Students, figures because they included only those students enrolled in degree programs and omitted thousands of students who are attending colleges and enrolled in terminal programs. While the actual figures are not available, the total enrollment in higher education was estimated to be nearly 3.3 million students in 1956. If this estimate was cor­ rect, then Thompson's projection estimate for I960 was reached in

1956. This would seem to indicate that his projections were conserv­ ative even though they seemed somewhat overoptimistic at the time they were made. Increased enrollment in higher education has been aided by (l) society's demand for college trained workers, (2) favor­ able economic conditions, (3) increased ability of scholarship, fellowship and loans, (4 ) increased number of high school graduates,

(5 ) deferment policies of the Defense Department, and (6) the faith of the people in education. If these conditions continue to prevail, there will be no decline in college enrollment in the remainder of the century.

The increased enrollment pattern has placed a challenge before institutions of higher education. It calls for a new type of educa­ tion to meet the widely diversified needs and interests of students.

Without lowering standards or sacrificing quality, it calls for an educational program consistent with the needs that exist in the social order.

College mortality studies indicate that 60 to 75 percent of the students entering college will not graduate. Educational programs must be arranged so that the loss in human talent can be reduced 128 as much as possible. Terminal programs of one, two, and three years

in length must be considered for college students. Technology has

increased the educational requirements of thousands of jobs beyond the high school level but not up to the college degree level. Much

of the talent which would ordinarily be lost because of finance, in­ terest, or ability can be channeled into this new program which must be forthcoming from higher education institutions.

The second major aspect of our social order affecting higher

education has been the changes in our economy. It was in the last years of the eighteenth century that Oliver Evans invented his auto­ matic wheat processing mill, and Eli Whitney produced gun parts and assembled guns on a mass production assembly line. This was at a time in the history of the country when agriculture was still the dominant force in our economy. Manufacturing, construction, commu­ nications, power, and transportation have pushed the wheels of prog­

ress from the development of the single wheel to launching artificial

satellites in the orbit of the planet Earth. They have completely altered the nature of the American culture and economy.

THE MATERIAL CULTURE

The material welfare of the American people is indicated by such barometers as income, average hours of work and leisure, family

security, employment, and the quantities of articles produced or con­

sumed as shown in Table XVIII. In 1946, national income per capita was $1,259; per family or household it was $3,940. In 1956, per 129

Table XVIII

ASPECTS OF THE MATERIAL CULTURE, 1946-1956*

Percentage Area 1946 1956 of Change

Civilian labor force 57.5 million 67.4 million + 17

Employed persons 55.2 million 65 million + 18

Total production output $290.6 billion $412.4 billion + 42

Individual production output $2,055 $2,453 + 19

Families owning homes 21.3 million 29.3 million + 38 (55 percent) (60 percent)

Families owning cars 23.0 million 37.0 million + 61 (54 percent) (73 percent)

Home furnishings: Television sets 38.4 million Refrigerators 21.4 million 45.5 million +113 Vacuum cleaners 15.1 million 31.6 million +109 Electric washers IS.8 million 41.2 million +119 Dryers 5.6 million Air conditioners 100,000 3.6 million +3500 Freezers 8.6 million mm

Leisure: Weeks of vacation taken 34.4 million 70 million +103

Securities Checking accounts $44.3 billion $ 51 billion + 14 Savings accounts 49.6 billion 74.7 billion + 51 Savings and loan shares S.5 billion 37 billion +335 Family life insurance 3,600 7,500 +108 Old age insurance 33.3 million 54 million + 62 Unemployment insurance 30.2 million 41 million + 36 Hospital insurance 42.1 million 112 million +166 Surgical insurance 18.6 million 96 million +416 Medical insurance 6.4 million 63 million +884 130

Table XVIII (continued)

ASPECTS OF THE MATERIAL CULTURE, 1946-1956*

Percentage Area 1946 1956 of Change

Education: Expenditure per student $ 203 $ 280 + 38

Income: Average hourly wage $ 1.09 $ 1.98 + 82 Average weekly wage $ 43.32 $ 80.13 ♦ $3 Annual per capita income $1,259 $1,935 + 54 Annual family income $3,940 $5,520 ♦ 40 Low income families 11.4 million 8.3 million - 27 (less than $2,000) (26 percent) (16 percent) High income families 9.1 million 23 million +153 (more than $5,000) (21 percent) (44 percent)

Buying power (income after taxes): Weekly earnings $ 60.17 $ 73.33 + 22 Annual family income $4,520 $5,050 + 12 Annual income per capita $1,568 $1,705 ♦ 9

* Source: U. S. Mews and World Report, February 1, 1957, and Economic Report of the President. 131

capita income was up 54 percent, rising to $1,935. Family or house­ hold income was up 40 percent, rising to $5*520. During the ten-year period, 1946 to 1956, hourly wages rose 62 percent; weekly wages,

63 percent. The number of families with low incomes had declined

27 percent and the number of families with high incomes had gone up

153 percent.

In addition to enjoying more income as a benefit of our culture,

the American citizen enjoys more leisure. Our great grandfathers worked from sunup to sundown, six days per week, or 70 hours. Our

grandfathers were much more fortunate and worked only 60 hours per week. Our fathers were even better off and worked a 46-hour week.

We work only 40 hours per week, and our sons are expected to have only

36 work hours per week. In 1946, the American worker spent 34.4 mil­

lion weeks in vacation. By 1956, this leisure time was increased

103 percent, and he spent 70 million weeks of leisure time.

During their leisure time, the American citizens have more homes, more cars, and more gadgets to enjoy than ever before. In addition to enjoying the fruits of the material culture, the modern citizen has also attained a financial security never achieved by his fore­ fathers. Saving accounts, life insurance, unemployment insurance, and medical insurance have seen substantial increases in the past ten years. The material culture has also tended to strengthen the demo­

cratic values we hold so dear. It has helped to erase class lines, to extend equal opportunity to more people, to enhance fruitful 132 living of more of our citizens. Dewhurst (9, P* 836) pointed this out by stating:

As to the typical products that have transformed the household during the past half century, the upper and lower income groups both use the same vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, deepfreezes, oil burners, gas and electric stoves, automobiles, radios, and television sets. Their homes may have much the same kind of bathroom equipment and plumbing and lighting fixtures. They read the same newspapers and magazines, go to the same movies, listen to the same radio and television programs. They smoke the same brands of cigarettes, drink the same orange juice, eat the same canned, frozen, or out-of-season fresh food, bought at the same supermarket.

This democratization of our way of life has been only recently and to a limited extent the result of an organized program to "equalize welfare and redistribute wealth more equitably." On the contrary, it is the in­ evitable outcome of a progressive technology applied to production.

Frederick L. Allen, writing in the Centennial Issue of Harper^

Magazine. October, 1950, also gives strength to this position when he states that this new democratization is the outcome of

. . . the logic of mass production— which is that the more goods you can produce, the less it costs to pro­ duce them; and that the more people are well off, the more they can buy; thus making this lavish and economic production possible • . . that it pays better to produce the same sort of food, clothing, and equipment for everybody, of all income levels, than to produce luxury goods for a few, and second and third rate goods for the rest; and that therefore one can make money by lowering class barriers. Thus is Marxism confounded— not by dogma, but by the logic of industrialism itself; or to put it another way, by capitalism turned to democratic ends.

THE ECONOMY

The combination of human and material resources with technical knowledge and skill has produced the greatest economy known to civilization. Lifted out of a depression by World War II, the nation1 s economy has been flourishing for the past sixteen years.

Many felt that the economy would experience a postwar recession.

At the present time there are indications that the peace-time econ­ omy is growing stronger and stronger. The gross national production has increased from $286.8 billion in 1950 to $412.4 billion in 1956.

It is expected to reach $500 billion by 1965. Several important developments in the economy are worthy of note: (1) increased mechanization and manufacturing capacity, (2) increase in the ser­ vice occupations, and (3) decline in drudgery. At one time, the nation believed that human labor was an economical resource. It has been more recently discovered that human labor is a most expen­ sive commodity. Mechanical methods are now taking over more and more operations formerly done by hand. The machine has been found to perform with greater power, accuracy, speed, endurance, and efficiency than the human hand. Dewhurst (9, p. 863) points out:

American management has discovered that any repeti­ tive task that can be done by human hands can be done as well or better by a machine, and usually far more eco­ nomically. With common labor getting $1.25 per hour, human energy costs more than $30 per kilowatt hour, while electrical energy is available for two or three pennies. It is a failure to appreciate how costly muscle power really is that accounts for the wonderment of foreign visitors to our shores that we "waste everything else to save human labor."

Mechanization has moved human and animal labor from the farm, the home, and the factory. Today the number of horses and mules on farms has dropped from a peak of 27 million to around 5 million. 134

Some 4 million tractors have invaded the farms to produce more

energy at a cheaper rate, and more work on an all day schedule with

more efficiency. The tractors are pulling cultivators, combines,

cotton pickers, c o m pickers, hay balers, and a host of other mechan­

ized implements which eliminate human labor and foster greater, more

economical, and more efficient production.

Mechanization has been a tremendous boon to the American house­

wife. Until the end of the century, the sewing machine was the

most common mechanical device in the home. Today there are mechan­

ical devices to perform almost every household task. The refriger­

ators and freezers, washing machines, vacuum cleaners, telephones,

televisions, garbage disposals, hot water heaters, toasters, air

conditioners, dryers, ironers, and other mechanical appliances in

the home have replaced the human efforts of the housewife and re­ moved much of the drudgery from home living. Expenditures for mechanical appliances amounted to $3 billion in 1950. It is esti­ mated that these expenditures will rise to some $4 billion by I960.

Americans have developed a taste for mechanical gadgets for the

home. Nearly 2 percent of all consumer expenditures are for mechan­

ical appliances. If consumer buying power continues to increase as indicated in Table XVIII, page 130, a further mechanization of home living will surely result.

The extent of mechanization in industry is so gigantic that it

is practically incomprehensible. Industrial mechanization ranges from simple folk lifts and conveyor belts to completely automatic 135 factories. The simple mechanization which reduced the drudgery of work has now been extended by electronics. Push buttons, electronic tubes and transistors, and electronic computers and tapes are now activating servo-mechanisms to control tools and machines. This advancement in industrial mechanization has resulted in (1) drastic reduction in human energy, (2) increased production, and (3) lower production cost.

American ingenuity and enterprise will not be satisfied with the initial benefits of advanced mechanization. The ideals of democracy are still to be completely achieved; potential is still not fully utilized. Table XIX, page 136, shows that by I960, manu­ facturing companies will use the advantages of mechanization to increase their capacities some 74 percent above 1950. Still not completely satisfied, they are willing to invest some 9 million dollars in research to further increase our productive ability, as shown in Table XX, page 137*

A second major effect of technology on the economy has been in the sharp rise in trade and service industries and other occupa­ tions incident to a high standard of living. The service industries include all industries outside of manufacturing, construction, min­ ing, and agriculture. Economists are not entirely clear in their definition of the service industries but they will agree that if judged from the functions they perform, the service Industries in­ clude those involved with buying, selling, financing, transporting, servicing, teaching, cleaning, etc. They account for changes in 136

Table XIX

INCREASED CAPACITY OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 1950-1960*

Planned Industry 1950 1956 1957 for I960

Iron and Steel 100 128 337 153

Nonferrous Metals 100 165 178 223

Machinery 100 165 178 208

Electrical Machinery 100 178 196 217

Automobiles 100 165 170 189

Transportation Equipment 100 216 233 266

Other Metalworking 100 138 116 175

Chemicals 100 163 178 217

Paper and Pulp 100 112 151 177

Rubber 100 115 152 172

Stone, Clay, and Glass 100 136 113 160

Petroleum Refining 100 132 137 152

Food and Beverages 100 125 233 115

Textiles 100 123 127 137

Misc. Manufacturing 100 112 151 171

All Manufacturing 100 112 151 171

* Source: Adapted from Business Week. April 27, 1957. 137

Table XX

RESEARCH EXPENDITURES IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES 1956-1960*

Expenditures in Millions of Dollars Planned Industry 1956 1957 for I960

Primary Metals $ 97.9 $ 109.6 $ 145.8

Machinery 506.2 577.1 704.1

Electrical Equipment 1,148.9 1,309.7 1,637.1

Aircraft and Parts 1,557.8 2,274.4 3,161.4

Fabricated Metal Products and Ordnance 165.2 173.5 209.9

Professional and Scien­ tific Instruments 2 5 2 . 1 3 0 0 . 0 453.0

Chemicals and Allied Products 497.8 527.7 617.4

Paper and Allied Products 42.8 47.9 57.5

Rubber Products 73.1 81.9 95.0

Stone, Clay, and Glass 58.5 66.1 80.6

Petroleum Products 204.8 225.3 277.1

Food and Kindred Products 76.0 85.1 96.2

Textile Mill Products and Apparel 33.8 36.5 42.3

Other Manufacturing 1,071.2 1,156.9 1,272.6

A H Manufacturing 5,786.1 6,971.7 8,850.0

Nonmanufacturing Industries 310.4 347.1 418.8

All Industries 6,096.5 7,318.8 8,268.8

* Source: Adapted from Business Week, April 27, 1957* 138 the ownership of things, the location of things or people, states of knowledge or social order or climate of opinion, and degrees of cleanliness or efficiency. Today more than half of the labor force is in these industries. According to Table XXI, page 139, income from the service industries amounts to 56 percent of the national income. More than 37 percent of the consumer expenditures are for services (see Table XXII, page 140). Although a secondary effect of technology, the service industries are playing a key role in the nation's economy.

A third effect of technology on the economy is in the decline of drudgery in work. It has already been indicated that household appliances have freed the homemaker of time-consuming chores and lessened the exertion of human energy. Today's m o d e m industry is a far cry from the "sweat box" factory of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Machines are now doing the drudgery while men work in factories to the tune of music, in air-conditioned comfort and in pleasant and safe surroundings. The extent to which human energy has diminished and mechanical energy has taken over is shown in Table XXIII, page 141. In the past one hundred years, the amount of energy input from human labor has increased only sixfold, while the energy effort expended from technological sources has in­ creased some forty-five times.

NEEDS CREATED BY TECHNOLOGY

The new technology has brought with it many problems. Two of these are especially pertinent for this study: 139

Table XXI

SERVICE INDUSTRIES: INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT, 1956*

Income Employment Billions of Millions of Area Dollars Workers

Wholesale and retail trade $ 57.5 11.3

Finance, insurance and real estate 30.9 2.3

Transportation and public utilities 29.4 4.2

Miscellaneous services (including hotel, amusements, medical, legal, domestic, and others) 35.0 6.2

Government (federal, state, local) 39.6 7.2

Service industries, total 192.6 31.2 56 percent of total national income 52 percent of total national employment

All industries, total 342.4 59.7

* Source: Adapted from Business Week, September 21, 1957* 140

Table XXII

SERVICE INDUSTRIES: CONSUMER EXPENDITURES, 1956*

Expenditure Expenditure Service in Millions Service in Millions

Shoe cleaning and repair * 211 Personal business $13,968 Cleaning, dyeing, pres­ Auto repair, greasing, sing, alterations, etc. 1,829 washing, parking, etc. 3,290 Laundering 1,022 Road tolls 162 Other clothing services 406 Auto insurance premium Barber shops, beauty less claims paid 981 parlors, baths 1,851 Purchased local trans­ Housing (including rents portation 2,067 and rental value of Purchased intercity owner-occupied dwelling) 32,651 transportation 1,200

Electricity 3,536 Radio and TV repair 756 Gas 2,260 Admissions to spectator Water 923 amusements 1,791 Telephone, telegraph, etc. 3,513 Clubs and fraternal Domestic service 3,684 organizations 633 Other household expendi­ Commercial participant tures 1,610 amusements 683 Pari-mutuel net receipts 414 Physicians 3,269 Other recreation expen­ Dentists 1,070 ditures 895 Other professional services 646 Private education and re­ Private hospitals and search 3,565 sanitariums 3,451 Religious and welfare Medical care and hospital­ activities 3,746 ization insurance 1,173 Foreign travel and Funeral and burial expense 1,299 remittances (net) 1,098

Total expenditures for services $ 99,675 Total personal consumption expenditures 267,160 Percent of total spent for services 37

* Source: Adapted from Business Week. September 21, 1957. Table XXIII

ESTIMATED ENERGY INPUT USED FOR WORK PERFORMANCE 1850-1950*

Human Technological Year Energy Energy

1850 130 11,553

1860 173 19,220

1870 2 0 4 3.1,104

1880 269 54,803

1890 341 101,628

1900 405 172,938

1910 471 298,105

1920 495 349,295

1930 528 333,556

1940 530 352,990

1950 619 467,191

* Source: Dewhurst, America^ Needs and Resources. 142

1. Technology has put a high premium on human intelligence.

It demands more education and a higher quality of education.

Whereas the market for human energy of a physical nature has de­ clined, there is a demanding call for high grade mental abilities.

2. Technology has increased the skill requirements for jobs.

The unskilled laborer is gradually leaving the economic scene.

The jobs for the skilled worker, the technician, and the engineer are available in abundance.

In recent years, the studies of the National Manpower Council, the Educational Policies Committee, and the Commission on Human

Resources and Advanced Training have all revealed the need for up­ grading our human resources. This need exists in all areas, in industry, in business, in government, in education, in medicine, in every area of society. Recently one of the national publica­ tions called this general shortage of brain power 11 the top problem of the United States.n Table XXIV indicates a slow rise in the educational level of the lower age groups above age 2 5 in the population. While the increased educational accomplishments of the youngest age groups are somewhat encouraging, one cannot fail to note that only an average of 2 5 to 3 0 percent of college-age youth are entering colleges. Of this number, some 60 to 65 percent leave before they graduate. Even more serious are the findings of Dael

Wolfe (96, p. 2 6 9 ) 9 who states:

The United States wastes much of its talents. College graduating classes could be twice as large as they currently 143

Table XXIV

MEDIAN IEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED BY PERSONS 25 YEARS OLD AND OVER, 1940 AND 1950*

Years of Schooling Increase Age 1940 1950 1940 - 1950

All persons 25 and over 6.6 9.3 0.7

25-29 10.3 12.1 1.8

29-34 9.5 11.6 2.1

35-39 6.6 10.7 1.9

40-44 6.6 9.8 1.2

45-49 8.5 8.9 .4

50-54 8.4 8.7 .3

55-59 8.3 8.5 .2

60-64 8.3 8*4 .1

65-69 8.2 8.2 -

70-74 8.1 8.2 .1

75 and over 8.0 8.1 .1

* Source: Educational Policies Commission, Manpower and Education. 1UU

are, and with no loss of quality. The potential supply gets drained off, in large or small amounts, all the way through the educational system. Practically all potentially good college students enter, and most of them finish high school, but after high school the loss is large. Fewer than half of the upper 25 percent of all high school graduates ever earn college degrees; only six out of ten of the top 5 percent do. Society fails to secure the full benefit of many of its bright­ est youth because they do not secure the education that would enable them to work at the levels for which they are potentially qualified.

The colleges of the nation face a gigantic task in answering the challenge of the social and economical order peculiar to our time. While agreement does not exist in higher education as to what should be done to meet this problem, there is agreement that some­ thing must be done in the immediate future.

Closely allied to the growing need for highly educated workers is the need for highly skilled workers. The shortage of engineers and other workers requiring high-level professional education has been highly advertised during the past ten years. This shortage is apparently still with us and probably will be for some time to come.

Another shortage, which has not received an abundance of national publicity, but is even more acute than the shortage of engineers, exists among skilled workers and technicians. There are about nine million skilled workers and technicians in the labor force. This group of workers makes up 1A percent of the labor force as against

9 percent of the persons classified as scientific and professional workers. The skilled worker combines manipulation skills with technical knowledge in the performance of his job. He makes it U 5

possible to transform the plans, ideas, and designs of the scien­

tists and engineers into productive goods and services. In recent

Tears the growth of technology has created a severe demand for workers with qualifications between the professional engineer and

the skilled craftsman. In the publication, Qnployment Outlook for

Technicians. the following definition of a technician is given

(75, P. 2):

The technician is a person who works at a job which requires applied technical knowledge and applied technical skill. His work, in this respect, is somewhat akin to that of the engineer, but usually the scope is narrower. His job also requires some manipulative skills— those necessary to handle properly the tools and instruments needed to perform the technical tasks.

In his special field, he has considerable technical knowledge of industrial processes, and in this field he knows how to apply the necessary principles of the phys­ ical sciences and mathematics. In general, he uses instruments, in contrast with tools. His contribution is mainly through mental effort, in contrast with muscular exertion.

Hie job of the technician is not easy to define. On the one hand, it has many of the characteristics of en­ gineering, on the other, many of the qualities associated with the skilled trades. Some technician jobs lean toward the engineering type jobs which consist mainly of drafting, computations, and laboratory testing. Others border on the skilled crafts, such as those which deal with repair of mechanical or electrical equipment where much technical "knowhow" is demanded but which also require considerable manual skill. It hardly seems practical to set up clearly defined boundaries within which lie technician jobs.

We also find great differences in the "levels" of jobs of technician type. A job may be definitely tech­ nical in character, yet be extremely limited in scope and of a repetitive type. Certain simple inspection jobs are in this category. Tet other technician jobs may require 146

a high quality of technical knowledge and technical skill, such as all-round tool and gage inspection, which requires the use of many types of instruments.

The kinds of technical ability found in the various technician jobs are of considerable variety. Some jobs emphasize analysis and diagnosis. Some re­ quire visualization of drawings, or a flair for cre­ ative design. Some demand a high degree of applied mathematical ability. Some require a knowledge of practices in the skilled trades, but not the ability to perform the skilled tasks. Some require extensive understanding of industrial equipment and processes. Sometimes the job involves supervisory responsibili­ ties, and combines skill in handling people with skill in dealing with technological matters.

Table XXV shows the ratio of technicians needed to each profes­

sional engineer in order to properly reinforce the technology. The

range extends from a high of 20 technicians to 1 engineer for the

lumbering industry to a low of 2 technicians to each engineer for

the hydro-electric industry. Different studies and industries vary

in their figures on the ratio of technicians to engineers, but they all indicate the increasing importance of these workers in the tech­ nology. Decently, manpower utilization studies have revealed that

if sufficient technicians were available, the engineering shortage would be practically eliminated. From 40 to 75 percent of the pro­ fessional engineers are presently working in jobs which do not call for full professional engineering education. Studies of the utiliza­ tion of engineering manpower at General Electric Corporation and

Westinghouse Company revealed that a substantial number of the en­ gineers felt that their jobs did not fully utilize their talents and

could be performed by a technician. America can little afford such 147

Table XXV

RATIO OF TECHNICIANS TO ENGINEERS*

Technicians Needed Industry per Engineer

Limbering and Wood Processing 20.0

Shipbuilding 13.6

Pulp and Paper Manufacturing 10.3

Electrical Equipment Manufacturing 10.0

Textile 9.8

Telegraph and Telephone Communications 9.7

Rail Transportation 9.1

Metal Fabrication 8.0

Iron and Steel Production 6.0

Machine Tool 5.5

Electric Power Production 5.3

Petroleum 5.3

Metal Mining 5.2

Automobile Manufacturing 4.2

Chemical 2.2

Hydro-Electrical 2.2

* Source: (84) Vocational Technical Training for In­ dustrial Occupations. 148 poor utilisation of its human resources if its technological prog­ ress is to be maintained and advanced.

THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION

During 1957, the Educational Policies Commission issued the following statement (13, p. x):

During recent decades various national bodies have analyzed and evaluated the unique program which has evolved as "the American way" in higher education. Many states are now surveying the status and needs of their colleges and universities. Individual institutions, often with foundation aid, have reported on what higher education in our society should be and do. Reform pro­ posals have appeared in abundance. The literature on the meaning and purpose of higher education grows steadily greater. All the recent writings make it abundantly clear that higher education is now at a critical point in its development. . . The 1960*8 seem destined to be a decade of decision for American (higher) education; a period of paramount Importance for the years that lie ahead.

Truly we are entering an "age of decision." Higher education is about to be flooded by the "tidal wave" of students which will engulf its campuses in the early 1960's. The economic and social order has made certain demands for increased amounts and qualities of education for its citizens, and it has also demanded increased levels of technical skills for workers. Can higher education meet the challenge? Can higher education make its purposes democratic enough to meet the needs of a democracy?

In the past, higher education in most instances has conceived its mission to be education for the liberal arts and the professions.

This program has been geared to the needs of highly selected, 149 prepared secondary school graduates. Part of the foundation for this practice has been handed down from a historical background when higher education was dominated by the classical tradition. The agitation for practical education and the establishment of the land- grant colleges was the first sweeping break from this restricted notion of higher education. Even though agriculture and the mechanic arts were not considered "respectablethey did drive the first wedge for practical and vocational education in higher educa­ tion.

The passage of the Smith-Hughes Act, which enabled the rapid expansion of vocational education in the high school, was the second step in the determination of the people of this country to develop educational programs in keeping with the needs of youth and the socio-economic order. Just on the outside of the educational ladder, the technical institutes have also been attempting to furnish prac­ tical education at the post-secondary level. More recently, com­ munity colleges have developed to assist in meeting student and community needs. In general, colleges and universities have yet to make adjustments in their programs so that young people with all types of interests and abilities can find in them adequate prepara­ tion for successful living in modern society. It is even more tragic that the land-grant colleges and universities, which were founded on a commitment to practical education, have not completely adjusted their programs in terms of the needs of the people and the times.

Colleges and universities have made major progress in becoming vocationalized on the professional level. Few if any adjustments have been made, however, to serve the needs of individuals or soci­ ety which do not fall within the bachelor's degree pattern or some other higher degree. In 1956, 2,947,000 students were enrolled in institutions of higher education. This was nearly 40 percent of the total college age population. Can the needs of all these students adequately be met by degree-granting programs? Should all of these students be in degree-granting programs? How will the labor force secure qualified workers for the thousands of jobs which require education below the professional level but just above the secondary level? Are the vocations for vhich these 2,947,000 students are preparing consistent with the needs and opportunities which exist in the society? The Educational Policies Commission is most contem­ porary in its thinking when it states, "The 1960's seem to be destined to be a decade of decision for American (higher) educa­ tion— a period of paramount importance for the years that lie ahead." America must make a decision with regard towhat shall be the purpose or role of higher education for the years ahead.

In attempting to identify the purposes for higher education, these goals established by the President's Committee on Higher Edu­ cation seem most pertinent. The Commission believed that higher education should provide (45, p. 3):

1. Education for a fuller realization of democ­ racy in every phase of living.

2, Education directly and explicitly for inter­ national understanding and cooperation. 151

3. Education for the application of creative imagination and trained intelligence to the solution of social problems and to the administration of public affairs.

The Commission believed that these goals could be accomplished fey (l) providing equality of educational opportunity for all youth,

(2) providing professional and vocational education consistent with the interest of individuals and the needs of society, (3) providing for a functional program of general education, (4) providing a pro­ gram of research which will contribute to social and technological advancement, and (5) providing a program of continuing and adult education. The Educational Policies Commission (13, p. 6) has stated these goals using a slightly different wording. The Comnis- sion believes the purposes of higher education are: (1) to provide equality of opportunity for individual development, (2) to trans­ mit the cultural heritage, (3) to add to existing knowledge through research and creative activity, (4) to help translate learning into equipment for living and for social advance, and (5) to serve the public interest directly.

Using the purposes established by the Presidents Commission on Higher Education, the following functions may be projected for industrial education in higher education:

1. General Education. To provide college students with a comprehensive understanding, knowledge, and appreciation of the industrial culture in which they live. The educational experiences may be utilitarian or aesthetic in value. Courses may be arranged 152 for occupation, orientation, recreational or avocational values, cultural understanding and appreciation, consumer intelligence, creative expression, skill development, etc. Offering may be on any level, including adult and continuing education.

2. Professional Education. This function of industrial education will include all offerings which are a normal part of professional preparation. Included would be industrial arts teacher preparation, industrial-vocational teacher preparation, offerings for persons preparing in the field of engineering, elementary education, physical education, special education, home economics, etc.

3. Vocational Education. This function includes occupational preparation for positions of industrial-vocational or industrial- technical nature which require education of a post-high school level. It includes those occupations in varying levels of train­ ing required up to professional engineering education. Programs may be terminal, short unit, degree type, or whatever arrangement may meet student needs or occupational needs. Included will be continuing education offerings for adults or fonnal offerings for regular students.

4. Research and Extension Services. This function will in­ clude all the efforts outside of the fonnal course offerings to extend industrial education to those needs which exist in the com­ munity. Research efforts may be applied to those problems which may contribute to social and technological advancement. Out of the background of information collected with regard to our human resources, the material culture, the contemporary economy, and the purposes of higher education, criteria were constructed for projecting industrial education in the years ahead. The criteria were constructed and submitted to a jury of thirty outstanding leaders in industrial education. Fifteen of the leaders were ad­ ministrators or teachers in land-grant colleges or universities.

The other fifteen were staff members of non-land-grant institutions.

The criteria consisted of basic postulates and guiding principles

involving eleven areas in industrial education. Each postulate and principle was rated: (1) highly acceptable, (2) acceptable, or

(3) unacceptable. Twenty-four, or 80 percent, were returned with useable data. The respondents were free with notes and comments added to the criteria. The criteria were revised and reviewed by a board of five persons. A final revision was then made. This

criteria is recommended to be used as a guide in projecting indus­ trial education in the land-grant colleges in the years ahead.

CRITERIA FOR PROJECTING INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

I. Objectives

Postulate. It is recognized that many conditions may prevail which will cause industrial education objectives to vary among the land-grant colleges. Each industrial education program, however,

should derive its objectives from foundations established out of 154 the nature of man, the nature of society, the cultural heritage, and the ideals of the profession. A clear statement of objectives should be formulated in terms of general education, occupational education, and the individual development of the students. Objectives should reflect the needs of students, the needs of society, and the ideals of a democracy. In formulating the objectives, significant con­ sideration should be given to the geographic, socio-economic condi­ tions from which students are drawn.

Guiding Principles.

1. The objectives should be compatible with institutional objectives.

2. The objectives should be cooperatively formulated and ac­ ceptable to staff, students, and public.

3. The objectives should be stated with sufficient succinct­ ness that they give positive direction to policies, programs, staff, and students.

4. The objectives should reflect an awareness ofchanging needs of individuals in a technological society.

5. The objectives should be attainable.

6. The objectives should lend themselves tocontinuous ap­ praisal and reconstruction.

II. Administrative Allocation

Postulate. Industrial technology is a major characteristic of contemporary society. In the years ahead the industrial, 155 technical, and scientific characteristics of society will become

increasingly predominant and complex in nature. Reflecting these

conditions, there have developed a body of knowledge, specific training, and jobs which belong specifically to the field of indus­ trial education.

Industrial education should therefore be recognized as a major area in the land-grant oolleges and universities. It should also be given such allocation as will enable it to develop unhampered by administrative barriers.

Guiding Principles.

1. The allocation of the industrial education program should allow autonomy in administration and organization.

2. All industrial education areas should be grouped together in the allocation of an administrative unit.

3. Lines of authority should be established to insure maximum growth of industrial education whenever administrative allocation is made within another area of the college.

4. Industrial education should have administrative placement so as to enable it to accomplish its objectives without restric­ tions caused by administrative barriers. ? III, Administration

Postulate. The administration of industrial education is fun­ damentally concerned with organizing and operating various aspects of the program to accomplish the purposes implied in the objectives. 156

The effectiveness of industrial education administration should be evidenced by the organization and the competence of the administra­ tive staff together with the manner in which their functions are executed. Democratic procedures should characterize the administra­ tive program. The role of administrative leadership should be to work actively with staff and students in the solution of their problems and fostering their professional growth and development.

It is also the responsibility of the administration to use estab­ lished policies as the basis for program operation.

Guiding Principles.

1. The industrial education department should have freedom to organize and execute its program as will best accomplish its ob­

jectives .

2. Industrial education staff and students should be repre­

sented in policy making and other decisions affecting their welfare, both in the department and the general college.

3* Administrative leadership should make effective use of

staff, students, and public in planning, organizing, directing, co­ ordinating, appraising and reconstructing the industrial education program in order to effect its objectives and purposes.

4. The administrative officer for industrial education should have final control and authority, subject to the approval of the administrative officer of the college, on all matters pertaining to the administration of industrial education. 157

5. Democratic procedures should permeate the actions of the administration, staff, and students in policy making; execution of instructional programs; administration of business affairs, physical facilities, student and staff affairs; professional relationships; evaluation of activities and all other aspects of the program.

6. All administrative policies and programs should be con­ sistent with underlying philosophy of the program.

IV. Curricula

Postulate. The industrial education curricula in the land- grant college should include those experiences implied in the State­ ment of objectives. The curricula should be comprehensive and varied and include provisions in the areas of general education, professional education, technical education, and special education, that are compatible with the specific objectives which industrial education claims as its function. The curricula should be carefully coordinated with those aspects of student personnel services which are designed to identify the particular aptitudes of students and to help them find the curriculum through which they may work toward achieving their optimal development.

Guiding Principles.

1. The industrial education curricula in aim, offerings, and arrangement should be consistent and compatible with the functions to be served as implied by the objectives. 158

2. The curricula should be adequate in terms of. offerings and the competency of the staff to provide instruction,

3. The curricula should make provisions for both depth and breadth of offerings,

4» The curricula should reflect those ideals, understandings, skills, knowledges, and practices which will prove most beneficial to students in terms of the goals which they seek.

5. The curricula should be flexible in terms of student needs, interests, abilities, and goals, and also in terms of changing pro­ fessional, technical, and societal demands.

6. The curricula and their organization should be such that they will best serve the types of students whose admission is im­ plied by the purposes of industrial education in the land-grant college.

7. The adequacy of curricula and their organization should be ascertained by the degree to which they effectively and efficiently accomplish the functions which are implied in the objectives of the program.

8. The curricula should make use of all available resources, both in and out of school, in vitalizing experiences for the student.

9. The development of curricula should be a cooperative process involving consultants, staff, students, and the public.

10. The curricula should lend themselves to objective and con­ tinuous appraisal and reconstruction. 159

V. Instruction

Postulate. There should be a concern for the quality of the instructional program and continuous effort to improve the effec­ tiveness of instruction. Instruction should be flexible and chiefly concerned with promoting optimal growth and development of the student in terms of his needs and goals. The staff should have suf­ ficient knowledge of human psychology and learning to apply those instructional procedures and techniques which are most functional.

They should also be familiar with problems and developments in the art of effective teaching at the college level.

Guiding Principles.

1. The administration of industrial education should demon­ strate an interest in maintaining high quality instruction by recognizing it as being of major importance in rating teachers and by providing, for the teacher, the most satisfactory working climate possible.

2. The competence of the staff should be considered as a major factor in evaluating the quality of instruction.

3. The staff should demonstrate a knowledge of and an alert­ ness to the needs, interests, abilities, and goals of the students they teach.

4. There should be continuous supervision of instruction.

5. There should be a continuous program of in-service edu­ cation. 160

6. Instruction in all offerings should be terminal within each offering and at the same time be an integral part of a larger whole.

7. Instruction should include in-class, out-of-class, in­ school, and out-of-school activities.

8. Instructional methods should be based upon and vary ac­ cording to the nature of the students being taught, and an under­ standing of the learning process*

9. A high quality of instruction should be reflected by high scholastic attainment, by student satisfaction, by the holding power of the school and by the ability of the students to use mean­ ings derived from their learnings.

10. Student-teacher planning should be an integral part of the instructional program.

11. The instructional program should lend itself to evaluation and reconstruction by the administration, staff, students, and public.

VI. Staff

Postulate. The program should have a sufficient staff to carry out the functions implied in its objectives. The competency of the staff should be reflected by the nature and extent of the education and the technical and professional experience of each staff member.

Faculty competencies should be consistent with requirements implied by the objectives sought. Evidence of continued staff improvement should be present. 161

The faculty should be organized to execute its responsibilities in the most effective manner. The working conditions of the staff should insure high quality instruction, freedom to perform teaching functions, achievement of security, and continued growth.

Guiding Principles.

1. Each staff member should have adequate education for and experience in the area which he teaches.

2. Earned professional degrees, graduate study, educational experience, effective teaching, technical experience, publications, membership and participation in learned societies, when considered together, should be considered as evidence of professional com­ petencies.

3. Programs offering degrees should have a maximum number of persons on staff with the earned doctorate degree and technical ex­ perience in industrial education.

4. The staff should practice in the selection of new staff members•

5. Hecommendations from the staff for appointments, promotions, tenure, salary increases, and dismissal of staff members should be made by the administrative officer for industrial education, subject to the approval of the administrative officer of the college.

6. The student-teacher ratio should be appropriate to the nature of the activity being taught. The ratio should not exceed the point where the immediate personal relationship between the teacher and student is lost. 162

7. There should be a distribution of staff members with high- level talents and competencies throughout all areas of the indus­ trial education program.

S. Staff meetings should be conducted at regular intervals.

They should be devoted primarily to the study of issues and prob­ lems and the development of long range policies for industrial edu­ cation.

9. Faculty service conditions should be consistent with what research and superior practices have demonstrated to be desirable.

VII. Student Personnel

Postulate. The fundamental purpose of the student personnel services should be to join the other activities of the industrial education program in facilitating student learning and development in terms of his optimal growth. These services should be organized to render assistance to the staff concerning the student and to the student concerning himself, in making satisfactory personal, social, and professional developments. Attention should be given to pro­ viding these services in the areas of recruitment, selection, ad­ missions, registration, orientation, health, counseling, guidance, testing, remedial services, extra-curricular activities, financial assistance and employment, records and reports, placement, follow- up, housing, and student control.

Guiding Principles.

1. Student personnel services should be broad enough to in­ clude assistance in all of those areas which will contribute to 163 the optimal personal and professional development of the student.

2. A well-organized program of services should be coordinated with the total program.

3. Those services needed by industrial education students and which are not provided by the general college, should be provided within the industrial education program.

4. The industrial education faculty and students should share in the development and administration of the student personnel program.

5. There should be evidence that the services are actually reaching the students and staff in terms of useful benefits.

6. The services should be flexible in terms of the objectives of the program and the students served.

7. Continued services should be available to students who have graduated or left school as well as those who are still in school.

8. The services should lend themselves to objective appraisal and reconstruction by staff and students.

X. Financial Support

Postulate. There should be adequate funds to support the pro­ gram implied in the objectives of industrial education. Determina­ tion of the budget for the program should be a joint endeavor between the administrative officers for industrial education. Consideration should be given to the extent to which industrial education is de­ pendent upon student fees and income from production services to 164 support the program. Due to the nature of industrial education, special attention should be given to the formula for providing funds for educational purposes in this area of the institution.

Guiding Principles.

1. Industrial education programs should be restricted to the adequacy of financial support available to provide for a reasonably good quality of instruction and facilities.

2. The staff should share in the budget planning for the in­ dustrial education program.

3. The budget should be made in consultation between the executive officer of the institution and the executive officer for industrial education.

4. Student fee3 in industrial education should be kept at a minimum and should not be the sole basis of program or activity support.

5. Due to the nature of industrial education, a differential in cost per student for education should be reflected in the support of the program.

6. Clear lines of demarcation should exist between the finan­ cial support provided for instructional purposes and that provided for production services in industrial education.

7. Subject to the approval of the administrative officer of the institution, the administrative officer for industrial education administers over the expenditure of funds for the operation and development of the program. 165

XI. Professional and Public Relationships

Postulate. These include all contacts with individuals, groups,

organizations, or institutions outside of the university. Effective

professional relationships should encourage the use of all available

resources in the stimulation of professional growth and development.

Effective public relationships should include a two-fold function

with the public. On one hand, it should seek to keep the public in­

formed concerning the nature of the industrial education objectives,

programs, and activities, and on the other hand, it should seek to

have the public participate in the planning, accomplishment, ap­ praisal, and reconstruction of industrial education objectives, pro­

grams, and activities.

Guiding Principles.

1. The program should make continuous use of lay advisory boards or councils in the planning and development of the over-all program and in special areas of the program.

2. Staff and students should be active participants in local, district, state, and national professional organizations.

3. The program should have represented among its professional activities, one of the honor fraternities in industrial education.

4. There should be evidence of close professional relation­ ships between the program and industrial activities in the community, state, and nation. 5. Continuous use of publications and other communication and public relation media should be made to inform the public of all aspects of the program,

6. Evaluation and reconstruction of the public relations pro­ gram should be made periodically by the administration, staff, students, and public. Part III

PROJECTING INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN A LAND-GRANT COLLEGE

167 Chapter VII

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND OP TEXAS

THE SETTING

Texas has been called an empire within a republic. Containing

267,339 square miles, Texas has within its borders 9 percent of the land area of the United States. By comparison, Texas has four times the land area of all the New England states, an area equal to that of Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina,

South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. The state is bigger than the combined areas of France, Belgium, Holland, and Denmark. Proud of its bigness, Texas has become an American legend with regard to size, oil, millionaires, ranches, and cattle.

In recent years, many persons are beginning to see Texas in a real, rather than legendary, context. Texas is seen as a state with vast human and material resources which make its potential un­ limited. Texas is the sixth-ranking state in population, with

9,000,000 inhabitants. The soil of Texas has made it one of the nation's leading agricultural states. More cotton is grown in Texas than any other state. Over 25 percent of the United States' rice crop is grown in the State. Texas ranks first in beef cattle, sheep, mules, and goats; second in horses and poultry; third in dairy cattle. The State produces more wool than any other two states combined, and 97 percent of the nation's mohair. Texas

168 169 produces one half of the oil in America and 80 percent of the world's

supply of sulphur. It possesses over 100 different minerals of

commercial value. Widely known for its vast land holdings, Texas also has 270 miles of coast lines with thirteen deep-water ports.

Houston, in volume of tonnage, is the second biggest port in the nation.

Since 1940> Texas has experienced significant and substantial industrial growth. The 1940 value of manufactured products was

$1,530,220,676. In 1955, this value had increased to $4,500,000,000.

The cattle and cotton of Texas are having to make way for the oil refineries, chemical plants, aircraft factories, and 10,256 other industries listed in the Directory of Texas Manufacturers. In sur­ veying this vast transformation in Texas, the U. S. News and World

Report (93, p. 70) recently said: "... Imagine the manufacturing potential of a dozen Pittsburghs, with, a hinterland so huge and productive that it can provide for nearly every human need. There you have Texas— 1956 style."

It is in such a setting that the Prairie View Agricultural and

Mechanical College is located. From this rapidly transforming social and economic environment the goals of higher education and the functions of industrial education in Texas rmi3t be identified.

Using these very changing conditions in Texas as a frame of refer­ ence, the role of industrial education in the land-grant college at

Prairie View will be projected in the years ahead. 170

In order to secure a more succinct picture of contemporary

Texas, additional study must be given to certain aspects of the

Texas setting which will influence industrial education in higher education in the years ahead.

What are the population trends in Texas? What are the kind and extent of the physical resources of Texas? What are the present and likely developments in the Texas economy? What are the higher education implications of the aforementioned conditions? It is around these pertinent questions that this chapter will be de­ veloped.

POPULATION

General Trend. Until the first white men came to Texas in

1519, the various Indian tribes made up the population of this great State. For the next three hundred years, the population in­ creased by only 7*000 to 10,000 settlers. When Texas was admitted to the Union in 1845, it was estimated that its population was about 125,000 persons. In 1850, Texas ranked twenty-fifth among the various states in population. Today Texas ranks sixth in population, with an estimated 9,000,000 inhabitants. The Texas birth rate, running well ahead of the national average, rose from

23.1 births per 1,000 population in 1940 to a high of 29.1 in

1954, and it is still on the increase. Only New York and California have scored a larger total number of births. From 1950 to 1956, the 171 population of Texas increased 16 percent as against an 11 percent increase for the nation as a whole.

While in recent years the South and Southwest have suffered loss of population due to out-migration, Texas has shown a net gain of 73,000 from migratory movement between 1940 and 1950. It will also be interesting and significant to note that 80 percent of all people living in Texas were born in the state. Only one other state in the nation exceeds Texas* record of population stability.

There is every evidence to believe that the Texas population will continue to grow in the future. Many projections have been made of population in Texas. The latest of these projections, by a reliable source, was made in January, 1957, by the Bureau of Business Re­ search, University of Texas (63, p. 6). The Bureau predicted Texas population estimates as follows:

I960 9,332,000 1965 10,410,000 1975 12,087,000 2000 16,690,000 2010 1 9 ,0 0 0 , 0 0 0

Rural-Urban Shift. While Texas has made tremendous growth in total population since 1940, a momentous relocation of population within the state has also occurred during this period* Following the national trend, there has been a rapid shift from rural to urban living in Texas. During 1940-50, 108 Texas counties gained in population and 146 lost. With few exceptions, the big gains were in the urban centers. In 1950, fifty-four counties had one or more cities with a population of at least 10,000. All of these counties, 172 except ten, gained in population, and even in the counties that lost in population, the cities of 10,000 within their boundaries gained*

Every city in the state with a population of 10,000 or more gained in population during 1940-50. No official statistics are available on the rural-urban shift during 1950-57- Using the scholastic population trends as revealed in the census of the Texas Education

Agency, there is every reason to conclude that the rural to urban shifting occurred during the above period, and that it will continue to take place for some time in the future. Table XXVI, page 173, and Figure 1, page 174> give graphic pictures of the rural-urban population trend in Texas.

Racial and National Origin. The population of Texas is made up largely of three racial and national groups. These are (l)

Anglo-Americans, (2) Negroes, and (3) Latin-Americans. The white population is made up of the Anglo-Americans who historically came into Texas from the southeast, notably Tennessee and the old South.

Included in this group is the foreign immigrant stock of the German,

Czech, Polish, Scandinavian, Greek, Italian, and Jewish population.

The Negro population of Texas had its beginning in slavery during the colonization period. The Negroes, concentrated in the eastern part of the state, constitute a significant racial minority in

Texas. According to the 1950 census, there were 977*458 Negroes in the State of Texas.

The Latin-American population consists almost entirely of

Mexican-born and Mexican-descent persons. Although distinctly a Table XXVI TEXAS' RURAL-URBAN POPULATION TRENDS, 1900-1955*

Percent of Urban Rural Total Increase or Decrease Increase over over Previous Census Previous Census Tear Population Number Percent Population Number Percent Urban Rural

1955 5,828,000 —— 2,829,000 —— 67 33 s to to o 1950** a. 1,926,671 66 2,873,134 -630,301 -18 63 37 1950 4,612,666 1,701,277 58 3,098,528 -404,907 -11 60 40 1940 2,911,389 5 2 2 , 0 4 1 21 3,503,435 + 68,068 + 2 45 55 1930 2,389,348 876,659 58 3,435,367 +284,828 + 9 41 59 1 9 2 0 1,521,689 574,585 61 3,150,539 +192,101 + 7 32 68 1910 938,104 417,345 80 2,958,438 +430,487 +17 24 76 1900 520,759 171,248 49 2,527,951 +641,935 +34 17 83

* Source: Texas Almanac, 1957.

** Two lines of data are given for 1950. The top line shows "urban" and "rural" popula­ tion data, according to the new method of classifying population adopted for the 1950 census. The second line shows the 1950 population figures broken down according to the old method, used prior to 1950. Figure 1

POPULATION OF TEXAS, URBAN AND RURAL, 1870-1955*

9 ,000,000

8 ,000,000

7 ,000,000

6,000 000

5,000 000

4,000 000

3,000 000

2 ,000,000 Form Rural

1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1955

* Source: Texas Almanac, 1957. 175 separate group, linguistically and culturally, the Latin-American population of Texas was not identified separately in the 1940 or

1950 census* Dr. George I. Sanchez, an authority on Latin-American population, estimated that the total Latin-American population of

Texas in 1955 was 1,500,000, or 17 percent of the state's population.

Table XXVII, page 176, shows the distribution of Texas' population by race for the period 1 9 0 0 to 1 9 5 0 .

Occupation and Income. From a total population of 7,711>194 persons in 1950, over 5,583,178 persons in Texas were fourteen years and older, as shown in Table XXVIII, page 177. Of this latter group, nearly 3,000,000 persons were in the labor force. Employment in

Texas was good at the time of the last census, and about 93 percent of those in the labor force were gainfully employed. Table XXIX, page 178, shows the distribution of employed persons in the various industries of Texas. Comparison of the 1940 and 1950 statistics clearly indicates a shift away from agricultural and related occu­ pations toward urbanized industrial and allied occupations.

While Texas is often thought of as the state of millionaires, the cold facts on income of experienced persons in the labor force will belie this impression. Table XXX, page 179, shows the median income of Texas families to be $2,680 per annum, and the median of unrelated individuals to be $871 per annum. While the median income is rapidly increasing, it is disappointing to note the low level of personal income among the general population. Present employment and industrial trends in the state indicate that this 176

Table XXVII

DISTRIBUTION OF TEXAS' POPULATION BY RACE, 1900-1950*

Year Total White Negro Others*

1950 7,711,194 6,449,869 977,458 7,202

1940 6,4 1 4 > 8 2 4 5,487,545 924,391 2,888

1930 5,624,715 4,967,172 854,964 2,579

1920 4,663,226 3,918,165 741,694 2,369

1910 3,696,542 3,204,848 690,049 1,645

1900 3,046,710 2,426,669 . 620,722 1,319

* Included in this group are Indian, Japanese, Chinese, and other racial groups. 177

Table XXVIII

EMPLOYMENT STATUS IN TEXAS, 1950*

Status Total Male Female

Total Population 7,711,194 3,863,142 3,848,050

Persons 14 Years and Over 5,583,178 2,781,613 2,801,565

Labor Force 2,972,434 2,222,050 750,384 Civilian Labor Force 2,870,605 2,122,499 748,106 Employed 2,758,443 2,037,758 720,685 Unemployed 112,162 84,741 27,421

Not in Labor Force 2,610,744 559,563 2,051,181 Housekeeping 1,653,702 1 3 , 8 6 6 1,639,836 Unable to Work 221,299 135,014 86,285 Inmates of Institutions 49,045 32,313 16,732 Not Reported 6 8 6 , 6 9 8 378,370 308,328

* Source: Adapted from statistics of the Bureau of Census. Characteristics of the Population of Texas. 1950. 178

Table XXIX

INDUSTRY GROUPING OF EMPLOYED PERSONS FOR TEXAS 1940-1950*

Group 1950 1940

Total Employed 2,758,443 2,112,255

Agriculture 442,341 639,226 Forestry and Fisheries 3,598 2,748 Mining 89,911 61,412 Construction 2 3 6 , 2 7 6 111,414 Manufacturing 372,909 210,631 Transportation 227,170 138,878 Wholesale and Retail Trade 590,224 381,685 Finance 88,814 56,414 Business and Repair Services 72,498 44,045 Personal Services 230,317 235,081 Recreation Services 26,076 17,416 Health Services and Other 108,739 62,001 Educational Services 108,225 73,780 Public Administration 118,878 50,763 Not Reported 42,467 26,761

* Source: Adapted from statistics of the Bureau of Census. Characteristics of the Population of Texas. 1950. 179

Table XXX

INCOME OF TEXAS FAMILIES AND UNRELATED INDIVIDUALS, 1950*

Unrelated Level Families Individuals

Total 1,976,950 536,405

Less than $500 159,285 1 6 9 , 1 0 0 $ 5 0 0 to $ 9 9 9 176,165 97,990 1 , 0 0 0 to 1,499 178,515 63,175 1 , 5 0 0 to 1,999 175,300 39,380 2 , 0 0 0 to 2 , 4 9 9 197,385 34,230 2 , 5 0 0 to 2,999 157,690 21,885 3 , 0 0 0 to 3 , 4 9 9 174,055 18,905 3 , 5 0 0 to 3,999 1 4 0 , 0 8 0 11,805 4 , 0 0 0 to 4 , 4 9 9 120,265 8,135 4 , 5 0 0 to 4 , 9 9 9 84,645 4,375 5 , 0 0 0 to 5 , 9 9 9 120,615 5,550 6 , 0 0 0 to 6 , 9 9 9 6 8 , 6 6 5 2,575 7 , 0 0 0 to 9 , 9 9 9 73,530 2,950 1 0 , 0 0 0 and over 60,920 3,430

Income not reported 91,835 52,650

Median income 2,680 871

* Source: Adapted from statistics of the Bureau of Census. Characteristics of the Population of Texas, 1950. 100 condition is improving and will continue to improve materially in the years ahead.

Since World War II, personal income in Texas has taken a sig­ nificant rise. During the tvrenty-year period, 1935 to 1955 > real personal income in the United States rose 136 percent. For the same peridd, real personal income in Texas rose 239 percent. Figure 2 shows how real personal income in the state rose from $3.6 billion in 1935 to $12.1 billion in 1955* Projection into the future in­ dicates that Texas real personal income in 1975 will increase to

$25 billion. If the projection is correct, income will increase

100 percent while population will increase only 57 percent. These favorable gains in the income receipts and purchasing power of

Texans gives the state a most promising look for the future. The results will be increased productivity, technical progress, larger population, expanded consumer base, and a Texas which is economic­ ally prosperous and healthy.

PHYSICAL RESOURCES OF TEXAS

Agriculture. Throughout its modern history, the economy of

Texas has been firmly based on the gigantic agricultural resources of the state. With favorable diversity of soil and climate condi­ tions, Texas is able to engage in practically every type of agri­ cultural enterprise in the nation. While there are hundreds of various agricultural products produced in Texas, they may be clas­ sified under the following headings: animal and animal products; Figure 2

PROJECTED PERSONAL INCOME* (in Constant 1947-49 Dollars) West South Central United States and Texas (Billions of Dollars) (Billions of Dollars)

/ 56.0 / / / / / 300 / t 35.0 / / 270 / 31.5 / 240 / / 28.0 / / / 210 ^,1 > 24.5 / / / / 180 / / ' 21.0 / / / / 150 > 17.5 / United Stat<33 / / / 120 s' 14.0 s s 90 10.5 ^ West South J 1 Central / / 60 7.0 'exas 30 3.5 1895 1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 * Source: Resources for Tomorrow: The Texas Economy to 1975. 182 fruits, vegetables, and nutsj hay and forage crops; marine products; and vegetable oil seed crops. It is particularly significant to note that Texas ranks first, or near the top, among the states in the production of all of these key agricultural products.

Animal and Animal Products. From the time when hundreds of longhorned cattle ambled along the Chisholm trail, Texas has been a leading state in the production of farm animals. Today the state enjoys an $800,000,000 livestock business. There are over 8.5 million head of cattle in Texas, which places the state first in rank among the states in the nation. Texas also ranks first in beef cattle; first in sheep, mules, and goats raised; first in turkeys; second in horses and chickens; third in dairy cattle; and tenth in hogs. It ranks first in country butter, second in the production of eggs, eighth in cheese, and tenth in milk.

Feed, Feed Grain, and Hay. About one half of the feed, feed grain, and hay in the United States is produced in Texas. The state ranks first in sorghum for hay and silage, first in high-protein feed from cotton seed, and second from peanuts. The production of corn and oats ranks about ninth in the nation.

Natural Fibers. While synthetic fibers have found an important place in the economy of the nation and world, no suitable superior substitutes have been found for such natural fibers as cotton, wool, and mohair. Texas ranks first in the production of each of these materials. In 1955* the rich black-land prairies of the state produced 4*039*000 bales of high quality, long staple and medium 183 staple cotton valued at $695,046,000. This was nearly 30 percent of the national output. About 20 percent of the nation's wool crop was produced in Texas during 1955. It amounted to 45,137,000 pounds, valued at $19,860,000. One of the world's finest specialty fibers is mohair. The 16,401,000 pounds of mohair produced in Texas during

1955 was valued at $13,613,000 and represented 97 percent of the national production.

Food Grain. Wheat, rice, and corn are the leading food-grain crops of Texas. The wheat region is located in the northern

Panhandle. There, sufficient wheat is produced to rank Texas fourth among the states in winter wheat, and seventh in all wheat produc­ tion. In the flat lands of the Gulf Coast region, Texas produced nearly 30 percent of the nation's rice in 1955* First in the national production of rice during this year, the 14,880,000 bags were valued at $75,888,000. As a producer of corn, Texas ranks ninth in the nation. These food grains are used in bread grain, breakfast foods, syrups, and sugar.

Forest Products. The Texas forest industry is a 550 million dollar business. The commercial forest region of the state is lo­ cated in the eastern and southeastern part and utilizes from 11 million to 12 million acres of land. Good soil, abundant rainfall, and long growing seasons are favorable for forest growth and de­ velopment. A southern pine can reach commercial maturity in about fifteen years as compared to some of its northern competitors which take from thirty to fifty years to reach commercial maturity. The 184 natural advantages plus favorable labor and wage conditions, good transportation facilities, and availability of complementary raw materials spell a boom for forest products now and in the future.

Texas' forest products fall into five major categories: lumber; plywood and veneer; poles, piling, and posts; cross ties; and pulpwood. Lumber production in the state is approximately one and one-third billion board feet per year, having a value of over $75 million. The lumber industry employs about 25,000 workers and expends over $36 million annually in wages. Although the plywood and veneer industry consumes a small portion of the total forest output, it is of major importance in the economy of the state.

Over 6,000 workers earn more than $11 million while turning out products valued at more than $20 million each year. Poles, piling, and posts form the third important group of forest products.

Twenty-one plants produce many thousand poles and piling, and more than ten million fence posts each year. The value of these products exceeds $12 million. Oak and pine timber are used to make some five billion cross ties each year in Texas. During 1955# the nation's railroads purchased almost one billion dollars worth of cross ties.

The outlook in this industry is stable and will remain so in the future. In 1955# 2,300 workers earned $2.3 million in the cross ties industry of Texas. Pulpwood is Texas' fastest growing forest prod­ ucts industry. The prime user of this material is the $121 million pulp and paper industry in Texas. There are fifty-seven firms utilizing pulpwood. The estimated value added by manufacture in 165

1951 was $55*673*000• It is estimated that by 1975 the nation will consume some 36.1 million tons of pulpwood, 53*5 million tons of paper and paperboard, and 8.7 million tons of newsprint. The out­ look for forest products is very bright in Texas.

Fruits, Vegetables, and Nuts. Irrigation, soil conservation, and improved farm methods have tremendously increased the production of fruits, vegetables, and nuts in Texas. Thirty years ago, 3*000 boxes of grapefruit was the yield from the state. In 1945* over

29 million boxes of grapefruit produced placed the state second in grapefruit production. It is estimated that there are over 9 mil­ lion citrus fruit trees in the state. Despite the 1951 freeze which killed 11 million citrus trees, the industry is still prospering.

The annual fruit and nut crop is valued at nearly $55 million. In­ cluded are grapefruit, oranges, strawberries, grapes, peaches, pears, and pecans. The chief commercial vegetables of the state are white potatoes, yams, onions, spinach, beans, tomatoes, cabbage, beets, peas, cucumbers, and peppers. The outstanding production areas for these vegetables are located in the lower Rio Grande Val­ ley, the Winter Garden District, the red lands of East Texas, and the lower Brazos Valley area.

Hay and Forage Crops. The heavy livestock production in the state ha3 encouraged the development of grass and forage crops.

In many instances the cattle, sheep, and goats are produced on the range with little or no feed. The climatic and soil condition of 186 the state are natural for the growth of grass and forage. Research in improved low cost ranching methods has also lent an impetus to this agricultural area.

Marine Products, Texas has 370 miles of coast line, many lagoons and reefs, and a continental shelf from which a major sea­ food industry has developed. It is estimated that over 24 million pounds of shrimp, oysters, crabs, and fish are taken from the Texas coastal waters annually. Fish is used not only as a food product but also for its oil and value as a fertilizer.

Vegetable Oil Seed Crops. Modem technology has succeeded in making vegetable oil seed crops of the nation's most important agricultural products. The chief vegetable oil seed crops of Texas are cotton seed, peanuts, and soybeans, Texas' first place as a cotton producer allows it to also rank first as a producer of cot­ tonseed oil. Producing over four million peanuts annually, Texas ranks second in peanut oil production. Tung oil, soybean oil, and linseed oil are also produced in smaller quantities.

Agricultural Trends. A major transformation in agricultural conditions in Texas started some thirty years ago. Over this period of time, there has been a steady decline in farm employment. Fifty percent fewer persons are working on Texas farms than in 1930. The number of farms in the state has also been on a steady decline.

Also declining is the amount of manual and animal labor which has always been an important part of farm life. Despite these trends, agriculture is booming in Texas. While the number of farms is down some 40 percent, the size of the farms is growing larger. There are 1 46 million acres of land in farms today as compared to 1 2 5 million in 1930. Mechanization on the farms has drastically re­ duced the number of sharecroppers, tenant farmers, and itinerant farmers or helpers in the agricultural labor force. Cotton pickers, corn pickers, combines, mechanical cultivators, and tillers are now doing the agricultural work which only a few years ago was done by human hands and animal power. Tractors have virtually eliminated the mule and ox as power sources. There were over one-quarter million tractors on Texas farms in 1954 as compared to some 35,000 in 1930. Research is also helping to change the agricultural pic­ ture in Texas. A stronger farm industry utilizing more extensive irrigation, soil conservation, improved crop varieties, more diver­ sified crops, scientific animal and seed selection, and new types of farm machinery are a result of the serious scientific research.

With the onset of industrialization in the state, the trend is also toward lowering cost and improving qualities in production, processing, and distribution of agricultural products. This is especially significant in view of the competition from synthetic products. Farm income has been steadily increasing in Texas and went up 220 percent during the period 1940 to 1955. The value of farm products was $2.1 billion in 1955. By 1975, it is expected that this value will increase to $2.9 billion.

Agriculture has always been an important factor in the life of

Texas. From every indication available, it will remain an Important 188

factor in the future. It is expected that changing production tech­

niques, changes in patterns of demands for agricultural products,

and expansion in industrial activities in Texas will continue to

have a favorable effect on the great variety and volume of agricul­

tural raw materials and food products which are produced to meet

the human and manufacturing needs of Texas.

Minerals. Of the 254 counties in Texas, the United States Bu­

reau of Mines has listed 226 as having minerals of commercial value.

Twenty-three of the remaining twenty-eight counties are known to

have mineral deposits of possible commercial value which may be

developed at some later date. Like the agricultural resources of

the state, the mineral deposits amount to big business. Since 1935,

Texas has been the leading mineral producing state in the nation. In

1 9 5 5 i the production value was about $3,817,000,000 (see Table XXXI,

page 189). Of this amount approximately 94 percent was derived

from oil, gas, and allied minerals. While the petroleum minerals

may tend to overshadow the nonpetroleum minerals, it is significant

to note that the latter group amounted to $63,000,000 in production

value during 1955. About twenty-five of the nonpetroleum minerals

are presently being produced in large commercial quantities (see

Table XXXII, page 190). Many of those produced in small quantities will only be developed after greater industrialization has taken place in Texas. Some of the minerals which rank highest in pro­ duction values and quality are as follows: abrasives, asbestos, asphalt, barite, basalt, brines, bromine, building stones, 189

Table XXXI

TEXAS' MINERAL PRODUCTION VALUES, 1900-1955

Tear Value

1900 $ 5,316,222

1910 18,383,451

1920 371,250,979

1930 382,676,504

1940 741,905,731

1945 1,361,436,346

1950 2,673,949,925

1952 3,378,936,000

1953 3,621,395,000

1954 3,558,000,000

1955 3,817,000,000 190

Table XXXII

TEXAS' MINERAL PRODUCTION AND VALUES, 1954

Commodity Quantity Value

Abrasive stone: tons #*

Cement: 376 lb. bbls. 21,350,000 $ 53,500,000

Clays: tons 1,800,000 4,300,000

Gypsum: tons 1,100,000 3,250,000

Helium: cubic feet 111,313,000 1,863,000

Iron ore: tons #34,750 *

Lime: tons 340,000 3,200,000

Manganese: tons *

Natural gas: M cu. ft. 4 ,6 0 0 ,0 0 0 , 0 0 0 325,000,000

Natural gas liquids: bbls. 6 7 ,0 0 0 , 0 0 0 201,000,000

Liquid petroleum: bbls. 75,000,000 1 2 5 ,0 0 0 , 0 0 0

Oil: 42 gal. bbls. 980,000,000 2 ,7 0 0 ,0 0 0 , 0 0 0

Peat: tons 1,000 *

Salt: tons 2,750,000 5,400,000

Sand and gravel: tons 17,500,000 15,200,000

Stone: tons 8,000,000 7,200,000

Sulphur: tons 3,450,000 75,100,000

Undistributed minerals 34,580,000

Total for State $3,558,000,000

* Figures concealed for security purposes by U. S. Bureau of Mines. caliche, carbon black, coal, celestite, cement, clays, copper, dolomite, feldspar, flourspar, gas, glass sand, graphite, gravel and aggregate, green sand, guano, gypsum, helium, iron ore, lead, lignite, lime, limestone, magnesite, magnesium chloride, magnesium sulphate, mercury, mica, mineral water, oil, oyster shell, peat, precious metal, rare earth minerals, residual iron ore pebbles, sand, salt, serpentine, silica, soapstone, sodium, sulphate, sulphur, and zinc. In order to make this part of the study a little more meaningful to the reader, a brief statement will be made indicating the extent and uses of these minerals in the economy of the state.

It is the present and potential use of these resources which make them significant to this study.

Abrasives. Production of abrasives has grown into a minor industry in Texas. Important as abrasives are the following materials: grinding pebbles, flint tube-mill liner, volcanic ash, sandstone, sand, tripoll, quartz, diatomite, novalite, feldspar, and pulverulent limestone.

Asbestos. Asbestos is found in the metamorphic rocks of the

Llano region and is used in structural building materials and for insulation.

Asphalt. Used extensively in road building, natural asphaltic limestones occur extensively in Uvalde and Burnet Counties. Asphal­ tic sandstones occur in Anderson, Cooke, Montague, Nacogdoches, and

Zavala Counties. 192

Barite. These deposits occur in various sizes and qualities in many counties. It has been used in rapidly increasing quantities for -weighting admix in rotary drilling fluids. It is also used in the paint, glass, and chemical Industries.

Basalt. A road-building aggregate and ballast, basalt is found in Knippa and Uvalde Counties.

Brines. Important shallow brine areas occur in the High Plains area of the state. These brines are mainly sulphates and chlorides of sodium, magnesium, calcium, and potassium. The Trans-Pecos brines contain mainly common salt and gypsum. These minerals form important resources for the growing chemical industry in Texas.

Bromine. Also known as ethylene dibromide, this mineral is extracted from sea water at Freeport, Texas. It is used in making dyes, in photography, and also in the manufacture of antiknock motor fuel.

Caliche. This is a secondary calcium carbonate. It varies in texture from pulverulent masses to hard, dense material. Abundant in the western part of the state, it is used in road building and structural building.

Coal. There are considerable coal deposits in Texas. The principal types are bituminous, lignite, and cannel coal. Used chiefly as a fuel, coal has not been able to compete with the oil and natural gas in Texas. Production is now on a very limited scale. Cannel coal has a high distillate yield and is believed to 193

have significant potential as a raw material for the chemical in­

dustry.

Carbon Black. This is a by-product of natural gas. Carbon

black is made by burning ’’sour" gas against a cooling surface,

thereby causing the deposit of carbon. Texas produced 951,000,000

pounds of carbon black in 1955* This was 55 percent of the na­ tional output and had a value of $64,000,000. Carbon black is an

indispensible ingredient in the manufacture of automobile tires and

rubber products. It is also used in the manufacture of inks and

paints.

Celestite. Extensive deposits are found in Nolan and Brown

Counties. During the war, this mineral was widely used for signal flares, tracer bullets, fireworks, and other pyrotechnical purposes.

Presently, celestite is used as a weighting agent in rotary drilling

in high pressure oil fields. It is also used in the plastic and rubber industries.

Cement Materials. Cement materials are plentiful in Texas.

Limestone and clays are used as source materials by inland plants.

Oyster shells and clays are used by the coastal plants. Large amounts of cement are used in home building, highway construction,

commercial building, and general structural work. In 1954, Texas'

cement production was over 21,350,000 barrels, valued at $53,500,000.

Clays. Clay and shale are found extensively throughout the state. Bleaching clays are used for refining petroleum products and vegetable oils. Burning clays are suitable for manufacture of 194 building brick, tile, pottery, sintered clay ballast, firebrick, and china. Clay is also used in cement materials, oil drilling, and road building.

Copper. Copper exists only to a limited extent in Texas. A large amount of copper is said to exist in the North Texas region.

Dolomite. This is an aggregate used extensively in the pro­ duction of magnesium. It is abundant in Burnet, Blanco, Gillespie,

Llano, San Saba, McCulloch, and Mason Counties.

Flourspar. This mineral occurs in the Trans-Pecos and Llano regions of the state. Flourspar is important in the manufacture of steel, aluminum, and high-octane gasoline. Large quantities are also used in ceramics, refrigerants, and insecticides.

Natural Gas. Gas is one of the two major minerals of the state. In 1955> the state produced 4*800,000,000,000 cubic feet of natural gas, valued at $438,000,000. This represented 51 percent of the national output. In addition to its use as a fuel, gas isalso used as a basic raw material. It is fast becoming the basic raw material of the rapidly developing chemical industry in Texas.

Glass Sand. Important to the manufacture of certain glass, this sand is found chiefly in Coleman and Atascosa Counties.

Graphite. Fine flake graphite is produced in extensive amounts in the Llano region. Most of it is used in the steel industry as crucible liners and foundry facings.

Gravel and Aggregate. The variety of aggregates includes lime­ stone, caliche, dolomite, oyster shell, sandstone, basalt, rhyolite, 195 sand, gravel, and miscellaneous stone. There are over fifty com­ mercial plants producing gravel and aggregate in the state. The present value is close to $18,000,000. Primary uses are in road building and building construction work.

Green Sand. Used as a conditioner of soil and for purifying water, this mineral is found in the Coastal Plain regions.

Guano. Located in Edwards, Medina, Real, Uvalde, Mason, and a few other Counties, guano is used in fertilizers.

Gypsum. Gypsum is used in the manufacture of plaster of Paris, wall board, cement, and other building materials. Production in

1954 was over one million tons, valued at $3>250,000.

Helium. Texas produced 59 percent of the nation's output of helium in 1955. Produced by liquefying the natural gas which frees the helium, the 139>400,000 cubic feet produced in 1955 was valued at two million dollars.

Iron Ore. With the advent of heavy industry in Texas, a keen interest has been shown in Texas' iron ore. Production in 1954 was

834,750 tons from Cherokee, Cass, and Morris Counties. With the development of the steel industry in the state, this production should be continually increased.

Lead and Zinc. These minerals are found in Presidio and Burnet

Counties. The largest uses for lead have been in storage batteries and cable covering. Zinc is used in galvanizing and making brass.

Lime. Principal limestone areas are Travis, Williamson,

Comal, Johnson, and Paso Counties. In 1954, 240,000 tons of lime 196 was produced, having a value of $3,200,000.

Magnesite. Used chiefly as a soil conditioner and fertilizer, magnesite occurs in Llano and Mason Counties.

Magnesium Chloride. This mineral is extracted from sea water at Freeport, Texas. Used as an ore of magnesium, this is an impor­ tant defense material.

Mercury. Over 200,000 flasks, each containing seventy-six pounds of mercury, have been mined in Texas. With the use of mer­ cury in atomic energy work, this metal will assume new importance.

An essential metal in modern industry, mercury has a variety of uses for which no other material may be substituted.

Mica. Used as an electrical insulation material, mica is found in several areas of the state.

Oil. Oil is the greatest single mineral resource of the state.

It is found in 147 of the 254 counties of Texas. In 1955* 1.1 bil­ lion barrels of oil were produced, having a value of $3*2 billion.

In addition, 25 billion pounds of petrochemicals were produced, hav­ ing a value of $3 billion. One half of the nation's oil reserves are located in Texas. The off-shore tideland oils are expected to increase the supply of this resource. Used to a great extent as a fuel, oil will assume even greater importance as a raw material for the chemical and petrochemical industries in the years ahead.

Oyster Shell. Dredged from the shallow bays of the Gulf Coast, oyster shells are used in cement making and in the chemical in­ dustries. 197

Peat. Used for fertilizers, peat is produced in thousands of tons from the peat bogs of Lee and Milam Counties.

Hare Earth Minerals. Rare earth mineral compounds of beryllium, cerium, erbium, thorium, uranium, yttrium, and other elements are found in exceptional deposits at Barringer Hill in Llano County. No statistics are available on these minerals.

Salt. Salt represents a major nonpetroleum mineral of the state. Production in 1954 amounted to 2,750,000 tons, valued at

15,400,000.

Soapstone. It is estimated that over one million tons of soap­ stone are deposited in the llano region. Another 660,000 is esti­ mated for Gillespie County. Because of its physical properties, soapstone is in much demand as a special building material.

Sodium Sulphate. Essential to the rapidly developing paper in­ dustry in Texas, sodium sulphate is being extracted from the shallow brines of Lynn, Terry, and Ward Counties.

Sulphur. Production of sulphur in 1955 amounted to 4,212,000 tons, valued at $114,000,000. This was 63 percent of the national output. Most of Texas1 sulphur is made into sulphuric acid. It is also used in the manufacture of sulphite paper, fertilizers, bleaching, dyeing processes, drugs, etc. Most of the sulphur is found in the Permian Basin of West Texas.

INDUSTRIALIZATION IN TEXAS

Manufacturing. The vast human and physical resources of Texas have placed the state at a tremendous advantage in its move toward industrialization. Satisfied for many years with its high develop­

ments of cattle, cotton, and oil, Texas was forcibly introduced to

the m o dem magic of industrial technology by the emergency of World

War II. Since 1940, industrialization in Texas has progressed at

such a rapid and exciting pace that complete and accurate descrip­

tions of just what has taken place are sometimes hard to determine.

The industrial signpost, which can be read, clearly indicates that

industrial and manufacturing activity has assumed an increasingly

important place in the economy of Texas. One indication of the in­

dustrial strides being made in the state is in the number of manu­

facturing plants in operation. The 1956-58 Directory of Texas

Manufacturers (5, p* 2) listed some 10,821 industrial manufacturing

plants in operation during 1956.

There were three times as many manufacturing plants (5734) es­

tablished during the sixteen-year period, 1940 to 1956, as were

established during the forty year period, 1900 to 1940. These

factories are varied and diversified. They range from one-man saw­ mills to huge steel mills, such as the Lone Star Mill at Dainger- field and the mushrooming aircraft plants such as Convair, in Fort

Worth, which employs over 20,000 workers. These industrial manu­

facturers change the form of materials to make myriads of useful

products; everything from baby rattles to bombers, from synthetic

fibers to servo-mechanism devices.

The geography of Texas has played a large part in the location

of industrial plants. The lighter, more specialized industries are 199 found in the inland areas of the state. The heavy industries are

found near the Gulf Coast areas. The chief exception to this pat­

tern is in the transportation equipment industry which is centered

in the Dallas-Fort Worth area. Influenced, at least in part, by the government's policy of industrial decentralization, Convair,

Bell Aircraft, Chance Vought, Temco, General Motors, and Ford have

located themselves along a fifty-mile stretch in the northern area

of the state.

The lighter industries producing wearing apparel, food products, printed matter, household supplies and furnishings, and a wide as­

sortment of consumer goods find that the northern area of the state

is very advantageous to them. It has a well-developed network of

highways and railroads which allow truck and train transportation to link them with the buyers over this wide area, which includes North

Texas, West Texas, and parts of Oklahoma, Louisiana, and Arkansas.

The heavy industries, composed of chemical companies, refin­ eries, metal industries, and heavy machinery plants find the Gulf

Coast area, with its thirteen deep-water ports, ideally suited to their needs. These industries take advantage of this water supply, abundance of raw materials, and cheap transportation rates, and do not have the added cost of transporting heavy and bulky finished products over inland routes. Despite the rapid and almost violent manner in which industrialization has erupted in Texas, the develop­ ment of industries has been rather well-balanced. The heavy indus­ tries process the raw materials of the state; the lighter industries 200

produce consumer goods. The latter of these industries is beginning to almost match the volume output of the heavy industry group.

According to the 1953 Census of Manufacturers.the manufacturing

industries of Texas were grouped into sixteen different categories.

Chemical Industries. With unlimited natural resources in Texas,

the chemical industries have been marked by phenominal growth. Us­

ing oil, gas, sulphur, oyster shell, salt, natural gas, liquefied

petroleum gases, and other raw materials, the chemical industry pro­

duces such products as synthetics, plastics, acids, magnesium,

glycols, drugs and medicines, soap, paints, etc.

Fabricated Metal Products. Included in this group is the manufacture of structural iron and steel, metal hardware, heating

equipment, nails and wire, cast iron pipe, and hundreds of similar

products.

Food and Kindred Products. Ranked third among the sixteen manufacturing industries of this state, this industry is concerned with all food and related products manufacture including meats,

sea foods, vegetables, fruits, food grains, bakery and confectionery

goods, dairy products, etc.

Furniture Industries. For many years a handcraft, the furniture

industry is gradually becoming mechanized. Included in this industry

is the production of household and office furniture, and cosmercial

fixtures.

Lumber Industry. This industry includes processing of raw materials and production of consumer goods. Production includes 201 lumber, plywood and veneer, poles, piling and posts, cross ties, and pulpwood. Processed materials are manufactured into millwork, sashes and doors, barrels, baskets, wooden containers, etc.

Leather and Leather Goods. Processing of hides and production of consumer goods are included in this industry. Boots, saddles, purses, and athletic goods are the chief products.

Nonelectrical Machinery. This includes production of equipment

for agriculture, oil, lumbering, and other industries.

Paper and Allied Products. Utilizing the abundant forest re­

sources of East Texas, the paper mills produce newsprint, high

quality magazine and book stock, and high quality paperboard suit­ able for all types of cartons and packaging.

Petroleum Industries. These industries reduce and refine crude oil into various stages where it can be consumed or used as base materials in the petro-chemical or chemical industries.

Primary Metal Industries. These industries engage chiefly in the reduction of primary aluminum, magnesium, iron and steel, tin,

zinc, and copper.

Printing and Publishing Industry. The principal divisions of

this industry include newspapers, magazines, periodicals, books,

binding, printing trades service, type setting, and photo engraving.

Stone, Clay, and Glass Products. The manufacture of brick,

tile, pottery, pipe, china, and glass sheets and containers are the

major efforts of this industry. In addition, decorative and struc­

tural stone is also quarried and finished. 202

Transportation Equipment. The manufacture of motor vehicles, aircraft, chips, railroad rolling stock, and minor items such as bicycles and wagons are included in this industry.

Textile Mill Products. Spinning and weaving of cotton and wool are the chief efforts of the industry. Synthetic fibers produced by the chemical industry are slowly being used in the manufacture of

Texas1 textile products.

Wearing Apparel. Chiefly a clothing industry, the main prod­ ucts are women’s dresses, suits and coats, children's garments, men's furnishings, and millinery.

Miscellaneous Industries. Included in this group are all in­ dustries not classified elsewhere.

The extent or scope of Texas' industries may be viewed in nu­ merous ways: (l) in terms of the number of establishments, (2) by the number of persons employed, (3) by the annual pay-roll value,

(A) by the level of capital expenditures, and (5) by the value that they add to their products through processing. The 195A Census of

Manufacturers (7A, p. 68) listed the manufacturers of food and re­ lated products as having the largest number of establishments, as shown in Table XXXIII. Following this group were printing and publishing; lumber and wood products; nonelectrical machinery; fabricated metal products; chemical and allied products; wearing apparel; furniture and fixtures; stone, clay, and glass products; and transportation equipment. 203

Table XXXIII

MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS IN TEXAS

I n d u s t r y Establishments

Food and r e l a t e d products 1,922

Printing and publishing 1,367

Lumber and -wood 1,044

Nonelectrical machinery 785

Fabricated metal 587

Chemical a n d allied products 531

Wearing apparel 517

Furniture and fixtures 475

Stone, clay, and glass 410

Transportation equipment 190 204

When judged by the number of employees, the food and kindred products industry again ranked first (see Table XXXIV, page 205).

Other industries, in order of rank, were transportation equipment; petroleum products; chemical and allied products; nonelectrical machinery; wearing apparel; lumber and wood products; fabricated metal products; stone, clay, and glass products; furniture and fixtures.

Looking at Texas’ industry from the standpoint of the annual pay roll, transportation equipment manufacturers were first, as il­ lustrated in Table XXXV, page 206. Food and kindred products was second, followed by petroleum products, chemical and allied prod­ ucts, nonelectrical machineiy, primary metal, printing and publish­ ing, fabricated metal products, wearing apparel, and lumber and wood products.

The growth of Texas' industries is also indicated by capital expenditures for development and expansion (see Table XXXVI, page

207) • Financial outlay for new capital expenditures in 1954 was led by the petroleum products industry. Following this industry in order of expenditures were the chemical and allied products; food and kindred products; primary metals; nonelectrical machinery; transportation equipment; stone, clay, and glass products; fabri­ cated metal products; pulp, paper, and related products; and lumber and wood products.

Probably one of the best methods of appraising the economic importance of Texas' industries is by the value added to their 205

Table XXXIV

EMPLOYMENT IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Industry Employees

Food and kindred products 68,652

Transportation equipment 57,161

Petroleum products 41,639

Chemical and allied products 37,289

Nonelectrical machinery 31,&91

Wearing apparel 30,123

Lumber and wood 20,931

Fabricated metal 18,692

Stone, clay, and glass 13,703

Furniture and fixtures 9,379 206

Table XXXV

ANNUAL PAY-ROLL VALUE IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Industry Pay Roll

Transportation equipment 1271,400,000

Food and kindred products 2 3 0 ,7 0 0 , 0 0 0

Petroleum products 221,100,000

Chemical and allied products 181,400,000

Nonelectrical machinery 144,100,000

Primary metals 9^,300,000

Printing and publishing 86,900,000

Fabricated metal products 75,600,000

Wearing apparel 64,400,000

Lumber and wood products 48,700,000 207

Table XXXVI

NSW CAPITAL EXPENDITURES IN THE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES

Industry Amount

Petroleum products $160,500,000

Chemical and allied products 144,800,000

Food and kindred products 28,900,000

Primary metals 27,200,000

Nonelectrical machinery 18,800,000

Transportation equipment 17,200,000

Stone, clay, and glass 10,800,000

Pulp, paper, and related products 8,500,000

Lumber and -wood 7,200,000 208 products by the manufacturing processes. When measured by this criterion (see Table XXXVII) the chemical and allied products ranked first among the top ten industries in 1954. The other rank­ ing industries were: food and kindred products; petroleum products; transportation equipment; nonelectrical machinery; primary metals, printing and publishing; fabricated metal products; stone, clay, and glass products; and wearing apparel.

While a fairly adequate picture of the scope of industrializa­ tion in Texas can be secured from a review of the manufacturing industries, several other important areas in the economy of the state also reflect the extent of the technological progress. These are: (1) transportation and communication, (2) power, and (3) con­ struction.

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATIONS

Railroads. The great physical resources of Texas involve tremendous freight tonnage. Having no navigable rivers of major consequence in the state, the railroads have played an important role in the transportation system. In 1955, Texas had 21,576 miles of railroad. This placed the state first in the nation in railroad mileage. While railroad transportation is not on an increase, this vast system is significant in linking the great raw materials of the state with the factories, and the factories with the consumer market. 209

Table XXXVII

VALUE ADDED 10 MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS

Industry Added Value

Chemical and allied products $725,200,000

Food and kindred products 534,100,000

Petroleum products 474,600,000

Transportation equipment 367,300,000

Nonelectrical machinery 314,600,000

Primary metals 200,100,000

Printing and publishing 157,700,000

Fabricated metal products 131,500,000

Stone, clay, and glass 131,200,000

Wearing apparel 100,900,000 210

Seaports. With 370 miles of coast line, one of the busiest water transportation systems in the world has been developed in

Texas. There are twenty-six ports scattered along the coast line.

All of the ports are man-made. Thirteen are deep-water ports and thirteen are shallow-draft ports for barge lines. Over 135,000,000 tons of foreign and domestic freight were handled through Texas seaports in 1954* Houston, the largest of the seaports, is second ranking in tonnage in the United States.

Highway Transportation. Bernard De Voto (8, p. 6) once said,

"A highway is a true index of our culture. It embodies developments in technology, invention, industrial progress, education, finance, and so many other things that our whole cultural heritage has gone into producing it." Today in Texas there are over 200,000 miles of public highways of all classes. Ninety million miles are driven daily in the state. There are over three million motor vehicles in the state and the number is rapidly increasing. Notable in the state's highway development program are the farm-to-market roads.

These are being constructed at the rate of 5,000 to 6,000 miles per year* D. C. Green, State Highway Department, has pointed out

(33, P. 348):

Transportation by motor vehicle is the lifeblood of the Texas economy. . . More than half of the state is not adequately served by rail transportation. . . The motor vehicle serves to connect the far-flung regions of the state as well as to provide the means for moving our commerce badk and forth in channels of trade. 211

Air Transportation. Commercial aviation is rapidly growing as a vital part of Texas' industrial expansion. Six trunk lines and two local service carriers served Texas in 1955* Through the forty- seven airports, nearly two million passengers and 2 5 , 0 0 0 tons of mail and cargo were transported in 1 9 5 4 .

Telephone and Telegraph. The telephone industry in Texas has over 2,500 employees and an annual pay roll of $3,000,000. Along with telephone, radio, and television it makes up the heart of the electrical communications system. In 1955* there were 2,400,000 telephones, 2 5 7 radio stations, and 36 television stations in the state•

POWER

Electrical power production and consumption is another index of industrial development. In 1944* Texas had a total generating capacity of 1,420,877 kilowatts. By 1955* the 192 electric power plants were generating 6,300,000 kilowatts of power. This was 4.5 times the power available just ten years ago. For distributing this power, Texas has 60,000 miles of high voltage (60,000 volts) trans­ mission lines and 80,000 miles of low voltage transmission and dis­ tribution lines. While electrical power generation has made giant strides since the war, it is still considered to be in its infancy.

With the development and expansion of the primary metals industry, particularly aluminum and magnesium, the electrical power industry is expected to undergo great expansion in the years ahead. 212

CONSTRUCTION

Like the other major aspects of an industrial technology,

construction is somewhat of a barometer to industrial development in the state. As major construction develops, so does a host of sub­

sidiary industries. Because of increased population and increased

industrialization, construction activity is expected to continue to

increase in the years ahead. This is illustrated in Table XXXVIII.

The value of new construction in 1950 was $1.9 billion. Currently,

there is a backlog of construction work in the state second only to

California. . It is expected that by 1975 "the construction of homes, factories, highways, schools, commercial buildings, etc. will ap­ proach an annual value of nearly five billion dollars.

In the preceding pages of this chapter, an overview was given of the human resources, physical resources, and industrial-techno­

logical progress being made in Texas. It must be admitted that many

gaps and limitations are present in this material. To thoroughly

investigate such a topic might well make up an entire study within

itself. Moreover, the study of even one aspect of the topic could very well be treated in such an exhaustive manner as to constitute a single dissertation. It is believed that sufficient information was given to catch the exciting and challenging spirit and condi­ tions which exist in Texas today. One can readily see that Texas

is on the threshold of a new era. Rich in potentials, both human and material, Texas looks to the future with enthusiasm, interest, and vigor. 213

Table XXXVIII

VALUE OF NEW CONSTRUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES, IN WEST SOUTH CENTRAL REGION, AND IN TEXAS 1930-1955 WITH PROJECTION TO 1975* (In Millions of Dollars)

In the In West South In Tear United States Central Region-** Texas

1930 117,552 $1,309 $ 616

1935 9,152 615 246

1940 16,873 1,459 840

1945 8,439 1,016 585

1950 26,608 3,036 1 , 9 0 0

1955 33,794 3,926 2,249

I960 38,200 4,760 2,720

1975 55,000 8,500 4,800

* Source: Adapted from Resources for Tomorrow: The Texas Economy to 1975.

** Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. 2U.

Already, however, there is evidence that those who operate the

Texas society and economy are in need of reinforcements. More teachers are needed, more chemists, more doctors, more engineers, more-political scientists, and more highly trained persons in all the areas of Texas life. Texas needs a more highly educated general population, and more continuing education to keep its population abreast of the revolutionary transformations which are taking place in the communities each day. In order to maintain and develop its industrial potential, Texas must activate into the main stream of its affairs the most highly educated and skillfully qualified per­ sons attainable from its human resources.

To meet this challenge of the present and the future, a great responsibility is placed upon the educational system of Texas.

Extremely significant in this educational scheme is the role of higher education, for it is here that much of the finishing education and occupation preparation will be developed. At this point, it seems pertinent to ask, "What does higher education in Texas perceive as its contemporary and future role?" The answer to this question can best be expressed by quoting the goals for higher education, adopted by the Texas Commission on Higher Education* on March 5,

1954. They were as follows (6 4 , p. 2):

* The Texas Commission on Higher Education was established by the Texas Legislature to provide coordination, leadership, and coun­ seling services to assist the individual higher education institu­ tions and their governing boards, together with the Council of College Presidents, for the purpose of developing the most efficient and effective system of higher education possible for the State of Texas. 215

1. Every person in the state should have an op­ portunity to obtain public higher education.

2. A system of higher education should be suf­ ficiently flexible to be adaptable to future needs and should include:

a. A curriculum geared to current needs.

b. Adequate research, to extend the frontiers of knowledge and to contribute toward the develop­ ment of the state.

c. Provision for rendition of certain appro­ priate public services.

3. A system of public higher education should achieve the highest possible quality.

4. A system of public higher education should be equitably financed within the necessary limits of the state's resources.

5. A system of public higher education should be effectively administered.

The goals as established by the body which coordinates all higher education, are both timely and revealing. The Commission

clearly conceives that higher education shall be democratic. It

shall provide for each boy and girl in Texas an opportunity to

obtain public higher education. The Commission does not believe that all youth can profit from college education. It does believe, however, that each youth should develop his full potential as an

individual and have an opportunity to achieve optimum development.

Thus, the opportunity for higher education should be available to all who can profit from it. This is indeed a big order, because the number of college age youth is increasing by leaps and bounds

(see Table XXXIX). Table XXXIX

COLLEGE AGE YOUTH IN TEXAS, 1950-1970*

Year Population

1950 394,505

1952 398,554

1954 407,602

1956 419,061

1958 438,774

I960 478,880

1962 553,298

1964 605,639

1966 665,405

1966 725,636

1970 769,051

* Source: Adapted from College Age Popula­ tion Trends, 1940-1970. American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers. 217

It is difficult to determine how many of these eligible youth will demand higher education. Three things are apparent in the discussion on potential college attendance:

1. Increased population produces more persons to be educated.

2. An increasing percentage of Texas youth is attending and being graduated from high school.

3. Rapid scientific and technological development of industry and agriculture and the accompanying urbanization of Texas increases the need and demand for college training.

In 1954# there were. 153# H8 students enrolled in the colleges of Texas. It is expected that college enrollment will remain rather stable until I960, when it will rise rapidly. It is predicted that Texas will have a 70 percent increase in college enrollment by

1970. This will bring college enrollments to some 250,000 students or over 90#000 more than the 1954 enrollment. Figure 3 shows the trend in Texas college enrollment from 1930 to 1954 and gives an en­ rollment projection to 1970.

The second goal set by the Texas Commission on Higher Education refers to program types. It calls for curricula geared to current needs, for research to contribute to the development of the state, and for extension services to render public assistance throughout the state. Within this frame of reference industrial education for

Texas must be projected.

The current needs of industrial education in Texas may be clas­ sified as: (l) general education, (2) professional education, and Enrollment in 1000's 120 160 200 90 94 9® 92 96 90 94 98 92 96 1970 1966 1962 1958 1954 1950 1946 1942 193® 1934 1930 * Source: Resources for Tomorrow: The Texas The 1975» to Economy Tomorrow:for Resources Source:* TEXAS COLLEGE TEXAS ENROLLMENT,1930-1952 AND ESTIMATEDCOLLEGEAND ENROLLMENT 1952-1970* Figure 3 Figure

X

VIZ 219

(3) vocational education. The rapid shift from an agricultural to an industrial economy, from farm to urban living, from handwork to mechanized production, brings many problems. There is need of in­ telligent understanding and appreciation of what is taking place in the Texas community. The college student or graduate cannot con­ sider his education complete, nor can he even consider it adequate without an acute awareness of the impact of industrial technology on his life, the lives of his fellowraen, and the nature of his community. Through industrial arts education, this need can be met in the land-grant college. These industrial arts courses can be a required or elected part of a college program. The function or purpose of these courses will be to offer college students, as a part of their general development as citizens, experiences which will assist them in gaining understanding, appreciation, and intel­ ligence concerning the materials, methods, processes, problems, products of industry, and problems growing out of the development of industrial technology in Texas communities.

The second broad category of industrial, education needs in the higher education programs of Texas is professional education. In its broadest sense, engineering education represents one of the pro­ fessional education needs in industrial education. This study has restricted the meaning of industrial education to exclude engineer­ ing. Therefore, the professional education needs are in the area of teacher education; namely, industrial arts teacher education and industrial-vocational teacher education. 220

The third broad area of current needs is in vocational educa­ tion. No comprehensive study has been made of the skilled man-power needs in Texas since 1940. It has been during the period, 1940-1957, that nearly 6,000 new manufacturing industries have been established in the state. Many of these industries from out of the state have attempted to bring into the state, with their factories, the key personnel needed in their labor force. The lack of technically qualified persons poses a real concern for the continued development of industry in Texas. The influx of workers from the farm to the factories has also created a major educational need. Vocational edu­ cation for current and future needs in Texas falls into two areas:

(l) a need for technicians, and (2) a need for workers with high- level manipulative skills.

While no state-wide man-power need study has been made in re­ cent years, the Texas Employment Commission and the Texas University

Bureau of Business Research have made frequent reports on what they call "Texas’ top problem— finding people for jobs." Although the shortage of engineers is acute, the shortage of technicians is even more critical. Expansion of industry, both in new plants and in stepped-up production of existing facilities, has made the need for technicians and skilled workers one of the major educational needs in the state. The Texas University Bureau of Business Research has concluded: "The problem of finding qualified skilled workers to fill job vacancies will undoubtedly plague business and industry for some time to come." 221

The establishment of college level programs in industrial education to prepare technicians and skilled workers for industry is certainly a significant step in providing higher education

"curricula geared to current needs,"

Industrial education in higher education has not fully ex­ ploited its full potential to engage in research and extension serv­ ices, These two functions are essential to the spirit of the land- grant college idea and should be a challenge to the profession in the future. It seems that a newly industrialized state would provide fertile opportunities for research and extension service in areas peculiar to industrial education. This may be a pioneering effort for industrial education in the land-grant college of Texas, How­ ever, the challenge cannot go unanswered any longer. Chapter VIII

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE AT PRAIRIE VIEW

A BACKGROUND

The Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College System is com­ posed of colleges, agencies, and services tinder the supervision of the Board of Directors. Included as branches of the system are:

The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station;

The Arlington State College, Arlington; The Tarleton State College,

Stephenville; The Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College,

Prairie View; The Texas Agricultural Experiment Station; The Texas

Agricultural Extension Service; The Texas Forest Service; The Texas

Engineering Experiment Station; and The Texas Engineering Extension

Service.

The Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College branch of the Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College System was established by the Fifteenth Texas Legislature, in an Act which was approved on

Aiigust 14, 1876. The Act provided for a conmission of three persons appointed by the governor to select a site and employ an architect to erect the buildings. The commissioners selected the Alta Vista plantation in Waller County, east of Hempstead, Texas, as the site for the school. With $ 2 0 , 0 0 0 appropriated for this purpose, the commissioners purchased the property from the late Colonel Jared E.

Kirby, whose wife had formerly operated a fashionable girls' school 222 223 in the stately plantation house set on a hill in the surrounding prairie. No further action was taken by the conmissioners and a school was not opened.

The Sixteenth Texas Legislature passed an Act, which was ap­ proved on April 19, 1&79, to establish a Normal School for the preparation and training of teachers. This Normal School was estab­ lished at Prairie View, Texas (the name given to the Alta Vista plantation purchased in 1876). From 1879 to 1901, the institution was known as Prairie View Normal School and operated as a two-year institution. In 1891, as a result of the Second Morrill Act, the

Twenty-Second Texas Legislature indicated that federal funds for the purpose of operating a land-grant college in Texas were to be divided between the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Bryan and the

Prairie View Normal School. Three fourths of the funds were ear­ marked for the college at Bryan, and one fourth for the college at

Prairie View.

In 1901, the Twenty-Seventh Legislature passed an Act to estab­ lish and maintain a four-year college course at Prairie View and to change the name of the school to Prairie View Normal and Industrial

College. In expanding the institution from a two-year to a four- year college, industrial education was added as a part of the offer­ ings. Notwithstanding the fact that Prairie View Agricultural and

Mechanical College was established by legislative authority in

1 8 7 6 and began receiving land-grant college funds in 1891, the in­ stitution did not officially meet the intent and spirit of the 224

Morrill Act until 1901 when it was established as a degree-granting institution. The name of the school was changed to Prairie View

Agricultural and Mechanical College in an Act approved by the

Fifteenth Legislature in 1947 • The Act provided that courses be of­ fered in agriculture, the mechanic arts, engineering, and the natural sciences connected therewith, together with any other courses authorised at Prairie View at the time of the passage of this act. It is interesting to note that the mechanic arts were mentioned separately from engineering in the provisions of this Act.

Beginning in 1901, the mechanic arts or industrial education offer­ ings of the college were organized in a division of the college called the Mechanic Arts Division. Other divisions were Agriculture,

Home Economics, and the Normal Division. Subsequently a Division of Arts and Sciences was added and it absorbed the Normal Division.

Also added were a Division of Nursing Education and a Division of

Graduate School. From 1918 to 1950, Prairie View Agricultural and

Mechanical College was organized into six major areas:

The Division of Agriculture The Division of Home Economics The Division of Mechanic Arts The Division of Arts and Sciences The Division of Nursing Education The Division of Graduate Study

Effective September 1, 1950, the college was reorganized and the names of the major areas of the college were changed as follows:

The School of Agriculture The School of Arts and Sciences The School of Engineering 225

The School of Home Economics The Division of Nursing Education The Graduate School

All industrial education and mechanic arts offerings were

placed in the School of Engineering as a result of the new organiza­

tion. After operating in this manner for two years, a new major

area of the college was created and all industrial education and mechanic arts offerings were placed in the Division of Industrial

Education. Today the institution is organized for instruction into

seven major divisions as follows:

The School of Agriculture The School of Arts and Sciences The School of Engineering The School of Home Economics The Division of Industrial Education The Division of Nursing Education The Graduate School

CONTEMPORARY PATTERNS

The same basic organization will be used to appraise contem­ porary patterns of industrial education at Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College as was used in Chapter V of this study. Con­ sideration will be given to the role of industrial education as reflected by programs, objectives, administrative allocation, ad­ ministration, staff, student personnel services, instruction,

curricula, library, physical facilities, and professional and pub­ lic relationships.

Program Organization and Objectives. The Division of Industrial

Education is organized into two major program areas: the industrial arts department, and the industrial-vocational education department. 2 2 6

The Industrial Arts Department is designed to offer experiences

for the following purposes: (1) to prepare young men and women as

teachers of Industrial Arts Education at the elementary, junior, or

senior high school levels, (2) to assist students who might wish to

develop a hobby, develop elementary skill in using tools and indus­

trial materials, or increase their general understanding, knowledge,

and appreciation of the industrial world in which they live.

The Industrial-Vocational Education Department is designed to

offer experiences for the following purposes: (1) to prepare stu­

dents to enter various skilled trades and manufacturing industries

as workers, supervisors, technicians, or sales personnel; (2) to

allow students who cannot afford the time or expense of taking a

four-year course to take a two-year course and apply their limited

time directly to acquiring skill in some industry in order to

follow it as a trade; (3) to provide trade extension or refresher

courses to those who wish to extend their knowledge, skill, and ef­

ficiency for the purpose of personal improvement, professional

advancement, and job promotions; (4) to provide special trade

courses for individuals who have special needs, i.e., industrial

rehabilitation students or students who wish to learn only a part of a trade such as linotype operation, lettering, motor winding,

etc., and (5) to prepare teachers of industrial-vocational education

subjects.

The role of industrial education at Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College is reflected by its various program offerings. 227

These are as follows:

1. Industrial-Vocational Education (Terminal). This is a program to prepare skilled workers for industrial occupations. The

chief emphasis is on the development of manipulative skills. The offerings are one and two years in length. Education in sixteen different occupational areas is provided.

2. Industrial Arts Teacher Education. This is a program to prepare industrial arts teachers for the elementary and secondary

school levels.

3. Industrial-Vocational Teacher Education. This includes:

a. A degree program to prepare teachers of industrial-

vocational education at the secondary school level.

b. Industrial professional education courses to give

limited teacher education preparation to persons selected

from industry to become industrial-vocational teachers. A

prescribed number of courses have been established for cer­

tification by the State Department of Education.

A. Industrial Arts Offerings (Required). Industrial arts of­ ferings are provided as general education e^qperiences for all stu­ dents enrolled in the School of Arts and Sciences. Each student is required to enroll for two semesters, earning two semester hour credits for each course.

5. Industrial Arts Offerings (Electives). Industrial arts offerings are provided for all students on an elective basis. 228

These courses are designed to meet the individual needs and in­ terests of the student* They do not constitute a part of the required professional or vocational preparation of the student*

6. Industrial Arts Service Courses. Industrial arts courses are offered for students enrolled in home and family life education, physical education, elementary and secondary education. These courses are a required part of the students' professional or occu­ pational education.

7. Engineering Shop-work. Industrial laboratory classes are provided for students from the School of Engineering to give them practical experience with tools, machines, materials, methods, processes, and problems.

8. Adult or Continuing Education. Short courses, conferences, institutes, etc., are offered to persons who are not regularly en­ rolled in school. These courses are intended for the continuing education of out-of-school individuals.

9. Field Services. Industrial education services for the development and advancement of the Texas communities are available upon request. Included are cumulative services to individuals, groups, schools, industries, etc.

Administrative Allocation. All industrial education activities and programs, professional or vocational are placed in the Division of Industrial Education. The lines of administrative authority 229

from the Director, Division of Industrial Education, to the Pres­

ident of the oollege are as follows:

President

Dean of College

Division School School of of Industrial Arts and Agriculture Education Sciences

School School

Home Economics

Division

Administration. In appraising the contemporary status of ad­ ministrative practices in the Division of Industrial Education, the

following conditions were revealed:

1. The Director of Industrial Education has final control, sub­

ject to the approval of the President of the college, in all matters 230 pertaining to the administration of industrial education.

2. All responsibilities of the industrial education adminis­ trator are clearly defined and understood.

3. A H responsibilities of industrial education staff members serving as administrative assistants are clearly defined and under­ stood by these staff members, the staff, and the Director of the

Division.

4* The degree to which the industrial education staff partici­ pates in the administration of the program is revealed as follows:

Activity Participation

a. Involved in Program Planning Occasionally b. Involved in Program Organization Occasionally c. Involved in Program Direction Occasionally d. Involved in Program Coordination Occasionally e. Involved in Program Evaluation Extensively

5* General administrative practices exist as follows:

Practice Rating

a. Each staff member has an oppor­ tunity to participate in the development of the program to the best of his ability. Almost Always

b. Each staff member has an objec­ tive knowledge of his position in the operation of the de­ partment. Occasionally

c. Staff members are given recog­ nition when it is deserved. Almost Always

d. Staff members have a knowledge of changes and how they will affect them. Occasionally 231

Staff. There are thirty staff members employed in the Division of Industrial Education. Twenty-six are concerned with instruction.

Statistics regarding their qualifications are as follows:

1. Education

a. Number with earned doctorate degree 0 b. Number with master's degree 10 c. Number with the bachelor's degree 10 d. Number with no degree 6 e. Total number 26

2. Industrial or Trade Experience

a. Number with no experience 0 b. Number with less than 3 years experience 2 c. Number with 3 years or more experience 24

3. Teaching Experience

a. Number with no experience 0 b. Number with less than 5 years experience 4 c. Number with more than 5 years experience 22

4. The degree to which the staff participates in staff func­ tions is indicated below:

Activity Eating

a. Selection of staff members Seldom b. Promotion of staff members Seldom c. Dismissal of staff members Seldom d. Attending professional meetings Occasionally e. Individual or group publications Seldom f. In-service education Occasionally g. Evaluation of program Almost Always h. Study of issues and problems Occasionally affecting staff

5. An attempt is made to require each staff member to have previous trade experience and teaching experience in his area. Sel­ dom is a person employed who has both of these qualifications in the proper amounts. As a general rule, staff members will be reasonably 232 well qualified in trade experiences or teaching, but not both.

Conditions occasionally compel the employment of a staff member who has extremely limited qualifications in trade and teaching expe­ rience but who has other qualifications which indicate possible

success as a teacher.

Student Personnel Services. Over 340 full-time students are currently enrolled in the Division of Industrial Education. Varied

student personnel services are provided for them in the general college and in the Division of Industrial Education.

1. Recruiting practices in the Division of Industrial Educa­ tion include:

a. Visits to high schools b. Publications c. Career day d. Recommendations of graduates and ex-students e. Conferences and exhibits f. Individual contacts by industrial education staff and students

2. The following bases are used for admission to the program:

a. High School Graduation b. Examination c. Individual Approval

3. Accumulative records are maintained on each student, grad­ uate, and ex-student in the industrial education department. These records contain personal data, scholastic data, photographs, etc.

4. Placement services are provided in the Division of Indus­ trial Education in addition to those provided by the central college placement bureau. 233

5. No organized follow-up of graduates and ex-students is available in the Division of Industrial Education.

Curricula. Curricula are organized in industrial arts education and industrial-vocational education. The industrial arts curriculum is a teacher education program four years in length. The distribu­ tion of educational experiences is as follows: (1) general education,

35 percent; (2) professional education, 20 percent; (3) technical education, 40 percent; (4) electives, 5 percent. Upon graduation, the degree of Bachelor of Science in Industrial Education is awarded.

The industrial-vocational curriculum is a two-year terminal course to prepare skilled workers for industry. The distribution of education experiences are as follows: (1) general education, 15 per­ cent; (2) technical education, 85 percent. Upon graduation, certif­ icates of proficiency are awarded.

Present program offerings include the following instructional areas:

Auto Mechanics Metalwork Broom and Mattress Printing and Decorating Commercial Cooking and Printing Baking Radio-Television Drafting Servicing Dry Cleaning Shoe-making and Electricity Leatherwork Laundering Tailoring Masonry Woodwork

Financial Support. The Division of Industrial Education pres­ ently provides instructional and production services as an official part of its responsibilities. All financial support for instruction comes from general legislative appropriations. Financial support 234

for production services comes from local college funds. A clear

line of demarcation exists between funds for instruction and pro­

duction. Their uses are restricted to the purposes for which they were appropriated. The budget for the Division of Industrial Educa­

tion is recoianended to the President by the Director. The industrial

education staff has very limited opportunity to assist in budget planning. Most of the budget making is done in consultation with the President of the college. Subject to existing fiscal regula­ tions, the Director of Industrial Education has authority and con­ trol over expenditure of funds for the operation and development of the program. Present financial support does not meet the minimum

standards as suggested by the Southern Association of Colleges and

Secondary Schools, or the Texas Commission on Higher Education.

Instruction. Supervision of instruction in the Division of

Industrial Education is the responsibility of the Director. Ade­ quate time is not available for proper supervision of instruction.

In view of this an organized and effective program does not exist.

An effort is made to teach all industrial education courses

so that they are terminal within themselves. Industrial internship work is a vital part of the industrial education program. It pro­ vides students with on-the-job training experiences. The following groups are used to evaluate the instructional program:

Group Extent of Participation

a. Administration Almost Always b. Staff Occasionally c. Students Seldom d. Employers Seldom e. Public Seldom 235

Instructional classes have the following characteristics:

a. Average number of students in laboratory class 20

b. Average number of students in nonlaboratory class 32

c. Average length of laboratory classes per semester hour 3/50 minutes/week

d. Average length of nonlaboratory classes per semester hour 1 / 5 0 minutes/week

e. Average student teacher ratio 1 to 12

Library. Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College has a centralized library system. In addition to having holdings in this library, a departmental library operated on an informal basis is located in the industrial education building. Very limited reference material is located in the various laboratories. In general, the library holdings are considered adequate. Very severe limitations are present, however, in the historical materials and in the periodicals.

Funds are provided for the purchase of library materials to be recommended by the industrial education faculty. These funds are allocated from a general fund. A minimum share of the fund is en­ joyed by all areas of the college. After the minimum share is prorated, the remaining amount of the fund is allocated on a per­ centage basis involving the number of students enrolled in each area of the college.

Physical Facilities. Planning physical facilities for indus­ trial education is considered an integral part of the over-all plant 236

development at the college. A representative of the Division is a

member of the college-vride plant development committee.

The Division of Industrial Education has a physical plant oc­

cupying over 48*000 square feet of floor space and equipment valued

above one quarter million dollars. The offices, classroom, and

shops are housed in the following buildings:

1. Industrial Education Building. In this building are lo­

cated the administrative offices; classrooms; library and reading

rooms; drafting rooms; and shops for instruction in broom and mat­

tress making, shoemaking and leatherwork, printing, woodwork,

painting and decorating, plumbing, sheet metal, auto mechanics, and

crafts.

2. N. Y. A. Shop. In this building are located shops for in­

struction in bench and machine metalwork, welding, and foundry.

This building is fully equipped with hand tools, machine tools, and testing and processing equipment in order to maintain a first-rate

instructional program for the metalworking industry.

3. Industrial Education Annex. In this building are located

classrooms for related instruction and shops for instruction in radio, television, electricity, and masonry. This building is equipped with the latest radio, television, and electronic equip­ ment in order to provide the students with the best possible instruc­ tion.

4. Miscellaneous Buildings. The laboratories for instruction

in commercial cooking and baking are located in the college dining 237 hall and the laboratories for instruction, in tailoring and dry cleaning are located on the second floor of the laundry building.

While the present physical facilities are generally adequate in terms of over-all space allocations, they cannot be considered adequate in terms of what research and experience have shown to be most desirable for industrial education laboratories.

A detailed analysis of present physical facilities is given in Table XL.

Professional and Public Relations. Very limited use is made of noncollege groups in planning the industrial education program.

In only one instance, Commercial Cooking and Baking, is an organized advisory committee of industrial leaders used in connection with program development. The publicity contacts with the community are sporadic and do not follow any recognizable pattern. Public rela­ tions facilities of the general college are available to the indus­ trial education department.

Staff members and students are encouraged to attend profes­ sional meetings whenever and wherever they occur. Time is made available in every instance. However, very limited financial re­ sources are available for this purpose. Students are encouraged to begin early development of professional interest and relationship by including industrial education club work as a part of their educational experiences. 238

Table XL

STATUS OF PHYSICAL FACILITIES IN THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE AT PRAIRIE VIEW

Approximate Space Is it Value of Area No. Sq.Ft. Adequate? Equipment

Offices 5 1,500 Yes $2,500 Classrooms 5 4,500 Ye3 6,000 General Storage 0 0 No 0 Facilities

Laboratories Broom and Mattress 1 1,500 Yes 3,000 Shoe Repair 1 1,500 Yes 5,500 Woodwork 1 3,000 Yes 11,000 Graphic Arts 1 3,150 No 68,880 Plumbing 1 2,400 Yes 6,200 Auto Mechanics 5,000 Yes 9,000 Electronics 1 2 , 5 0 0 No 8 , 3 2 0 Electricity 1 1,500 No 2,300 Brickmasonry 1 1,500 No 3,600 Metalwork 1 8 , 0 5 0 No 32,280 Tailoring 1 2,000 Yes 5,815 Dry Cleaning 1 900 No 3,000 Cooking and Baking 1 4 0 0 No 2,800 Painting and Decorating 1 1,550 Yes 3,600 Drawing 2 3,000 No 2,600 Photography 1 600 Yes 2,450 Audio-Visual 1 1,200 No 4,000 Crafts 1 1 , 5 0 0 Yes 1,200 239

PROJECTING IHE PROGRAM

Evidence presented in this study gives important credence and substantial foundation for the following assumptions:

1. The land-grant colleges were established with the expressed intention that they were to provide education in practical arts education*

2. From the inception of the land-grant colleges, it was the intent of the Morrill Act that a comprehensive program in the mechanic arts should include vocational and technical education as well as professional education*

3* The core idea in the Morrill Act was that the land-grant colleges should provide higher education for the industrial classes according to the needs of everyday life.

4. Incident to the general increase in population during re­ cent years, there will be a larger college-age population to be served by the land-grant colleges.

5. In recent years a significantly larger number of high school graduates are expressing a desire to attend college. There­ fore, the land-grant colleges can expect increases in their enroll­ ments through 1975* i 6. Technology has increased the complexity of society which in turn will create a demand for better-trained and more highly skilled citizens*

7. The responsibility of the individual citizen for higher levels of understanding of technological conditions in our society 240 will become greater in the years ahead.

8. In order to meet the skilled and scientific man-power needs of our industrial culture, colleges will have to develop pro­ grams which are realistic in terms of these needs.

9. Because colleges have restricted their concept of the role of industrial education in higher education, full development of our skilled and technical man-power potential is not being realized.

10. The requirements of our democracy demand higher educational programs which will more effectively cultivate our human resources.

11. The years ahead will see a need for more persons with post- high school education.

12. The public will demand a type of college education consist­ ent with the needs of our time and they will be willing to provide financial support for the same.

13. Technological advancement will bring an increased demand for persons with technical institute type education and vocational education of college grade.

14. An educational ladder has developed in American education with continuity from the elementary school through the college.

Outside this ladder, the technical institute has developed. The logical place to incorporate this branch of education is in the land-grant college.

15. Technology has created many types of jobs requiring only one, two, or three years of college preparation. This reflects the need for terminal programs in higher education. 241

16. Many persons qualified to enter college cannot profit from or financially afford a full four-year program of college education.

17. In line with the national trend, the State of Texas will become increasingly industrialized in the years ahead. These condi­ tions will materially affect the type of higher education available

in the state.

18. The rate of industrialization in Texas will be materially

affected by the availability of qualified manpower to staff the

industries.

19. The unlimited potential of Texas* physical resources is

important only to the extent that a population with adequate skill

qualification is able to utilize them for human betterment.

20. Industrial education in the land-grant college can fulfill a need for research and extension services which is not being

satisfied by any other agency.

Using these assumptions, the following program of industrial education is projected for the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Prairie View, Texas.

SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

I. Division of Industrial Education

A. Department of Industrial Arts

1. General Education

2. Teacher Education

3. Service Education 242

II. Division of Technical Education

A. Department of Technical Institute Education

1. Four-year Industrial Technical

2. Three-year Industrial Technical

3. Two-year Industrial Technical

B. Department of Vocational Education

1. Four-year Industrial-Vocational

2. Two-year Industrial-Vocational

3. One-year Industrial-Vocational

III. Division of Research and Extension Service

A. Field Services

B. Resident Services

In the proposed program all teacher education, general educa­ tion, service education, and special education will be offered in the Division of Industrial Education. The Division of Technical

Education will offer technical institute and industrial-vocational programs to prepare technicians and skilled workers for industry.

The Department of Research and Extension Services extends the re­ sources of the School of Technology to the communities wherever they are needed. A schematic of the projected program is as follows:

I. Division of Industrial Education

A. Teacher Education

1. Industrial Arts (Bachelor’s Degree)

2. Industrial-Vocational Education (Bachelor's Degree) 243

3. Industrial-Vocational Education (Sraith- Hughes Certificate)

4. Service Courses for Students engaged in Non- Industrial Teacher Education Courses

B. General Education

1. Industrial Arts courses for the general college student body. Each course terminal

C. Service Education

1. Industrial Arts courses required as a part of the professional or occupational education of students in home economics, physical educa­ tion, elementary education, etc.

D. Special Education

1. Manual Arts Therapy courses for nurses, majors in physical education, and others in the area of special education for exceptional children

II. Division of Technical Education

A. Technical Institute Education

1. Industrial Technology (Bachelor's Degree)

2. Industrial Technology (Associate Degree, three year terminal)

3. Industrial Technology (Associate Degree, two year terminal)

4. Special Programs: Short unit courses as needed

B. Vocational Education

1. Four-year Vocational Education (Bachelor's Degree) 2* Two-year Vocational Education (Certificate)

3. One-year Vocational Education (Certificate)

4. Special Courses: Short unit courses as needed

5. Engineering Shopwork 21*

III. Division of Research and Extension

A. Field Services

1. Consultation Services

2. Extension Service Programs

3. Research

B. Resident Services

1. Conferences, Short Courses, Institutes

2. Publications and Studies

3. Research Projects

FUNCTIONS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

The functions of industrial education in the land-grant college at Prairie View are identified in the various programs which are projected for the years ahead. These functions are as follows:

(l) Industrial Arts Teacher Education, (2) Industrial-Vocational

Teacher Education, (3) Industrial Arts: General Education, (4)

Industrial Arts: Service Courses, (5) Industrial-Technical Educa­ tion, (6) Industrial-Vocational Education, and (7) Research and

Extension Services.

1. Industrial Arts Teacher Education.

a. A program to prepare industrial arts teachers for elementary and secondary school levels. Recognition: Bachelor of Science Degree in Industrial Education.

2. Industrial-Vocational Teacher Education.

a. A program to prepare teachers of industrial-vocational education at the secondary school level. Four to five years 245 in length. Recognitions: Bachelor of Science Degree in Industrial Education.

b. Individual professional education courses to give limited teacher education preparation to persons selected from industry to become industrial-vocational education teachers in the secondary schools.

c. Teacher education services on an itinerant basis for the improvement of instruction in industrial-vocational edu­ cation.

3* Industrial Arts: General Education.

a. Industrial arts courses which are required as general education experiences especially for students enrolled in the School of Arts and Sciences.

b. Industrial arts courses to provide general education experiences. These courses are elected and do not constitute a part of the required professional or occupational prepara­ tion of the student.

c. Industrial arts courses for adults. The aims are general education* recreational, consumer intelligence, or creative expression.

4. Industrial Arts: Service Courses.

a. Those courses which are considered an essential part of the technical or professional preparation of students in areas such as elementary education, home and family life edu­ cation, physical education, recreational work, etc.

b. Special courses for students preparing in the areas of physical therapy, exceptional and special education.

5. Industrial-Technical Education.

a. Degree Program: The purpose of the program is to pre­ pare persons for occupations in industry. The competencies re­ quired include: (l) high level competency in manipulative skills and the scientific and mathematical foundations of the technical area, maintaining approximately a fifty-fifty balance between these two areas, (2) organizational and managerial com­ petence, (3) labor and industrial relations competence, (4) human relations and leadership competence, (5) communication competence, and (6) social and civic competence. Recognition: Bachelor of Science degree in Industrial Technology. 246

b. Terminal Program: The purpose of the program is to prepare skilled technicians for industrial occupations. The chief emphasis is on manipulative skills. The programs are less than four years and may terminate at the end of two or three years. Recognition: Associate of Science Degree in Industrial Technology.

c. Special Courses: These courses will be in answer to special needs as they arise. They will include short unit courses, conferences, institutes, workshops, etc. Recognition: Certificates of Proficiency or Attendance.

6. Industrial-Vocational Education.

a. Degree Program: The purpose of this program is to prepare persons for occupations in industry. Preparation differs from the industrial-technical program in that high level competence in scientific and mathematical foundations is not required. Required competencies are: (l) high level competence in manipulative skills, (2) organizational and managerial competence, (3) labor and industrial relations competence, (4) human relations and leadership competence, (5) communications competence, and (6) social and civic com­ petence. Recognition: Bachelor of Science Degree in Indus­ trial Technology.

b. Terminal Program: The purpose of this program is to prepare skilled workers for industrial occupations. The chief emphasis is on the development of manipulative skills. The programs are less than four years and may terminate after two or three years. Recognition: Certificate of Proficiency.

c. Terminal Program for the Atypical: This is a special program for the physically handicapped. These persons are given education in manipulative skills within the limits of their handicaps. At the termination of their education they are placed in industrial occupations. The program is one year in length. Recognition: Certificate of Proficiency.

d. Special Courses: These courses will be offered as the needs arise. They include short unit courses, conferences, institutes, workshops, etc.

e. Engineering Shopwork: Industrial laboratory courses especially designed for the School of Engineering. Students will receive practical experience with tools, machines, materials, methods, processes, and problems. 247

7. Research and Extension Services.

a. A program of research aimed at revealing information and knowledge with regard to industrialization in Texas and the problems related thereto.

b. Extension of the resources of the School of Industrial Technology to the Texas community on a field service and resident basis. Included are consultative service, short courses, conferences, extension courses, etc.

Administrative Allocation. The proposed projection assigns all industrial education activities to the School of Industrial Tech­ nology. The lines of authority are as follows:

President

Dean

College

Dean of School School School of of Industrial Arts and Agriculture Technology Sciences

School School of Engineering Home Economics

Division 248

Administration. Most of the administrative patterns of in­

dustrial education are consistent with the guiding principles

recommended in the criteria. These patterns shall be retained in

the projected program. Special attention shall be given to in­

clude the following administrative patterns which showed signifi­

cant limitations*

1. The industrial education staff and students should be

represented in policy making and other decisions affecting their

welfare, both in the department and the general college.

2. The administrative leadership should make effective use

of staff, students, and public in planning, organizing, directing,

coordinating, appraising, and reconstructing the industrial educa­ tion program in order to effect its objectives and purposes.

3. Democratic procedures should permeate the actions of the

administration, staff, and students in policy making; execution

of Instructional programs; administration of business affairs; physical facilities; student and staff affairs; professional re­

lationships; evaluation of activities; and all other aspects of

the program.

Curricula. The curricula will be projected in accordance with the principles recommended in the criteria. The offering will be

expanded to include the following: 249

Vocational Education

Air Conditioning and Electricity Refrigeration Heavy Motor Equipment Auto Mechanics Maintenance a. General Mechanics Masonry b. Body and Fender Repair Metalwork Barbering a. Foundry Business Machine Repair b. Machine Shop Cabinet Making c. Sheet Metal Carpentry d. Welding Cosmetology Interior Decorating Comnercial Art Plumbing Cooking and Baking Graphic Arts Custodial Maintenance Radio and Television Repair Diesel Mechanics Shoe Repair and Leatherwork Drafting and Design Tailoring Dry Cleaning Tool and Die Making

Technical Institute Education

Automotive Technology Drafting Technology Building Construction Electrical Power Technology Technology Food Technology Building Maintenance Graphic Arts Technology Technology Interior Furnishing Technology Clothing Service Technology Photographic Technology Diesel Technology Metal Technology

Instruction. The instructional program will be projected as

indicated by the guiding principles in the criteria. Special con­

sideration will be given to:

1. Maintaining high quality instruction throughout all offerings•

2. Distribution of highly trained staff members through all levels of instruction.

3. A program of continuous supervision of instruction.

4. Use of work experience as an integral part of the instruc­ tional program. 250

5. Maintaining high scholastic attainment through effective teaching.

6. Encouraging student-teacher planning as a vital part of the instructional program.

7. Continuous evaluation of the instructional program and re­ construction in terms of desired outcomes.

Staff. The student-teacher ratio of one staff member for each fourteen students as established by the Texas Commission on Higher

Education will be used in the projected program. Present staff is in need of considerable professional improvement. At least 25 per­ cent should have earned the doctorate degree. A reasonable number should be in the process of earning their next degree. It is pre­ ferred that all staff members have the master's degree. Persons with only the bachelor's degree should have an acknowledged reputa­ tion for high competency resulting from industrial experience.

Serious consideration should be given before affording permanent status to any staff member who does not have the master's degree.

Other projections regarding the industrial education staff will be guided by the principles listed in the suggested criteria.

Student Personnel Services. The present college-wide student personnel services at Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical

College have not been developed to provide the services which should be available to each student. The School of Industrial Technology will use the guiding principles of the criteria, and project student personnel services for industrial education students in the following 251 areas: recruitment, admissions, registration, orientation, coun­ seling, guidance, limited testing services, limited remedial ser­ vices, limited financial assistance, placement, and follow-up.

Particular attention will be given to efforts in student personnel services so as not to duplicate those services available in the general college.

Physical Facilities. The following projections will be made with regard to physical facilities:

1. Present facilities shall be expanded to provide adequate accommodations for present programs which will be retained in the projected program.

2. Present facilities should be renovated to render them satis­ factory in terms of what research and experience have shown to be the most desirable for industrial education.

3. New physical facilities should be constructed to accom­ modate new programs added by the projection. The guiding principles should be followed in projecting the development of physical fa­ cilities.

Library. The guiding principles of the criteria will be used to project the library for the industrial education program.

Particular consideration should be given to Principle 5, which indicates that library facilities should be adjusted whenever the industrial education program is extended or reconstructed.

Financial Support. The Texas Commission has recommended a formula for providing financial support for programs of higher education. It is both realistic and practical to project the financial support in terms of this formula. An example is listed below:

Formula

Assigned student-teacher ratio for vocational-technical education = 14

Assigned unit cost of vocational- technical education - $6*500

Example

Full-Time Students = Number of Units 14 Number of Units x $6,500 * Program Cost

Professional and Public Relations. An improved program of public and professional relationships shall be projected to include:

1. Advisory Councils of Committees for all vocational and technical areas.

2. Increased participation of staff and students in local, state, regional, and national meetings concerned with industrial education.

3. Increased dissemination of publications and other commu­ nication and other public relation media to the public.

4* Use of alumni, ex-students and public in program evalu­ ation.

5. Maintaining close contact with all representatives from all industries and occupations represented in the program. The implementation of the above program will place industrial education at Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College in proper perspective with regard to the historic purposes of a land- grant college and the new educational needs created by the impact of technology on modern living. Chapter IX

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this study was to trace the development of the land-grant college movement, and to provide a basis for projecting industrial education as an integral and functional part of the land-grant colleges and universities in the years ahead.

In tracing the origin of the land-grant college, it was dis­ covered that these institutions originated out of a need for a type of higher education peculiar to the needs of the industry in the

United States. It represented the first successful effort of man to have the practical arts received as a legitimate function of higher education. In addition, it marked one of the major con­ tributions of the federal government to the general welfare of the nation.

Historically, the place of industrial education in the land- grant colleges has been vague. This was due to the following conditions:

1. The predominance of agriculture in the past overshadowed the efforts of industrial education.

2. There was no pedagogy for teaching industrial education.

3. There existed no leadership to promote industrial educa­ tion in the land-grant colleges.

A. The lack of industrialization in the nation during the early days of the land-grant colleges did not warrant great emphasis

254 255

for industrial education.

5. Impetus for industrial education developed in the second­ ary schools rather than the colleges.

6. The classical influence tended to encourage engineering

and shun programs which were not clearly and without question pro­

fessional in character.

A survey was made of contemporary patterns of industrial edu­

cation in the land-grant colleges and universities. It revealed that industrial education is still not realizing its potential as a

functional part of the land-grant institutions. Seventeen, or

25 percent, of the sixty-six land-grant colleges had no offerings

in industrial education. Industrial education programs and the percentage of institutions offering them were distributed as follows:

Program Percent

Industrial-Vocational (Degree) 19 Industrial-Technical (Degree) 12 Industrial-Vocational (Terminal) 18 Industrial-Technical (Terminal 9 Industrial Arts Teacher Education 64 Industrial-Vocational Teacher Education 62 Industrial Arts (Required) 12 Industrial Arts (Elected) 24 Industrial Arts (Service Courses) 16 Engineering Shopwork 12 Adult Education 7 Special Courses 4

The contemporary culture in the United States was reviewed in an effort to determine the Justification, if any, for industrial education in higher education. The functions or purposes of higher 256 education were also examined in terms of their relationships to industrial education. Based on these two foundations, criteria were developed to be used as guides in projecting industrial edu­ cation as an integral part of the land-grant colleges and univer­ sities. An illustration was then made demonstrating the use of these criteria to project industrial education in the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Prairie View, Texas.

As a result of this study, certain conclusions seem pertinent:

1. The land-grant institutions were founded to include prac­ tical arts education in the mechanic arts. This concept included the mechanic arts in its broadest sense and was not restricted to professional engineering.

2. The lack of industrialization in the nation and leader­ ship in the profession were important reasons why industrial education has failed to develop a major part of the land-grant colleges.

3. The influence of the classical tradition has caused insti­ tutions not to encourage industrial education programs.

4. Contemporary technology has created an abundance of jobs which distinctly require post-high school education but do not require professional degrees. Occupational education for these jobs is distinctly the function of industrial education in higher education. 257

5. The time is now opportune for including technical insti­ tute education as a part of the continuity which exists in our system of public education.

6. The recognition of industrial education as an integral part of all land-grant institutions will not be an easy undertaking.

Many institutions feel that nonprofessional programs should not be a part of the university program.

7. Professional leadership and additional research is needed to help overcome the obstacles of positions taken by land-grant institutions which are not consistent with providing education for the industry in terms of the contemporary needs of society.

As a result of this study, the following reconmendations are made in the interest of promoting the cause of industrial education at Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College and the several other land-grant colleges and universities:

1. The Educational Policies Comnittee at Prairie View Agri­ cultural and Mechanical College should accept for immediate consid­ eration the industrial education program projected in this study.

Complete implementation of the program should be made within three years.

2. Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College and the several other land-grant colleges and universities should make every effort to encourage and provide financial assistance for college attendance of many high school graduates of exceptional ability who are unable to attend college, but who are interested in and can 258 profit from industrial education offerings.

3. Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College and the several other land-grant colleges and universities should make periodical appraisals of industrial education programs to be sure that they are not extended or continued beyond the period for which they can be sustained by objective justification.

4* The Association of College Presidents in Texas should in­ clude on its agenda for future meetings, the study of the need for industrial education at the college level*

5. The Texas Legislature should establish a Commission to provide up-to-date information on a continuing basis, with regard to skilled and technical man-power resources, needs, and utilization in the state.

6. The American Association of Land-Grant Colleges and State

Universities should encourage its members to make a reappraisal of their objectives and purposes to determine whether or not adequate emphasis will be placed on all phases of industrial education in the years ahead.

7. The American Association of Land-Grant Colleges and State

Universities should provide an opportunity during their annual meetings for the industrial education leaders to come together for discussion of common problems*

8. Hie American Industrial Arts Association, the American Voca­ tional Association, and The Engineers* Council on Professional De­ velopment should come together and develop a major pronouncement on 259

the role and purposes of industrial education in American higher

education.

9. Several additional studies 3hould be made on topics related

to this dissertation. These are as follows:

a. An analysis of the reasons why industrial education

has not been developed as an integral part of the land-grant

colleges and universities.

b. Conditions which should be present in the land-grant

colleges and universities to insure successful development of

comprehensive programs of industrial education.

c. The nature and extent of skilled and technical man­

power needs in the United States during the last half of the

twentieth century.

d. A plan for incorporating the technical institute

into the main stream of the American education system.

e. An analysis of industrial education and higher educa­

tion needs re stilting from the impact of industrial technology

and new socio-economic conditions.

The implementation of these recommendations will significantly

assist in the development of an adequate industrial education program at Prairie View Agricultural and Mechanical College and the several other land-grant colleges and universities. APPENDIXES

260 261 Appendix A LAND-GRANT COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES INCLUDED IN THIS STUDY

Alabama Polytechnic Institute Kansas State College Auburn, Alabama Manhattan, Kansas Alabama A. & M. College University of Kentucky Normal, Alabama Lexington, Kentucky Arizona University Kentucky State College Tucson, Arizona Frankfort, Kentucky University of Arkansas Louisiana State University Fayetteville, Arkansas Baton Rouge, Louisiana A. & M. College Southern University Pine Bluff, Aricansas Baton Rouge, Louisiana University of California University of Maine Berkeley, California Orono, Maine Colorado A. & M. College University of Maryland Fort Collins, Colorado College Park, Maryland University of Connecticut Maryland State College Storrs, Connecticut Princess Anne, Maryland University of Delaware University of Massachusetts Newark, Delaware Amherst, Massachusetts Delaware State College Massachusetts Institute of Tech. Dover, Delaware Cambridge, Massachusetts University of Florida Michigan State College Gainesville, Florida East Lansing, Michigan A. & M. State University University of Minnesota Tallahassee, Florida Minneapolis, Minnesota University of Georgia Mississippi State College Athens, Georgia State College, Mississippi FOrt Valley State College Alcorn A. 6 M. College Fort Valley, Georgia Alcorn, Mississippi University of Illinois University of Missouri Urbana, Illinois Columbia, Missouri Purdue University Lincoln University Lafayette, Indiana Jefferson City, Missouri Iowa State College Montana State College Ames, Iowa Bozeman, Montana 262

Appendix A (continued)

University of Nebraska South Carolina State College Lincoln, Nebraska Orangeburg, South Carolina University of Nevada South Dakota A, It M, College Reno, Nevada Brooking, South Dakota University of New Hampshire University of Tennessee Durham, New Hampshire Knoxville, Tennessee Rutgers University A. It I. State University New Brunswick, New Jersey Nashville, Tennessee New Mexico College of Agriculture Texas A. & M. College and Mechanical Arts College Station, Texas State College, New Mexico Prairie View A. 6 M. College Cornell University Prairie View, Texas Ithaca, New York Utah State Agricultural Collage North Carolina State College Logan, Utah Raleigh, North Carolina University of Vermont A. 6 T. State College Burlington, Vermont Greensboro, North Carolina Virginia Polytechnic Institute North Dakota Agricultural College Blacksburg, Virginia State College, North Dakota Virginia State College Ohio State University Petersburg, Virginia Columbus, Ohio State College of Washington Oklahoma State University Pullman, Washington Stillwater, Oklahoma West Virginia University Langston University Morgantown, West Virginia Langston, Oklahoma West Virginia State College Oregon State College Institute, West Virginia Corvallis, Oregon University of Wisconsin Pennsylvania State University Madison, Wisconsin State College, Pennsylvania University of Wyoming University of Rhode Island Laramie, Vfyoming Kingston, Rhode Island Clemson Agricultural College Clemson, South Carolina 263

Appendix B

COPY OF THE LETTER SENT TO THE SEVERAL LAND-GRANT COLLEGES

P. 0. Box 2513 Prairie View A. & M. College Prairie View, Texas April 29, 1957

I am presently working on a doctoral dissertation at The Ohio- State University. Dr. William E. Warner is Chairman of the Advisory Committee supervising this dissertation. The research is concerned with a study of industrial education in the Land-Grant colleges and universities. In one part of the problem I must determine the present patterns of industrial education in the various institutions. This letter is to ask you to execute the enclosed questionnaire which will give me the information needed for the study. I have enclosed two copies of the questionnaire. You may retain one for your files and return the other one in the self-addressed envelope which is also enclosed. An early reply will be appreciated. Yours very truly,

ALVIN 1. THOMAS 264 Appendix C QUESTIONNAIRE SENT TO THE SEVERAL LAND-GRANT COLLEGES

A SURVEY OP CONTEMPORARY PATTERNS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

Name of Institution Address Person Completing This Form______Official Title ______Date

INTRODUCTION Industrial Education Defined; In this questionnaire Industrial Educa- tion is used in a broad sense of the term. It embraces all industrial- technological curricula below the level of professional engineering. Included are: teacher education and nonteacher education programs; degree-granting and terminal programs; industrial arts and industrial- vocational programs; programs which develop manual skills and those which emphasize scientific and mathematical foundations.

PROGRAMS 1. Which of the following programs are claimed as a function of indus­ trial education by your institution?

Program Yes No a. Industrial-Vocational (Degree) b. Industrial-Technical (Degree) c. Industrial-Vocational (Terminal) d. Industrial-Technical (Terminal) e. Industrial Arts Teacher Education f • Industrial-Vocational Teacher Education g. Industrial Arts Courses (Required General Eduo.) h. Industrial Arts Courses (Electives in Gen. Educ.) i. Industrial Arts Service Courses (Home Ec., Elem. Educ.. etc.) .1. Engineering Shonwork Courses k. Adult Education or Continuing Education Courses 1. Special Courses (For Physically Handicapped, Other Atypical) Other Programs 265 Appendix 0 (continued) 2. Are any of the above programs considered a function of the institu­ tion but not a function of industrial education? Yes No If so, please explain: ______

ADMINISTRATIVE ALLOCATION 1. Are all of the areas offering courses or curricula in industrial education grouped together in one administrative unit? Yes No.

If not, explain how they are allocated:

2. Trace the line of administrative authority from the chief adminis­ trator for industrial education to the President of the institution*

3* Does the allocation of industrial education allow autonomy in its administration and organization? Yes No 4. Does the allocation enable the department to accomplish its objec­ tives without administrative barriers? Yes No___ 266

Appendix C (continued)

ADMINISTRATION 1. Does the chief administrator for industrial education have final control, subject to the approval of the President; in all matters pertaining to the administration of industrial education? Yes No__ If not, explain ______

2. Are the responsibilities of the industrial education administrator clearly defined and understood? Yes No 3. Are the responsibilities of other staff members serving as adminis­ trative assistants clearly defined and understood? Yea No 4* Describe the extent to which the industrial education staff partici­ pates in the following activities:

Extensively Occasionally Seldom Program Planning ______Program Organization ______Program Direction ______Program Coordination ______Program Evaluation ______

To what extent do the following conditions prevail in the indus­ trial education program?

A. Almost Always B. Occasionally C. Seldom a. Each staff member has an oppor- A B C tunity to participate in the develop- ' ment of the department to the limits of his ability. _____ b. Each staff member has an objective knowledge of his position in the op­ eration of the department. ______c. Staff members are given recogni­ tion when it is deserved. ______d. Staff members have a knowledge of changes and how they will be affected by them. ______267 Appendix C (continued)

STAFF

Please provide the following information concerning the industrial education staff:

1. Education: a. Number of persons with the earned doctorate degree ______b. Number of persons with the master's degree ______c. Number of persons with the bachelor's degree ______d. Number of persons with no degree ______e. Total number of persons on the staff ______

2. Industrial or Trade Experience: a. Number of persons with no experience b. Number of persons with less than 3 yrs. experience _ c. Number of persons with 3 yrs. or more experience______3. Teaching Experience: a. Number of persons with no experience ______b. Number of persons with less than 5 yrs* experience ______c. Number of persons with 5 yrs. or more experience ______

4. Are staff members required to have previous trade or industrial ex­ perience in specific area in vdiich they are teaching? Yes No 5. Are staff members required to have previous teaching experience in specific area in which they are teaching? Yes Wo 6. Indicate the degree to which staff participates in the following:

A. Almost Always B. Occasionally C. Seldom A B C a. Selection of staff members b. Promotion of staff members c. Dismissal of staff members d. Attending professional meetings e. Individual or group publications f. In-service education g. Evaluation of the program h. Study of issues and problems in industrial education 268 Appendix C (continued)

STUDENT PERSONNEL SERVICES

1. Which of the following recruiting practices are used in industrial education?

Yes No Yes No Visits to high schools ______Re commendations of grads. __ ___ Publications Commercial Advertising __ ___ College or Career Days __ ___ Conferences or Fairs Radio, Television, Movies ___ Individual Contact _ _ _ _

Please list other recruiting practices

2. Which of the following are used as a basis for admission?

Yes No a. High school graduation ______b. Completion of certain high school courses ______c. Entrance examinations ______d. Individual approval ■ ____ e. Others . . .______f. ______g*______

3. Does the industrial education department provide guidance and coun­ seling services which are not a part of college-wide services? Yes No If so, please describe these services ______

4* Are accumulative records on each student kept within the industrial education department? Yes No

5L Do they contain personal data? Yes No Scholastic data? Yes No 269

Appendix C (continued) 6. Does the industrial education department provide placement services for its graduates? Yes No 7* Are these services provided in a central placement office Yes No 8, Does the industrial education department follow-up its graduates in an organized manner? Yes No

9. Are follow-up services provided in a central office? Yes No

CURRICULA

1. Does the institution offer a vocational-industrial program (non­ teaching) leading to the bachelor's degree? Yes No 2. What majors are available in the program above? ______

3. What is the name of the degree awarded? 4* What percentage of the curriculum is devoted to: General Educa­ tion , Professional Education . Technical Education , Electives

5. Is credit given for industrial work experience gained before enroll­ ing in the program? Yes No

6. Is industrial work experience provided as an organized part of this curriculum? Yes No Is it required? Yes No Is it elected? Yes No 7* Does the institution offer an industrial-technical program (non­ teaching) leading to the bachelor's degree? Yes No

8. What majors are available in the program above? ______

9. What is the name of the degree awarded? ______10. What percentage of the curriculum is devoted to: General Educa- tion . Professional Education . Technical Education . Electives___ 270 Appendix C (continued)

11. Is credit given for industrial work experience gained before en­ rolling in the program? Yes No

12. Is industrial work experience provided as an organized part of this curriculum? Yes No Is it required? Yes No Is it elected? Yes No

13* Does the institution offer industrial arts teacher education? Yes_____No__

14. At what levels? Elementary Secondary Junior College

15. What percentage of the curriculum is devoted to: General Educa­ tion , Professional Education . Technical Education . Electives____

16, Is credit given for industrial work experience gained before en­ rolling in the program? Yes No

17* Is industrial work experience provided as an organized part of this curriculum? Yes No Is it required? Yes No Is it elected? Yes No

IS, Does the institution offer an industrial-vocational (Tltl) teacher education program? Yes No

19. Is this a four year course? Yes No

20. Is this program for certification purposes only? Yes No

21. If this is a four-year course Indicate the percentage of time which is devoted to: General Education . Professional Educa- tion . Technical Education

22. Is credit given for industrial work experience gained before en­ rolling in the program? Yes No

23 . Is industrial work experience provided as an organized part of this curriculum? Yes No Is it required? Yes No Is it elected? Yes No

24. Does the institution offer industrial-vocational or industrial- technical education on a terminal basis (i.e. one, two, or three years)? Yes No Appendix C (continued)

25. What are the areas of specialization and the length of each pro­ gram?

Area______Length Area Length

26. What recognition is awarded upon completion of these curricula?

27. To what extent do the following groups share in the development of curricula?

Almost Always Occasionally Seldom Administration ______Staff ______Students ______Public ______

28. To what extent do the following groups share in curricula evalua­ tion?

Almost Always Occasionally Seldom Administration " Staff ______Students ______Public 272

Appendix C (continued)

FINANCIAL SUPPORT

1. la there adequate financial support for the industrial education program? Yes No

2. What is the cost per student for the present program?

3. Is the total program supported by general appropriations? Yes No

Does the program depend upon student lab fees for support? Yes No

To -what extent? ______

5. Does the program depend upon income from production work? Yes No

To what extent?______

6. Is there a clear line of demarcation between support for instruc­ tion and support for production? Yes No

7* Does the industrial education staff assist in budget making? Ye 8 No

S. Does the chief administrator for industrial education have full authority and control over the expenditure of funds for the opera­ tion and development of the program? Yes No

If not, explain the delegation of authority and control: 273 Appendix C (continued) INSTRUCTION

1. Is there a full-time supervisor of instruction for industrial edu­ cation? Ye 8 No 2. Is the supervision of instruction in industrial education assigned to a specific person? Yes No If not, explain the nature and extent of instructional supervision.

3. Are all of the industrial eduoation courses organized so that in­ struction is terminal within each course and the student does not have to take additional courses to secure useable units of knowl­ edge or skill? Yes No 4. Are out-of-class and out-of-school experiences included as a vital part of the instructional program? Yes No 5. To what extent are the following groups used to evaluate the in­ structional program?

Almost Always Occasionally Seldom Administration . Staff ______Students ______Employers ______Public

6. What is the average number of students assigned to a lab class? 7. What is the average length of a laboratory class? minutes ^ times per week for ______weeks equals one' (semester) (quarter) hour. S. What is the average length of a nonlaboratory class? ______minutes ^ times per week for ______weeks equals one (semester) (quarter) hour. 9. What is the student-teacher ratio used for organizing the instruc­ tional program? ______

I ■ ■ I ■ ■ It' I ■■■■ . !■!« !■ ■ ■■■■ I . ■■■■■! Appendix C (continued)

10. To what extent are the following elements used in the instructional program?

A. Almost Always B. Occasionally G. Seldom B a. Course of study or syllabus b. Course outline c. Lesson plan d. Audio-visual aids e. Lecture method f • Demonstration Method g. Conference method h. Evaluation based upon achievement measured against standards of scholarship or craftsmanship i. Evaluation based upon achievement measured against individual development

LIBRARY

1* Does the institution have a centralized library system? Yes No 2. Does the institution have a decentralized library system? Yes____No____ 3* Is there a departmental library for industrial education? Yes No___ A* Are library materials furnished for permanent deposit in the class­ rooms and laboratories? Yes No 5. Are the industrial education library holdings adequate? Yes No___ 6. Are the library holdings extended or revised when new programs are added and old programs reconstructed? Yes No 7. Is the industrial education department responsible for developing its library holdings? Yes No 275 Appendix C (continued)

3, Describe the procedure used in maintaining an adequate library for industrial education* ______

PHYSICAL FACILITIES

1. Is planning of physical facilities for industrial education con­ sidered an integral part of over-all plant development at the in­ stitution? Yes No

This is evidenced by

3* What physical facilities are presently available or under construc­ tion?

Space Is this Adeauate Approximate Value Area Sq.Ft. Yes No of Equipment Offices Classrooms Laboratories . . .

4* Are the physical facilities considered adequate in terms of what research and experience have shown to be most desirable for indus­ trial education? Yes No 276

Appendix C (continued)

PROFESSIONAL RELATIONS

1* Are lay advisory boards or councils used in planning and develop­ ing the industrial education program? Yes No

2, Do the students and staff participate in professional meetings at the local level? Yes No State level? Yes No Regional level? Yes No National level? Yes No

3. Is financial assistance available to encourage such participation? Yes No

4* Is professional club work included as a part of the student's educational experiences? Yes No

5* Do you have one or more of the national honorary fraternities in industrial education located on your campus? Yes No

6. Is there an organized public relations program available to the in­ dustrial education department? Yes No

Please Return the Completed Form to:

ALVIN I. THOMAS Prairie View A. It M. College Prairie View, Texas 277 Appendix D MEMBERS OF THE JURY WHICH EVALUATED THE CRITERIA FOR PROJECTING INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

Representing Land-Grant Institutions

Dr. Roy F. Bergengren, Jr. Dr. M. Ray Karnes University of Florida University of Illinois Gainesville, Florida Urbana, Illinois

Professor G. B. Cox Dr. Lewis S. Land Oregon State College Pennsylvania State University Corvallis, Oregon University Paris, Pennsylvania

Dr. Chris Groneman Dr. Hoyt H. London Texas A. & M. College University of Missouri College Station, Texas Columbia, Missouri

Dr. J. A. Ftusak Dr. William J. Michaels Michigan State College University of Minnesota East Lansing, Michigan Minneapolis, Minnesota

Dr. G. F. Henry Professor Gabe A. Sellers Colorado A. & M. College Kansas State College Fort Collins, Colorado Manhattan, Kansas

Dr. Thomas A. Hippaka Dr. Robert L. Thompson Iowa State College New York University Ames, Iowa New York, New York

Dr. R. Lee Hombake Dr. William. E. Warner University of Maryland The Ohio State University College Park, Maryland Columbus, Ohio

Dr. Ivan B. Hostetler North Carolina State College Raleigh, North Carolina

Representing Non-Land-Grant Institutions

Professor Gerald Baysinger Dr. Carl E. Frankson Wayne State University State Teachers College Detroit, Michigan Montclair, New Jersey

Dr. Kenneth W. Brown Dr. Otto Hankammer New York State College Kansas State College Buffalo, New York Pittsburg, Kansas 278 Appendix D (continued)

Dr. Elton C. Harrison Dr. Fred J. Schmidt, Jr. Southern University Ball State Teachers College Baton Rouge, Louisiana Muncie, Indiana

Dr, G. Robert Hutchcroft Dr. Heber A. Sotzin University of Michigan San Jose State College Ann Arbor, Michigan San Jose, California

Dr. Bernard S. Proctor Dr. John A. Whitesel Central State College Miami University Wilberforce, Ohio Oxford, Ohio

Dr. Delznar W. Olson Dr. Gordon 0. Wilber Kent State University State Teachers College Kent, Ohio Oswego, New York

Dr. Kenneth Phillips Dr. Walter R. Williams, Jr. San Diego State College 3tate Department of Education San Diego, California Tallahassee, Florida

Dr. Kennit A. Seefeld University of California at Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, California 279 Appendix E

COPT OF THE LETTER SS1T TO MEMBERS OF THE JURY WHICH EVALUATED THE CRITERIA FOR PROJECTING INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE LAND-GRANT COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

P. O. Box 2513 Prairie View A. It M. College Prairie View, Texas April 29, 1957

I am presently vrorking on a doctoral dissertation at The Ohio State University. Dr. William E. Warner is Chairman of the Advisory Committee supervising this dissertation.

The research is concerned with a study of industrial education in the Land-Grant colleges and universities. In one part of the problem, I must develop a basis for projecting industrial education in these institutions during the years ahead.

This letter is to ask you to serve as a member of a jury to review my statements of criteria for projecting industrial education in the Land-Grant colleges and universities. The attached instrument contains postulates and guiding principles which are proposed as a basis for action.

Using the rating values indicated in the instrument, please indicate your position with reference to the elements presented.

With kindest regards, I am

Yours very truly

ALVIN I. THOMAS 280

Appendix F

POSTULATES AND PRINCIPLES FOR PROJECTING INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN LAND-GRANT COLLEGES

This instrument covers eleven major aspects of industrial education programs. For each aspect a postulate is presented, then guiding principles are evolved. It is assumed that these elements are essential to the proper projection of industrial education during the years ahead.

The instrument is being submitted to a jury of thirty leaders.

Fifteen are directly connected with Land-Grant colleges and fifteen are in other type colleges.

DIRECTIONS

A postulate and several guiding principles are presented for each major aspect of the industrial education program.

You are asked to judge the extent to which you think they are important. Your rating should be placed in the scale provided for this purpose.

Enclosed are two copies of this instrument. You may retain one for your files and return a completed one to:

ALVIN I. THOMAS P. 0. Box 2513 Prairie View A. and M. College Prairie View, Texas 281

Appendix P (continued)

I. OBJECTIVES

Postulate: It is recognized that many conditions may prevail which will cause industrial education objectives to vary among the Land-Grant colleges. Each industrial education program, however, should derive its objectives from foundations established out of the nature of man, the nature of society, the cultural heritage, and the ideals of the profession. A clear statement of objectives should be formulated in terms of general education, occupational education, and the individual development of the students. Objectives should reflect the needs of students, the needs of society, and the ideals of a democracy. In formulating the objectives, significant con­ sideration should be given to the geographic, socio-economic con­ ditions from which students are drawn.

This postulate is: Highly Acceptable Acceptable ____ Unacceptable ____

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3* Unacceptable

1. The objectives should be compatible with institutional objectives. 2. The objectives should be cooperatively for­ mulated and acceptable to staff, students, and public. 3* The objectives should be stated with suffi­ cient succinctness that they give positive direction to policies, programs, staff, and students. 4. The objectives should reflect an awareness of changing needs of individuals in a technolog­ ical society. 5. The objectives should be attainable. 6. The objectives should lend themselves to continuous appraisal and reconstruction. 282

Appendix F (continued)

II. ADMINISTRATIVE ALLOCATION

Postulate: Industrial technology is a major characteristic of contemporary society. In the years ahead the industrial, technical, and scientific characteristics of society will become increasingly predominant and complex in nature. Reflecting these conditions, there have developed a body of knowledge, specific training, and jobs which belong specifically to the field of industrial education.

Industrial education should therefore be recognised as a major area in the land-grant colleges and universities. It should also be given such allocation as will enable it to develop unhampered by administrative barriers.

This postulate is: Highly Acceptable ______Acceptable______Unacceptable ______

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3. Unacceptable

1. The allocation of the industrial education program should allow autonomy in administra­ tion and organization.

2. All industrial education areas should be grouped together in the allocation of an administrative unit.

3. Lines of authority should be established to insure maximum growth of industrial educa­ tion whenever administrative allocation is made within another area of the college.

4. Industrial education should have administra­ tive placement so as to enable it to accom­ plish its objectives without restrictions caused by administrative barriers. 283 Appendix F (continued)

III. ADMINISTRATION

Postulate: The administration of industrial education is fundamentally concerned with organizing and operating various aspects of the program to accomplish the purposes implied in the objectives. The effectiveness of industrial education administration should be evidenced by the organization and the competence of the administra­ tive staff together with the manner in which their functions are executed. Democratic procedures should characterize the administra­ tive program. The role of administrative leadership should be to assist the staff and students with their problems and to see that policies are used as a basis for operating the program.

This postulate is: Highly Acceptable ______Acceptable ____ Unacceptable ____

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3. Unacceptable —

1. The industrial education department should have freedom to organize and execute its program as will best accomplish its objec­ tives. ____ 2. Industrial education staff and students should be represented in policy making and other decisions affecting their welfare; both in the department and the general oollege•______3 . Administrative leadership should make ef­ fective use of staff, students, and public in planning, organizing, directing, co­ ordinating, appraising, and reconstructing the industrial education program in order to effect its objectives and purposes. _____ 4. The administrative officer for industrial education should have final control and authority, subject to the approval of the administrative officer of the college, on all matters pertaining to the administra­ tion of industrial education. Appendix F (continued)

This principle is: 1, Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3« Unacceptable

5. Democratic procedures should permeate the actions of the administration, staff, and students in policy making; execution of instructional programs; administration of business affairs, physical facilities, student and staff affairs; professional relationships; evaluation of activities, and all other aspects of the program. 6 . All administrative policies and programs should be consistent with underlying philosophy of the program.

IV. CURRICULA

Postulate; The industrial education curricula in the land-grant college should include those experiences implied in the statement of objectives. The curricula should be comprehensive and varied and in­ clude provisions in the areas of general education, professional edu­ cation, technical education, and special education, which are c o s h patible with the specific objectives which industrial education claims as its function. The curricula should be carefully coordinated with those aspects of student personnel services which are designed to identify the particular aptitudes of students and to help them find the curriculum through which they may work toward achieving their optimal development.

This postulate is: Highly Acceptable_____ Acceptable _____ Unacceptable ______

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles______3» Unacceptable 1 2 3 1. The industrial education curricula in aim, offerings and arrangement should be consis­ tent and compatible with the functions to be served as implied by the objectives. .. ______285 Appendix F (continued)

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3* Unacceptable

2* The curricula should be adequate in terms of offerings and the competency of the staff to provide instruction. 3. The curricula should make provisions for both depth and breadth of offerings* 4. The curricula should reflect those ideals, understandings, skills, knowledges, and practices which will prove most beneficial to students in terms of the goals which they seek. 5. The curricula should be flexible in terms of student needs, interests, abilities, goals, and also in terms of the changing profes­ sional, technical and societal demands. 6 . The curricula and their organization should be such that they will best serve the types of students whose admission is implied by the purposes of industrial education in the land-grant college* 7 . Hie adequacy of curricula and their organi­ zation should be ascertained by the degree to which they effectively and efficiently accomplish the functions which are implied in the objectives of the program. 8 * The curricula should make use of all avail­ able resources (both in and out of school) in vitalizing experiences for the student. 9* The development of curricula should be a cooperative process involving consultants, staff, student3, and the public. 10* The curricula should lend themselves to objective and continuous appraisal and reconstruction* 286

Appendix F (continued)

V. INSTRUCTION

Postulate: There should be a concern for the quality of the in­ structional program and continuous effort to improve the effective­ ness of instruction. Instruction should be flexible and chiefly concerned with promoting optimal growth and development of the stu­ dent in terms of his needs and goals. The staff should have suffi­ cient knowledge of human psychology and learning to apply those instructional procedures and techniques which are most functional. They should also be familiar with problems and developments in the art of effective teaching at the college level.

This postulate is: Highly Acceptable_____ Acceptable ______Unacceptable

This principle is:'" 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles______3. Unacceptable____

1. The administration of industrial education should demonstrate an interest in maintaining high quality instruction by recognizing it as being of major importance in rating teachers and by providing, for the teacher, the most satisfactory working climate possible. 2. The competence of the staff should be con­ sidered as a major factor in evaluating the quality of instruction. 3. The staff should demonstrate a knowledge of and an alertness to the needs, interests, abilities, and goals of the students they teach. 4. There should be a continuous supervision of instruction. 5. There should be a continuous program of in- service education. 6 . Instruction in all offerings should be ter­ minal within each offering and at the same time be an integral part of a larger whole. 287 Appendix F (continued)

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3. Unacceptable - - x ^ ^

7. Instruction should include in-class, out- of class, in-school, and out-of-school activities. ______8. Instructional methods should be based upon and vary according to the nature of the students being taught, and an understanding of the learning process. ______9. A high quality of instruction should be reflected by high scholastic attainment, by student satisfaction, by the holding power of the school and by the ability of the students to use meanings derived from their learnings. ______10. Student-teacher planning should be an Integral part of the instructional program. ______11. The instructional program should lend itself to evaluation and reconstruction by adminis­ tration, staff, students, and publie. ______

VI. STAFF

Postulate: The program should have a sufficient staff to carry out the functions implied in its objectives. The competency of the staff should be reflected by the nature and extent of the education and the technical and professional experience of each staff member. Faculty competencies should be consistent with requirements implied by the objectives sought. Evidence of continued staff improvement should be present.

The faculty should be organised to execute its responsibilities in the most effective manner. The working conditions of the staff should insure high quality instruction, freedom to perform teaching functions, achievement of security and continued growth. 288 Appendix F (continued)

This postulate is: Highly Acceptable Acceptable Unacceptable

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3. Unacceptable

1. Each staff member should have adequate edu­ cation for and experience in the area which he teaches. 2. Earned professional degrees, graduate study, educational experience, technical experience, publications, membership and participation in learned societies, when considered together, should be considered as evidence of profes­ sional competencies. 3. Programs offering degrees should have a maximum number of persons on staff with the earned doctorate degree and technical ex­ perience in industrial education. 4. Selection of new staff members should be a staff function. 5* Recommendations for appointments, promotions, tenure, salary increases, dismissal of staff members should, be made by the administrative officer for industrial education, subject to the approval of the administrative officer of the college. 6 . The student-teacher ratio should be appro­ priate to the nature of the activity being taught. The ratio should not exceed the point where the immediate personal relation­ ship between the teacher and student is lost. 7. There should be a distribution of staff mem­ bers with high level talents and competen­ cies throughout all areas of the industrial education program. 289

Appendix F (continued)

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles______3» Unacceptable____ 1 2 3 8 . Staff meetings should be conducted at regular intervals. They ahould be devoted primarily to the study of issues and problems and the development of long range policies for indus­ trial education. ______9* Faculty service conditions should be consist­ ent with what research and superior practices have demonstrated to be desirable. ______

VII. STUDEMT PERSONNEL

Postulate: The fundamental purpose of the student personnel ser­ vices should be to join the other activities of the industrial educa­ tion program in facilitating student learning and development in terms of his optimal growth. These services should be organized to render assistance to the staff concerning the student and to the student con­ cerning himself, in making satisfactory personal, social, and profes­ sional developments. Attention should be given to providing these services in the areas of recruitment, selection, admissions, registra­ tion, orientation, health, counseling, guidance, testing, remedial services, extra-curricular activities, financial assistance and em­ ployment, reoords and reports, placement, follow-up, housing, and student control.

This postulate is: Highly Acceptable ______Acceptable ____ Unacceptable ____

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3*x Unacceptable m : 1. Student personnel services should be broad enough to include assistance in all of those areas which will contribute to the optimal personal and professional development of the student. 290 Appendix F (continued)

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2 . Acceptable Guiding Principles 3« Unacceptable 2 HL 2. A well-organized program of services should be coordinated with the total program. ______3. Those services needed by industrial education students and which are not provided by the general college, should be provided within the industrial education program. ______4* The industrial education faculty and students should share in the development and adminis­ tration of the student personnel program. ______5. There should be evidence that the services are actually reaching the students and staff in terms of useful benefits. ______6 . The services should be flexible in terms of the objectives of the program and the stu­ dents served. ______7. Continued services should be available to students who have graduated or left school as well as those who are still in school. ______8 . The serviees should lend themselves to ob­ jective appraisal and reconstruction by staff and students.

VIII. PHYSICAL FACILITIES

Postulate: The physical facilities for industrial education, including the buildings, grounds, equipment, and supplies, should be sufficient to effectively accomplish the functions implied by the ob­ jectives. In considering the adequacy of the facilities, special attention should be given to the extent to which learning is facili­ tated under safe and pleasing conditions. Judgments should be made of the sites, building, laboratories, classrooms, assembly rooms, offices^ service systems, architectural treatments, layout and design, equip­ ment, materials, supplies, and other facilities appropriate to the special purposes of industrial education. 291

Appendix F (continued)

This postulate is: Highly Acceptable Acceptable Unacceptable

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3. Unacceptable

1. There should be evidence of adequate facilities to accomplish the purposes im­ plied. 2. Expansion of the curricula should be limited to the availability of adequate physical facilities to accomplish the purposes of the offerings. 3* Planning for industrial education plant de­ velopment should be included as a vital part of over-all institutional planning. 4. Building sites, buildings, laboratories, classrooms, assembly rooms, offices, ser­ vice systems, architectural treatments, layout and design, equipment, materials, sup­ plies, and other physical facilities should conform to what research and experience have shown to be the most desirable for industrial education, 5. Physical facilities 3hould reflect a high degree of flexibility.

IX. LIBRARY

Postulate: The industrial education library should possess holdings of sufficient quantity and quality to make effective the ed­ ucational program implied by the objectives. Continuous appropria­ tions and expenditures should be made to cover needed additions and replacement of library materials. The library should be so organized as to encourage maximum use of its holdings by the students and staff.

This postulate is: Highly Acceptable _____ Acceptable ______Unacceptable ______292 Appendix F (continued)

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3* Unacceptable ^ 2 3 1. The industrial education library should have both depth and breadth in those holdings which reflect the objectives of the program and the curricular experiences offered. ______2. If the institution has a centralized library organization provisions should be made to have industrial education reference materials placed in the vicinity of the instructional program. ______3. The industrial education staff should have responsibility for selecting its library acquisitions. ______4* The funds for library materials should represent a fair share of the total al­ location for the institution. ______5. Proper adjustment of library facilities should be made whenever the industrial education program is extended or recon­ structed. _____ 6 . The effectiveness and adequacy of the in­ dustrial education library should be de­ termined by both its holdings and the use made of them by the students and the staff. ______7* Continuous appraisal should be made of the adequacy of the library and its use by the students and staff in industrial education. ______

X. FINANCIAL SUPPORT

Postulate; There should be adequate funds to support the program in the objectives of industrial education. Determination of the budget for the program should be a joint endeavor between the administrative officer for the institution and the administrative officer for indus­ trial education. Consideration should be given to the extent to which 293

Appendix P (continued) industrial education is dependent upon student fees and income from production services to support the program. Due to the nature of industrial education, special attention should be given to the formula for providing funds for educational purposes in this area of the institution.

This postulate is: Highly Acceptable Acceptable Unacceptable

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3* Unacceptable

1. Industrial education programs should be re­ stricted to the adequacy of financial support available to provide for a reasonably good quality of instruction and facilities. 2. The staff should share in the budget planning for the industrial education program. 3. The budget should be made in consultation between the executive officer of the institu­ tion and the executive officer for industrial education. 4* Student fees in industrial education should be kept at a minimum and should not be the sole basis of program or activity support. 5* Due to the nature of industrial education, a differential in cost-per-student for train­ ing should be reflected in the support of the program. 6 . Clear lines of demarcation should exist be­ tween the financial support provided for instructional purposes and that provided for production services in industrial education. 7. Subject to the approval of the administrative officer of the institution, the administra­ tive officer for industrial education should have control over the expenditure of funds for the operation and development of the program. 294 Appendix F (continued)

XI. PROFESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Postulate: These include all contacts with individuals, groups, organizations, or institutions outside of the university. Effective professional relationship should include a two-fold function with the public. On one hand, it should seek to keep the public informed concerning the nature of the Industrial education objectives, programs and activities, and on the other hand, it should seek to have the pub­ lic participate in the planning, accomplishment, appraisal, and re­ construction of industrial education objectives, programs, and ac­ tivities.

This postulate is: Highly Acceptable ____ Acceptable ____ Unacceptable _____

This principle is: 1. Highly Acceptable 2. Acceptable Guiding Principles 3* Unacceptable

1. The program should make continuous use of lay advisory boards or councils in the planning and development of the over-all program and in special areas of the program. 2. Staff and students should be active par­ ticipants in local, district, state, and national professional organizations. 3. The program should have represented among its professional activities, one of the honor fraternities in industrial education. 4. There should be evidence of dose profes­ sional relationships between the program and industrial activities in the commmity, state, and nation. 5. Continuous use of publications and other com­ munication and public relation media should be made to inform the public of all aspects of the program. 6 . Evaluation and reconstruction of the public relations program should be made periodically by the administration, staff, students, and public. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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98. Tour Opportunities in Industry as a Skilled Worker. New Tork: National Association of Manufacturers, 1956•

99* Tour Opportunities in Industry as a Technician. New Tork: National Association of Manufacturers, 1957. AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, ALVIN IGNACE THOMAS, was born September 7, 1925, in New

Orleans, Louisiana. I received my elementary and secondary edu­ cation in the private and public schools of this city.

I began my undergraduate work in 1941 at Xavier University in

New Orleans. After eighteen months of college work, I was drafted into the U. S. Army. During World War II, I served in the

American, the European, and the Asiatic-Pacific Theaters of Opera­ tions. Following receipt of an honorable discharge in 1946, I entered and then completed my undergraduate education in industrial education at Kansas State College, Pittsburg in January 1949, and was in residence for the doctorate at The Ohio State University in Columbus during 1951-52 and 1955-56.

I was employed as instructor of woodwork in the Agricultural and Mechanical College, Prairie View, Texas in February, 1949, and was appointed Director, Division of Industrial Education, September,

1952. My duties include the administration and supervision of sixteen areas of technical and professional offerings and the work of thirty staff members.

I served as a consultant to the Foreign Operations Administra­ tion in 1954, and made a survey of technical education in Liberia,

West Africa. I am the founder of the TEXAS INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

ASSOCIATION, Inc., a professional society of industrial education

302 teachers, and of the NEW MECHANICS CLUBS OF TEXAS, Inc., a state­ wide organization of high school clubs. I have been elected to membership in PHI DELTA KAPPA, KAPPA MU EPSILON, and EPSILON PI

TAUj honorary fraternities respectively in Education, Mathematics, and Industrial Education.